A multi-metric framework for material selection in perovskite modules: implications for sustainability, scalability, and net zero deployment

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as promising next-generation photovoltaic technology for
achieving net zero energy targets. However, sustainable and scalable material selection for PSC modules
is difficult to fairly assess using a conventional life cycle assessment (LCA) due to the lack of reliable life
cycle inventory (LCI) data. This paper considers three alternative metrics – it adopts the bound reserves
ratio (BRR) and then introduces and applies critical raw mineral (CRM) classification and industry-based
LCAs. These metrics are then used to evaluate material choices for two PSC module designs in
deployment scenarios ranging from 2 TW to 220 TW. The CRM analysis showed that almost all materials
used in the PSC as well as the enveloping materials are classified as critical, thus limiting its ability to
distinguish between alternative material choices. Nevertheless, this classification highlights potential
future supply risks and resource competition for PSCs and modules. The BRR confirms well known
supply concerns, such as indium, silver and aluminium for the frame, while highlighting new concerns
specific to perovskite technology, such as caesium, titanium and zirconium. It also shows that
phosphorus, fluorine, lead and aluminium for contacts are sufficiently abundant. Industry-based LCAs
showed which metals used by PSCs have higher environmental footprints to mine and refine, with silver
used in many PSC designs significantly increasing primary energy demand, global warming potential, and
blue water use of the module. Together, these metrics demonstrated the importance of incorporating
recycling and material recovery in future perovskite module designs. An exploratory LCA showed that
a module made with a recycled aluminium frame and recovered glass substrates can reduce
environmental impacts such as global warming potential, energy demand and acidification by between
18% and 77% when compared to a module produced from fresh materials. Lastly, applying Wright's law
with a learning rate of 10%, fresh-material module costs are projected to reach 36 V per m2 to 48 V per
m2 at 2 TW installed capacity, comparable to current silicon PV modules. Incorporating recycling and
recovered materials could further reduce costs by an estimated 10% to 13%.