Development of Kalam (Islamic Theology) Science in the 9th-10th Centuries in Transoxiana

The development of Kalam (Islamic theology) science in Transoxiana during the 9th and 10th centuries reflects the intellectual and theological evolution of the Islamic world during a period of significant political and religious transformations. Early Islamic discourse on theological issues did not exist in the same formalized manner as it did later, as during the Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w.) era, revelations and his teachings provided definitive answers to faith-related matters. However, with time, particularly after the era of the companions (Sahabah), debates on theological questions began to emerge. The article explores the historical roots of Kalam and how theological disputes about various issues, such as faith, sin, and the nature of God, began to take shape. The discourse on theological issues became particularly pronounced in the period following the time of the Sahabah, with figures like Abdullah ibn Subaygh introducing questions about ambiguous Quranic verses, which led to further debates and cautionary actions from authorities such as Umar ibn Khattab. Additionally, the article delves into the emergence of the Kharijites during the time of Ali ibn Abu Talib, whose radical ideas on topics like sin and the legitimacy of certain caliphs contributed to the development of theological discourse. The article aims to provide insight into the intellectual climate in Transoxiana and its significant role in the evolution of Islamic theological thought