El Niño Southern Oscillation Reconstructions During the Last Millennium

Most of our knowledge on the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) comes from a relatively short instrumental record. Given the infrequency of ENSO events, it is likely that we have not captured the full range of possible behaviors. In this study, we consolidate information on ENSO over the last millennium, assessing the similarities and differences among various ENSO reconstructions by comparing them with observations and climate models. We find a diverse spectrum of ENSO variability recorded across different sources, each offering a unique glimpse into the past. By integrating all available ENSO information, we can enhance our understanding of its driving forces, teleconnections, and potential future behavior.