Supplementary Materials_Biodiversity and pathogen dynamics in traditionally managed livestock systems_Perelló et al.

The dynamics of generalist pathogens in complex host communities, such as those in grassland ecosystems, constitutes a frontier of knowledge in ecology and epidemiology. Globally, the increase in ruminant livestock has been associated with outbreaks of infectious diseases and a rise in the number of threatened species, leading to challenges for public health and biodiversity conservation by linking livestock, pathogens, and wildlife. However, the traditionally managed European grasslands and unfertilized open areas represent a kind of regenerative grazing characterized by high biodiversity.

With the aim to assess the relationship among traditional livestock grazing, biodiversity, and pathogen circulation, we analysed the mammal community biodiversity and interactions, as well as the pathogen exposure and indirect indicators of immune system activation in the selected indicator species wild boar (Sus scrofa) in a network of 18 study sites in the Iberian Peninsula.

Our findings revealed that wild mammal richness and diversity were greater and antibody prevalences and multiple pathogen co-exposure in wild boar were lower in the presence of domestic ruminants. When grazing livestock is not present, an amplification effect occurs.

Overall, the results suggest that ruminant livestock grazing is associated with greater biodiversity and more balanced communities, as well as with improved indicators of ecosystem health, disrupting pathogen transmission dynamics through replacement as less-susceptible hosts. These findings highlight the potential of traditionally managed livestock systems to support planetary health by enhancing biodiversity while mitigating disease risks. Such systems may reduce opportunities for pathogen spillover at the wildlife-livestock-human interface and contribute to more resilient socio-ecological landscapes.