The Role of 3D Printing in Anatomical Education and Surgical Planning: A Systematic Review of its Effectiveness and Future Directions

Background: Three-dimensional (3D) printing has become an important innovation in anatomy and surgery. While traditional methods such as cadaveric dissection and two-dimensional imaging often limit spatial understanding, 3D-printed models provide accurate, interactive representations of anatomy. This review assesses the effectiveness of 3D printing in anatomical education and surgical planning, while outlining challenges and future directions.

Methods & Results: Thirty-five studies met inclusion criteria, of which 15 addressed education and 20 focused on surgical planning. In education, most studies demonstrated improved knowledge retention, spatial comprehension, and exam performance when 3D models were used alongside or in place of conventional methods. Students consistently reported greater engagement and clearer visualization of complex structures. In surgical planning, 3D printing provided patient-specific models that improved preoperative visualization, reduced operative time, and enhanced surgical precision. These benefits were most pronounced in complex orthopedic, spinal, and maxillofacial procedures. Limitations included high production costs, dependence on specialized equipment, and technical challenges in model creation. Evidence gaps remain, particularly regarding standardized outcome measures and long-term effectiveness.

Conclusions: 3D printing enhances both anatomical education and surgical practice, offering tangible improvements in comprehension, accuracy, and efficiency. Despite current barriers to widespread use, its integration into medical training and clinical workflows holds significant promise. Future research should evaluate cost–effectiveness, develop standardized metrics, and explore combined use with virtual or augmented reality to maximize educational and clinical impact.