Published April 17, 2025
| Version 2
Journal article
Open
Copilot in service: Exploring the potential of the large language model-based chatbots for fostering evaluation culture in preventing and countering violent extremism
Authors/Creators
- 1. Vrije Universiteit Brussel Institute for European Studies, Brussels, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
- 2. Centre for European Studies, University of Helsinki Faculty of Social Sciences, Helsinki, Uusimaa, 00014, Finland
Files
openreseurope-5-21801.pdf
Additional details
References
- Aaron L, Abbate S, Allain NM (2024). Strategies for student input.
- Aaronson SA (2024). Introduction: what hath generative Artificial Intelligence wrought?.
- Allchorn W (2024). Global far-right extremist exploitation of Artificial Intelligence and Alt-Tech: the cases of the UK US, Australia and New Zealand. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses.
- Banh L, Strobel G (2023). Generative Artificial Intelligence. Electron Mark. doi:10.1007/s12525-023-00680-1
- Benirschke RC, Wodskow J, Prasai K (2024). Assessment of a Large Language Model's utility in helping pathology professionals answer general knowledge pathology questions. Am J Clin Pathol. doi:10.1093/ajcp/aqad106
- Burton J (2023). Algorithmic extremism? The securitization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and its impact on radicalism, polarization and political violence. Technol Soc. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102262
- Carugati C (2023). Competition in generative Articifial Intelligence foundation models.
- Chin C (2023). Navigating the risks of Artificial Intelligence on the digital news landscape.
- Chow JCL, Li K (2025). Developing effective frameworks for Large Language Model–based medical chatbots: insights from radiotherapy education with ChatGPT. JMIR Cancer. doi:10.2196/66633
- Chow JCL, Li K (2024). Ethical considerations in human-centered AI: advancing oncology chatbots through Large Language Models. JMIR Bioinform Biotechnol. doi:10.2196/64406
- Dang H, Mecke L, Lehmann F (2022). How to prompt? Opportunities and challenges of zero- and few-shot learning for human-AI interaction in creative applications of generative models. arXiv.org. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2209.01390
- Dehbozorgi N, Kunuku MT, Pouriyeh S (2024). Personalized pedagogy through a LLM-Based recommender system. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64312-5_8
- Dong B, Lee JR, Zhu Z (2024). Assessing Large Language Models for online extremism research: identification, explanation, and new knowledge. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2408.16749
- Ein-Dor L, Toledo-Ronen O, Spector A (2024). Conversational Prompt Engineering. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2408.04560
- Ekin S (2023). Prompt engineering for ChatGPT: a quick guide to techniques, tips, and best practices. TechRxiv. doi:10.36227/techrxiv.22683919.v2
- Ekstrand MD, Riedl JT, Konstan JA (2011). Collaborative filtering recommender systems. Foundations and Trends® in Human-Computer Interaction. doi:10.1561/1100000009
- (null). EU 2024/1689, regulation of the European parliament and of the council" (Artificial Intelligence act).
- (2023). ChatGPT: the impact of Large Language Models on law enforcement.
- Gao Y, Xiong Y, Gao X (2023). Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Large Language Models: a survey. arXiv.org. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2312.10997
- Ghaswalla S (2023). Navigating uncharted legal waters: copyright concerns surrounding Large Language Models.
- Giray L (2023). Prompt engineering with ChatGPT: a guide for academic writers. Ann Biomed Eng. doi:10.1007/s10439-023-03272-4
- Gover L (2023). Political bias in Large Language Models.
- Gupta S, Tarapore R, Haislup B (2024). Microsoft copilot provides more accurate and reliable information about Anterior Cruciate Ligament injury and repair than ChatGPT and Google Gemini; however, no resource was overall the best. Arthrosc Sports Med Rehabil. doi:10.1016/j.asmr.2024.101043
- Gynbaum MM, Mac R (2023). The Times sues OpenAI and Microsoft over A.I. use of copyrighted work.
- (null). IMPACT Europe project (FP7).
- (null). INDEED E-guidebook 1 and E-guidebook 2.
- (2024). INDEED evaluation tool.
- (null). INDEED, evidence-based evaluation model.
- (2022). Report outlining identified, analysed and recommended research approaches, methods and tools for evidence-based evaluation coming from the area of PVE/CVE and De-radicalisation and other selected disciplines.
- (2023). Responsible AI innovation in law enforcement.
- Kamminga NCW, Kievits JEC, Plaisier PW (2025). Do Large Language Model chatbots perform better than established patient information resources in answering patient questions? A comparative study on melanoma. Br J Dermatol. doi:10.1093/bjd/ljae377
- Karamolegkou A, Li J, Zhou L (2023). Copyright violations and Large Language Models. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2310.13771
- Lakomy M (2023). Artificial Intelligence as a terrorism enabler? Understanding the potential impact of chatbots and image generators on online terrorist activities. Stud Confl Terror. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2023.2259195
- Lei H, Weijiang Y, Weitao M (2025). A survey on hallucination in Large Language Models: principles, taxonomy, challenges, and open questions. ACM Trans Inf Syst. doi:10.1145/3703155
- Li L, Fan L, Atreja S (2024). "HOT" ChatGPT: the promise of ChatGPT in detecting and discriminating hateful, offensive, and toxic comments on social media. ACM Trans Web. doi:10.1145/3643829
- Lin TC, Li YM (2024). Recommender system powered by Large Language Models. doi:10.1109/IIAI-AAI63651.2024.00092
- Lloyd D (2023). What is it like to be a bot?: The world according to GPT-4.
- Malkki L, van der Vet I, Prokic M (2023a). Evidence-based evaluation of P/CVE and de-radicalisation initiatives.
- Malkki L, van der Vet I, Prokic M (2023b). How to design PVE/CVE and de-radicalisation initiatives and evaluations according to the principles of evidence-based practice.
- Marais E, Marais-Botha R, Coertzen F (2024). Constructing an Artificial-Intelligence higher education environment: guidelines for the future. doi:10.33134/HUP-25-9
- McGuffie K, Newhouse A (2020). The radicalization risks of GPT-3 and advanced neural language models. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2009.06807
- Meskó B (2023). Prompt engineering as an important emerging skill for medical professionals: tutorial. J Med Internet Res. doi:10.2196/50638
- (null). Microsoft Copilot introduction website.
- Mohamed T, Kumar S (2024). Artificial Intelligence and its applications.
- Mosqueira-Rey E, Hernández-Pereira E, Alonso-Ríos D (2023). Human-in-the-loop machine learning: a state of the art. Artif Intell Rev. doi:10.1007/s10462-022-10246-w
- Nelu C (2024). Exploitation of generative AI by Terrorist groups.
- Nikolayeva L (2024). Exploring the efficacy of ChatGPT in adapting reading materials for undergraduate students. doi:10.4995/head24.2024.17087
- Ooi KB, Tan GWH, Al-Emran M (2025). The potential of generative Artificial Intelligence across disciplines: perspectives and future directions. J Comput Inform Syst. doi:10.1080/08874417.2023.2261010
- Piñeiro-Martín A, García-Mateo C, Docío-Fernández L (2023). Ethical challenges in the development of virtual assistants powered by Large Language Models. Electronics. doi:10.3390/electronics12143170
- Ratten V, Jones P (2023). Generative Artificial Intelligence (ChatGPT): implications for management educators. Int J Manag Educ. doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100857
- Rich E (1979). User modeling via stereotypes. Cognitive Sci. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0304_3
- Routray SK, Javali A, Sharmila KP (2023). Large Language Models (LLMs): hypes and realities. doi:10.1109/CSET58993.2023.10346621
- Roy D, Dutta M (2022). A systematic review and research perspective on recommender systems. J Big Data. doi:10.1186/s40537-022-00592-5
- Rudolph J, Tan S, Tan S (2023). ChatGPT: bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?. J Appl learn Teach. doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.9
- Segura EA (2023). Artificial Intelligence and accounting. doi:10.2307/jj.5076225.8
- Shah MSS, Abuaieta AM, Almazrouei SS (2024). Safeguarding online communications using DistilRoBERTa for detection of terrorism and offensive chats. J Inform Secur Cybercrim Res. doi:10.26735/VNVR2791
- Silva TC, Kordaczuk-Wąs M, (Eds.) (2025). Preventing and countering violent extremism and radicalisation: evidence-based policy and practice. doi:10.2307/jj.12348222
- Steyvers M, Tejeda H, Kumar A (2025). What Large Language Models know and what people think they know. Nat Mach Intell. doi:10.1038/s42256-024-00976-7
- Stroop A, Stroop T, Alsofy SZ (2024). Large Language Models: are Artificial Intelligence-based chatbots a reliable source of patient information for spinal surgery?. Eur Spine J. doi:10.1007/s00586-023-07975-z
- Szwoch J, Staszkow M, Rzepka R (2024). Limitations of Large Language Models in propaganda detection task. Appl Sci. doi:10.3390/app14104330
- (null). CVE reference guide for local organisations.
- Van der Vet I, Malkki L (2025). Zenodo.
- Van der Vet I, Malkki L (2025). Zenodo.
- Warren CJ, Edmonds VS, Payne NG (2024). Prompt matters: evaluation of Large Language Model chatbot responses related to Peyronie's disease. Sex Med. doi:10.1093/sexmed/qfae055
- White J, Fu Q, Hays S (2023). A prompt pattern catalog to enhance prompt engineering with ChatGPT.
- Xu W (2019). Toward human-centered AI: a perspective from human–computer interaction. Interactions. doi:10.1145/3328485
- Yagoda M (2024). Airline held liable for its chatbot giving passenger bad advice - what this means for travellers.
- Zhang Q, Lu J, Jin Y (2021). Artificial Intelligence in recommender systems. Complex Intell Syst. doi:10.1007/s40747-020-00212-w
- Zhao WX, Zhou K, Li J (2023). A survey of Large Language Models.