Meat substitutes: Resource demands and environmental footprints

The modern food system has a significant environmental footprint, largely driven by high levels of animal production and overconsumption. Integrating alternative protein sources—such as insects, plants, mycoprotein, microalgae, and cultured meat—into the global food system as meat substitutes may offer both positive and negative impacts on the environment and human health, while also potentially leading to unintended consequences like increased consumption. This review presents a concise analysis of the environmental implications, resource use, and trade-offs associated with these alternatives, focusing on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, non-renewable energy consumption, and water footprint for both ingredients and final products. Benefits and limitations of meat substitution are discussed in relation to product weight and protein content, and key issues requiring further research are identified.