Research paper submitted to a refereed journal on "formal and informal barriers to citizenship and trades" (Deliverable 3.2)

Barriers to economic rights that limited access to markets and strongly privileged ‘insiders’ are often identified as constraining pre-modern economies. This paper provides the first systematic comparative analysis of the nature, size and distribution of barriers to entry to guilds and citizenship for a sample of towns and cities in France, the Low Countries, England, and German Europe. Barriers varied widely across Europe. Barriers based on personal traits (gender, religion, place of origin) were the most exclusionary element. For those able to qualify for entry, entry costs (qualifications, fees, wealth) for cities and guilds were also generally biased to favor insiders. For outsiders, minimum apprenticeship terms were potentially the largest cost, but their real impact was limited in most locations. Entry fees rarely exceeded six months unskilled wages. Guild and city barriers provided a considerable obstacle, but not one impermeable to men with skills, resources or persistence.