Rubella Virus (German Measles)
Authors/Creators
- 1. Department of Medical Microbiology, Gulhane Medical Faculty, University of Health Sciences, Ankara, Türkiye.
Description
Özet
Pozitif polariteli zarflı bir RNA virüsü olan rubella virus doğal yolla sadece insanları enfekte ederken, aynı cinste yer alan ve yeni tanımlanan hayvan virüslerinin gelecekte insan enfeksiyonlarına neden olması bir risk olarak görülmektedir. Kızamıkçık dünya genelinde yaygın olarak görülen, çocuklarda ve yetişkinlerde genellikle asemptomatik olarak geçirilen veya hafif seyirli bir klinik hastalık şeklinde ortaya çıkan bir viral enfeksiyondur. Gebelik sırasında (özellikle ilk 12 haftasında) geçirilen primer maternal enfeksiyon, fetal veya yenidoğan ölümüne veya katarakt, kalp kusurları ve sensörinöral sağırlık gibi kalıcı doğum kusurlarının bir araya geldiği “konjenital rubella sendromuna” neden olabilmektedir. Kızamıkçık aşı ile önlenebilir hastalıklar arasında yer alır. Günümüzde canlı zayıflatılmış kızamıkçık aşısı dünya genelinde birçok ülkede yaygın olarak uygulanmakta olup, sıklıkla kızamık ve kabakulak antijenleri ile birlikte verilmektedir. Dünyanın bazı bölgelerinde çift doz aşılama programları ile virüsün endemik bulaşının sonlandırıldığı ve enfeksiyonun elimine edildiği raporlanmış olsa da, Afrika ve Doğu Akdeniz başta olmak üzere dünyanın belirli bölgelerinde kızamıkçık olgularının endemisitesi devam etmektedir. Spesifik ve onay almış bir antiviral tedavisi henüz bulunmayan kızamıkçık için hasta yönetimi semptomatik ve destekleyici tedaviyi içerir. Bu makalede kızamıkçığın tarihçesi, klinik bulguları ve laboratuvar tanısı gözden geçirilmiştir.
Abstract
Rubella virus is an enveloped positive-sense RNA virus that naturally infects only humans. However, there is a risk that newly identified animal viruses of the same genus may cause human infections in the future. Rubella is a viral infection that is common worldwide and is usually asymptomatic or presents as a mild clinical illness in children and adults. Primary maternal infection during pregnancy (especially in the first 12 weeks) can result in fetal or neonatal death or “congenital rubella syndrome”, which is associated with permanent birth-defects such as cataracts, heart defects and sensorineural hearing loss. Rubella is a vaccine-preventable disease. Today, the live attenuated rubella vaccine is widely used in many countries around the world and is often administered together with measles and mumps antigens. Although endemic transmission of the virus has been reported to have been interrupted and infection eliminated in some parts of the world by double-dose vaccination programs, rubella remains endemic in certain parts of the world, particularly in Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. Patient management of rubella includes symptomatic and supportive care, as there is no specific and approved antiviral treatment yet. In this article, the history, clinical manifestations, and laboratory diagnosis of rubella are reviewed.
Notes
Files
rubella.2024.2.pdf
Files
(885.9 kB)
| Name | Size | Download all |
|---|---|---|
|
md5:90384f9375054abab7c75eb44c5fac1d
|
885.9 kB | Preview Download |
Additional details
References
- [1]. James Cherry, Gail J. Demmler-Harrison, Sheldon L. Kaplan, William J. Steinbach, Peter J Hotez. Section XVII Viral Infection. Feigin and Cherry's Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases: Expert Consult - Online and Print, 2-Volume Set. 2013, page:2196.
- [2]. Tamayo L, Garcia-Gonzalez E, Brown TJ. Rubella (German Measles), Chapter 22. Mucocutaneous Manifestations of Viral Diseases, Stephen K. Tyring (Ed.). 2002, page: 519.
- [3]. A Report of the Committee to Review the Adverse Consequences of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines. Howson CP, Howe CJ, Fineberg HV, editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1991. PMID: 25121241.
- [4]. Veale H. History of an Epidemic of Rötheln, with Observations on Its Pathology. Edinb Med J. 1866 Nov;12(5):404-414. PMID: 29646314.
- [5]. Lee JY, Bowden DS. Rubella virus replication and links to teratogenicity. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000 Oct;13(4):571-87. doi: 10.1128/CMR.13.4.571. PMID: 11023958; PMCID: PMC88950.
- [6]. Miller, C.L., Bradley, H. (1987). Congenital rubella. In: Profound Retardation and Multiple Impairment. Springer, Boston, MA. Doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-7146-3_7
- [7]. Winter AK, Moss WJ. Rubella. Lancet. 2022 Apr 2;399(10332):1336-1346. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02691-X. PMID: 35367004.
- [8]. Habel K. Transmission of rubella to Macacus mulatta monkeys. Public Health Rep (1896-1970) 1942; 57: 1126-1139.
- [9]. Popova G, Retallack H, Kim CN, Wang A, Shin D, DeRisi JL, Nowakowski T. Rubella virus tropism and single-cell responses in human primary tissue and microglia-containing organoids. Elife. 2023 Jul 20;12:RP87696. doi: 10.7554/eLife.87696. PMID: 37470786; PMCID: PMC10370260.
- [10]. R.E. Hope Simpson. Rubella and Congenital Malformations. Lancet 1944; 243(6293): P483.
- [11]. Tatiana Lanzieri, Penina Haber, Joseph P. Icenogle, Manisha Patel. Rubella (Chapter 20). Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 14th Edition. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, USA. (2021).
- [12]. Plotkin SA. The history of rubella and rubella vaccination leading to elimination. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Nov 1;43 Suppl 3:S164-8. doi: 10.1086/505950. PMID: 16998777.
- [13]. Meyer HM, Parkman PD, Hobbins TE, et al. Attenuated rubella viruses: laboratory and clinical characteristics. Am J Dis Child 1969; 118: 155–69.
- [14]. Hilleman MR, Buynak EB, Whitman JE Jr, Weibel RW, Stokes J Jr. Live attenuated rubella virus vaccines. Experiences with duck embryo cell preparations. Am J Dis Child. 1969 Aug;118(2):166-71. PMID: 5815860.
- [15]. Prinzie A, Huygelen C, Gold J, Farquhar J, McKee J. Experimental live attenuated rubella virus vaccine. Clinical evaluation of Cendehill strain. Am J Dis Child. 1969 Aug;118(2):172-7. PMID: 5794812.
- [16]. Plotkin SA, Farquhar JD, Katz M, Buser F. Attenuation of RA 27-3 rubella virus in WI-38 human diploid cells. Am J Dis Child. 1969 Aug;118(2):178-85. PMID: 5794813.
- [17]. Cappel R, De Cuyper F. Efficacy and immune response to rubella subunits vaccines. Arch Virol. 1976;50(3):207-13. PMID: 1259596.
- [18]. Väänänen P, Vaheri A. Large-scale purification of rubella virus and preparation of an experimental split rubella virus vaccine. Appl Microbiol. 1971 Sep;22(3):255-9. PMID: 5119198.
- [19]. Bloom S. Vaccine program rubs out rubella in the US. J Clin Invest. 2005 May;115(5):1106. doi: 10.1172/JCI25195. PMID: 15864334.
- [20]. Dittmar M, Whig K, Miller J, Kamalia B, Suppiah S, Perelygina L, Sullivan KE, Schultz DC, Cherry S. Nucleoside analogs NM107 and AT-527 are antiviral against rubella virus. PNAS Nexus. 2023 Aug 3;2(9):pgad256. doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad256. PMID: 37674858; PMCID: PMC10479830.
- [21]. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, Washington, DC. Virus Taxonomy: 2021, July 2021. Available at: https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/ [Accessed Dcember 12, 2023].
- [22]. Mankertz A, Chen MH, Goldberg TL, Hübschen JM, Pfaff F, Ulrich RG, ICTV Report Consortium. ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Matonaviridae 2022. J Gen Virol. 2022 Dec; 103(12). doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.001817. PMID: 36748520.
- [23]. ViralZone, Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Switzerland. Matonaviridae. Available at: https://viralzone.expasy.org/8916?outline=all_by_species [Accessed December 12, 2023].
- [24]. Kang HJ, Kim YJ, Lee HM, Nam JG, Kim SS. Complete Genome Sequence of a Genotype 2B Rubella Virus Isolated in South Korea in 2015. Genome Announc. 2017 Sep 21;5(38):e00940-17. doi: 10.1128/genomeA.00940-17. PMID: 28935733.
- [25]. Mori Y, Miyoshi M, Kikuchi M, Sekine M, Umezawa M, Saikusa M, et al. Molecular Epidemiology of Rubella Virus Strains Detected Around the Time of the 2012-2013 Epidemic in Japan. Front Microbiol. 2017 Aug 9;8:1513. PMID: 28848523; PMCID: PMC5553008.
- [26]. Parkman PD, Phillips PE, Kirschstein RL, Meyer HM Jr. Experimental rubella virus infection in the rhesus monkey. J Immunol. 1965 Oct;95(4):743-52. PMID: 4953955.
- [27]. J. S. Oxford. The Growth of Rubella Virus in Small Laboratory Animals. J Immunol (1967) 98 (4): 697–701.
- [28]. Nguyen TV, Pham VH, Abe K. Pathogenesis of Congenital Rubella Virus Infection in Human Fetuses: Viral Infection in the Ciliary Body Could Play an Important Role in Cataractogenesis. EBioMedicine. 2014 Oct 30;2(1):59-63. PMID: 26137534.
- [29]. James D. Cherry Rubella Virus (Chapter 186). Feigin and Cherry's Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases (Sixth Edition), Part III, 2009, Pages 2271-2300.
- [30]. Chen FP, Chu KK. Subclinical rubella reinfection in pregnancy: report of a case. J Formos Med Assoc. 1993 Mar;92(3):294-5. PMID: 8102288.
- [31]. Crooke SN, Haralambieva IH, Grill DE, Ovsyannikova IG, Kennedy RB, Poland GA. Seroprevalence and durability of rubella virus antibodies in a highly immunized population. Vaccine. 2019 Jun 27;37(29):3876-3882.
- [32]. Horstmann DM, Liebhaber H, Le Bouvier GL, Rosenberg DA, Halstead SB. Rubella: reinfection of vaccinated and naturally immune persons exposed in an epidemic. N Engl J Med. 1970 Oct 8;283(15):771-8.
- [33]. Mawson AR, Croft AM. Rubella Virus Infection, the Congenital Rubella Syndrome, and the Link to Autism. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019 Sep 22;16(19):3543. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16193543. PMID: 31546693; PMCID: PMC6801530.
- [34]. Gordon-Lipkin E, Hoon A, Pardo CA. Prenatal cytomegalovirus, rubella, and Zika virus infections associated with developmental disabilities: past, present, and future. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2021 Feb;63(2):135-143. PMID: 33084055.
- [35]. Plotkin SA. Rubella Eradication: Not Yet Accomplished, but Entirely Feasible. J Infect Dis. 2021 Sep 30;224(12 Suppl 2):S360-S366. PMID: 34590132.
- [36]. İnci A, Yener C, Güven D. Bir devlet hastanesinde gebe kadınlarda toksoplazma, rubella ve sitomegalovirüs seroprevalansının araştırılması. Pamukkale Tıp Dergisi 2014; 7(2): 19-25.
- [37]. Krugman S. Measles and mumps immunization: benefit versus risk factors. Dev Biol Stand. 1979;43:253-7. PMID: 520672.
- [38]. Ministry of Health NZ, The New Zealand Ministry of Health. Rubella (Chapter 19). Immunisation Handbook 2020. https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/immunisation-handbook-2020/19-rubella#keyinfo18
- [39]. Mark R. Schleiss, Ketzela J. Marsh, 37 - Viral Infections of the Fetus and Newborn, Editor(s): Christine A. Gleason, Sandra E. Juul, Avery's Diseases of the Newborn (Tenth Edition), Elsevier, 2018, p:482-526.e19.
- [40]. Jaan A, Rajnik M. TORCH Complex. [Updated 2023 Jul 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560528/
- [41]. Cradock-Watson JE, Ridehalgh MK, Anderson MJ, Pattison JR, Kangro HO. Fetal infection resulting from maternal rubella after the first trimester of pregnancy. J Hyg (Lond). 1980 Dec;85(3):381-91. PMID: 7462590; PMCID: PMC2134019.
- [42]. Wolff SM. The ocular manifestations of congenital rubella. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1972;70:577-614. PMID: 4197454.
- [43]. Ağca H. Doğurganlık Çağındaki Kadınlarda Rubella ve Sitomegalovirus Antikorlarının Araştırılması. Türk Mikrobiyol Cem Derg 41(1):15-17, 2011.
- [44]. Seçmeer G, Oğuz S. Kızamık kızamıkçık kabakulak (KKK) aşısı. Çocuk Enfeks Derg. 2008; 2(Suppl. 1): 115-9.
- [45]. A Report of the Committee to Review the Adverse Consequences of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1991. 7, Evidence Concerning Rubella Vaccines and Arthritis, Radiculoneuritis, and Thrombocytopenic Purpura. NBK234372.
- [46]. Ong SWX, Vasoo S, Sadarangani SP, Cui L, Marimuthu K, Lim PL, Kong JW, Wong JCC, Puong KY, Chan KP. Vaccine-associated Rubella - a report of two cases and a review of the literature. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021 Jan 2;17(1):224-227. PMID: 32530771; PMCID: PMC7872085.
- [47]. Kline LB, Margulies SL, Oh SJ. Optic neuritis and myelitis following rubella vaccination. Arch Neurol. 1982 Jul;39(7):443-4. PMID: 7103782.
- [48]. Gualberto FA, de Oliveira MI, Alves VA, Kanamura CT, Rosemberg S, Sato HK, Arantes BA, Curti SP, Figueiredo CA. Fulminant encephalitis associated with a vaccine strain of rubella virus. J Clin Virol. 2013 Dec;58(4):737-40. PMID: 24216323.
- [49]. Susan E. Reef, Stanley A. Plotkin, Chapter 54 - Rubella Vaccines, Editor(s): Walter Orenstein, Paul Offit, Kathryn M. Edwards, Stanley Plotkin, Plotkin's Vaccines (8th Edition), Elsevier, 2023, pp: 1025-1056.e19.
- [50]. Schaffner W, Fleet WF, Kilroy AW, Lefkowitz LB, Herrmann KL, Thompson J, Karzon DT. Polyneuropathy following rubella immunization. A follow-up study and review of the problem. Am J Dis Child. 1974 May;127(5):684-8. PMID: 4825588.
- [51]. Karussis D, Petrou P. The spectrum of post-vaccination inflammatory CNS demyelinating syndromes. Autoimmun Rev. 2014 Mar;13(3):215-24.
- [52]. Zhang D, Wanat KA, Perelygina L, Rosenbach M, Haun PL, Drolet BA, Shields BE. Cutaneous granulomas associated with rubella virus: A clinical review. J Am Acad Dermatol 2024; 90(1): 111-21. PMID: 37271455.
- [53]. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Rubella vaccination during pregnancy--United States, 1971-1981. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1982 Sep 10;31(35):477-81. PMID: 6815464.
- [54]. Losonsky GA, Fishaut JM, Strussenberg J, Ogra PL. Effect of immunization against rubella on lactation products. II. Maternal-neonatal interactions. J Infect Dis. 1982 May;145(5):661-6. PMID: 7077090.
- [55]. Spencer JP, Trondsen Pawlowski RH, Thomas S. Vaccine Adverse Events: Separating Myth from Reality. Am Fam Physician. 2017 Jun 15;95(12):786-794. PMID: 28671426.
- [56]. Pukhalsky AL, Shmarina GV, Bliacher MS, Fedorova IM, Toptygina AP, Fisenko JJ, Alioshkin VA. Cytokine profile after rubella vaccine inoculation: evidence of the immunosuppressive effect of vaccination. Mediators Inflamm. 2003 Aug;12(4):203-7. PMID: 14514470; PMCID: PMC1781617.
- [57]. Fukuda M, Harada T, Shimizu T, Hiroshige J. Forchheimer Spots in Rubella. Intern Med. 2020 Jul 1;59(13):1673. PMID: 32213763.
- [58]. Teryl K. Frey, Jerry S. Wolinsky, Rubella Virus (Togaviridae), Editor(s): Allan Granoff, Robert G. Webster, Encyclopedia of Virology (Second Edition), Elsevier, 1999, Pages 1592-1601.
- [59]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Rubella. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/about/treatment.html [Accessed December 18, 2023].
- [60]. Young MK, Cripps AW, Nimmo GR, van Driel ML. Post-exposure passive immunisation for preventing rubella and congenital rubella syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 2015(9): CD010586. PMID: 26350479; PMCID: PMC8761358.