Biodiversity Literature Repository

Submit to community
Liberated Data
Published July 3, 2022 | Version v1
Journal article Open

Basic laboratory and field manual for conducting research with the entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, and their bacterial symbionts

Authors/Creators

  • 1. B, Harry K. KAYA & B, Harun ÇİMEN & B, David SHAPIRO-ILAN & Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Türkiye

Description

Hazir, Selçuk, Kaya B, Harry K., B, Mustapha Touray, B, Harun Çimen, B, David Shapiro-Ilan (2022): Basic laboratory and field manual for conducting research with the entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, and their bacterial symbionts. Turkish Journal of Zoology 46 (4): 305-350, DOI: 10.55730/1300-0179.3085, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.55730/1300-0179.3085

Files

source.pdf

Files (8.4 MB)

Name Size Download all
md5:0b813f33461fe3c7cdcad704789e7473
8.4 MB Preview Download

Linked records

Additional details

Identifiers

LSID
urn:lsid:plazi.org:pub:FF813F33461FFFC7FFCAD704FF9E7473
URL
http://publication.plazi.org/id/FF813F33461FFFC7FFCAD704FF9E7473

Cites
Publication: 10.1895/wormbook.1.115.1 (DOI)
Publication: 10.1099/ijsem.0.005151 (DOI)
Publication: 10.1016/j.jip.2016.11.013 (DOI)
Publication: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104452 (DOI)
Has part
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03B8474B460BFFDFFF94D32FFEBF758A (URL)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224542 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224544 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224546 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224548 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224550 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224552 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224554 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224556 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224558 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224560 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224562 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.13224564 (DOI)

References

  • Abate BA, Malan AP, Tiedt LR, Wingfield MJ, Slippers B et al. (2016).Steinernema fabii n. sp.(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 18: 235-255.
  • Abate BA, Wingfield MJ, Slippers B, Hurley BP (2017). Commercialisation of entomopathogenic nematodes: should import regulations be revised? Biocontrol Science and Technology 27: 149-168.
  • Abebe E, Abebe-Akele F, Morrison J, Cooper V, Thomas WK (2011). An insect pathogenic symbiosis between a Caenorhabditis and Serratia. Virulence 2 (2): 158-161.
  • Abd-Elgawad MMM, Ameen HH (2005). Heterorhabditis egyptii n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 2: 855-870.
  • Adams BJ, Nguyen KB (2002). Taxonomy and systematics. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, UK.
  • The use of chemical pesticides has raised serious concerns about safety to humans and nontarget organisms, environmental pollution, and pest resistance. Thus, the search for safer alternatives, such as the EPNs and their symbiotic bacteria, has intensified. These nematode/bacterium complexes have the potential for huge economic impacts because they can be effective biological control agents against various soil insect pests as well as those that occur in cryptic habitats. Moreover, the species of symbiotic bacteria in the genera, Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus, produce an arsenal of metabolites that have shown great potential as excellent sources of medical and agricultural antibiotics and insecticides (Donmez-Ozkan et al., 2019; Cimen et al., 2021; Incedayi et al., 2021; Gulsen et al., 2022). Also, from a research standpoint, EPNs are excellent model organisms for various studies in diverse disciplines such as ecology, genomics, pathology, and medicine. Accordingly, we have put together a manual that will be helpful for those initiating studies with these nematode/bacterium complexes from their isolation in the field to their identification and characterization in the laboratory. In addition, we have included mass-production methods for EPNs and their symbiotic bacteria, storage and transportation, and their application in the field against soil insect pests and those that occur in suitable cryptic habitats. Finally, we include an Appendix section on how to rear two insects that are often used for in vivo production of EPNs and bioassay studies and have provided recipes that are commonly used in EPN and their symbiotic bacteria research.
  • Adams BJ, Fodor A, Koppenhofer HS, Stackebrandt E, Stock SP, Klein MG (2006). Biodiversity and systematics of nematodebacterium entomopathogens. Biological Control 37: 32-49.
  • Addis T, Mulawarman M, Waeyenberge L, Moens M, Viaene N et al. (2011). Identification and intraspecific variability of Steinernema feltiae strains from Cemoro Lawang village in Eastern Java, Indonesia. Russian Journal of Nematology 19 (1): 21-29.
  • Adeolu M, Alnajar S, Naushad S, Gupta R (2016). Genome-based phylogeny and taxonomy of the 'Enterobacteriales ': proposal for Enterobacterales ord. nov. divided into the families Enterobacteriaceae, Erwiniaceae fam. nov., Pectobacteriaceae fam. nov., Yersiniaceae fam. nov., Hafniaceae fam. nov., Morganellaceae fam. nov., and Budviciaceae fam. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 66: 5575-5599.
  • Akhurst R, Boemare NE (1990). Biology and taxonomy of Xenorhabdus. In: Gaugler R, Kaya HK (editors). Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
  • Akyazi F, Ansari MA, Ahmed BI, Crow WT, Mekete T (2012). First record of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) from Nigerian soil and their morphometrical and ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. Nematologia Mediterranea 40: 95-100.
  • Ali F,Wharton DA(2015).Infective juveniles of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema feltiae produce cryoprotectants in response to freezing and cold acclimation. PLoS ONE 10: e0141810.
  • Anbesse S, Sumaya NH, Dorfler AV, Strauch O, Ehlers RU (2013). Stabilization of heat tolerance traits in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through selective breeding and creation of inbred lines in liquid culture. BioControl 58: 85-93.
  • Andalo V, Nguyen KB, Moino A (2006). Heterorhabditis amazonensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Amazonas, Brazil. Nematology 8: 853-867.
  • Anis M, Shahina F, Reid AP, Rowe J (2002). Steinernema asiaticum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Pakistan. International Journal of Nematology 12 (2): 220-231.
  • Artyukhovsky AK, Kozodoi EM, Reid AP, Spiridonov SE (1997). Redescription of Steinernema arenarium (Artyukhvsky, 1967) topotypes from Central Russia and a proposal for S. anomale (Kozodoi, 1984) as a junior synonym. Russian Journal of Nematology 5: 31-37.
  • Aslanzadeh J (2006). Biochemical profile-based microbial identification systems. In: Tang Y, Stratton CW (editors). Advanced techniques in diagnostic microbiology Springer Science+Business Media. USA.
  • Bai C, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Gaugler R, Yi S (2004). Effect of entomopathogenic nematode concentration on survival during cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen. Journal of Nematology 36: 281-284.
  • Bai C, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Gaugler R, Hopper KR (2005). Stabilization of beneficial traits in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through creation of inbred lines. Biological Control 32: 220-227.
  • Bal HK, Michel AP, Grewal PS (2014a). Genetic selection of the ambush foraging entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae for enhanced dispersal and its associated tradeoffs. Evolutionary Ecology 28: 923-939.
  • Bal HK., Taylor RA, Grewal PS (2014b). Ambush Foraging Entomopathogenic Nematodes Employ 'Sprinters' for Long- Distance Dispersal in the Absence of Hosts. The Journal of parasitology 100 (4): 422-432.
  • Baldwin JG, Perry RN (2004). Nematode morphology, sensory structure and function. In: Chen ZX, Dickson DW, Chen SY (editors). Nematology-advances and perspectives. Volume 1: nematode morphology, physiology and ecology CABI International, Wallingford, Oxon (CABI).
  • Barker KR (1985). Nematode extraction and bioassays. In: Barker KR, Carter CC, Sasser JN (editors). An Advanced Treatise on Meloidogyne, Volume 2. Methodology North Carolina State University Graphics. Pp 19-35.
  • Barriere A, Felix M (2006). Isolation of C. elegans and related nematodes. WormBook, ed. The C. elegans Research Community, WormBook, doi/10.1895/wormbook.1.115.1, http://www.wormbook.org.
  • Baur ME, Kaya HK, Strong DR (1998). Foraging ants as scavengers on entomopathogenic nematode-killed insects. Biological Control 12: 231-236.
  • Bedding RA, Akhurst RJ (1975). A simple technique for the detection of insect parasitic rhabditid nematodes in soil. Nematologica 21: 109-110.
  • Bedding RA (1981). Low cost in vitro mass production of Neoaplectana and Heterorhabditis species (Nematoda) for field control ofinsect pests. Nematologica 27: 109-114.
  • Bedding RA, Molyneux A (1982). Penetration of insect cuticle by infective juveniles of Heterorhabditis spp. (Heterorhabditidae: Nematoda). Nematologica 28: 354-359.
  • Bedding RA (1984). Large scale production, storage and transport of the insect -parasitic nematodes Neoaplectana spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. Annals of Applied Biology 104: 117-120.
  • Bedding RA (1988) Storage of Insecticidal Nematodes. World Patent No. WO 88/08668.
  • Bedding RA (2006). Entomopathogenic nematodes from discovery to application. Biopesticides International 2(2): 87-119.
  • Bhat AH, Chaubey AK, Askary TH (2020). Global distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control 30: 1-15.
  • Bilgrami AL, Gaugler R, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Adams BJ (2006). Source of trait deterioration in entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema carpocapsae during in vivo culture. Nematology 8: 397-409.
  • Birch ANE, Begg GS, Squire GR (2011). How agro-ecological research helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems. Journal of Experimental Botany 62: 3251-3261.
  • Blaxter ML, Ley PD, Garey JR, Liu LX, Scheldeman P, Vierstraete A et al. (1998). A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda. Nature 392 (6671): 71-75.
  • Blaxter M, Koutsovoulos G (2014). The evolution of parasitism in Nematoda. Parasitology 142: 26-39.
  • Bock CH, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Wedge D, Cantrell CH (2014). Identification of the antifungal compound, trans-cinnamic acid, produced by Photorhabdus luminescens, a potential biopesticide. Journal of Pest Science 87:155-162.
  • Boemare N (2002). Biology, taxonomy and systematics of Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic nematology. CABI Publishing. UK.
  • Boemare N, Akhurst R (2006). The Genera Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus. Prokaryotes 6: 451-494.
  • Boszormenyi E, Ersek T, Fodor A, Fodor AM, Foldes LS et al. (2009). Isolation and activity of Xenorhabdus antimicrobial compounds against the plant pathogens Erwinia amylovora and Phytophthora nicotianae. Journal of Applied Microbiology 107: 746-759.
  • Brown I, Gaugler R (1997). Temperature and humidity influence emergence and survival of entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematologica 43(5): 363-375.
  • Brunel B, Givaudan A, Lanois A, Akhurst R, Boemare N (1997). Fast and accurate identification of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus species by restriction analysis of PCR-amplified 16S rRNA genes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63: 574-580.
  • Bussaman P, Sa-Uth C, Rattanasena P, Chandrapatya A (2012). Acaricidal activities of whole cell suspension, cell-free supernatant, and crude cell extract of Xenorhabdus stockiae against mushroom mite (Luciaphorus sp.). Journal of Zhejiang University Science B 13: 261-266.
  • Cabanillas HE, Poinar GO Jr, Raulston JR (1994). Steinernema riobravis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Texas. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 17: 123-131.
  • Campbell LR, Gaugler R (1992). Effect of Exsheathment on Motility and Pathogenicity of Two Entomopathogenic Nematode Species. Journal of Nematology 24 (3): 365-370.
  • Campbell JF, Gaugler R (1993). Nictation behaviour and its ecological implications in the host search strategies of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae). Behaviour 155-169.
  • Campbell JF, Lewis EE, Stock SP, Nadler S, Kaya H (2003). Evolution of host search strategies in entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Nematology 35 (2): 142.
  • Castaneda-Alvarez C, Prodan S, Zamorano A, San-Blas E, Aballay E (2021). Xenorhabdus lircayensis sp. nov., the symbiotic bacterium associated with the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema unicornum. International journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology 71 (12). doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.005151
  • Cevizci D, Ulug D, Cimen H, Touray M, Hazir S, Cakmak I (2020). Mode of entry of secondary metabolites of the bacteria Xenorhabdus szentirmaii and X. nematophila into Tetranychus urticae, and their toxicity to the predatory mites Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus californicus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 174: 107418.
  • Chacon-Orozco JG, Shapiro-Ila DI, Hazir S, Leite LG, Harakava R (2020). Antifungal activity of Xenorhabdus spp. and Photorhabdus spp. against the soybean pathogenic Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Scientific Reports 10 (1): 1-12.
  • Chaston JM, Dillman AR, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Bilgrami AL, Gaugler R et al. (2011). Outcrossing and crossbreeding recovers deteriorated traits in laboratory cultured Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes. International Journal of Parasitology 41: 801-809.
  • Chaubey AK, Garg AP (2019). Entomopathogenic Nematodes in the Biological Control of Insect Pests with Reference to Insect Immunity. In: Varma A, Tripathi S, Prasad R (editors). Plant Biotic Interactions. Springer. Cham.
  • Cheesbrough M (2009). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical countries part-1. Cambridge Uni. Press, UK.
  • Chen S, Li X, Yan A, Spiridonov SE, Moens M (2006). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema hebeiense sp. n.(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), from North China. Nematology 8 (4): 563-74.
  • Ciche TA, Darby C, Ehlers RU, Forst S, Goodrich-Blair H (2006). Dangerous liaisons: the symbiosis of entomopathogenic nematodes and bacteria. Biological Control 38 (1): 22-46.
  • Cimen H (2013). Identification of a novel entomopathogenic nematode strain and its mutualistic bacteria isolated from Turkey. MSc, Adnan Menderes University.
  • Cimen H, Lee MM, Hatting J, Hazir S, Stock SP (2014). Steinernema tophus sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Zootaxa 3821 (3): 337.
  • Cimen H, Lee MM, Hatting J, Hazir S, Stock SP (2015). Steinernema innovationi n. sp. (Panagrolaimomorpha: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode species from South Africa. Journal of Helminthology 89 (4): 415-427.
  • Cimen H, Puza V, Nermut J, Hatting J, Ramakuwela T et al. (2016a). Steinernema beitlechemi n. sp., a new entomopathogenic nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from South Africa. Nematology 18 (4): 439-453.
  • Cimen H, Puza V, Nermut J, Hatting J, Ramakuwela T, Hazir S (2016b). Steinernema biddulphi n. sp., a new entomopathogenic nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from South Africa. Journal of Nematology 48 (3): 148-158.
  • Cimen H, Touray M, Gulsen SH, Erincik O, Wenski SL et al. (2021). Antifungal activity of different Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus species against various fungal phytopathogens and identification of the antifungal compounds from X. szentirmaii. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 1-12.
  • Cobb NA (1890). A Nematode Formula. Sydney, Australia: New South Wales Department of Agriculture.
  • Cohen J (2017). The Evolution of Koch's Postulates. In: Cohen J, Powderly WG et al. (editors). Infectious diseases. Elsevier Ltd.
  • Collins CH, Lyne PM, Grange JM, Falkinham JO (2004). Collins and Lyne's Microbiological Methods. Oxford University Press Inc. New York. USA.
  • Connick WJ, Nickle WR, Vinyard BT (1993). "Pesta": New granular formulations for Steinernema carpocapsae. Journal of Nematology 25: 198-203.
  • Connick WJ, Nickle WR, Williams KS, Vinyard BT (1994). Granular formulations of Steinernema carpocapsae (strain All) (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with improved shelf life. Journal of Nematology 26: 352-359.
  • da Silva OS, Prado GR, da Silva JL, Silva CE, da Costa M et al. (2013). Oral toxicity of Photorhabdus luminescens and Xenorhabdus nematophila (Enterobacteriaceae) against Aedes aegypti (Diptera:Culicidae).Parasitology Research 112 (8): 2891-2896.
  • de Doucet MMA (1986). A new species of Neoaplectana Steiner, 1929 (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from Cordoba, Argentina. Revue de Nematologie 9: 317-323.
  • de Doucet MMA, Doucet ME (1990). Steinernema ritteri n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) with a key to the species of the genus. Nematology 36: 257-265.
  • de Man JG (1876). Onderzoekingen over vrij in de aarde levende nematoden. Tijdschrift der Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeninging 2: 78-196 (in Dutch).
  • De Ley IT, Holovachov O, Mc Donnell RJ, Bert W, Paine TD et al. (2016). Description of Phasmarhabditis californica n. sp and first report of P. papillosa (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) from invasive slugs in the USA. Nematology 18: 175-193.
  • Deacon JW (2006). Fungal biology. Blackwell Pub. Ltd. Malden. USA.
  • DeBach P, Rosen D (1991). Biological control by natural enemies. CUP Archive.
  • Devi G (2018). Mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes - A Review. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology 3 (3): 1032-1043.
  • Didiza L, Lephoto TE, Gray VM (2021). Morphological and molecular phylogenetic description of Steinernema batswanae n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae): a new species of an entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1-14.
  • Dillman AR, Chaston JM, Adams BJ, Ciche TA, Goodrich-Blair H et al. (2012). An entomopathogenic nematode by any other name. PLoS Pathogens 8: e1002527.
  • Dolinski C, Shapiro-Ilan D, Lewis EL (2015). Prospects in EPN application technology. In: Campos-Herrera R (editor). Nematode pathogenesis of insects and other pest: ecology and applied technologies for sustainable plant and crop protection Springer International Publishing. Switzerland.
  • Donmez Ozkan H, Cimen H, Ulug D, Wenski S, Yigit Ozer S et al. (2019). Nematode-associated bacteria: production of antimicrobial agent as a presumptive nominee for curing endodontic infections caused by Enterococcus faecalis. Frontiers in Microbiology 10: 2672.
  • Dowd BCA, Peters A (2002). Virulence mechanisms. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. UK.
  • Dutky SR (1959). Insect microbiology. Advances in Applied Microbiology 1: 175-200.
  • Dutky SR, Thompson JV, Cantwell GE (1964). A technique for the mass propagation of the DD-136 nematode. Journal of Insect Pathology 6: 417-422.
  • Easom CA, Clarke DJ (2008). Motility is required for the competitive fitness of entomopathogenic Photorhabdus luminescens during insect infection. BMC Microbiology 8: 168.
  • Edgington S, Buddie AG, Moore D, France A, Merino L, Hunt DJ (2011). Heterorhabditis atacamensis n. sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from the Atacama Desert, Chile. Journal of Helminthology 85 (4): 381-394.
  • Edgington S, Buddie AG, Tymo L, France A, Merino L et al. (2009a). Steinernema unicornum sp. n. (Panagrolaimomorpha: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Chile. Journal of Nematode Morphology and Systematics 12 (2): 113-131.
  • Edgington S, Buddie AG, Tymo L, Hunt DJ, Nguyen KB et al. (2009b). Steinernema australe n. sp. (Panagrolaimomorpha: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Isla Magdalena, Chile. Nematology 11: 699-717.
  • Ehlers RU, Lunau S, Krasomil-Osterfeld K, Osterfeld KH (1998). Liquid culture of the entomopathogenic nematode-bacteriumcomplex Heterorhabditis megidis/Photorhabdus luminescens. BioControl 43: 77.
  • Ehlers RU (2001). Mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes for plant protection. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 56: 623.
  • Ehlers RU, Shapiro-Ilan D (2005). Mass production. In: Grewal PS, Ehlers RU, Shapiro-Ilan D (editors). Nematodes as biocontrol agents. CABI. USA.
  • Elawad S, Ahmad W, Reid AP (1997). Steinernema abbasi sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from the Sultanate of Oman. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 20 (5): 435-442.
  • Eroglu C, Cimen H, Ulug D, Karagoz M, Hazir S, Cakmak I (2019). Acaricidal effect of cell-free supernatants from Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria against Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 160: 61-66.
  • Falkow S (1988). Molecular Koch's postulates applied to microbial pathogenicity.Reviews of Infectious Diseases 10 (suppl 2): 274- 276.
  • Ferreira T, Malan AP (2014). Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus, bacterial symbionts of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema and Heterorhabditis and their in vitro liquid mass culture: a review. African Entomology 22: 1-14.
  • Finke MD (2002). Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised invertebrates used as food for insectivores. Zoo Biology 21: 269-285.
  • Fischer-Le Saux M, Viallard V, Brunel B, Normand P, Boemare NE (1999). Polyphasic classification of the genus Photorhabdus and proposal of new taxa: P. luminescens subsp. luminescens subsp. nov., P. luminescens subsp. akhurstii subsp. nov., P. luminescens subsp. laumondii subsp. nov., P. temperata sp. nov., P. temperata subsp. temperata subsp. nov. and P. asymbiotica sp. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 49 (4): 1645-1656.
  • Fischer P, Fuhrer E (1990). Effect of soil acidity on the entomophilic nematode Steinernema kraussei Steiner. Biology and Fertility of Soils 9: 174.
  • Floyd R, Abebe E, Papert A, Blaxter M (2002). Molecular barcodes for soil nematode identification. Molecular Ecology 11: 839- 850.
  • Fodor A, Fodor AM, Forst S, Hogan, JS, Klein MG et al. (2010). Comparative analysis of antibacterial activities of Xenorhabdus species on related and non-related bacteria in vivo. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials 2: 36-46.
  • Foltan P, Puza V (2009). To complete their life cycle, pathogenic nematode-bacteria complexes deter scavengers from feeding on their host cadaver. Behavioural Processes 80: 76-79.
  • Forst S, Dowds B, Boemare N, Stackebrandt E (1997). Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus spp.: Bugs that kill bugs. Annual Review of Microbiology 51: 47-72.
  • Forst S, Clarke D (2002). Bacteria-nematode symbiosis. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic nematology. CABI Publishing. UK.
  • Fu JR, Liu QZ (2019). Evaluation and entomopathogenicity of gut bacteria associated with dauer juveniles of Oscheius chongmingensis (Nematoda: Rhabditidae). Microbiologyopen 8 (9): e00823.
  • Furgani G, Boszormenyi E, Fodor A, Mathe-Fodor A, Forst S et al. (2008). Xenorhabdus antibiotics: a comparative analysis and potential utility for controlling mastitis caused by bacteria. Journal of Applied Microbiology 104: 745-758.
  • Gaugler R, McGuire T, Campbell J (1989). Genetic variability among strains of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. Journal of Nematology 21: 247-253.
  • Gaugler R, Kaya HK (1990). Entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Kaya HK (editor) Biological Control. CRC Press. Boca Raton. FL.
  • Gaugler R, Campbell JF (1991). Selection for enhanced hostfinding of scarab larvae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in an entomopathogenic nematode. Environmental Entomology 20: 700-706.
  • Gaugler R, Wilson M, Shearer P (1997). Field release and environmental fate of a transgenic entomopathogenic nematode. Biological Control 9: 75-80.
  • Gaugler R, Brown I, Shapiro-Ilan D, Atwa A (2002). Automated technology for in vivo mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biological Control 24 (2): 199-206.
  • Gaugler R, Han R (2002). Taxonomy and systematics. In: Gaugler R (editor) Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, UK.
  • Gerrard JG, Joyce SA, Clarke DJ, ffrench-Constant RH, Nimmo GR et al. (2006). Nematode symbiont for Photorhabdus asymbiotica. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12 (10): 1562-1564.
  • Glaser RW (1931). The cultivation of a nematode parasite of an insect. Science 73: 614-615.
  • Glazer I, Gaugler R, Segal D (1991). Genetics of the nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora strain HP88: The diversity of beneficial traits. Journal of Nematology 23: 324-333.
  • Glazer I, Salame L, Segal D (1997). Genetic enhancement of nematicidal resistance of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Science and Technology 7: 499-512.
  • Glazer I, Lewis EE (2000). Bioassays for entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Ascher KRS, Navon A (editors). Bioassays of entomopathogenic microbes and nematodes. CABI publishing. UK.
  • Glazer, I. (2002) Survival biology. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 169-188.
  • Gorgadze O, Fanelli E, Lortkhipanidze M, Troccoli A, Burjanadze M et al. (2018). Steinernema borjomiense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Georgia. Nematology 20:653-669.
  • Grewal PS, Selvan S, Gaugler R (1994a). Thermal adaptation of entomopathogenic nematodes-niche breadth for infection, establishment and reproduction. Journal of Thermal Biology 19: 45-253.
  • Grewal PS, Lewis EE, Gaugler R, Campbell JF (1994b). Host finding behaviour as a predictor of foraging strategy in entomopathogenic nematodes. Parasitology 108 (2): 207-215.
  • Grewal PS (1998). Formulations of Entomopathogenic Nematodes for storage and application. Japanese Journal of Nematology 28: 68-74.
  • Grewal PS (2000). Anhydrobiotic potential and long-term storage of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). International Journal for Parasitology 9: 995-1000.
  • Grewal PS (2002). Formulation and application technology. In: Gaugler R (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. USA.
  • Grifaldo-Alcantara PF, Alatorre-Rosas R, Segura-Leon O, Hernandez-Rosas F (2017) Steinernema ralatorei n. sp. isolated from sugarcane areas at Veracruz, Mexico. Southwestern Entomologist 42(1): 171-190.
  • Griffin CT (2012). Perspectives on the behavior of entomopathogenic nematodes from dispersal to reproduction: traits contributing to nematode fitness and biocontrol efficacy. The Journal of Nematology 44(2):177-84.
  • Gulati R, Haushik HD (2004). Enemies of honeybees and their management - a review. Agricultural Reviews 25 (3): 189-200.
  • Gulcu B, Hazir S (2012). An alternative storage method for entomopathogenic nematodes. Turkish Journal Zoology 36 (4): 562-565.
  • Gulcu B, Hazir S, Kaya HK (2012). Scavenger deterrent factor (SDF) from symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 110 (3): 326-33.
  • Gulcu B, Cimen H, Karthik RR, Hazir S (2017). Entomopathogenic nematodes and their mutualistic bacteria: Their ecology and application as microbial control agents. Biopesticide International 13: 79-112.
  • Gulsen SH, Tileklioglu E, Bode E, Cimen H, Ertabaklar H et al. (2022). Antiprotozoal activity of different Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacterial secondary metabolites and identification of bioactive compounds using the easyPACId approach. Scientific Reports.
  • Gulzar S, Usman M, Wakil W, Gulcu B, Hazir C et al. (2020). Environmental tolerance of entomopathogenic nematodes differs among nematodes arising from host cadavers versus aqueous suspension. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 175: 107452.
  • Gumus A, Karagoz M, Shapiro-Ilan D, Hazir S (2015). A novel approach to biocontrol: Release of live insect hosts pre-infected with entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 130: 56-60.
  • Gungor DS, Keskin H, Hazir S (2006). Ecological characterization of Steinernema anatoliense (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 92: 39-44.
  • Han RI, Cao L, Liu XI (1992). Relationship between medium composition, inoculum size, temperature and culture time in the yields of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis nematodes. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 15: 223-229.
  • Han R, Cao L, Liu X (1993). Effects of inoculum size, temperature and time on in-vitro production of Steinernema carpocapsae Agriotos. Nematologica 39: 366-375.
  • Harding CR, Schroeder GN, Collins JW, Frankel G (2013). Use of Galleria mellonella as a model organism to study Legionella pneumophila infection. Journal of Visualized Experiments (81): e50964.
  • Haydak MH (1936). A food for rearing laboratory insects. Journal of Economic Entomology 29: 1026.
  • Hazir S, Stock SP, Kaya HK, Koppenhofer AM, Keskin N (2001). Developmental temperature effects on five geographic isolates of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 77 (4): 243-250.
  • Hazir S, Kaya HK, Stock SP, Keskin N (2003a). Entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) for biological control of soil pests. Turkish Journal of Biology 27: 181-202.
  • Hazir S, Keskin N, Stock SP, Kaya HK, Ozcan S (2003b). Diversity and distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) in Turkey. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 375-386.
  • Hazir S, Stock SP, Keskin N (2003c). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema anatoliense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), from Turkey. Systematic Parasitology 55: 211-220.
  • Hazir S, Stackebrandt E, Lang E, Schumann P, Ehlers RU et al. (2004). Two new subspecies of Photorhabdus luminescens, isolated from Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae): Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. kayaii subsp. nov. and Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. thracensis subsp. nov. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 27 (1): 36-42.
  • Hazir S, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Bock CH, Hazir C, Leite LG et al. (2016). Relative potency of culture supernatants of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus spp. on growth of some fungal phytopathogens. European Journal of Plant Pathology 146: 369-381.
  • Hazir S, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Bock CH, Leite LG (2017). Trans-cinnamic acid and Xenorhabdus szentirmaii metabolites synergize the potency of some commercial fungicides.Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 145: 1-8.
  • Hiltpold I (2015). Prospects in EPN application technology. In: Campos-Herrera R (editor). Nematode pathogenesis of insects and other pest: ecology and applied technologies for sustainable plant and crop protection. Springer International Publishing. Switzerland.
  • Hsieh FC, Tzeng CY, Tseng JT, Tsai YS, Meng M et al. (2009). Isolation and characterization of the native entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis brevicaudis, and its symbiotic bacteria from Taiwan. Current Microbiology 58 (6): 564-570.
  • Huba'lek Z (2003). Protectants used in the cryopreservation of microorganisms. Cryobiology 46: 205-29.
  • Incedayi G, Cimen H, Ulug D, Touray M, Bode E et al. (2021). Relative potency of a novel acaricidal compound from Xenorhabdus, a bacterial genus mutualistically associated with entomopathogenic nematodes. Scientific Reports 11 (1): 1-11.
  • James G (2010). Universal Bacterial Identification by PCR and DNA Sequencing of 16S rRNA Gene. In: Schuller M, Sloots T, James G, Halliday C, Carter I (editors) PCR for Clinical Microbiology. Springer. Dordrecht.
  • Jian B, Reid AP, Hunt DJ (1997). Steinernema ceratophorum n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) a new entomopathogenic nematode from northeast China. Systematic Parasitology 37:115-125.
  • Jorjao AL, Oliveira LD, Scorzoni L, Figueiredo-Godoi L, Cristina et al. (2018). From moths to caterpillars: Ideal conditions for Galleria mellonella rearing for in vivo microbiological studies. Virulence 9 (1): 383-389.
  • Joyce SA, Reid A, Driver F, Curran JF (1994). Application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods to the identification of entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Burnell AM, Ehlers, RU, Masson JP (editor). Biotechnology. Genetics of entomopathogenic nematode - Bacterium complexes. DG XII, European commission. Luxembourgh. pp 178-187.
  • Kagimu N, Ferreira T, Malan AP (2017). The attributes of survival in the formulation of entomopathogenic nematodes utilised as insect biocontrol agents. African Entomology 25 (2): 275-291.
  • Kajla MK, Barrett-Wilt GA, Paskewitz SM (2019). Bacteria: A novel source for potent mosquito feeding-deterrents. Science advances 5 (1): eaau6141.
  • Kampfer P, Tobias NJ, Ke LP, Bode HB, Stefanie PG (2017). Xenorhabdus thuongxuanensis sp. nov. and Xenorhabdus eapokensis sp. nov., isolated from Steinernema species. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 67: 1107-1114.
  • Kanga FN, Trinh PQ, Waeyenberge L, Spiridonov SE, Hauser S et al. (2012). Two new species of Steinernema Travassos, 1927 from the humid forest of southern Cameroon. Russian Journal of Nematology 20(1): 15-36.
  • Katumanyane A, Malan AP, Tiedt LR, Hurley BP (2020).Steinernema bertusi n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 22 (3): 343-360.
  • Kaya HK (1990). Soil ecology. In: Gaugler R, Kaya, HK (editor) Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control. CRC Press. Boca Raton. FL.
  • Kaya HK, Gaugler R (1993). Entomopathogenic nematodes. Annual Review of Entomology 38: 181-206.
  • Kaya HK, Koppenhofer AM (1996). Effects of microbial and other antagonistic organism and competition on entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Science and Technology 6 (3): 357-372.
  • Kaya HK, Stock P (1997). Techniques in insect nematology. In: Lacey L (editor). Manual of techniques in insect pathology. Academic Press. San Diego. USA.
  • Kaya HK (2002). Natural enemies and other antagonists. In: Gaugler I (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. New Jersey.
  • Kaya HK, Vega FE (2012). Scope and basic principles of insect pathology. In: Kaya HK, Vega FE (editors). Insect pathology. Elsevier. USA.
  • Kepenekci I, Hazir S,Lewis EE (2016).Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes and the supernatants of the in vitro culture medium of their mutualistic bacteria for the control of the root -knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. arenaria. Pest Management Science 72 (2): 327-334.
  • Kepenekci I, Hazir S, Oksal E, Lewis EE (2018). Application methods of Steinernema feltiae,Xenorhabdus bovienii and Purpureocillium lilacinum to control root-knot nematodes in greenhouse tomato systems. Crop Protection 108: 31-38.
  • Kerry BR Hominick WH (2002). Biological control. In: Lee DL (editor). The biology of nematodes. Taylor and Francis group. USA.
  • Khatri-Chhetri HB, Waeyenberge L, Spiridonov S, Manandhar HK, Moens M (2011a). Steinernema lamjungense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from Lamjung district, Nepal. Nematology 13 (5): 589-605.
  • Khatri-Chhetri HB, Waeyenberge L, Spiridonov S, Manandhar HK, Moens M (2011b). Two new species of Steinernema Travassos, 1927 with short infective juveniles from Nepal. Russian Journal of Nematology 19 (1): 53-74.
  • Khathwayo Z, Ramakuwela T, Hatting J, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Cochrane N (2021). Quantification of pH tolerance levels among entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Nematology 53: e2021-62.
  • Kim IH, Aryal SK, Aghai DT, Casanova-Torres AM, Hillman K et al. (2017).The insect pathogenic bacterium Xenorhabdus innexi has attenuated virulence in multiple insect model hosts yet encodes a potent mosquitocidal toxin. BMC Genomics 18 (1): 1-25.
  • Kiontke K, Fitch DHA (2013). Nematodes. Current Biology V23-19.
  • Klassen JL (2014). Microbial secondary metabolites and their impacts on insect symbioses. Current Opinion in Insect Science 4: 15-22.
  • Klein MG, Georgis R (1992). Persistence of control of Japanese beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae with steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes. Journal of Economic Entomology 85: 727-730.
  • Koltai H, Glazer I, Segal D (1995). Reproduction of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar, 1976: hermaphroditism vs amphimixis. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 18(1): 55-61.
  • Koppenhofer AM, Kaya HK, Taormino SP (1995). Infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) at different soil depths and moistures. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 65 (2): 193-199.
  • Koppenhofer AM, Fuzy EM (2003). Ecological characterization of Steinernema scarabaei, a scarab-adapted entomopathogenic nematode from New Jersey. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 83: 139-148.
  • Koppenhofer AM, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hiltpold I (2020). Entomopathogenic nematodes in sustainable food production. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 4: 125.
  • Kung S, Gaugler R,Kaya HK (1990a).Soil type and entomopathogenic nematode persistence. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 55 (3): 401-406.
  • Kung SP, Gaugler R, Kaya HK (1990b). Influence of soil pH and oxygen on persistence of Steinernema spp. Journal of Nematology 22: 440-445.
  • Kwadha CA, Ong'amo GO, Ndegwa PN, Raina SK, Fombong AT (2017). The biology and control of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella. Insects 8 (2): 61.
  • Lacey LA, Georgis R (2012). Entomopathogenic nematodes for control of insect pests above and below ground with comments on commercial production. Journal of Nematology 44: 218- 225.
  • Lacey LA, Grzywacz D, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Frutos R, Brownbridge M et al. (2015). Insect pathogens as biological control agents: Back to the future. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 132: 1-41.
  • Lalramnghaki HC, Vanlalhlimpuia, Vanramliana Lalramliana (2017). Characterization of a new isolate of entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema sangi (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae), and its symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus vietnamensis (γ-Proteobacteria) from Mizoram, northeastern India. Journal of parasitic diseases: official organ of the Indian Society for Parasitology 41 (4): 1123-1131.
  • Leclerc MC, Boemare NE (1991). Plasmids and phase variation in Xenorhabdus spp. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57 (9): 2597-2601.
  • Lee MM,Sicard M, Skeie M, Stock SP (2009).Steinernema boemarei n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from southern France. Systematic Parasitology 72: 127-141.
  • Leite LG, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S, Jackson MA (2016). The effects of nutrient concentration, addition of thickeners, and agitation speed on liquid fermentation of Steinernema feltiae. Journal of Nematology 48 (2): 126.
  • Leite LG, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S, Jackson MA (2017). Effect of inoculum age and physical parameters on in vitro culture of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. Journal of Helminthology 91 (6): 686-695.
  • Leite LG, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S (2018). Survival of Steinernema feltiae in different formulation substrates: Improved longevity in a mixture of gel and vermiculite. Biological Control 126: 192-197.
  • Lewis EE (2002). Behavioural Ecology. In: Gaugler I (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. New Jersey.
  • Lewis EE, Campbell J, Griffin C, Kaya H, Peters A (2006). Behavioral ecology of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biological control 38 (1): 66-79.
  • Li XY, Liu QZ, Nermut J, Puza V, Mracek Z (2012). Heterorhabditis beicherriana n. sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from the Shunyi district of Beijing, China. Zootaxa 3569: 25-40.
  • Lis M, Sajnaga E, Skowronek M, Wiater A, Rachwal K, Kazimierczak W (2021). Steinernema sandneri n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Poland. Journal of Nematology 53: 1-24.
  • Liu J, Berry RE (1996). Steinernema oregonensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Oregon, USA. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 19: 375-380.
  • Lopez-Nunez JC, Plichta K, Gongora-Botero CE, Stock SP (2008). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema colombiense n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), from Colombia. Nematology 10: 561-574.
  • Lunau S, Stoessel S, Schmidt-Peisker JA, Ehlers R-U (1993). Establishment of monoxenic inocula for scaling up in vitro cultures of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. Nematology 39: 385-99.
  • Ma J, Chen S, Clercq DEP, Han R, Moens M (2012a). Steinernema changbaiense sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from Northeast China. Russian Journal of Nematology 20: 97-112.
  • Ma J, Chen S, Clercq DEP, Waeyenberge L, Han R et al. (2012b). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema xinbinense n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), from North China. Nematology 14: 723-739.
  • Ma J, Chen S, Li X, Han R, Khatri-Chhetri HB et al. (2012c). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema tielingense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), from north China. Nematology 14: 321-338.
  • Machado RAR, Wuthrich D, Kuhnert P, Arce CCM, Thonen L et al. (2018). Whole-genome-based revisit of Photorhabdus phylogeny: proposal for the elevation of most Photorhabdus subspecies to the species level and description of one novel species Photorhabdus bodei sp. nov., and one novel subspecies Photorhabduslaumondii subsp. clarkei subsp. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 68: 2664- 2681.
  • Machado RA, Bruno P, Arce CC, Liechti N, Kohler A et al. (2019). Photorhabdus khanii subsp. guanajuatensis subsp. nov., isolated from Heterorhabditis atacamensis, and Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. mexicana subsp. nov., isolated from Heterorhabditis mexicana entomopathogenic nematodes. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 69 (3): 652-661.
  • Machado RAR, Muller A, Ghazal SM, Thanwisai A, Pages S et al. (2021a). Photorhabdus heterorhabditis subsp. aluminescens subsp.nov.,Photorhabdus heterorhabditis subsp. Heterorhabditis subsp.nov., Photorhabdus australis subsp. thailandensis subsp. nov., Photorhabdus australis subsp. australis s ubsp. nov., and Photorhabdus aegyptia sp. nov. isolated from Heterorhabditis entomopathogenic nematodes. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 71 (1): 004610.
  • Machado RA, Somvanshi VS, Muller A, Kushwah J, Bhat CG (2021b). Photorhabdus hindustanensis sp. nov., Photorhabdus akhurstii subsp. akhurstii subsp. nov., and Photorhabdus akhurstii subsp. bharatensis subsp. nov., isolated from Heterorhabditis entomopathogenic nematodes. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 71 (9): 004998.
  • Machado RA, Bhat AH, Abolafia J, Muller A, Bruno P et al. (2021c). Multi-locus phylogenetic analyses uncover species boundaries and reveal the occurrence of two new entomopathogenic nematode species, n. sp. and n. sp. Journal of Nematology 3 (1): 1-42.
  • Madigan MT, Martinko JM, Bender KS, Buckley DH, Stahl DA (2015). Brock biology of microorganisms (14th edition.). Boston: Pearson.
  • Malan AP, Nguyen KB, De Waal JY, Tiedt L (2008). Heterorhabditis safricana n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 10: 381-396.
  • Malan AP,Knoetze R,Tiedt L (2014).Heterorhabditisnoenieputensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Journal of Helminthology 88 (2): 139-151.
  • Malan A, Knoetze R, Tiedt L (2015). Steinernema jeffreyense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Journal of Helminthology 90 (3): 262-278.
  • Malan AP, Knoetze R, Tiedt L (2016). Steinernema nguyeni n sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 18: 571-590.
  • Mamiya Y (1988). Steinernema kushidai n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) associated with scarabaeid beetle larvae from Shizuoka, Japan. Applied Entomology and Zoology 23: 313-320.
  • Mamiya Y, Akiba M, Ekino T, Kanzaki N (2021). Morphology, molecular profiles and distribution of Japanese populations of Steinernema tielingense Ma, Chen, Li, Han, Khatri-Chhetri, De Clercq & Moens, 2012 (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Nematology 23 (8): 909-928.
  • Maneesakorn P, Grewal PS, Chandrapatya A (2010). Steinernema minutum sp. nov. (Rhabditida: Steinernema): a new entomopathogenic from Thailand. International Journal of Nematology 20: 27-42.
  • Maniatis T, Fritsch EF, Sambrook J (2012). Molecular cloning a laboratory manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Cold Springs Harbor. USA.
  • Mauleon H, Briand S, Laumond C, Bonifassi E (1993). Utilisation d'enzyme digestives pour l'etude du parasitisme des Steinernema et Heterorhabditis envers les larves d'insectes. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 16: 185e191.
  • McMullen JG, Stock SP (2014). In vivo and in vitro rearing of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae). Journal of Visualized Experiments 91: 52096.
  • Mracek Z, Nguyen KB, Tailliez P, Boemare N, Chen S (2006). Steinernema sichuanense n. sp. (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae) a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from the province of Sichuan, east Tibetan Mts., China Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 93: 157-169.
  • Mracek Z, Hernandez EA, Boemare NE (1994). Steinernema cubana sp. n. (Nematoda: Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) and the preliminary characterisation of its associated bacterium. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 64: 123-129.
  • Mracek Z, Liu QZ, Nguyen KB (2009). Steinernema xueshanense n. sp. (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae), a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from the province of Yunnan, southeast Tibetan Mts., China. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 102: 69-78.
  • Mracek Z, Puza V, Nermut J (2014). Steinernema poinari sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) a new entomopathogenic nematode from the Czech Republic. Zootaxa 3760: 336-350.
  • Mracek Z, Sturhan D, Reid A (2003). Steinernema weiseri n. sp. (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Europe. Systematic Parasitology 56 (1): 37-47.
  • Nauen R (2007). Insecticide resistance in disease vectors of public health importance. Pest Management Science: formerly Pesticide Science 63(7): 628-633.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart GC (1990). Steinernema scapterisci n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Journal of Nematology 22 (2): 187-199.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart Jr, GC (1991). Pathogenicity of Steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates. Journal of Nematology 23: 7-11.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart GC (1992). Steinernema neocurtillis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematiclae) and a key to species of the genus Steinernema. Journal of Nematology 24 (4): 463-477.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart Jr, GC (1994). Neosteinernema longicurvicauda n. gen., n. sp. (Rhabditia: Steinernematidae), a parasite of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Koller). Journal of Nematology 26: 162-174.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart GC (1995). Scanning electron microscope studies of Steinernema glaseri (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). Nematologica 41: 183-190.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart Jr GC (1996). Identification of entomopathpgenic nematodes in the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae (Nemata: Rhabditida). Journal of Nematology 28: 286-300.
  • Nguyen KB, Smart Jr GC (1997). Scanning electron microscope studies of spicules and gubernacula of Steinernema spp. (Nemata: Steinernematidae). Nematologica 43: 465-480.
  • Nguyen KB, Duncan LW (2002). Steinernema diaprepesi n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a parasite of the citrus root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal of Nematology 34 (2): 159-170.
  • Nguyen KB, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Stuart, RJ, Mccoy CW, James RR, Adams BJ (2004a). Heterorhabditis mexicana n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Tamaulipas, Mexico, and morphological studies of the bursa of Heterorhabditis spp. Nematology 6: 231-244.
  • Nguyen KB, Tesfamariam M, Gozel U, Gaugler R, Adams BJ (2004b). Steinernema yirgalemense n.sp.(Rhabditida:Steinernematidae) from Ethiopia. Nematology 6: 839-856.
  • Nguyen KB, Gozel U, Koppenhofer HS, Adams BJ (2006a). Heterorhabditis floridensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Florida. Zootaxa 177: 1-19.
  • Nguyen KB, Qiu L, Zhou Y, Pang Y (2006b). Steinernema leizhouense sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from southern China. Russian Journal of Nematology 14: 101-118.
  • Nguyen K, Malan AP, Gozel U (2006c). Steinernema khoisanae n. sp.(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 8(2):157-75.
  • Nguyen KB, Stuart RJ, Andalo V, Gozel U, Rogers ME (2007). Steinernema texanum n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Texas, USA. Nematology 9: 379-396.
  • Nguyen KB (2007). Methodology, morphology and identification. In: Nguyen KB, Hunt DJ (editors). Entomopathogenic nematodes: systematics, phylogeny and bacterial symbionts. Nematology monographs and perspectives. Brill. Leiden. The Netherlands. p59-119.
  • Nguyen KB, Puza V, Mracek Z (2008a). Steinernema cholashanense n. sp. (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae) a new species of entomopathogenic nematode from the province of Sichuan, Chola Shan Mountains, China. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 97: 251-264.
  • Nguyen KB, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Mbata GN (2008b). Heterorhabditis georgiana n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Georgia, USA. Nematology 10: 433-448.
  • Nguyen KB, Ginarte CM, Leite LG, Santos JM, Harakava R (2010). Steinernema brazilense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Mato Grosso, Brazil. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 103 (1): 8-20.
  • Nguyen KB, Buss EA (2011). Steinernema phyllophagae n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Florida, USA. Nematology 13: 425-442.
  • Nikdel M, Niknam G, Ye W (2011). Steinernema arasbaranense sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Arasbaran forests, Iran. Nematologia Mediterranea 39: 1.
  • Nthenga I,Knoetze R,Berry S,Tiedt LR,Malan AP (2014).Steinernema sacchari n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 16: 475-494.
  • O'Callaghan KM, Zenner ANRL, Hartley CJ, Griffin CT (2014). Interference competition in entomopathogenic nematodes: male Steinernema kill members of their own and other species. International Journal of Parasitology 44: 1009-1017.
  • Orozco RA,Hill T,Stock SP (2013).Characterization and phylogenetic relationships of Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. sonorensis (gProteobacteria: Enterobacteriaceae), the bacterial symbiont of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis sonorensis (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae). Current Microbiology 66: 30- 39.
  • Orozco RA, Lee MM, Stock SP (2014). Soil sampling and isolation of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae). Journal of Visualized Experiments 89: 52083.
  • Parkman JP, Frank JH, Nguyen KB, Smart Jr GC (1994). Inoculative release of Steinernema scapterisci (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) to suppress pest mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotapidae) on golf courses. Environmental Entomology 23: 1331-1337.
  • Pechenik JA (2005). Biology of the invertebrates. Mcgraw-HILL. New York.
  • Peters A, Ehlers RU (1994). Susceptibility of leatherjackets (Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea; Tipulidae: Nematocera) to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 63: 163-171.
  • Peters A, Han R, Yan X, Leite LG (2017). Production of Entomopathogenic Nematodes. Microbial Control of Insect and Mite Pests 157-170.
  • Pham VL, Nguyen KB, Reid AP, Spiridonov SE (2000). Steinernema tami sp. n.(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Cat Tien forest, Vietnam. Russian Journal of Nematology 8 (1): 33-43.
  • Phan KL, Nguyen NC, Moens M (2001a). Steinernema sangi sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Vietnam. Russian Journal of Nematology 9: 1-7.
  • Phan KL, Nguyen NC, Moens M (2001b). Steinernema loci sp. n. and Steinernema thanhi n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Vietnam. Nematology 3: 503-514.
  • Phan LK, Subbotin SA, Nguyen CN, Moens M (2003). Heterorhabditis baujardi sp. n. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) from Vietnam with morphometric data for H.indica populations. Nematology 5: 367-382.
  • Phan LK, Subbotin SA, Waeyenberge L, Moens M (2005). A new entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema robustispiculum n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Chumomray National Park in Vietnam. Systematic Parasitology 60: 23-32.
  • Phan LK, Spiridonov SE, Subbotin SA, Moens M (2006a). Four new species of Steinernema Travassos, 1928 with short infective juveniles from Vietnam. Russian Journal of Nematology 14: 11-29.
  • Phan LK, Takemoto S, Futai K (2006b). Steinernema ashiuense sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Japan. Nematology 8: 681-690.
  • Phan LK, Mracek Z, Puza, V,Nermu J, Jarosova A (2014).Steinernema huense sp. n., a new entomopathogenic nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from Vietnam. Nematology 16: 761-775.
  • Pidot SJ, Coyne S, Kloss F, Hertweck C (2014). Antibiotics from neglected bacterial sources. International Journal of Medical Microbiology 304 (1): 14-22.
  • Plichta KL, Joyce SA, Clarke D, Waterfield N, Stock SP (2009). Heterorhabditis gerrardi n. sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae): the hidden host of Photorhabdus asymbiotica (Enterobacteriaceae: γ-Proteobacteria). Journal of Helminthology 83 (04): 309.
  • Poinar GO, Thomas GM (1966). Significance of Achromobacter nematophilus sp. nov. (Achromobacteriaceae: Eubacteriales) associated with a nematode. Parasitology 56 (2): 385-390.
  • Poinar GO (1976). Description and biology of a new insect parasitic rhabitoid, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora n. gen. n. sp. (Rhabditida; Heterorhabditidae n. family). Nematologica 21: 463-470.
  • Poinar GO (1979). Nematodes for Biological Control of Insects. CRC Press: Boca Raton. Florida. USA.
  • Poinar GO (1985).Neoaplectana intermedia n. sp. (Steinernematidae: Nematoda) from South Carolina. Revue de Nematology 8: 321- 327.
  • Poinar GO, Jackson T, Klein M (1987). Heterorhabditis megidis sp. n. (Heterorhabditidae: Rhabditidia), parasitic in Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica (Scarabidae: Coleoptera), in Ohio. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington 53: 53-59.
  • Poinar GO (1988). Redescription of Neoaplectana affinis Bovien (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Revue de Nematology 11:143- 147.
  • Poinar GO (1990). Biology and taxonomy of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae. In: Gaugler R, Kaya HK (editors). Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control. CRC Press. Boca Raton. Florida. USA. pp 23-61.
  • Poinar GO, Karunakar GK, David H (1992). Heterorhabditis indicus n. sp. (Rhabditida, Nematoda) from India: separation of Heterorhabditis spp. by infective juveniles. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 15: 467-472.
  • Poinar GO (2005). Nematoda (Roundworms). eLS 1: 340-344.
  • Prabowo H, Adikadarsih S, Damaiyani J (2019). Mass production of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae on Tenebrio molitor and Spodoptera litura. Biodiversitas 20 (5): 1344-1349.
  • Puza V, Chundelova D, Nermut J, Zurovcova M, Mracek Z (2015). Intra-individual variability of ITS region in entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae: Nematoda): implications for their taxonomy. Biocontrol 60: 547-554.
  • Puza V, Nermut J, Mracek Z, Gengler S, Haukeland S (2017). Steinernema pwaniensis n. sp., a new entomopathogenic nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from Tanzania. Journal of Helminthology 91 (01): 20-34.
  • Puza V, Campos-Herrera, R., Blanco-Perez R, Jakubikova H, Vicente- Diez I, Nermu J (2020) Steinernema riojaense n. sp., a new entomopathogenic nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from Spain. Nematology 1 (aop): 1-17.
  • Qiu L, Fang YU, Zhou Y, Pang Y, Nguyen KB (2004). Steinernema guangdongense sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from southern China with a note on S. serratum (nomen nudum). Zootaxa 704:1-20.
  • Qiu L, Yan X, Zhou Y,Nguyen KB, Pang Y (2005a).Steinernema aciari sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Guangdong, China. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 88 (1): 58-69.
  • Qiu L, Hu X, Zhou Y, Mei S, Nguyen KB, Pang Y (2005b).Steinernema akhursti sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) from Yunnan, China. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 90 (3): 151-160.
  • Qiu L, Hu X, Zhou Y, Pang Y, Nguyen, KB (2005c). Steinernema beddingi n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Yunnan, China. Nematology 7: 737-749.
  • Qiu L, Zhao J, Wu Z, Lv Z, Pang Y (2011). Steinernema pui sp. n. (Rhabditida, Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Yunnan, China. Zootaxa 2767: 1-13.
  • Raja RK, Hazir C, Gumus A, Asan C, Karagoz M et al. (2015). Efficacy of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora using different application methods in the presence or absence of a natural enemy. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 39: 277-285.
  • Raja KR, Aiswarya D, Gulcu B, Raja M, Perumal P et al. (2017). Response of three cyprinid fish species to the scavenger deterrent factor produced by the mutualistic bacteria associated with entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 143: 40-49. doi: 10.1016/j.jip.2016.11.013
  • Raja RK, Arun A, Touray M, Gulsen SH, Cimen H et al. (2021). Antagonists and defense mechanisms of entomopathogenic nematodes and their mutualistic bacteria. Biological Control 152:104452. doi: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104452
  • Ramalingam KR, Sivaramakrishnan S, Hazir S (2011). Ecological characterisation of Steinernema siamkayai (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a warm-adapted entomopathogenic nematode isolate from India. BioControl 56: 789-798.
  • Ravensberg WJ (2011). Mass Production and Product Development of a Microbial Pest Control Agent. In: Hokkanen H, Gao Y (editors). A Roadmap to the Successful Development and Commercialization of Microbial Pest Control Products for Control of Arthropods. Progress in Biological Control. vol 10. Springer, Dordrecht. pp 59-127.
  • Relman DA (1993). Universal bacterial 16S rRNA amplification and sequencing. In: Persing DH, Smith TF, Tenover FC, White TJ (editors). Diagnostic Molecular Biology, Principles and Applications. Mayo Foundation Rochester. Minnesota. USA. pp 489-495.
  • Ricci M, Glazer I, Campbell JF, Gaugler R (1996). Comparison of bioassays to measure virulence of different entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Science and Technology 6 (2): 235-246.
  • Roman J, Figueroa W (1994). Steinernema puertoricensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Puerto Rico. The Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 78: 167-175.
  • Sajnaga E, Kazimierczak W, Skowronek M, Lis M, Skrzypek T, Wasko A (2018). Steinernema poinari (Nematoda: Steinernematidae): a new symbiotic host of entomopathogenic bacteria Xenorhabdus bovienii. Archives of Microbiology 200 (9): 1307- 1316.
  • Sajnaga E, Kazimierczak W (2020). Evolution and taxonomy of nematode-associated entomopathogenic bacteria of the genera Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus: an overview. Symbiosis 80: 1-13.
  • San-Blas E, Morales-Montero P, Portillo E, Nermut J, Puza V (2016). Steinernema goweni n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Zulia State, Venezuela. Zootaxa 4067 (2): 200-214.
  • San-Blas E, Portillo E, Nermut' J, Puza V, Morales-Montero P (2015). Steinernema papillatum n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Venezuela. Nematology 17: 1081-109.
  • Sanderson KE, Zeigler DR (1991).Storing, shipping, and maintaining records on bacterial strains. Bacterial Genetic Systems 248-264.
  • Seinhorst JW (1959). A rapid method for the transfer of nematodes from fixative to anhydrous glycerin. Nematologica 4: 117e128.
  • Shah FA, Abdoarrahem MM, Berry C, Touray M, Hazir S, Butt TM (2021). Indiscriminate ingestion of entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotic bacteria by Aedes aegypti larvae: a novel strategy to control the vector of Chikungunya, dengue and yellow fever. Turkish Journal of Zoology 45: 372-383.
  • Shahina F, Anis M, Reid AP, Rowe J, Maqbool MA (2001). Steinernema pakistanense sp. n.(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Pakistan. International Journal of Nematology, 11 (1): 124-133.
  • Shahina F, Tabassum KA, Salma J, Mehreen G, Knoetze R (2017). Heterorhabditis pakistanense n. sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae) a new entomopathogenic nematode from Pakistan. Journal of Helminthology 91 (2): 222-235.
  • Shamseldean MM, Abou El-Sooud AB, Abd-Elgawad MM, Saleh MM (1996). Identification of a new Heterorhabditis species from Egypt, Heterorhabditis taysearae n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae). Egyptian Joural of Biological Control 6: 129-138.
  • Shapiro DI, Glazer I, Segal D (1996). Trait stability and fitness ofthe heat tolerant entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora IS5 strain. Bioliogical Control 6: 238-244.
  • Shapiro DI, Glazer I, Segal D (1997). Genetic improvement of heat tolerance in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through hybridization. Biological Control 8: 153-159.
  • Shapiro DI, McCoy CW, Fares A, Obreza T, Dou H (2000). Effects of soil type on virulence and persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes in relation to control of Diaprepes abbreviatus. Environmental Entomology 29: 1083-1087.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Lewis EE, Behle RW, McGuire MR (2001). Formulation of Entomopathogenic Nematode-Infected- Cadavers. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 78: 17-23.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Gaugler R, Tedders WL, Brown I, Lewis EE (2002). Optimization of inoculation for in vivo production of entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Nematology 34: 343- 350.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Gardner W, Fuxa JR, Wood BW et al. (2003a). Survey of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi endemic to pecan orchards of the southeastern US and their virulence to the pecan weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Environmental Entomology 32: 187-195.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Lewis EE, Tedders WL (2003b). Superior efficacy observed in entomopathogenic nematodes applied in infected-host cadavers compared with application in aqueous suspension. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 83: 270-272.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Stuart R, McCoy CW (2003c). Comparison of beneficial traits among strains of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae, for control of Curculio caryae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Biological Control 28: 129-136.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Fuxa JR, Lacey LA, Onstad DW, Kaya HK (2005a). Definitions of pathogenicity and virulence in invertebrate pathology. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 88: 1-7.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI,Stuart R,McCoy CW(2005b).Targeted improvement of Steinernema carpocapsae for control of the pecan weevil, Curculio caryae (Horn) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) through hybridization and bacterial transfer. Biological Control 34: 215-221.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Han R, Dolinksi C (2012). Entomopathogenic nematode production and application technology. Journal of Nematology 44: 206-217.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Bock CH, Hotchkiss MW (2014a). Suppression of pecan and peach pathogens on different substrates using Xenorhabdus bovienii and Photorhabdus luminescens. Biological Control 77: 1-6.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Han R, Qiu X (2014b). Production of entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Morales-Ramos J, Rojas G, Shapiro-Ilan DI (editors). Mass production of beneficial organisms: Invertebrates and entomopathogens. Academic Press San Diego. CA.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S, Leite GL (2015). Viability and virulence of entomopathogenic nematodes exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Journal of Nematology 47 (3): 184-189.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Morales-Ramos JA, Rojas MG (2016a). In Vivo Production of Entomopathogenic Nematodes. Microbial-Based Biopesticides. In: Glare T, Moran-Diez M (editors). Microbial-Based Biopesticides - Methods and Protocols. Humana Press. Springer Nature. pp137-158.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Cottrell TE, Mizell III RF, Horton DL (2016b). Efficacy of Steinernema carpocapsae plus fire gel applied as a single spray for control of the lesser peachtree borer, Synanthedon pictipes. Biological Control 94: 33-36.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S, Glazer I (2017). Basic and Applied Research: Entomopathogenic Nematodes. In: Lacey LA (editor). Microbial Agents for Control of Insect Pests: from discovery to commercial development and use. Academic Press. Amsterdam. pp 91-105.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hiltpold I, Lewis EE (2018). Nematodes.In: Hajek AE, Shapiro-Ilan DI (editors). Ecology of Invertebrate Diseases. John Wiley and Sons. Hoboken. New Jersey. USA. pp 415-440.
  • Shapiro-Ilan DI, Hazir S, Glazer I (2020). Advances in use of entomopathogenic nematodes in IPM. In: Kogan M, Heinrichs EA (editors). Integrated Management of Insect Pests: Current and Future Developments. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing. London. UK. pp.649-678.
  • Shields EJ, Testa A, Miller JM, Flanders KL (1999). Field efficacy and persistence of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis bacteriophora 'Oswego' and H. bacteriophora 'NC' on Alfalfa snout beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Environmental Entomology 28: 128-136.
  • Shen CP, Wang GH (1991). Description and studies of an entomopathogenic nematode: Steinernema longicaudum sp. nov. In: Proceedings of the first national academy symposium of young and middle-aged science and technology workers on plant protection. Chinese Science and Technology Press 220-231.
  • Silver SC, Dunlop DB, Grove DI (1995). Granular formulation of biological entities with improved storage stability. International Patent No. WO 95/05077.
  • Simione FP, Brown, EM (1991). ATCC Preservation Methods: Freezing and Freeze Drying. American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Maryland.
  • Sims SR, Down Ing AA, Persh Ing JC (1992). Comparison of assays for determination of entomogenous nematode infectivity. Journal of Nematology 24: 271-274.
  • Spira B, de Almeida Toledo R, Maharjan RP, Ferenci T (2011). The uncertain consequences of transferring bacterial strains between laboratories - rpoS instability as an example. BMC Microbiology 11: 248.
  • Spiridonov S, Subbotin S, Podrucka K, Moens M, Reid A (2004a). Phylogenetic relationships within the genus Steinernema (Nematoda: Rhabditida) as inferred from analyses of sequences of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of rDNA and morphological features. Nematology 6 (4): 547-566.
  • Spiridonov SE, Krasomil-Osterfeld K, Moens M (2004b). Steinernema jollieti sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from the American Midwest. Russian Journal of Nematology 12: 85-95.
  • Spiridonov SE, Waeyenberge L, Moens M (2010). Steinernema schliemanni sp. n. (Steinernematidae; Rhabditida) - a new species of steinernematids of the 'monticolum' group from Europe. Russian Journal of Nematology 12: 175-190.
  • Stackebrandt E, Frederiksen W, Garrity GM, Grimont PAD, Kampfer P et al. (2002). Report of the ad hoc committee for the re-evaluation of the species definition in bacteriology. International Journal Systematics and Evolutionary Microbiology 52: 1043-1052.
  • Steiner G (1923a). Aplectana kraussei n. sp., eine in der Blattwespe Lyda sp. Parasitierende Nematoden Form, nebst Bemerkungenuber das Seitenorgan der parasitischen Nematoden. Zentr fur Bakter Parasit Infekt und Hyg Abteil 59: 14-18 (in Deutsch).
  • Steiner G (1923b). Aplectana kraussei n. sp., eine in der Blattwespe Lyda sp. Parasitierende Nematoden Form, nebst Bemerkungenuber das Seitenorgan der parasitischen Nematoden. Zen fur Bakt Parasit Infekt und Hyg Abt 59:14-18 (in Deutsch).
  • Steiner G (1929). Neoaplectana glaseri n. g., n. sp. (Oxyuridae) a new nemic parasite of the Japanese beetle. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 19: 436-440.
  • Steyn WP, Knoetze R, Tiedt LR, Malan AP (2017). Steinernema litchii n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 19: 1157-1177.
  • Stiernagle T (2006). Maintenance of C. elegans. In: WormBook, ed. The C. elegans Research Community, WormBook.
  • Stock SP, Choo HY, Kaya HK (1997). An entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema monticolum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Korea with a key to other species. Nematology 43: 15-29.
  • Stock SP, Somsook V, Reid A (1998). Steinernema siamkayai n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), an entomopathogenic nematode from Thailand. Systematic Parasitology 41: 105-113.
  • Stock SP, Griffin CT, Burnell AM (2002). Morphological characterisation of three isolates of Heterorhabditis Poinar, 1976 from the 'Irish group' (Nematoda: Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) and additional evidence supporting their recognition as a distinct species, H. downesi n. sp. Systematic Parasitology 51: 95-106.
  • Stock SP, Koppenhofer AM (2003). Steinernema scarabaei n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a natural pathogen of scarab beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from New Jersey, USA. Nematology 5: 191-204.
  • Stock SP, Griffin CT, Chaerani R (2004). Morphological and molecular characterisation of Steinernema hermaphroditum n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), an entomopathogenic nematode from Indonesia, and its phylogenetic relationships with other members of the genus. Nematology 6: 401-412.
  • Stock SP, Hunt DJ (2005). Morphology and systematics of nematodes used in biocontrol. In: Grewal PS, Ehlers RU, Shapiro-Ilan D (editors). Nematodes as biocontrol agents. CABI Publishing. UK. pp 3-43.
  • Stock SP, Goodrich-Blair H (2008). Entomopathogenic nematodes and their bacterial symbionts: the inside out of a mutualistic association. Symbiosis 46: 65-75.
  • Stock SP (2009). Molecular approaches and taxonomy of insect parasitic and pathogenic nematodes. In: Stock SP, Vandenberg J, Boemare N, Glazer I (editors). Insect pathogens: molecular approaches and techniques. CABI Publishing. Wallingford. UK. pp 71-100.
  • Stock SP, Rivera-Orduno B, Flores-Lara Y (2009). Heterorhabditis sonorensis n. sp. (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), a natural pathogen of the seasonal cicada Diceroprocta ornea (Walker) (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in the Sonoran Desert. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 100 (3): 175-184.
  • Stock SP, Goodrich-Blair H (2012). Nematode parasites, pathogens and associates of insects and invertebrates of economic importance. In: Lacey LA (editor). Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology. Academic Press. London. UK. pp 373- 426.
  • Stock SP (2015). Diversity, Biology and Evolutionary Relationships. In: Campos-Herrera R (editor). Nematode Pathogenesis of Insects and Other Pests Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection. Springer International Publishing. Switzerland. pp 3-28.
  • Stock SP, Campos-Herrera R, El Borai F, Duncan LW (2019). Steinernema khuongi n. sp. (Panagrolaimomorpha, Steinernematidae) a new entomopathogenic nematode species from Florida, USA. Journal of Helminthology 93: 226-241.
  • Stokwe NF, Malan AP, Nguyen KB, Knoetze R, Tiedt L (2011). Steinernema citrae n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology 13(5): 569-87.
  • Stuart RJ, Shapiro-Ilan DI, James RR, Nguyen KB, McCoy CW (2004). Virulence of New and Mixed Strains of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema riobrave to Larvae of the Citrus Root Weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus. Biological Control 30: 439-445.
  • Stuart RJ, Barbercheck ME, Grewal PS (2015). Entomopathogenic nematodes in the soil environment: distributions, interactions, and the influence of biotic and abiotic factors. In: Campos-Herrera R (editor). Nematode pathogenesis of insects and other. Sustainability in plant and crop protection pests. Springer International Publishing. Switzerland. pp 97-137.
  • Sturhan D, Spiridonov SE, Mracek Z (2005). Steinernema silvaticum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Europe. Nematology 7: 227-241
  • Tailliez P, Pages S, Ginibre N, Boemare N (2006). New insight into diversity in the genus Xenorhabdus, including the description of ten new species. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 56: 2805-2818.
  • Tallosi B, Peters A, Ehlers R-U (1995). Steinernema bicornutum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from Vojvodina, Yugoslavia. Russian Journal of Nematology 3: 71- 78.
  • Tamirou T, Waeyenberg L, Tesfaye H, Ehlers R-U, Puza V et al. (2012). Steinernema ethiopiense sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Ethiopia. Nematology 14: 741-757.
  • Tarasco E, Mracek Z, Nguyen KB, Triggiani O (2008). Steinernema ichnusae sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) a new entomopathogenic nematode from Sardinia Island (Italy). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 99 (2): 173-185.
  • Torres-Barragan A, Suazo A, Buhler WG, Cardoza YJ (2011). Studies on the entomopathogenicity and bacterial associates of the nematode Oscheius carolinensis. Biological control 59 (2): 123- 129.
  • Touray M, Gulcu B, Ulug D, Gulsen S, Cimen H et al. (2020). Evaluation of different sponge types on the survival and infectivity of stored entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 171: 107332.
  • Tran G, Gnaedinger C, Melin C (2019). Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.
  • Triggiani O, Mracek Z, Reid A (2004). Steinernema apuliae sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae): a new entomopathogenic nematode from southern Italy. Zootaxa 460 (1): 1.
  • Tseng CT, Hou RF, Tang LC (2018). Steinernema taiwanensis n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Taiwan. Zootaxa 4434 (3): 466-480.
  • Ulug D, Hazir S, Kaya HK, Lewis EE (2014). Natural enemies of natural enemies: The potential top-down impact of predators on entomopathogenic nematode populations. Ecological Entomology 39: 462-469.
  • Ulug D, Hazir C, Hazir S (2015). A new and simple technique for the isolation of symbiotic bacteria associated with entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae). Turkish Journal of Zoology 39 (2): 365-7.
  • United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/423).77
  • Uribe-Lorio L, Mora M, Stock SP (2007). Steinernema costaricense n. sp. and S. puntauvense n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), two new entomopathogenic nematodes from Costa Rica. Systematic Parasitology 68 (3): 167-182.
  • Van Bezooijen J (2006). Methods and Techniques for Nematology. Wageningen: Wageningen University, Netherland, 112 pp.
  • Van Den Hoogen J, Geisen S, Routh D, Ferris H, Traunspurger W et al. (2019). Soil nematode abundance and functional group composition at a global scale. Nature 572 (7768): 194-198.
  • van Zyl C, Malan AP (2014). The role of entomopathogenic nematodes as biological control agents of insect pests, with emphasis on the history of their mass culturing and in vivo production. African Entomology 22 (2): 235-249.
  • Vierstraete A (2009). Extraction of gDNA from a lot of nematodes (from cultures) with CTAB.
  • Vitta A, Thimpoo P, Meesil W, Yimthin T, Fukruksa C et al. (2018). Larvicidal activity of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Asian PacificJournal of Tropical Biomedicine 8 (1): 31.
  • Volgyi A, Fodor A, Szentirmai A, Forst S (1998). Phase variation in Xenorhabdus nematophilus. Applied Environmental Microbiology 64: 1188-1193.
  • Vrain TC, Wakarchuk DA, Levesque AC, Hamilton RI (1992). Intraspecific rDNA restriction fragment length polymorphism in the Xiphinema americanum group. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 15: 563-73.
  • Wagutu GK, Mwangi W, Waturu CN (2017). Entomopathogenic bacteria: Xenorhabdus spp and Photorhabdus spp from Steinernemakarii and Heterorhabditis indica for the control of mosquito larvae. Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology 18 (2): 21-38.
  • Wang J, Li J, Ge Q, Chen Z, Li J (2020). Effects of inbreeding on genetic characteristic, growth, survival rates, and immune responses of a new inbred line of Exopalaemon carinicauda. International Journal of Genomics 2020: 5735968.
  • Waturu CN, Hunt DJ, Reid AP (1997). Steinernema karii sp. n. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Kenya. International Journal of Nematology 7: 65-75.
  • Webster JM, Chen G, Hu K, Li J (2002). Bacterial metabolites. In: Gangler R (editor). Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. UK. pp: 99-114.
  • Weisburg WG, Barns SM, Pelletier DA, Lane DJ (1991). 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study. Journal of Bacteriology 173 (2): 697-703.
  • Weiser J (1955). Neoaplectana carpocapsae n. sp. (Anguillulata: Steinernematinae), novy cizopasnik housenek obalece jablecneho, Carpocapsa pomonella L. Vestnik Ceskoslovenske Spolecnosti Zoologicke 19: 44-52 (in Czech).
  • Westerman PR (1994) An assay on assays.In: Burnell AM, Ehlers RU, Masson JP (editors) Proceedings of the COST 812 Workshop on Genetics of Entomopathogenic Nematode-Bacterium Complexes Report EUR 15681 EN. pp. 129-139
  • White GF (1927). A method for obtaining infective nematode larvae from cultures. Science 66: 302-303.
  • Wiesner J (1993). Neoaplectana carpocapsae, n.sp. (Anguillulata; Steinemematinae). Novy cizopasnik housenek obalece japlecne'ho. Carpocapsa pomonella L. Vestnik Eskoslovenske Spolecnosti l (9): 44-51.
  • Wilson M, Shapiro-Ilan DI, Gaugler R (2000). Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae). Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Cornell University.
  • Woodring JL, Kaya HK (1988). Steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes: a handbook of techniques. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin. 331. Fayetteville, AK: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. pp. 30.
  • World Health Organization (1990). Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture. World Health Organization.
  • Wouts WM (1981). Mass production of the entomogenous nematode Heterorhabditis heliothidis (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae) on artificial media. Journal of Nematology 13: 467-469.
  • Wouts WM, Mracek Z, Gerdin S, Bedding RA (1982). Neoaplectana STEINER,1929a junior synonym of Steinernema TRAVASSOS, 1927 (Nematoda; Rhabditida). Systematic Parasitology 4 (2): 147-154.
  • Wright DJ,Peters A, Schroer S, Fije JP (2005).Application technology. In: Grewal PS, Ehlers RU, Shapiro-Ilan D (editors). Nematodes as biocontrol agents. CABI Publishing. UK. pp 91-106.
  • Xu Z, Wang G, Li X (1991). A new species of the genus Steinernema (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Zoological Research 12: 17-20.
  • Yadav AK, Lalramliana (2011). Soil moisture effects on the activity of three entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) isolated from Meghalaya, India. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 1: 94-98.
  • Yoshida M (2004). Steinernema litorale n. sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from Japan. Nematology 6: 819-838.
  • Zenner ANRL, O'Callaghan KM, Griffin CT (2014). Lethal Fighting in Nematodes Is Dependent on Developmental Pathway: Male-Male Fighting in the Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema longicaudum. PLoS ONE 9(2): e89385.
  • Zhang CX, Yang SY, Xu MX, Sun J, Liu H et al. (2009). A novel species of Serratia, family Enterobacteriaceae: Serratia nematodiphila sp. nov., symbiotically associated with entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditidoides chongmingensis (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae). International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 59: 1603-1608.
  • Zhou X, Kaya HK, Heungens K, Goodrich-Blair H (2002). Response of ants to a deterrent factor(s) produced by the symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68: 6202-6209.