Fig. 1. Map of the study site. (A) Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Congo Basin (red line) with the Congo River (blue line), and Kokolopori (yellow rectangle). Vegetation types follow Vancutsem et al. (2009): greenish tones correspond to forests, brownish tones to open areas; within Kokolopori (inset in left corner), dark green corresponds to primary dense moist forests, lighter green to old and young secondary forests, and yellow-white to rural and agricultural complexes. (B) Kokolopori Bonobo Nature Reserve (yellow line) as delineated in 2009 on a satellite map corresponding to 2005–2010 (FACET 2010), with collecting sites (red dots). White stars denote four sampling areas (base camps). Kokolopori is a spring area of two large rivers, Lopori and Luo (= Maringa).