Published August 22, 2024
| Version v1
Journal article
Open
Stochastic versus deterministic assembly of oceanic island biota: leaf-dwelling lichens on the Galápagos and on Cocos Island
Authors/Creators
- 1. Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- 2. Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany|Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá, Colombia
- 3. Arizona State University, Arizona, United States of America|Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, Quito, Ecuador|Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands, Puerto Ayora, Ecuador
Description
We used a simulation approach to test whether species composition on oceanic islands follows deterministic assembly rules based on probabilities of successful dispersal and establishment. The study was performed with two island biota in the eastern Pacific: the Galápagos, dominated by dry vegetation and montane humid forest, and Cocos Island, covered by wet tropical forest. We used leaf-dwelling (foliicolous) lichens as the study group and compiled occurrence data from previous studies on both island biota and new collections from the Galápagos. Species composition was simulated using randomization from a continental species pool, without and with filtering through ecogeographic parameters. Parameters for filtering were continental distribution range, commonness, and microsite exposure for successful dispersal, and preferences regarding vegetation type, seasonality, elevation, and microhabitat for successful establishment. Whereas neutral random selection predicted insular species composition imprecisely, ecogeographic parameter filtering resulted in rather accurate prediction. Commonness was the parameter that most contributed to the determination of species assembly. Empirical comparison with sites in continental Ecuador and Costa Rica suggests a closer affinity of the Galápagos with Ecuador, indicating that distance plays some role in species assembly as well. Based on our results we conclude that insular species assembly in this group of organisms is largely deterministic, rejecting a purely neutral approach.
HighlightsComposition of randomized assemblies from a known species pool occurring on the American continent supports the hypothesis that island colonization largely follows deterministic assembly rules.
Stochastic components included a small number of unpredictable species and missing species as a result of disharmonic assembly.
Commonness was the most important parameter in shaping assembly.
Empirical comparison with sites in continental Ecuador and Costa Rica suggests a closer affinity of the Galápagos with Ecuador.
This study appears to be the first to test species assembly in island biota through simulation based on predictions from continental source metacommunities.
Files
biogeography_article_133819.pdf
Files
(1.3 MB)
| Name | Size | Download all |
|---|---|---|
|
md5:b380135be0b9ce7d44133a62e1e1d913
|
1.3 MB | Preview Download |
System files
(196.5 kB)
| Name | Size | Download all |
|---|---|---|
|
md5:c77c3e36072e2ebb8228db589a6f5a91
|
196.5 kB | Download |
Linked records
Additional details
References
- Ali JR, Hedges SB (2022) A review of geological evidence bearing on proposed Cenozoic land connections between Madagascar and Africa and its relevance to biogeography. Earth-Science Reviews 232: 104103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104103
- Alzate A, Onstein RE (2022) Understanding the relationship between dispersal and range size. Ecological Letters 25: 2303–2323. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14089
- Andow DA (2003) Pathways-based risk assessment of exotic species invasions. In: Ruiz GM, Carlton JT (Eds) Invasive Species: Vectors and Management Strategies. Island Press, Washington, DC, 439–455.
- Azeria ET, Kolasa J (2008) Nestedness, niche metrics and temporal dynamics of a metacommunity in a dynamic natural model system. Oikos 117: 1006–1019. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2008.0030-1299.16529.x
- Bailey K (1976) Potassium-Argon ages from the Galapagos Islands. Science 192: 465–467. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.192.4238.465
- Barbier M, Arnoldi JF, Bunin G, Loreau M (2018) Generic assembly patterns in complex ecological communities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 115: 2156–2161. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710352115
- Barrett SCH (1998) The reproductive biology and genetics of islands plants. In: Grant P (Ed.) Evolution on Islands. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 18–34. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198501725.003.0002
- Belinchón R, Yahr R, Ellis CJ (2015) Interactions among species with contrasting dispersal modes explain distributions for epiphytic lichens. Ecography 38: 762–768. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.01258
- Brown RM, Siler CD, Oliveros CH, Esselstyn JA, Diesmos AC, Hosner PA (2013) Evolutionary processes of diversification in a model island archipelago. Annual Reviews of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 44: 411–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110411-160323
- Buchholz S, Baert L, Rodríguez J, CaustonE C, Jäger H (2020) Spiders in Galapagos – diversity, biogeography and origin. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 130: 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa019
- Burns KC (2005) A multi-scale test for dispersal filters in an island plant community. Ecography 28: 552–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0906-7590.2005.04221.x
- Burns KC (2007) Patterns in the assembly of an island plant community. Journal of Biogeography 34: 760–768. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01625.x
- Burns KC, Berg J, Bialynicka-Birula A, Kratchmer S, Shortt K (2010) Tree diversity on islands: assembly rules, passive sampling and the theory of island biogeography. Journal of Biogeography 37: 1876–1883. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02352.x
- Cáceres MES, Lücking R, Rambold G (2008) Corticolous microlichens in northeastern Brazil: habitat differentiation between coastal Mata Atlântica, Caatinga and Brejos de Altitude. The Bryologist 111: 98–117. https://doi.org/10.1639/0007-2745(2008)111[98:CMINBH]2.0.CO;2
- Carlquist S, Baldwin BG, Carr GD (2003) Tarweeds & Silverswords: Evolution of the Madiinae (Asteraceae). Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, Missouri.
- Carvajal-Endara S, Hendry AP, Emery NC, Davies TJ (2017) Habitat filtering not dispersal limitation shapes oceanic island floras: species assembly of the Galápagos archipelago. Ecological Letters 20: 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12753
- Cassey P, Blackburn TM, Lockwood JL, Sax DF (2006) A stochastic model for integrating changes in species richness and community similarity across spatial scales. Oikos 115: 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.15223.x
- Castillo P, Batiza R, Vanko D, Malavassi E, Barquero J, Fernández E (1988) Anomalously young volcanoes on old hot-spot traces. I. Geology and petrology of Cocos Island. Geological Society of America Bulletin 100: 1400–1414. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1400:AYVOOH>2.3.CO;2
- Christie DM, Duncan RA, McBirney AR, Richards MA, White WM, Harpp KS, Fox CG (1992) Drowned islands downstream from the Galapagos hotspot imply extended speciation times. Nature 355: 246–248. https://doi.org/10.1038/355246a0
- Colinvaux PA (1972) Climate and the Galapagos Islands. Nature 240: 17–20. https://doi.org/10.1038/240017a0
- Colinvaux PA (1984) The Galápagos climate: present and past. In: Perry R (Ed.) Key Environments: Galápagos. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 55–69.
- Connor EF, Simberloff D (1979) The assembly of species communities: chance or competition? Ecology 60: 1132–1140. https://doi.org/10.2307/1936961
- Crawley MJ (1997) The structure of plant communities. In: Crawley MJ (Ed.) Plant Ecology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 475–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444313642.ch11
- Cronk QCB, Fuller JL (1995) Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin.
- Dal Forno M, Bungartz F, Yánez-Ayabaca A, Lücking R, Lawrey JD (2017) High levels of endemism among Galapagos basidiolichens. Fungal Diversity 85: 45–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-017-0380-6
- Diamond JM (1975) Assembly of species communities. In: Cody ML, Diamond JM (Eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Belknap, Harvard, 342–444.
- Drake JA (1990) The mechanics of community assembly and succession. Journal of Theoretical Biology 147: 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80053-0
- Esselstyn JA, Maher SP, Brown RM (2011) Species interactions during diversification and community assembly in an island radiation of shrews. PLoS ONE 6: e21885. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021885
- Flakus A (2013) Foliicolous lichenized fungi of lowland Amazon forests in Pando, Bolivia. Polish Botanical Journal 58: 539–554. https://doi.org/10.2478/pbj-2013-0063
- Flakus A, Lücking R (2008) New species and additional records of foliicolous lichenized fungi from Bolivia. The Lichenologist 40: 423–436. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0024282908007378
- Ford M, Blanchon DJ, Veale A, Doyle EJ, Rolfe JR, De Lange PJ (2019) Hidden in plain sight — A new Strigula species segregated from Strigula novae-zelandiae (Lichenized Ascomycota: Strigulaceae). Phytotaxa 424: 267–281. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.424.5.1
- Geist D (1996) On the emergence and submergence of the Galápagos Islands. Noticias de Galápagos 56: 5–9.
- Geist D, Snell H, Snell H, Goddard C, Kurz M (2014) Paleogeography of the Galapagos Islands and biogeographical implications. In: Harpp K, Mittelstaedt E, d'Ozouville N, D Graham (Eds) The Galapagos: A Natural Laboratory for the Earth Sciences. American Geophysical Union Monograph, Washington, 145–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118852538.ch8
- Gilbert B, Bennett JR (2010) Partitioning variation in ecological communities: do the numbers add up? Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 1071–1082. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01861.x
- Gillespie RG (2007) Oceanic islands: models of diversity. In: Levin SA (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. Elsevier, Oxford, 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012226865-6/00517-1
- Givnish TJ, Millam KC, Theim TT, Mast AR, Patterson TB, Hipp AL, Henss JM, Smith JF, Wood KR, Sytsma KJ (2009) Origin, adaptive radiation, and diversification of the Hawaiian lobeliads (Asterales: Campanulaceae). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 276: 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1204
- Götzenberger L, Botta-Dukát Z, Lepš J, Pärtel M, Zobel M, de Bello F (2016) Which randomizations detect convergence and divergence in trait-based community assembly? A test of commonly used null models. Journal of Vegetation Science 27: 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12452
- Gregory PH (1973) The Microbiology of the Atmosphere. 2nd edn. Leonard Hill, Aylesbury.
- Harpp KS, Wanless VD, Otto RH, Hoernle K, Reinhard W (2005) The Cocos and Carnegie aseismic ridges: a trace element record of long-term plume-spreading center interaction. Journal of Petrology 46: 109–133. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egh064
- Heaney LR (2000) Dynamic disequilibrium: a longterm, large-scale perspective on the equilibrium model of island biogeography. Global Ecology and Biogeography 9: 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00163.x
- Herrera-Campos MA, Lücking R, Pérez-Pérez RE, Campos A, Colín PM, Peña AB (2004) The foliicolous lichen flora of Mexico. V. Biogeographical affinities, altitudinal preferences, and an updated checklist of 293 species. The Lichenologist 36: 309–327. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0024282904014483
- Hubbell SP (2001) The Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography (Monographs in Population Biology, Vol. 32). Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 392 pp.
- Irl SD, Anthelme F, Harter DE, Jentsch A, Lotter E, Steinbauer MJ, Beierkuhnlein C (2016) Patterns of island treeline elevation – a global perspective. Ecography 39: 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.01266
- Jaramillo P, Guézou A, Mauchamp A, Tye A (2014) CDF Checklist of Galapagos Flowering Plants – FCD Lista de Especies de Plantas con Flores de Galápagos. In: Bungartz F, Herrera H, Jaramillo P, Tirado N, Jimenez-Uzcategui G, Ruiz D, Guezou A, Ziemmeck F (Eds) Charles Darwin Foundation Galapagos Species Checklist. Fundación Charles Darwin, Puerto Ayora, Galapagos. http://www.darwinfoundation.org/datazone/checklists/vascular-plants/magnoliophyta
- Jiang SH, Lücking R, Xavier-Leite AB, Cáceres MES, Aptroot A, Portilla CV, Wei JC (2020) Reallocation of foliicolous species of the genus Strigula into six genera (lichenized Ascomycota, Dothideomycetes, Strigulaceae). Fungal Diversity 102: 257–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-020-00445-7
- Jiang SH, Lücking R, Liu HJ, Wei XL, Xavier-Leite AB, Portilla CV, Ren Q, Wei JC (2021) Twelve new species reveal cryptic diversification in foliicolous lichens of Strigula s. lat. (Strigulales, Ascomycota). Journal of Fungi 8: 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8010002
- Jiménez-Uzcátegui G, Milstead B, Márquez C, Zabala J, Buitrón P, Llerena A, Salazar S, Fessl B (2006) Galapagos vertebrates: endangered status and conservation actions. Galapagos Report 2007: 104–110.
- Kadmon R (1995) Nested species subsets and geographic isolation: a case study. Ecology 76: 458–465. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941204
- Kadmon R, Allouche O (2007) Integrating the effects of area, isolation, and habitat heterogeneity on species diversity: a unification of island biogeography and niche theory. American Naturalist 170: 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1086/519853
- Kadmon R, Pulliam HR (1993) Island biogeography: effect of geographical isolation on species composition. Ecology 74: 977–981. https://doi.org/10.2307/1940467
- Keddy PA (1992) Assembly and response rules: two goals for predictive community ecology. Journal of Vegetation Science 3: 157–164. https://doi.org/10.2307/3235676
- Keddy PA, Laughlin DC (2021) Predictive Models of Community Assembly. In: Keddy PA, Laughlin DC (Eds) A Framework for Community Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 232–264. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009067881.008
- Khedr AH, Lovett-Doust J (2000) Determinants of floristic diversity and vegetation composition on the islands of Lake Burollos, Egypt. Applied Vegetation Science 3: 147–156. https://doi.org/10.2307/1478993
- Kienle DR, Irl SD, Beierkuhnlein C (2023) Mass elevation effect and continentality have a stronger impact on global treelines than spatial isolation. Global Ecology and Biogeography 32: 1087–1097. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13689
- König C, Weigelt P, Taylor A, Stein A, Dawson W, Essl F, Pergl J, Pyšek P, Van Kleunen M, Winter M, Chatelain C (2021) Source pools and disharmony of the world's island floras. Ecography 44: 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05174
- Lacey ME, West JS (2006) The Air Spora. A Manual for Catching and Identifying Airborne Biological Particles. Springer, Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30253-9
- Laughlin DC, Laughlin DE (2013) Advances in modeling trait-based plant community assembly. Trends in Plant Science 18: 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2013.04.012
- Lomolino MV (2000) A call for a new paradigm of island biogeography. Global Ecology and Biogeography 9: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00185.x
- Losos JB (2010) Adaptive radiation, ecological opportunity, and evolutionary determinism: American Society of Naturalists EO Wilson Award address. American Naturalist 175: 623–639. https://doi.org/10.1086/652433
- Losos JB, Ricklefs RE (2009) Adaptation and diversification on islands. Nature 457: 830–836. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07893
- Lücking R (1997) The use of foliicolous lichens as bioindicators in the tropics, with special reference to the microclimate. Abstracta Botanica 21: 99–116. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43519209
- Lücking R (1998a) Ecology of foliicolous lichens at the 'Botarrama' trail (Costa Rica), a neotropical rain forest site. Part II. Patterns of diversity and area cover, and their dependence on microclimate and phorophyte species. Ecotropica 4: 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.1999.tb00402.x
- Lücking R (1998b) Ecology of foliicolous lichens at the'Botarrama'trail (Costa Rica), a neotropical rain forest. III. Phorophyte ranges and patterns of phorophyte preferences. Phyton (Horn) 38: 195–219.
- Lücking R (1999a) Foliicolous lichens and their lichenicolous fungi from Ecuador, with a comparison of lowland and montane rain forest. Willdenowia 29: 299–335. https://doi.org/10.3372/wi.29.2924
- Lücking R (1999b) Liquenes folicolas de la Estacion Biologica La Selva, Costa Rica: inventario, comunidades y comparacion floristica de tipos de vegetacion. Revista de Biologia Tropical 47: 287–309. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v47i3.19079
- Lücking R (1999c) Ecology of foliicolous lichens at the 'Botarrama' trail (Costa Rica), a neotropical rainforest. IV. Species associations, their salient features and their dependence on environmental variables. Lichenologist 31: 269–289. https://doi.org/10.1006/lich.1998.0186
- Lücking R (2008) Foliicolous lichenized fungi. Flora Neotropica Monograph 103: 1–866.
- Lücking R, Lücking A (1995) Foliicolous lichens and bryophytes from Cocos Island, Costa Rica. A taxonomical and ecogeographical study I. Lichens. Herzogia 11: 143–174. https://doi.org/10.1127/herzogia/11/1995/143
- Lücking R, Moncada B, Smith CW (2017) The genus Lobariella (Ascomycota: Lobariaceae) in Hawaii: late colonization, high inferred endemism and three new species resulting from "micro-radiation". The Lichenologist 49: 673–691. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0024282917000470
- MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NY. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501728761
- Martínez-Colín P, Lücking R, Herrera-Campos MDLÁ (2021) Diversity begets diversity: phorophyte and microsite relations of foliicolous lichens in the lowland rain forest at Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve (Veracruz, Mexico). Ecological Research 36: 313–328. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1703.12201
- Mateus N, Aguirre-C J, Lücking R (2012) Contribuciones a la biota liquénica foliícola del Chocó (Colombia) Contributions to the foliicolous lichen biota of Chocó (Colombia). Caldasia 34: 25–32.
- McCartney HA, Fitt BDL (1985) Construction of dispersal models. In: Gilligan CA (Ed.) Advances in Plant Pathology, Vol. 3: . Mathematical Modelling of Crop Disease. Academic Press, London, UK, 107–143.
- McCune B, Grace JB (2002) Analysis of ecological communities. MjM Software, Gleneden Beach, Oregon.
- McCune B, Mefford MJ (2011) PC-ORD. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data. Version 6. MjM Software, Gleneden Beach, Oregon.
- MacDougall AS, Turkington R (2005) Are invasive species the drivers or passengers of change in degraded ecosystems? Ecology 86: 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0669
- McMullen CK (1999) Flowering Plants of the Galápagos. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
- Moncada B, Reidy B, Lücking R (2014) A phylogenetic revision of Hawaiian Pseudocyphellaria sensu lato (lichenized Ascomycota: Lobariaceae) reveals eight new species and a high degree of inferred endemism. The Bryologist 117: 119–160. https://doi.org/10.1639/0007-2745-117.2.119
- Moncada B, Lücking R, Lumbsch HT (2020) Rewriting the evolutionary history of the lichen genus Sticta (Ascomycota: Peltigeraceae subfam. Lobarioideae) in the Hawaiian islands. Plant and Fungal Systematics 65: 95–119. https://doi.org/10.35535/pfsyst-2020-0005
- Montoya M (2007) Conozca la Isla del Coco: una guía para su visitación. Biocursos Para Amantes de la Naturaleza, Organization for Tropical Studies, San José, Costa Rica, 35–176.
- Morrison LW (2014) The small-island effect: empty islands, temporal variability and the importance of species composition. Journal of Biogeography 41: 1007–1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12264
- Moyle PB, Light T (1996) Biological invasions of fresh water: empirical rules and assembly theory. Biological Conservation 78: 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(96)00024-9
- Munoz F, Grenié M, Denelle P, Taudière A, Laroche F, Tucker C, Violle C (2018) ecolottery: Simulating and assessing community assembly with environmental filtering and neutral dynamics in R. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9: 693–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12918
- Myers JH, Bazely DR (2003) Ecology and Control of Introduced Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 313 pp. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511606564
- O'Connor J M, Stoffers P, Wijbrans J R, Worthington TJ (2007) Migration of widespread long-lived volcanism across the Galápagos Volcanic Province: evidence for a broad hotspot melting anomaly? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 263: 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.007
- Ozinga WA, Bekker RM, Schaminee JH, Van Groenendael JM (2004) Dispersal potential in plant communities depends on environmental conditions. Journal of Ecology 92: 767–777. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-0477.2004.00916.x
- Parent CE, Crespi BJ (2006) Sequential colonization and diversification of Galápagos endemic land snail genus Bulimulus (Gastropoda, Stylommatophora). Evolution 60: 2311–2328. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb01867.x
- Parent CE, Caccone A, Petren K (2008) Colonization and diversification of Galápagos terrestrial fauna: a phylogenetic and biogeographical synthesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biolological Sciences 363: 3347–3361. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0118
- Peters RH (1992) A Critique for Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- Porter DM (1976) Geography and dispersal of Galapagos Islands vascular plants. Nature 264: 745–46. https://doi.org/10.1038/264745a0
- Power DM (1975) Similarity among avifaunas of the Galapagos Islands. Ecology 56: 616–626. https://doi.org/10.2307/1935495
- Price NJ, Berney PJ, Ryder D, Whalley RDB, Gross CL (2011) Disturbance governs dominance of an invasive form in a temporary wetland. Oecologia 167: 759–769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-011-2027-8
- Pyle LL (1995) Effects of disturbance on herbaceous exotic plant species on the floodplain of the Potomac River. American Midland Naturalist 134: 244–253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2426295
- Quiroz CL, Cavieres LA, Pauchard A (2011) Assessing the importance of disturbance, site conditions, and the biotic barrier for dandelion invasion in an Alpine habitat. Biological Invasions 13: 2889–2899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-9971-4
- Rassmann K (1997) Evolutionary age of the Galápagos iguanas predates the age of the present Galápagos Islands. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 7: 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1006/mpev.1996.0386
- Restrepo A, Colinvaux P, Bush M, Correa-Metrio A, Conroy J, Gardener MR, Jaramillo P, Steinitz-Kannan M, Overpeck J (2012) Impacts of climate variability and human colonization on the vegetation of the Galápagos Islands. Ecology 93: 1853–1866. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-1545.1
- Rivas-Torres GF, Benítez FL, Rueda D, Sevilla C, Mena CF (2018) A methodology for mapping native and invasive vegetation coverage in archipelagos: An example from the Galápagos Islands. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 42: 83–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133317752278
- Roque-Álbelo L, Landry B (2018) CDF checklist of Galapagos butterflies and moths. Charles Darwin Foundation Galapagos Species Checklist. Charles Darwin Foundation, Puerto Ayora, Galapagos. http://darwinfoundation.org/datazone/checklists/terrestrial-invertebrates/lepidoptera
- Rosindell J, Hubbell SP, Etienne RS (2011) The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography at age ten. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26: 340–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.024
- Roughgarden J (1989) The structure and assembly of communities. In: Roughgarden J, May RM, Levin SA (Eds) Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400860180.203
- Sakai AK, Allendorf FW, Holt JS, Lodge DM, Molofsky J, With KA, Baughman S, Cabin RJ, Cohen JE, Ellstrand NC, McCauley DE, O'Neil P, Parker IM, Thompson JN, Weller SG (2001) The population biology of invasive species. Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics 32: 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114037
- Sanderson JG, Diamond JM, Pimm SL (2009) Pairwise co-existence of Bismarck and Solomon landbird species. Evolutionary Ecology Research 11: 771–786.
- Santos VM, Cáceres MES, Lücking R (2020) Diversity of foliicolous lichens in isolated montane rainforests (Brejos) of northeastern Brazil and their biogeography in a neotropical context. Ecological Research 35: 182–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1703.12071
- Shinohara N, Nakadai R, Suzuki Y, Terui A (2023) Spatiotemporal dimensions of community assembly. Population Ecology 65: 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/1438-390X.12144
- Shipley B, Vile D, Garnier E (2006) From plant traits to plant communities: a statistical mechanistic approach to biodiversity. Science 314: 812–814. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1131344
- Simon A, Goffinet B, Magain N, Sérusiaux E (2018) High diversity, high insular endemism and recent origin in the lichen genus Sticta (lichenized Ascomycota, Peltigerales) in Madagascar and the Mascarenes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 122: 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2018.01.012
- Smith CW (1995) Notes on long-distance dispersal in Hawaiian lichens: ascospore characters. Cryptogamic Botany 5: 209–213.
- Snell H, Stone PA (1985) A summary of geographical characteristics of the Galapagos Islands. Journal of Biogeography 23: 619–624. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00022.x
- Spruch L, Hellwig J, Zotz G, Blasius B (2019) Modeling community assembly on growing habitat "islands": a case study on trees and their vascular epiphyte communities. Theoretical Ecology 12: 513–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12080-019-0425-4
- Strahan RT, Laughlin DC, Moore MM (2018) An experimental test of the Community Assembly by Trait Selection (CATS) model. PLOS ONE 13: e0206787. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206787
- Stuart YE, Losos JB, Algar AC (2012) The island-mainland species turnover relationship. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279: 4071–4077. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0816
- Svensson M, Caruso A, Yahr R, Ellis C, Thor G, Snäll T (2016) Combined observational and experimental data provide limited support for facilitation in lichens. Oikos 125: 278–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.02279
- Tatsumi S, Cadotte MW, Mori AS (2019) Individual-based models of community assembly: Neighbourhood competition drives phylogenetic community structure. Journal of Ecology 107: 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13074
- Theoharides KA, Dukes JS (2007) Plant invasion across space and time: factors affecting non indigenous species success during four stages of invasion. New Phytologist 176: 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x
- Troll C (1973) High mountain belts between the polar caps and the equator: their definition and lower limit. Arctic and Alpine Research 5: A19–A27.
- Trueman M, d'Ozouville N (2010) Characterizing the Galapagos terrestrial climate in the face of global climate change. Galapagos Research 67: 26–37. http://hdl.handle.net/1834/36285
- Trueman M, Hobbs RJ, Van Niel K (2013) Interdisciplinary historical vegetation mapping for ecological restoration in Galapagos. Landscape Ecology 28: 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-013-9854-4
- Trusty JL, Kesler HC, Haug-Delgado G (2006) Vascular flora of Isla del Coco, Costa Rica. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 57: 247–355.
- Tye A, Francisco-Ortega J, Bramwell D, Caujapé-Castells J (2011) Origins and evolution of Galapagos endemic vascular plants. In: Bramwell D, Caujapé-Castells J (Eds) The Biology of Island floras. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 89–153. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511844270.006
- Van der Werff HH (1978) The Vegetation of the Galapagos Islands. Doctoral Dissertation, Riejksuniversiteit te Utrecht, Zierikzee.
- Vargas P, Heleno R, Traveset A, Nogales M (2012) Colonization of the Galápagos Islands by plants with no specific syndromes for long-distance dispersal: a new perspective. Ecography 35: 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06980.x
- Vences M, Wollenberg KC, Vietes DR, Lees DC (2009) Madagascar as a model region of species diversification. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24: 456–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.011
- Von Holle B (2005) Biotic resistance to invader establishment of a southern Appalachian plant community is determined by environmental conditions. Journal of Ecology 93: 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-0477.2004.00946.x
- Wagner WL, Herbst DR (2002) Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i. http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm
- Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH (1999) Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i: Revised Edition. University of Hawai'i Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
- Ward SA, Thornton IWB (2001) Chance and determinism in the development of isolated communities. Global Ecology and Biogeography 9: 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00196.x
- Warton DI, Shipley B and Hastie T (2015) CATS regression – a model-based approach to studying trait-based community assembly. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 6: 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12280
- Watson DM (2002) A conceptual framework for studying species composition in fragments, islands and other patchy ecosystems. Journal of Biogeography 29: 823–834. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00726.x
- Weiher E, Keddy PA (1995) Assembly rules, null models, and trait dispersion: new questions from old patterns. Oikos 74: 159–164. https://doi.org/10.2307/3545686
- Werner R, Hoernle K, Van den Bogaard P, Ranero C, Von Huene R (1999) Drowned 14-my-old Galápagos archipelago off the coast of Costa Rica: implications for tectonic and evolutionary models. Geology 27: 499–502. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0499:DMYOGP>2.3.CO;2
- White WM, McBirney AR, Duncan RA (1993) Petrology and geochemistry of the Galápagos Islands: portrait of a pathological mantle plume. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 98: 19533–19563. https://doi.org/10.1029/93JB02018
- Whittaker RJ, Fernández-Palacios JM (2007) Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation. 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Cambridge, MS. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198566113.001.0001
- Whittaker RL, Fernández-Palacios JM, Matthews T (2023) Island Biogeography. Oxford University Press, New York. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198868569.001.0001
- Wiggins IL, Porter DM (1971) Flora of the Galápagos Islands. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
- Williamson MH (1981) Island Populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
- Woo JJ, Lücking R, Oh SY, Jeun YC, Hur JS (2020) Two new foliicolous species of Strigula (Strigulaceae, Strigulales) in Korea offer insight in phorophyte-dependent variation of thallus morphology. Phytotaxa 443: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.443.1.1
- Wright DH, Patterson BD, Mikkelson GM, Cutler A, Atmar W (1997) A comparative analysis of nested subset patterns of species composition. Oecologia 113: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050348
- Yahr R, Vilgalys R, DePriest PT (2004) Strong fungal specificity and selectivity for algal symbionts in Florida scrub Cladonia lichens. Molecular Ecology 13: 3367–3378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02350.x
- Yánez A, Dal Forno M, Bungartz F, Lücking R, Lawrey JD (2012) A first assessment of Galapagos basidiolichens. Fungal Diversity 52: 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-011-0133-x
- Yoder AD, Nowak MD (2006) Has vicariance or dispersal been the predominant biogeographic force in Madagascar? Only time will tell. Annual Reviews of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 37: 405–431. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110239
- Zhao F, Zhang BP, Zhang S, Qi WW, He WH, Wang J, Yao YH (2015) Contribution of mass elevation effect to the altitudinal distribution of global treelines. Journal of Mountain Science 12: 289–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3223-x