Published December 11, 2021 | Version v1
Journal article Restricted

Dietary niches of creodonts and carnivorans of the late Eocene Cypress Hills Formation

Description

Christison, Brigid E, Gaidies, Fred, Pineda-Munoz, Silvia, Evans, Alistair R, Gilbert, Marisa A, Fraser, Danielle (2022): Dietary niches of creodonts and carnivorans of the late Eocene Cypress Hills Formation. Journal of Mammalogy 103 (1): 2-17, DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyab123, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyab123

Files

Restricted

The record is publicly accessible, but files are restricted to users with access.

Linked records

Additional details

Identifiers

LSID
urn:lsid:plazi.org:pub:FFC44A494D59BC1FFFADD2688C59B807

Related works

Has part
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.7832547 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.7832549 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.7832551 (DOI)

References

  • Alroy J. 1998. Cope's rule and the dynamics of body mass evolution in North American fossil mammals. Science (New York, N.Y.). 280:731-734.
  • Alroy J., Koch P.L., Zachos J.C. 2000. Global climate change and North American mammalian evolution. Paleobiology 26:259-288.
  • Badgley C., Fox D.L. 2000. Ecological biogeography of North American Mammals: species density and ecological structure in relation to environmental gradients. Journal of Biogeography 27:1437-1467.
  • Banfield A. 1974. The mammals of Canada. Toronto (Canada): University of Toronto Press.
  • Bapst D.W. 2012. Paleotree: an R package for paleontological and phylogenetic analyses of evolution. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3:803-807.
  • Barnosky A.D., Hadly E.A., Gonzalez P., Head J., Polly D., Lawing M., Eronen J.T., Ackerly D.D., Alex K., Biber E., et al. 2017. Merging paleobiology with conservation biology to guide the future of terrestrial ecosystems. Science 355:488-491.
  • Behrensmeyer A.K., Hill A. 1980. Fossils in the making: vertebrate taphonomy and paleoecology. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.
  • Benton M.J. 1987. Progress and competition in macroevolution. Biological Reviews 62:305-338.
  • Blundell G., Bowyer R.T., Ben-David M., Dean T.A., Jewett S.C. 2000. Effects of food resources on spacing behavior of river otters: does forage abundance control home-range size? Biotelemetry 15:325-333.
  • Borths M.R., Stevens N.J. 2017. The first hyaenodont from the late Oligocene Nsungwe Formation of Tanzania: paleoecological insights into the Paleogene-Neogene carnivore transition. PLoS ONE 12:e0185301.
  • Bradley W.,Yousef M. 1975. Thermoregulatory responses in the plains pocket gopher, Geomys bursarius. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 52:35-38.
  • Bryant H.N. 1993. Carnivora and Creodonta of the Calf Creek. Journal of Paleontology 67:1032-1046.
  • Bunn J.M., Boyer D.M., Lipman Y., St Clair E.M., Jernvall J., Daubechies I. 2011. Comparing Dirichlet normal surface energy of tooth crowns, a new technique of molar shape quantification for dietary inference, with previous methods in isolation and in combination. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 145:247-261.
  • Carbone C., Mace G.M., Roberts S.C., Macdonald D.W. 1999. Energetic constraints on the diet of terrestrial carnivores. Nature 402:286-288.
  • Carbone C., Teacher A., Rowcliffe J.M. 2007. The costs of carnivory. PLoS Biology 5:e22.
  • Christiansen P. 1999. Scaling of the limb long bones to body mass in terrestrial mammals. Journal of Morphology 239:167-190.
  • Christiansen P., Adolfssen J.S. 2006. Bite forces, canine strength, and skull allometry in carnivores. Journal of Zoology 266:133-151.
  • Cignoni P., Callieri M., Corsini M., Dellepiane M., Ganovelli F., Ranzuglia G. 2008. MeshLab: an open-source mesh processing tool. In: Proceedings of the 6th Eurographics Italian Chapter Conference 2008; 2 to 4 July, 2008 Salerno, Italy. Geneva, Switzerland: Eurographics Association; p. 129-136.
  • Clark J., Guensburg T.E. 1972. Arctoid genetic characters as related to the genus Parictis. Field Museum of Natural History 1150:1-71.
  • Currie D.J. 1991. Energy and large-scale patterns of animal and plant species richness. American Naturalist 137:27-49.
  • Dayan T., Simberloff D. 1996. Patterns of size separation in carnivore communities. Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution 1:243-266.
  • Dietl G.P., Kidwell S.M., Brenner M., Burney D.A., Flessa K.W., Jackson S.T., Koch P.K. 2015. Conservation paleobiology: leveraging knowledge of the past to inform conservation and restoration. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 43:79-103.
  • Dietl G.P., Flessa K.W. 2011. Conservation paleobiology: putting the dead to work. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26:30-37.
  • Djawdan M., Garland T. Jr. 1988. Maximal running speeds of bipedal and quadrupedal rodents. Journal of Mammalogy 69:765-772.
  • Durant S.M. 1998. Competition refuges and coexistence: an example from Serengeti carnivores. Journal of Animal Ecology 67:370-386.
  • Evans A.R., Fortelius M. 2008. Three-dimensional reconstruction of tooth relationships during carnivoran chewing. Palaeontologia Electronica 11:1-11.
  • Evans A.R., Pineda-Munoz S. 2018. Inferring mammal dietary ecology from dental morphology. In: Croft D.A., Su D.F., Editors S.W.S., editors. Methods in paleoecology: reconstructing Cenozoic terrestrial environments and ecological communities. Cham (Switzerland): Springer Nature Switzerland AG; p. 37-52.
  • Evans A.R., Wilson G.P., Fortelius M., Jernvall J. 2007. Highlevel similarity of dentitions in carnivorans and rodents. Nature 445:78-81.
  • Figueirido B., Janis C.M., Perez-Claros J.A., De Renzi M., Palmqvist P. 2011. Cenozoic climate change influences mammalian evolutionary dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109:722-727.
  • Flynn J.J. 1998. Early Cenozoic Carnivora ("Miacoidea"). In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 112-123.
  • Fraser D., Soul L.C., Toth A.B., Balk M.A., Eronen J.T., Pineda-Munoz S., Shupinski A.B., Villasenor A., Barr W.A., Behrensmeyer A.K., et al. 2020. Investigating biotic interactions in deep time. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 36:61-75.
  • Fraser D., Haupt R.J., Andrew Barr W. 2018. Phylogenetic signal in tooth wear dietary niche proxies: what it means for those in the field. Ecology and Evolution 8:11363-11367.
  • Friscia A.R., Van Valkenburgh B., Biknevicius A.R. 2007. An ecomorphological analysis of extant small carnivorans. Journal of Zoology 272:82-100.
  • Friscia A.,Van Valkenburgh B. 2010.Ecomorphology of NorthAmerican Eocene carnivores; evidence for competition between carnivorans and creodonts. In: Goswami A., Friscia A., editors. Carnivoran evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 311-341.
  • Goswami A. 2010. Introduction to Carnivora. In: Goswami A., Friscia A., editors. Carnivoran evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 1-24.
  • Gould S.J., Calloway C. 1980. Clams and brachiopods-ships that pass in the night. Paleobiology 6:383-396.
  • Gunnell G.G. 1998. Creodonta. In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 91-109.
  • Halliday T.J.D., Upchurch P., Goswami A. 2015. Resolving the relationships of Paleocene placental mammals. Biological Reviews 92:521-550.
  • Harestad A.S., Bunnell F.L. 1979. Home range and body weight-a re-evaluation. Ecology 60:389-402.
  • Hartnoll R.G., Baine M.S.P., Britton A., Grandas Y., James J., Velasco A., Richmond M.G. 2007. Reproduction of the black land crab, Gecarcinus ruricola, in the San Andres Archipelago, Western Caribbean. Journal of Crustacean Biology 27:425-436.
  • Hawkins B.A., Field R., Cornell H.V., Currie D.J., Guegan J., Kaufman D.M., Kerr J.T., Mittelbach G.G., Oberdorff T., O'Brien E.M., et al. 2003. Energy, water, and broad-scale geographic patterns of species richness. Ecology 84:3105-3117.
  • Hemmer H. 2004. Notes of the ecological role of European cats (Mammalia: Felidae) of the last two million years. In: Baquedano E., Rubio Jara S., editors. Iscelanea en homenaje a Emiliano Aguirre, Paleontologia. Alcala de Henares (Spain): Museo Arqueologico Regional; p. 214-232.
  • Hertler C., and Volmer R. 2008. Assessing prey competition in fossil carnivore communities-a scenario for prey competition and its evolutionary consequences for tigers in Pleistocene Java. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257:67-80.
  • Holliday J.A., Steppan S.J. 2004. Evolution of hypercarnivory: the effect of specialization on morphological and taxonomic diversity. Paleobiology 30:108-128.
  • Hooker J.J., Collinson M.E. 2012. Mammalian faunal turnover across the Paleocene-Eocene boundary in NW Europe: the roles of displacement, community evolution and environment. Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences 105:17-28.
  • Hortal J., Rodriguez J., Nieto-Diaz M., Lobo J.M. 2008. Regional and environmental effects on the species richness of mammal assemblages. Journal of Biogeography 35:1202-1214.
  • Huang S., Eronen J.T., Janis C.M., Saarinen J.J., Silvestro D., Fritz S.A. 2017. Mammal body size evolution in North America and Europe over 20 myr: similar trends generated by different processes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284:20162361.
  • Hunter J., Caro T. 2008. Interspecific competition and predation in American carnivore families. Ethology, Ecology & Evolution 20:295-324.
  • Janis C.M. 1993. Tertiary mammal evolution in the context of changing climates, vegetation, and tectonic events. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 24:467-500.
  • Janis K.M. 1998. Carnivorous mammals. In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 73-90.
  • Jankowski J.E., Robinson S.K., Levey D.J. 2010. Squeezed at the top: interspecific aggression may constrain elevational ranges in tropical birds. Ecology 91:1877-1884.
  • Kangas A.T., Evans A.R., Thesleff I., Jernvall J. 2004. Nonindependence of mammalian dental characters. Nature 432:211-214.
  • Kelt D.A., Van Vuren D.H. 2001. The ecology and macroecology of mammalian home range area. American Naturalist 157:637-645.
  • Kort A.E. 2019. The paleoecology of Patriofelis ulta and implications for oxyaenid extinction. Bloomington, IN, USA: Indiana University.
  • Liow L.H., Reitan T., Harnik P.G. 2015. Ecological interactions on macroevolutionary time scales: clams and brachiopods are more than ships that pass in the night. Ecology Letters 18:1030-1039.
  • Liow L.H., Stenseth N.C. 2007.The rise and fall of species:implications for macroevolutionary and macroecological studies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274:2745-2752.
  • Lopez-Torres S., Selig K.R., Prufrock K.A., Lin D., Silcox M.T. 2017. Dental topographic analysis of paromomyid (Plesiadapiformes, Primates) cheek teeth: more than 15 million years of changing surfaces and shifting ecologies. Historical Biology 30:76-88.
  • Lovegrove B.G., Mowoe M.O. 2013. The evolution of mammal body sizes: responses to Cenozoic climate change in North American mammals. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 26:1317-1329.
  • Lucas P.W. 2004. Dental morphology: how teeth work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Martin L.D. 1998. Felidae. In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 236-242.
  • McNab B.K. 1989. Basal rate of metabolism, body size, and food habits in the order Carnivora. In: Gittleman J.L., editor. Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Boston, MA: Springer.; p. 335-354.
  • Meachen J., Van Valkenburgh B. 2009. Craniodental indicators of prey-size preference in the Felidae. Biological Journal 96:784-799.
  • Mellett J.S. 1981. Mammalian carnassial function and the "Every Effect". Journal of Mammalogy 62:164-166.
  • Meyer T. 2007. Chadronian "insectivores" of the Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada: University of Saskatchewan.
  • Monteserrero P., Diaz-Ruiz F., Lukacs P.M., Alves P.C., Ferreras P. 2020. Ecological traits and the spatial structure of competitive coexistence among carnivores. Ecology 101:e03059.
  • Morlo M., Gunnell G.F., Nagel D. 2010. Ecomorphology of North American Eocene carnivores: evidence for competition between carnivores and creodonts. In: Goswami A., Friscia A., editors. Carnivoran evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 269-310.
  • Noguchi G.E., Hesselberg R.J. 1991. Parental transfer of organic contaminants to young-of-the-year spottail shiners, Notropis hudsonis. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination andToxicology 46:745-750.
  • O'Leary M.A., Bloch J.I., Flynn J.J., Gaudin T.J., Giallombardo A., Giannini N.P., Goldberg S.L., Kraatz B.P., Luo Z.X., Meng J., ET AL. 2013. The placental mammal ancestor and the post-K-Pg radiation of placentals. Science (New York, N.Y.) 339:662-667.
  • Palace V.P., Allen-Gil S.M., Brown S.B., Evans R.E., Metner D.A., Landers D.H., Curtis L.R., Klaverkamp J.F., Baron C.L., Lockhart W.L. 2001. Vitamin and thyroid status in arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) exposed to doses of 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl that induce the phase I enzyme system. Chemosphere 45:185-193.
  • Palomares F., Caro T.M. 1999. Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores. American Naturalist 153:492-508.
  • Pampush D., Winchester J.M., Morse P.E., Vining A.Q. 2018. Package 'molaR'. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=molaR
  • Pereira L.M., Owen-Smith N., Moleon M. 2014. Facultative predation and scavenging by mammalian carnivores: seasonal, regional, and intra-guild comparisons. Mammal Review 44:44-55.
  • Peters R.H. 1983. The ecological implications of body size. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Pineda-Munoz S., Evans A.R., Alroy J. 2016. The relationship between diet and body mass in terrestrial mammals. Paleobiology 42:659-669.
  • Pineda-Munoz S., Lazagabaster I.A., Alroy J., Evans A.R. 2017. Inferring diet from dental morphology in terrestrial mammals. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 8:481-491.
  • Polly P.D. 1993. Hyaenodontidae (Creodonta, Mammalia) and the position of systematics in evolutionary biology. Berkeley (CA): University of California at Berkeley.
  • Popp N.J., Hamr J., Larkin J., Mallory F. 2018. Black bear (Ursus americanus and wolf (Canis spp.) Summer Diet Selectivity in Ontario, Canada. Mammal Research 63:1-9.
  • du Preez B., Purdon J., Trethowan P., Macdonald D.W., Loveridge A.J. 2017. Dietary niche differentiation facilitates coexistence of two large carnivores. Journal of Zoology 302:149-156.
  • Prothero D.R. 1994. The late Eocene-Oligocene extinctions. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 22:145-65.
  • Prothero D.R. 1998a. The chronological, climatic, and paleogeographic background to North American Mammalian evolution. In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 9-15
  • Prothero D.R. 1998b. Rhinocerotidae. In Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 595-605.
  • Prufrock K.A., Lopez-Torres S., Silcox M.T., Boyer D.M. 2016. Surfaces and spaces: troubleshooting the study of dietary niche space overlap between North American stem primates and rodents. Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties 4:024005.
  • Raia P., Carotenuto F., Mondanaro A., Castiglione S., Passaro F., Saggese F., Melchionna M., Serio C., Alessio L., Silvestro D., ET AL. 2016. Progress to extinction: increased specialisation causes the demise of animal clades. Scientific Reports 6:30965.
  • Raia P., Meloro C., Loy A., Barbera C. 2006. Species occupancy and its course in the past: macroecological patterns in extinct communities. Evolutionary Ecology Research 8:181-194.
  • Reid D.G., Code T.E., Reid A.C.H., Herrero S.M. 1994. Spacing, movements, and habitat selection of the river otter in boreal Alberta. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:1314-1324.
  • Reilly S.M., McBrayer L.D., White T.D. 2001. Prey processing in amniotes: biomechanical and behavioral patterns of food reduction. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology 128:397-415.
  • Reimers E., Klein D.R., Sorumgard R. 1983. Calving time, growth rate, and body size of Norwegian reindeer on different ranges. Arctic and Alpine Research 15:107-118.
  • Sacco T., Van Valkenburgh B. 2004. Ecomorphological indicators of feeding behaviour in the bears (Carnivora: Ursidae). Journal of Zoology 263:41-54.
  • Schindelin J., Arganda-Carreras I., Frise E., Kaynig V., Longair M., Pietzsch T., Preibisch S., Rueden C., Saalfeld S., Schmid B., ET AL. 2012. Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nature Methods 9:676-682.
  • Secord R., Bloch J.I., Chester S.G., Boyer D.M., Wood A.R., Wing S.L., Kraus M.J., McInerney F.A., Krigbaum J. 2012. Evolution of the earliest horses driven by climate change in the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Science (New York, N.Y.) 335:959-962.
  • Shave J.R., Cherry S.G., Derocher A.E., Fortin D. 2020. Seasonal and inter-annual variation in diet for grey wolves Canis lupus in Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan. Wildlife Biology 3.
  • Sinervo B., Mendez-de-la-Cruz F., Miles D.B., Heulin B., Bastiaans E., Villagran-Santa Cruz M., Lara-Resendiz R., Martinez-Mendez N., Calderon-Espinosa M.L., Meza-Lazaro R.N., ET AL. 2010. Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches. Science (New York, N.Y.) 328:894-899.
  • Slater G.J. 2015. Iterative adaptive radiations of fossil canids show no evidence for diversity-dependent trait evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112:4897-4902.
  • Slater G.J., Friscia A.R. 2019. Hierarchy in adaptive radiation: a case study using the Carnivora (Mammalia). Evolution 73:524-539.
  • Smith F.A., Lyons S.K., Ernest S.K.M., Jones K.E., Kaufman D.M., Dayan T., Marquet P.A., Brown J.H., Haskell J.P. 2003. Body mass of late quaternary mammals. Ecology 84:3403.
  • Smith F.A., Brown J.H., Haskell J.P., Lyons S.K.,Alroy J., Charnov E.L., Dayan T., Enquist B.J., Ernest S.K.M., Hadly E.A., et al. 2004. Similarity of mammalian body size across the taxonomic hierarchy and across space and time. American Naturalist 163:672-691.
  • Smith F.A., Boyer A.G., Brown J.H., Costa D.P., Dayan T., Ernest S.K., Evans A.R., Fortelius M., Gittleman J.L., Hamilton M.J., ET AL. 2010. The evolution of maximum body size of terrestrial mammals. Science (New York, N.Y.) 330:1216-1219.
  • Smith N.E., Strait S.G. 2008. PaleoView3D: from specimen to online digital model. Palaeontologia Electronica 11(11A):17p.
  • Smits P.D. 2015. Expected time-invariant effects of biological traits on mammal species duration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112:13015-13020.
  • Smits P.D., Evans A.R. 2012.Functional constraints on tooth morphology in carnivorous mammals. BMC Evolutionary Biology 12:146.
  • Sole, F., Gheerbrant E., Amaghzaz M., Bouya B. 2009. Further evidence of the African antiquity of hyaenodontid ("Creodonta", Mammalia) evolution. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 156:827-846.
  • Sovada M.A., Roaldson J.M., Sargeant A.B. 1999. Foods of American badgers in west-central Minnesota and southeastern North Dakota during the duck nesting season.TheAmerican Midland Naturalist 142:410-414.
  • Spaulding M., O'Leary M.A., Gatesy J. 2009. Relationships of Cetacea (Artiodactyla) among mammals: increased taxon sampling alters interpretations of key fossils and character evolution. PLoS ONE 4:e7062.
  • Spradley J.P., Pampush J.D., Morse P.E., Kay R.F. 2017. Smooth operator: The effects of different 3D mesh retriangulation protocols on the computation of Dirichlet normal energy. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 163:94-109.
  • Storer J.E., Bryant H.N. 1993. Biostratigraphy of the Cypress Hills Formation (Eocene to Miocene), Saskatchewan: equid types (Mammalia: Perissodactyla) and associated faunal assemblages. Journal of Paleontology 67:660-669.
  • Swihart R.K. 1986. Home range-body mass allometry in rabbits and hares (Leporidae). Acta Theriologica 31:139-148.
  • Tucker M.A., Ord T.J., Rogers T.L. 2016. Revisiting the cost of carnivory in mammals. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 29:2181-2190.
  • Ungar P.S. 2010. Mammalian teeth: origin, evolution, and diversity. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins University Press.
  • Urban M.C., Tewksbury J.J., Sheldon K.S. 2012. On a collision course: competition and dispersal differences create no-analogue communities and cause extinctions during climate change. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279:2072-2080.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 1988. Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 14:155-173.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 1990. Skeletal predictors of body mass in carnivores. In: Damuth J., MacFadden B.J., editors. Body size in mammalian paleobiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 181-205.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 1991. Iterative evolution of hypercarnivory in canids (Mammalia: Carnivora): evolutionary interactions among sympatric predators. Paleobiology 17:340-362.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 1999. Major patterns in the history of carnivorous mammals.Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27:463-493.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 2001. The dog-eat-dog world of carnivores. In Stanford C.B., Bunn H.T., editors. Meat-eating & human evolution. New York: Oxford University Press; p. 101-121.
  • Van Valkenburgh B. 2007. Deja vu:the evolution of feeding morphologies in the Carnivora. Integrative and Comparative Biology 47:147-163.
  • VanValkenburghB., HertelF.1993.ToughtimesatLaBrea:ToothBreakage in Large Carnivores of the Late Pleistocene. Science 261:456-459.
  • Van Valkenburgh B., Koepfli K. 1993. Cranial and dental adaptations to predation in canids. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 65:15-37.
  • Van Valkenburgh B., Peterson R.O., Smith D.W., Stahler D.R., Vucetich J.A. 2019. Tooth fracture frequency in gray wolves reflects prey availability. eLife 8:1-15.
  • Van Valkenburgh B., Wang X., Damuth J. 2004. Cope's rule, hypercarnivory, and extinction in North American canids. Science (New York, N.Y.) 306:101-104.
  • Vernables W.N., Ripley B.D. 2002. Modern applied statistics with S. 4th ed. New York: Springer.
  • Volmer R., Hertler C., van der Geer A. 2016. Niche overlap and competition potential among tigers (Panthera tigris), sabertoothed cats (Homotherium ultimum, Hemimachairodus zwierzyckii) and Merriam's dog (Megacyon merriami) in the Pleistocene of Java. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 441:901-911.
  • Wall C.E., Smith K.K. 2001. Ingestion in mammals. In: Encyclopedia of life sciences. New York, NY, USA: Macmillan Publishers Ltd, Nature Publishing Group; p. 1-6.
  • Werdelin L. 1996. Community-wide character displacement in Miocene hyaenas. Lethaia 29:97-106.
  • Wesley-Hunt G.D. 2005. The morphological diversification of carnivores in North America. Paleobiology 31:35-55.
  • Wesley-Hunt G.D., Flynn J.J. 2005. Phylogeny of the Carnivora: basal relationships among the carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of 'Miacoidea' relative to Carnivora. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 3:1-28.
  • Wilman H., Belmaker J., Simpson J., de La Rosa C., Rivadeneira M., Jetz W. 2014. EltonTraits 1.0: species-level foraging attributes of the world's birds and mammals. Ecology 95:2027.
  • Wilson D.S. 1975. The adequacy of body size as a niche difference. American Naturalist 109:769-784.
  • Wilson G.P., Evans A.R., Corfe I.J., Smits P.D., Fortelius M., Jernvall J. 2012. Adaptive radiation of multituberculate mammals before the extinction of dinosaurs. Nature 483:457-460.
  • Wing S.L. 1998. Tertiary vegetation of North America as a context for mammalian evolution. In: Janis C.M., Scott K.M., Jacobs L.L., editors. Evolution of tertiary mammals of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; p. 37-65.
  • Woodburne M.O., Gunnell G.F., Stucky R.K. 2009. Climate directly influences Eocene mammal faunal dynamics in North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106:13399-13403.
  • Wright D.H. 1983. Species-energy theory: an extension of speciesarea theory. Oikos 41:496.
  • Zachos J.C., Dickens G.R., Zeebe R.E. 2008. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics. Nature 451:279-283.
  • Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., Billups K. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science (New York, N.Y.) 292:686-693.