Urban Beings:A Bioarchaeological Approach to Socioeconomic Status, Cribra Orbitalia, Porotic Hyperostosis, Linear Enamel Hypoplasia, and Sinusitis in the Early-Modern Northern Low Countries (A.D. 1626–1850)

Starting from the twelfth century, the Netherlands experienced substantial socioeconomic change. Several towns expanded in terms of size and industrial production, making the gap between rich and poor even greater. Access to certain resources (e.g., food, living spaces, etc.) became largely dependent on socioeconomic status, with the rich being able to afford an overall better lifestyle than the poor. The aim of this study was to determine whether these contrasting urban life experiences impacted the health of citizens. To test our hypothesis that poorer citizens would be more severely challenged by the urban environment than richer ones, we assessed the presence of non-specific stress markers (i.e., cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, linear enamel hypoplasia) and chronic maxillary sinusitis in four urban populations, representative of different socioeconomic statuses. Analysis of skeletal remains revealed statistically significant differences in the prevalence of cribra orbitalia between different socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it highlighted significant differences in the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis, linear enamel hypoplasia, and sinusitis between the low and middle-low socioeconomic classes. These results reflected the complicated relationship between socioeconomic status and sources of physiological stress. Living in the city led people to experience very different lives, albeit similar health challenges. Factors such as working conditions, food availability, and cultural practices likely had an important role in shaping the health of Dutch citizens. As our findings have significant implications for understanding the complex reality of the urbanization phenomenon, more research into the prevalence of the non-specific stress markers in relation to socioeconomic status is warranted.