Effects of water source and technology on energy use and environmental impacts of rice production in northern Iran

To analyze the energy flow and greenhouse gas emissions, a total of 200 paddy fields were selected based on the water source utilized for irrigation (river as the surface water source and well as the underground water source), transplanting methods (traditional and mechanical) and grain yield (low- and high-yielding rice cultivars) as a factorial experimental design (2×2×2=8 conditions). Data were collected in 2020 from 200 rice growers in northern Iran using a face-to-face questionnaire survey.