Published October 22, 2025 | Version 3
Journal article Open

The Mediterranean Offshore Wind Turn: Lessons, Risks, and Regional Reflections

Authors/Creators

  • 1. EUROSUD Programme, University of Glasgow School of Social and Political Sciences, Glasgow, Scotland, G12 8RT, UK

Description

The condition of the environment remains at the forefront of contemporary debates among political leaders and societal stakeholders, particularly in the context of addressing climate change. Offshore wind farms are emerging as a promising pathway for renewable energy development in the Mediterranean. While existing literature extensively explores the potential of offshore wind technology in advancing climate neutrality targets by 2030, comparatively less attention has been paid to the challenges and risks of its implementation. This essay examines the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of offshore wind farm deployment in the Mediterranean, highlighting both its benefits and associated risks. Despite regulatory and environmental obstacles, expansion is expected, driven by low marginal costs, favourable conditions, and growing international investment. The study identifies critical gaps in the current legal and governance frameworks and evaluates their capacity to manage environmental and socio-economic impacts. It also provides insights into strategies and policy measures that could enhance the sustainable integration of offshore wind energy, supporting informed decision-making for policymakers, investors, and environmental stakeholders in the Mediterranean region.

Files

openreseurope-5-23424.pdf

Files (983.7 kB)

Name Size Download all
md5:ee5e0a6264c844272c17ec450b3b8aef
983.7 kB Preview Download

Additional details

Cites
10.1109/JSYST.2016.2565818 (DOI)
10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005 (DOI)
10.1002/aqc.569 (DOI)
10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.006 (DOI)
10.2873/58081 (DOI)
10.47536/jcrm.v11i2.618 (DOI)
10.1002/mcf2.10237 (DOI)
10.1016/j.actamat.2018.07.049 (DOI)
10.1111/nyas.13924 (DOI)
10.30958/ajss.6-3-4 (DOI)
10.3390/jmse10070898 (DOI)
10.1016/j.envres.2024.120573 (DOI)
10.24384/ax1s-jr48 (DOI)
10.1093/gji/ggw195 (DOI)
10.2826/399476 (DOI)
10.2779/095188 (DOI)
10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105611 (DOI)
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33948 (Handle)
10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118067 (DOI)
10.1016/B978-0-12-809357-3.00006-0 (DOI)
10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.058 (DOI)
10.1051/alr/2011135 (DOI)
10.3917/come.120.0108 (DOI)
10.1007/s10750-015-2267-4 (DOI)
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153803 (DOI)
10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114416 (DOI)
10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.019 (DOI)
10.2112/SI95-023.1 (DOI)
10.1016/B978-0-12-814104-5.00010-7 (DOI)
10.3917/rdna.822.0017 (DOI)
10.1038/s41598-021-82014-9 (DOI)
10.1163/24686042-12340042 (DOI)
10.1038/srep12505 (DOI)
10.1115/1.4056882 (DOI)
10.1093/icesjms/fsq086 (DOI)
10.1016/j.seta.2016.02.001 (DOI)
10.2139/ssrn.4121010 (DOI)
Is new version of
10.12688/openreseurope.19339.2 (DOI)

References

  • (2021). Offshore wind energy in Greece: estimating the socio-economic impact.
  • Arisian S, Ertek G, Haksoz C (2017). Wind turbine accidents: a data mining study. IEEE Syst J. doi:10.1109/JSYST.2016.2565818
  • Balaram V (2019). Rare earth elements: a review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. Geosci Front. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
  • Barberá C, Bordehore C, Borg JA (2003). Conservation and management of NE Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds. Aquat Conserv: Marine Freshwater Ecosystems. doi:10.1002/aqc.569
  • Bassetti F (2021). Nature-based solutions. Climate Foresight.
  • Bilgili M, Yasar A, Simsek E (2011). Offshore wind power development in Europe and its comparison with onshore counterpart. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.006
  • Bobba S, Carrara S, Huisman J (2020). Critical raw materials for strategic technologies and sectors in the EU a foresight study. doi:10.2873/58081
  • (1987). World commission on environment and development: our common future.
  • Carrillo M (2010). Increasing numbers of ship strikes in the Canary Islands: proposals for immediate action to reduce risk of vessel-whale collisions. J Cetacean Res Manage. doi:10.47536/jcrm.v11i2.618
  • Chaji M, Werner S (2023). Economic impacts of Offshore Wind Farms on fishing industries: perspectives, methods, and knowledge gaps. Mar Coast Fish. doi:10.1002/mcf2.10237
  • (2021). Autosaisine du CNPN sur le développement de l'énergie offshore en France et ses impacts sur la biodiversité, le patrimoine naturel et les paysages (Actu-Environnement).
  • (1992). Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (OJ L206).
  • Cui J, Kramer M, Zhou L (2018). Current progress and future challenges in rare-earth-free permanent magnets. Acta Mater. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2018.07.049
  • (2006). Offshore wind farms and the environment: Danish experiences from Horns Rev and Nysted.
  • deCastro M, Costoya X, Salvador S (2019). An overview of offshore wind energy resources in Europe under present and future climate. Ann N Y Acad Sci. doi:10.1111/nyas.13924
  • Defingou M, Bils F, Horchler B (2019). PHAROS4MPAS - safeguarding marine protected areas in the growing Mediterranean Blue Economy. Capitalization report for the offshore wind energy sector.
  • Delli Paoli A, Addeo F (2019). Assessing SDGs: a methodology to measure sustainability. Athens Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.30958/ajss.6-3-4
  • Diez-Caballero K, Troiteiro S, García-Alba J (2022). Environmental compatibility of the Parc Tramuntana offshore wind project in relation to marine ecosystems. J Mar Sci Eng. doi:10.3390/jmse10070898
  • Donázar-Aramendía I, Reyes-Martínez MJ, Megina C (2025). Assessing the effects of electromagnetic fields generated by submarine power cables on the soft-bottom community: an ecological study. Environ Res. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.120573
  • Durning B, Glasson J, Olorundami T (2020). Guidance on assessing the socio-economic impacts of Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs). doi:10.24384/ax1s-jr48
  • Emeana CJ, Hughes TJ, Dix JK (2016). The thermal regime around buried submarine High-Voltage cables. Geophys J Int. doi:10.1093/gji/ggw195
  • (2007). Atypical acts.
  • (null). EU taxonomy for sustainable activities.
  • (2011). Energy roadmap 2050 (COM(2011) 885 final).
  • (2014). A policy framework for climate and energy in the period from 2020 to 2030 (COM(2014) 15 final).
  • (2019). The European green deal (COM(2019) 640 final).
  • (2020a). An EU Strategy to harness the potential of offshore renewable energy for a climate neutral future [COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS].
  • (2020b). Report on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) (COM(2020) 259 final).
  • (2021a). A new approach for a sustainable Blue Economy in the EU transforming the EU's Blue Economy for a sustainable future (COM(2021) 240 final).
  • (2021b). Proposal for a Council Decision on the position to be taken on behalf of the European Union in the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (the 'Barcelona Convention') on the adoption of a Decision to amend the Annex to the Protocol for the Prevention and Elimination of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at Sea (the 'Dumping Protocol') (COM(2021) 666 final).
  • (2021c). Sustainability criteria for the Blue Economy: main report. doi:10.2826/399476
  • (2023a). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/2485 of 27 June 2023 amending Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2139 as regards economic activities in certain energy sectors and Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2178 as regards specific public disclosures for those economic activities.
  • (2023b). Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2023/2806 of 15 December 2023 concerning a site information format for Natura 2000 sites (notified under document C(2023)8623) (2023/2806).
  • (2023c). Delivering on the EU offshore renewable energy ambitions (Publications Office of the European Union COM(2023) 668 final; Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions).
  • (2023d). EU taxonomy: commission adopts criteria for environmentally sustainable economic activities in all environmental objectives.
  • (2023e). Fit for 55 package: delivering the EU's 2030 Climate Target on the way to climate neutrality (Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions COM(2025) 85 final).
  • (2025a). The Clean Industrial Deal: a joint roadmap for competitiveness and decarbonisation (COM(2025) 85 final) (Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. COM(2025) 85 final).
  • (2025b). Marine environment.
  • (2020). Guidance document on wind energy developments and EU nature legislation. doi:10.2779/095188
  • (2018). Fostering a European approach to Artificial Intelligence [COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS EMPTY].
  • (2024). Nature restoration: Parliament adopts law to restore 20% of EU's land and sea.
  • (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy (L 327).
  • (2009). Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (Codified version) (OJ L 20/7).
  • (2018). Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (recast) (Text with EEA relevance) (OJ L 328/82).
  • (2023a). Directive (EU) 2023/2413 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 October 2023 amending Directive (EU) 2018/2001, Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 and Directive 98/70/EC as regards the promotion of energy from renewable sources, and repealing Council Directive (EU) 2015/652 (L 283).
  • (2023b). Directive (EU) 2023/1017 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2023 amending Directive 2014/89/EU as regards maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management (Publication Title: Official Journal of the European Union).
  • (2020). Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 (OJ L 198).
  • Fabrégat S (2021). Éolien: planifier pour réduire, voire inverser, les impacts sur la biodiversité.
  • Farr H, Ruttenberg B, Walter RK (2021). Potential environmental effects of deepwater floating offshore wind energy facilities. Ocean Coast Manag. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105611
  • Faraggiana E, Ghigo A, Sirigu M (2024). Floating offshore wind potential for Mediterranean countries. Heliyon. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33948
  • Garcia-Teruel A, Rinaldi G, Thies PR (2022). Life Cycle Assessment of floating offshore wind farms: an evaluation of operation and maintenance. Appl Energy. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118067
  • Gouty F (2021). Éolien en mer: le rapport complexe entre énergies renouvelables, biodiversité et sites protégés.
  • Gouty F (2022). Méditerranée: La construction des premières éoliennes flottantes est lancée.
  • Hund K, La Porta D, Fabregas TP (2020). Minerals for climate action: the mineral intensity of the clean energy transition.
  • Joseph A (2017). Chapter 6 - Seafloor hot chimneys and cold seeps: mysterious life around them. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809357-3.00006-0
  • Kirchgeorg T, Weinberg I, Hörnig M (2018). Emissions from corrosion protection systems of offshore wind farms: evaluation of the potential impact on the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.058
  • Kloetzli S (2022). Extraction en eaux troubles. Socialter.
  • Lacroix D, Pioch S (2011). The multi-use in wind farm projects: more conflicts or a win-win opportunity?. Aquat Living Resour. doi:10.1051/alr/2011135
  • Le Visage C (2022). Énergie éolienne en Méditerranée: nouvelle source de conflits ou opportunité de coopération renouvelée?. Confluences Méditerranée. doi:10.3917/come.120.0108
  • Lindeboom H, Degraer S, Dannheim J (2015). Offshore wind park monitoring programmes, lessons learned and recommendations for the future. Hydrobiologia. doi:10.1007/s10750-015-2267-4
  • Lloret J, Turiel A, Solé J (2022). Unravelling the ecological impacts of large-scale offshore wind farms in the Mediterranean Sea. Sci Total Environ. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153803
  • Mancini R (2022). The blue economy in the Mediterranean Region and opportunities for the algae industry.
  • Martinez A, Iglesias G (2021). Multi-parameter analysis and mapping of the levelised cost of energy from floating offshore wind in the Mediterranean Sea. Energy Convers Manag. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114416
  • Mendecka B, Lombardi L (2019). Life cycle environmental impacts of wind energy technologies: a review of simplified models and harmonization of the results. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.019
  • Negro V, del Campo JM, Frades JL (2020). Impact of offshore wind farms on Marine ecosystems, pelagic species and fishing. J Coast Res. doi:10.2112/SI95-023.1
  • Nikitas G, Bhattacharya S, Vimalan N (2019). 10 - Wind power: a sustainable way to limit climate change. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-814104-5.00010-7
  • Pellen-Blin M, Dézéraud P, Valin G (2019). La territorialisation de la Méditerranée à l'origine de nouveaux équilibres stratégiques. Revue Défense Nationale. doi:10.3917/rdna.822.0017
  • (2022). Towards a sustainable development of marine renewable energies in the Mediterranean.
  • (1976). Protocole relatif à la prévention et à l'élimination de la pollution de la mer Méditerranée par les opérations d'immersion effectuées par les navires et aéronefs ou d'incinération en mer.
  • Richardson SM, Lintott PR, Hosken DJ (2021). Peaks in bat activity at turbines and the implications for mitigating the impact of wind energy developments on bats. Sci Rep. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82014-9
  • Solangi HR (2019). Undersea noise pollution and harm: source, impacts and international legal control. doi:10.1163/24686042-12340042
  • (2015). Implementation of the ecosystem approach in the Mediterranean.
  • Telesca L, Belluscio A, Criscoli A (2015). Seagrass meadows ( ) distribution and trajectories of change. Sci Rep. doi:10.1038/srep12505
  • Torres ES, Thies PR, Lawless M (2023). Offshore logistics: scenario planning and installation modeling of floating offshore wind projects. ASME Open J Eng. doi:10.1115/1.4056882
  • (1995). Barcelona convention for the protection of the Mediterranean.
  • (2022). Ten seabirds added to the Mediterranean list of endangered or threatened species.
  • (2025). Report of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on its sixth session, held in Baku from 11 to 24 November 2024: Addendum, Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at its sixth session (FCCC/PA/CMA/2024/17/Add.2).
  • (1982). Multilateral United Nations convention on the law of the sea (with annexes, final act and procès-verbaux of rectification of the final act dated 3 March 1986 and 26 July 1993).
  • (1992). Rio declaration on environment and development (A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I)).
  • (2014). Wealth in the oceans: deep sea mining on the horizon?: UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service (GEAS) - May 2014.
  • (2016). Resolution adopted by the general assembly on 22 December 2015 [on the Report of the Second Committee (A/70/472/Add.9)]70/226. United Nations Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14: conserve and sustainably use the Oceans.
  • Van Dover CL (2011). Mining seafloor massive sulphides and biodiversity: what is at risk?. ICES J Mar Sci. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsq086
  • Vis IFA, Ursavas E (2016). Assessment approaches to logistics for offshore wind energy installation. Sustain Energy Technol Assess. doi:10.1016/j.seta.2016.02.001
  • Wang T, Ru X, Deng B (2022). Evidence that offshore wind farms might affect Marine sediment quality and microbial communities (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4121010). doi:10.2139/ssrn.4121010
  • (2025). Italian offshore wind – status and recent developments.
  • Westerberg V, Jacobsen JB, Lifran R (2011). Offshore wind farms in the Mediteranean Seascape: a tourist appeal or a tourist repellent.
  • (2023). Floating offshore wind factsheet.
  • (2015). Principles for a sustainable Blue Economy.