A Review of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources and Adaptive Strategies: A Case Study of Windhoek in the Namibian Context

The study presents a comprehensive review of the impacts of climate change on water resources and adaptive strategies, with a specific focus on Windhoek, Namibia, a semi-arid urban area facing severe water scarcity. Climate change is altering global water cycles, intensifying hydrological extremes such as droughts and floods, which threaten water availability, quality, and management globally. Namibia is one of the world's most arid countries, with rising temperatures, erratic and declining rainfall, and high evaporation rates severely limiting surface runoff and groundwater recharge. Windhoek depends on a combination of distant dam systems, groundwater, and pioneering direct potable reuse to meet its water needs. Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is a critical component of its integrated water resource management strategy, enhancing resilience during droughts by storing treated water underground. The city has reduced per-capita water consumption through strict demand management policies while expanding capacity in reclaimed water and artificial recharge. Despite these efforts, rapid urban growth and climate variability continue to challenge water security. The review underscores the importance of integrated approaches combining technological innovation, ecosystem-based adaptation, policy support, and stakeholder engagement to build resilience. It highlights adaptive measures such as rainwater harvesting, improved irrigation, and watershed management as essential for mitigating climate-induced water stress. Water scarcity threatens Windhoek's economic resilience, food security, and social well- being. Namibia should diversify water sources, expand MAR capacities, strengthen institutional frameworks, and advocate for regional cooperation for sustainable water supply. This review offers critical lessons on managing water scarcity through integrated climate-resilient approaches in Namibia.