The origin, composition, and applications of industrial humins –a review

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Humins are side-products derived from the acid-catalysed conversion of carbohydrate-containing biomass, including sugars (e.g.glucose, fructose, sucrose), oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and ligno-cellulosic feedstocks into hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural, and levulinic acid. Until recently, humins were primarily burned as a power and heat source, but now several higher value applications for humins are within reach. This review covers the history, state of the art, and future outlook on the subject of industrial humins, including their origin, production conditions, compositions, characterisation, and pro-posed structures. Current opinion on humin formation mechanisms, kinetic studies, ways to minimise their production, established valorisation routes, and novel applications are also discussed.