Published December 31, 2003
| Version v1
Journal article
Restricted
Osteology of Tyrannosaurus rex: insights from a nearly complete skeleton and high-resolution computed tomographic analysis of the skull
Creators
- 1. Department of Geology, Field Museum, 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605
Description
Christopher A. Brochu (2003): Osteology of Tyrannosaurus rex: insights from a nearly complete skeleton and high-resolution computed tomographic analysis of the skull. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22: 1-138, DOI: 10.2307/3889334
Files
Linked records
Additional details
Identifiers
- LSID
- urn:lsid:plazi.org:pub:6603FFA80B5D0D64FFF6AB533D39FF9A
- URL
- http://publication.plazi.org/id/6603FFA80B5D0D64FFF6AB533D39FF9A
References
- Allain, R. 2001. Redescription de Streptospondylus altdorfensis, le dinosaure theropode de Cuvier, du Jurassique de Normandie. Geodiversitas 23:349-367.
- Andersson, M., and A. Norberg. 1981. Evolution of reversed sexual size dimorphism and role partitioning among predatory birds, with a size scaling of flight performance. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 15:105-130.
- Bakker, R. T. 1992. Inside the head of a tiny T. rex. Discover 13:58-69.
- ---------, M. Williams, and P. Currie. 1988. Nanotyrannus, a new genus of pygmy tyrannosaur from the latest Cretaceous of Montana. Hunteria 1:1-30.
- ---------, D. Kralis, J. Siegwarth, and J. Filla. 1992. Edmarka rex, a new gigantic theropod dinosaur from the middle Morrison Formation, Late Jurassic of the Como Bluff outcrop region. Hunteria 2:1-24.
- Barsbold, R. 1976. [New data on Therezinosaurus (Therezinosauridae, Theropoda)]. [Results of the Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition] 3:76-92. [Russian]
- --------- 1983. [Carnivorous dinosaurs of the Cretaceous of Mongolia]. [Results of the Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition] 19: 1-117. [Russian]
- Baumel, J. J., and L. M. Witmer. 1993. Osteologia; pp. 45-132 in J. J. Baumel (ed.), Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium, 2nd ed. Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
- Bonaparte, J. F., and F. E. Novas. 1985. Abelisaurus comahuensis, n. g. n. sp., Carnosauria del Cretacico Tardio de Patagonia. Ameghiniana 21:259-265.
- --------- , F. E. Novas, and R. A. Coria. 1990. Carnotaurus sastrei Bonaparte, the horned, lightly built carnosaur from the middle Cretaceous of Patagonia. Contributions in Science of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 416:1-41.
- Boulenger, G. A. 1896. On the occurrence of Schlegel's Gavial (Tomistoma schlegett) in the Malay Peninsula, with remarks on the Atlas and Axis of crocodilians. Proceedings of the Zoological Society 41:628-633.
- Britt, B. B. 1991. Theropods of Dry Mesa Quarry (Morrison Formation, Late Jurassic), Colorado, with emphasis on the osteology of Torvosaurus tanneri. Brigham Young University Geological Studies 37:1-72.
- ------- 1993. Pneumatic postcranial bones in dinosaurs and other archosaurs. Unpub. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Calgary, Alberta.
- Brochu, C. A. 1992. Ontogeny of the postcranium in crocodylomorph archosaurs. Unpub. M.A. thesis, University of Texas at Austin.
- ---------1995. Heterochrony in the crocodylian scapulocoracoid. Journal of Herpetology 29:464-468.
- ---------- 1996. Closure of neurocentral sutures during crocodylian ontogeny: implications for maturity assessment in fossil archosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 16:49-62.
- -- ---- 1997. Fossils, morphology, divergence timing, and the phylogenetic relationships of Gavialis. Systematic Biology 46:479-522.
- --------- 2000. A digitally-rendered endocast for Tyrannosaurus rex. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20:1-6.
- Brown, B., and E. M. Schlaikjer. 1940. A new element in the ceratopsian jaw with additional notes on the mandible. American Museum Novitates 1092:1-13.
- Bryant, H. N., and A. P. Russell. 1992. The role of phylogenetic analysis in the inference of unpreserved attributes of extinct taxa. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 337:405- 418.
- Bubien-Waluszewska, A. 1981. The cranial nerves; pp. 385-438 in A. S. King and J. McLelland (eds.), Form and Function in Birds, Vol. 2. Academic Press, New York.
- Buffetaut, E., V. Suteethorn, and H. Tong. 1996. The earliest known tyrannosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of Thailand. Nature 381: 689-691.
- Carlson, W. 1993. A brief introduction to computed X-ray tomography; in T. Rowe, W. Carlson, and W. Bottorff (eds.), Thrinaxodon\ Digital Atlas of the Skull, Second edition (1995), CD-ROM for PC Windows platform. The University of Texas Press, Austin.
- Carpenter, K. 1990. Variation in Tyrannosaurus rex; pp. 141-145 in K. Carpenter and P. J. Currie (eds.), Dinosaur Systematics. Cambridge University Press, New York.
- --------- 1992. Tyrannosaurids (Dinosauria) of Asia and North America; pp. 250-260 in Chen P.-J. and N. Mateer (eds.), Aspects of Non-marine Cretaceous Geology. China Ocean Press, Beijing.
- ---------, and M. Smith. 2001. Forelimb osteology and biomechanics of Tyrannosaurus rex; pp. 90-116 in D. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
- Carr, T. D. 1999. Craniofacial ontogeny in Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:497-520.
- ---------, and T. E. Williamson. 1999. A new tyrannosaurid (Theropoda: Coelurosauria) from the San Juan Basin of New Mexico. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:37A.
- --------- , and--------- 2000. A review of Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria) from New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 17:113-145.
- --------- , and----- - - 2001. Resolving tyrannosaurid diversity: skeletal remains referred to Aublysodon belong to Tyrannosaurus rex and Daspletosaurus. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:38A.
- ---------,--------- , and D. Schwimmer. In press. A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (Middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
- Carrano, M. T. 2000. Homoplasy and the evolution of dinosaur locomotion. Paleobiology 26:489-512.
- ---------, and J. R. Hutchinson. 2002. Pelvic and hindlimb musculature of Tyrannosaurus rex (Dinosauria: Theropoda). Journal of Morphology 253-228.
- ---------, and S. D. Sampson. 1999. Evidence for a paraphyletic "Ceratosauria" and its implications for theropod dinosaur evolution. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:36A.
- Carrier, D. R., and C. G. Farmer. 2000a. The evolution of pelvic aspiration in archosaurs. Paleobiology 26:271-293.
- --------- , and --------- 2000b. The integration of ventilation and locomotion in archosaurs. American Zoologist 40:87-100.
- Chabreck, R. H., and T. Joanen. 1979. Growth rates of American alligators in Louisiana. Herpetologica 35:51-57.
- Charig, A. J., and A. C. Milner. 1997. Baryonyx walkeri, a fish-eating dinosaur from the Wealden of Surrey. Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Geology Series 53:1-70.
- Chure, D. J. 2000. On the orbit of theropod dinosaurs. Gaia 15:233- 240.
- ---------, and J. H. Madsen. 1996. On the presence of furculae in some non-maniraptoran theropods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 16:573-577.
- ---------, and--------- 1998. An unusual braincase (?Stokesosaurus clevelandi) from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, Utah (Morrison Formation; Late Jurassic). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18:115-125.
- Cifelli, R. L., R. L. Nydham, J. D. Gardner, A. Weil, J. G. Eaton, J. I. Kirkland, and S. K. Madsen. 1999. Medial Cretaceous vertebrates from the Cedar Mountain Formation, Elliot County, Utah: the Mussentuchit Local Fauna. Utah Geological Survey Miscellaneous Publications 99:219-242.
- Claessens, L. 1997. Gastralia; pp. 269-270 in P. J. Currie and K. Padian (eds.), Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Academic Press, New York.
- Clark, J. M., J. Welman, J. A. Gauthier, and J. M. Parrish. 1993. The laterosphenoid bone of early archosauriforms. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 13:48-57.
- -- ------ , P. Altangerel, and M. A. Norell. 1994. The skull of Erlicosaurus andrewsi, a Late Cretaceous "segnosaur" (Theropoda: Therezinosauridae) from Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 3115: 1-39.
- ---------, M. A. Norell, and L. M. Chiappe. 1999. An oviraptorid skeleton from the Late Cretaceous of Ukhaa Tolgod, Mongolia, preserved in an avianlike brooding position over an oviraptorid nest. American Museum Novitates 3265:1-36.
- --------- , --------- , and T. Rowe. 2002. Cranial anatomy of Citipati osmolskae (Theropoda, Oviraptorosauria), and a reinterpretation of the holotype of Oviraptor philoceratops. American Museum Novitates 3364:1-24.
- Colbert, E. H. 1946. The eustachian tubes in the Crocodilia. Copeia 1946:11-14.
- --------- 1989. The Triassic dinosaur Coelophysis. Bulletin of the Museum of Northern Arizona 57:1-174.
- ---------, and D. A. Russell. 1969. The small Cretaceous dinosaur Dromaeosaurus. American Museum Novitates 2380:1-49.
- Cope, E. D. 1892. Fourth note on the Dinosauria of the Laramie. American Naturalist 26:756-758.
- Currie, P. J., J. K. Rigby, and R. E. Sloan. 1990. Theropod teeth from the Judith River Formation; pp. 107-125 in K. Carpenter and P. J. Currie (eds.), Dinosaur Systematics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- - ------ 2000a. Theropods from the Cretaceous of Mongolia; pp. 434- 455 in M. J. Benton, M. A. Shishkin, D. M. Unwin, and E. N. Kurochkin (eds.), The Age of Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- --------- 2000b. Possible evidence of gregarious behavior in tyrannosaurids. Gaia 15:271-277.
- --------- , and D. A. Eberth. 1993. Palaeontology, sedimentology and palaeoecology of the Iren Dabasu Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. Cretaceous Research 14:127-144.
- --------- , and X.-J. Zhao 1993a. A new large theropod (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Jurassic of Xinjiang, People's Republic of China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 30:2037-2081.
- --------- , and X. I. Zhao. 1993b. A new troodontid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) braincase from the Dinosaur Park Formation (Campanian) of Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 30:2231-2247.
- ---------, and K. Carpenter. 2000. A new specimen of Acrocanthosaurus atokensis (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from the Lower Cretaceous Antlers Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Oklahoma, USA. Geodiversitas 22:207-246.
- ---------, and P.-J. Chen. 2001. Anatomy of Sinosauropteryx prima from Liaoning, northeastern China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38:1705-1727.
- --------- , and Z. Dong. 2001a. New information on Shanshanosaurus huoyanshanensis, a juvenile tyrannosaurid (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from the Late Cretaceous of China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38:1729-1737.
- --------- , and--------- 2001b. New information on Cretaceous troodontids (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the People's Republic of China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38:1753-1766.
- Dilkes, D. W. 2000. Appendicular myology of the hadrosaurian dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) of Montana. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 90:87-125.
- Dong, Z.-M. 1977. On the dinosaurian remains from Turpan, Zinjiang. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 15:59-66.
- --------- 1979. [Dinosaur fossils from the Cretaceous of South China.] pp. 342-350 in Mesozoic and Cenozoic Redbeds in Southern China, Institute for Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Beijing. [Chinese]
- Dunning, J. B. (ed.) 1992. CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 384 pp.
- Eaton, J. G., J. I. Kirkland, J. H. Hutchison, R. Denton, R. C. O'Neill, and J. M. Parrish. 1997. Nonmarine extinction across the Cenomanian-Turanian boundary, southwestern Utah, with a comparison to the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. Geological Society of America Bulletin 109:560-567.
- Erickson, G. M. 1995. Split carinae on tyrannosaurid teeth and implications of their development. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 15:268-274.
- Fitch, H. S. 1981. Sexual size differences in reptiles. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Miscellaneous Publication 70:1-72.
- Forster, C. A., S. D. Sampson, L. M. Chiappe, and D. Krause. 1998. The theropod ancestry of birds: new evidence from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Science 279:1915-1919.
- Fiirbringer, M. 1876. Zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Schultermuskeln. Part III. Gegenbaur's Morphologisches Jahrbuch 1:636-816.
- --------- 1902. Zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Schultermuskeln. Part V. Vogel. Jena Z. Naturwissenschaften 36:289-736.
- Galton, P. M. 1974. The ornithischian dinosaur Hypsilophodon from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 25:1-152.
- --------- 1990. Basal Sauropodomorpha; pp. 320-344 in D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmolska (eds.), The Dinosauria, University of California Press, Berkeley.
- Gatesy, S. M. 1990. Caudofemoral musculature and the evolution of theropod locomotion. Paleobiology 16:170-186.
- Gauthier, J. A. 1986. Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences 8:1-55.
- George, J. C., and A. J. Berger. 1966. Avian Myology. Academic Press, New York, 500 pp.
- Gillette, D. D., D. L. Wolberg, and A. P. Hunt. 1986. Tyrannosaurus rex from the McRae Formation (Lancian, Upper Cretaceous), Elephant Butte Reservoir, Sierra County, New Mexico. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook 37:235-238.
- Gilmore, C. W. 1920. Osteology of the carnivorous Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genera Antrodemus (Allosaurus) and Ceratosaurus. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 110:1-154.
- --------- 1933. On the dinosaurian fauna of the Iren Dabasu Formation. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 67:23-78.
- --------- 1946. A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Lance Formation of Montana. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection 106:1-19.
- Glut, D. F. 2000. Dinosaurs The Encyclopedia Supplement 1. McFarland & Company, Jefferson, North Carolina, 442 pp.
- Hanna, R. R. 2000. Dinosaurs got hurt too; pp. 119-126 in G. S. Paul (ed.), The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs. St. Martin's Press, New York.
- Harris, J. D. 1998. A reanalysis of Acrocanthosaurus atokensis, its phylogenetic status, and paleobiogeographic implications, based on a new specimen from Texas. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 13:1-75.
- Holtz, T. R. 1994. The phylogenetic position of the Tyrannosauridae: implications for theropod systematics. Journal of Paleontology 65: 1100-1117.
- --------- 1995. The arctometatarsalian pes: an unusual structure of Cretaceous Theropoda (Dinosauria: Saurischia). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14:408-519.
- --------- 1997. Preliminary phylogenetic analysis of the Tyrannosauridae (Theropoda: Coelurosauria). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17:53A.
- --------- 1998. Large theropod comparative cranial function: a new "twist" for tyrannosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18:51A.
- ---------2000. A new phylogeny of the carnivorous dinosaurs. Gaia 15:5- 62.
- --------- 2001a. The phylogeny and taxonomy of the Tyrannosauridae; pp. 64-83 in D. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
- --------- 2001b. Arctometatarsalia revisited: the problem of homoplasy in reconstructing theropod phylogeny; pp. 99-121 in J. Gauthier and L. F. Gall (eds.), New Perspectives on the Origin and Early Evolution of Birds: Proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom. Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven.
- Horner, J. R. 2000. Dinosaur reproduction and parenting. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28:19-45.
- ---------, D. J. Varricchio, and M. B. Goodwin. Marine transgressions and the evolution of Cretaceous dinosaurs. Nature 358:59-61.
- Hudson, G. E., and P. J. Lanzillotti. 1955. Gross anatomy of the wing muscles in the family Corvidae. American Midland Naturalist 53: 1-44.
- Hurum, J. H., and P. J. Currie. 2000. The crushing bite of tyrannosaurids. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20:619-621.
- Hutchinson, J. R. 2001a. The evolution of pelvic osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131:123-168.
- --------- 2001b. The evolution of femoral osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131:169-197.
- ---------, and M. Garcia. 2002. Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner. Nature 415:1018-1021.
- Hutt, S., D. Naish, D. M. Martill, M. J. Barker, and P. Newbery. 2001. A preliminary account of a new tyrannosauroid theropod from the Wessex Formation (Early Cretaceous) of southern England. Cretaceous Research 22:227-242.
- Juul, L. 1994. The phylogeny of basal archosaurs. Palaeontographica Africana 31:1-38.
- Kurzanov, S. M. 1976a. Braincase structure in the carnosaur Itemirus n. gen. and some aspects of the cranial anatomy of dinosaurs. Paleontological Journal 10:361-369.
- --------- 1976b. [A new Late Cretaceous carnosaur from Nogon-Tsav, Mongolia.] [Results of the Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition] 3:93-104. [Russian]
- Lambe, L. M. 1903. The lower jaw of Dryptosaurus incrassatus (Cope). The Ottawa Naturalist 17:133-139.
- --------- 1904. On Dryptosaurus incrassatus (Cope) from the Edmonton Series of the Northwest Territory. Contributions to Canadian Paleontology 3:1-27.
- --------- 1914a. On the fore-limb of a carnivorous dinosaur from the Belly River Formation of Alberta, and a new genus of Ceratopsia from the same horizon, with remarks on the integument of some Cretaceous herbivorous dinosaurs. Ottawa Naturalist 27:13-20.
- --------- 1914b. On a new genus and species of carnivorous dinosaur from the Belly River Formation of Alberta, with a description of the skull of Stephanosaurus marginatus from the same horizon. Ottawa Naturalist 28:13-20.
- --------- 1917. The Cretaceous theropodous dinosaur Gorgosaurus. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada 100:1-84.
- Langer, M. C. 2001. Early dinosaur phylogeny: are any of the hypotheses better supported? Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:71 A
- Larson, P. L. 1994. Tyrannosaurus sex. Paleontological Society Special Publication 7:139-155.
- --------- 1997. The king's new clothes: a fresh look at Tyrannosaurus rex; pp. 65-71 in D. L. Wolberg, E. Stump, and G. D. Rosenberg (eds.), DinoFest International Proceedings. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
- --------- 1999. Guess who's coming to dinner; Tyrannosaurus vs. Nanotyrannus\ variance in feeding habits. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:58A.
- ---------2001. Pathologies in Tyrannosaurus rex: snapshots of a killer's life. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:71A-72A.
- --------- 2002. Rex Appeal: The Amazing Story of Sue, the Dinosaur that Changed Science, the Law, and My Life. Invisible Cities Press, Montpelier, VT, 384 pp.
- ---------, and E. Frey. 1992. Sexual dimorphism in the abundant Upper Cretaceous theropod Tyrannosaurus rex. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12:38A.
- Larsson, H. C. E., P C. Sereno, and J. A. Wilson. 2000. Forebrain enlargement among nonavian theropod dinosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20:615-618.
- Lawson, D. A. 1976. Tyrannosaurus and Torvosaurus, Maestrichtian dinosaurs from trans-Pecos Texas. Journal of Paleontology 50:158- 164.
- Lee, K., J. Feinstein, and J. Cracraft. 1997. The phylogeny of ratite birds: resolving conflicts between molecular and morphological data sets; pp. 173-211 in D. P. Mindell (ed.), Avian Molecular Evolution and Systematics. Academic Press, San Diego.
- Lehman, T. M., and K. Carpenter. 1990. A partial skeleton of the tyrannosaurid dinosaur Aublysodon from the Upper Cretaceous of New Mexico. Journal of Paleontology 64:1026-1032.
- Leidy, J. 1856. Notice of remains of extinct Reptiles and Fishes discovered by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the Bad Lands of the Judith River, Nebraska Territory. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 8:72-73.
- Lockley, M. G., and A. P. Hunt. 1994. A track of the giant theropod Tyrannosaurus from close to the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, northern New Mexico. Ichnos 3:1-6.
- Lucas, S. G., A. B. Heckert, and R. M. Sullivan. 2000. Cretaceous dinosaurs in New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science 17:83-90.
- Mader, B. J., and R. L. Bradley. 1989. A redescription and revised diagnosis of the syntypes of the Mongolian tyrannosaur Alectrosaurus olseni. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9:41-55.
- Madsen, J. H. 1974. A new theropod dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic of Utah. Journal of Paleontology 48:27-31.
- --------- 1976. Allosaurus fragilis: a revised osteology. Utah Geological Survey Bulletin 109:1-163.
- ---------, and S. P. Welles. 2000. Ceratosaurus (Dinosauria, Theropoda) a revised osteology. Utah Geological Survey Miscellaneous Publication 00- 2:1-80.
- Makovicky, P. 1997. Postcranial axial skeleton, comparative anatomy; pp. 579-590 in P. J. Currie and K. Padian (eds.), Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Academic Press, New York.
- ---------, and H. D. Sues. 1998. Anatomy and phylogenetic relationships of the theropod dinosaur Microvenator celer from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana. American Museum Novitates 3240:1-27.
- --------- , and P. J. Currie. 1998. The presence of a furcula in tyrannosaurid theropods, and its phylogenetic and functional implications. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18:143-149.
- Maleev, E. A. 1955. [New carnivorous dinosaurs of Mongolia.] C. R. Acad. Sci. USSR 104:779-783. [Russian]
- --------- 1965. [On the brain of carnivorous dinosaurs.] Paleontologeskii Zhurnal 2:141-143. [Russian]
- --------- 1974. [Gigantic carnosaurs of the family Tyrannosauridae.] [Results of the Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition] 1:132- 191. [Russian]
- Manabe, M. 1999. The early evolution of Tyrannosauridae in Asia. Journal of Paleontology 73:1176-1178.
- Marsh, O. C. 1892. Notice of new reptiles from the Laramie Formation. American Journal of Science (Series 3) 43:449-453.
- Maryanska, T., H. Osmolska, and M. Wolsan. 2002. Avialan status for Oviraptorosauria. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 47:97-116.
- Matthew, W. D., and B. Brown. 1923. Preliminary notices of skeletons and skulls of Deinodontidae from the Cretaceous of Alberta. American Museum Novitates 89:1-9.
- McIver, E. E. 2002. The paleoenvironment of Tyrannosaurus rex from southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 39:207-221.
- Molnar, R. E. 1978. A new theropod dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of central Montana. Journal of Paleontology 52:73-82.
- - -------1985. Alternatives to Archaeopteryx: a survey of proposed early or ancestral birds; pp. 209-217 in M. K. Hecht, J. Ho. Ostrom, G. Viohl, and P. Wellenhoffer (eds.), The Beginnings of Birds; Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference. Freunde des Jura-Museums, Eichstatt.
- --------- 1991. The cranial morphology of Tyrannosaurus rex. Palaeontographica Abt.. A 217:137-176.
- --------- 2000. Mechanical factors in the design of the skull of Tyrannosaurus rex. Gaia 15:193-218.
- ---------, and K. Carpenter. 1989. The Jordan theropod (Maastrichtian, Montana, U.S.A.) referred to the genus Aublysodon. Geobios 22: 445-454.
- --------- , S. M. Kurzanov, and D. Zhiming. 1990. Carnosauria; pp. 169- 209 in D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmolska (eds.), The Dinosauria. University of California Press, Berkeley.
- Nicholls, E. L., and A. P. Russell. 1985. Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda: Ornithomimidae). Palaeontology 28:638-667.
- Norell, M. A., and P. J. Makovicky. 1997. Important features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton: information from a new specimen. American Museum Novitates 3215:1-28.
- ---------, and --------- 1999. Important features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton II: information from newly collected specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis. American Museum Novitates 3282:1-45.
- ---------, J. M. Clark, and P. J. Makovicky. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships among coelurosaurian theropods; pp. 49-67 in J. Gauthier and L. F. Gall (eds.), New Perspectives on the Origin and Early Evolution of Birds: Proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom. Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven.
- Norman, D. B. 1986. On the anatomy of Iguanodon atherfieldensis (Ornithischia, Ornithopoda). Bulletin de l'lnstitut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Sciences de la Terre 56:281-372.
- Osborn, H. F. 1905. Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 21:259-265.
- --------- 1906. Tyrannosaurus, Upper Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur (second communication). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 22:281-296.
- ---------1912. Crania of Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History 1:33-54.
- --------- 1917. Skeletal adaptations of Ornitholestes, Struthiomimus, Tyrannosaurus. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 35:733-771.
- Osmolska, H., E. Roneiwicz, and R. Barsbold. 1972. A new dinosaur, Gallimimus bullatus n. gen., n. sp. (Ornithomimidae) from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia. Palaeontologica Polonica 27:103-143.
- Ostrom, J. H. 1969. Osteology of Deinonychus antirrhopus, an unusual theropod from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana. Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University 30:1-165.
- Owen, R. 1850. On the communications between the cavity of the tympanum and the palate in the Crocodilia (gavials, alligator and crocodiles). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 27:521-527 + 3 plates.
- Parks, W. A. 1928. Albertosaurus arctunguis, a new species of theropodous dinosaur from the Edmonton Formation of Alberta. University of Toronto Studies (Geological Series) 26:1-24.
- Paton, P. W. C., F. J. Messina, and C. R. Griffin. 1994. A phylogenetic approach to reversed sexual dimorphism in diurnal raptors. Oikos 71:492-498.
- Paul, G. S. 1988. Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. Simon and Schuster, New York, 464 pp.
- Perle, A. 1977. [On the first discovery of Alectrosaurus from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia.] [Problems of Mongolian Geology] 3: 104-113. [Mongolian]
- --------- 1985. Comparative myology of the pelvic-femoral region in the bipedal dinosaurs. Paleontological Journal 19:105-109.
- ---------, L. M. Chiappe, R. Barsbold, J. M. Clark, and M. A. Norell. 1994. Skeletal morphology of Mononykus olecranus (Theropoda: Avialae) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 3105:1-29.
- Poglayen-Neuwall, I. 1953. Untersuchungen der Kiefermuskulatur und deren Innervation an Krokodilen. Anatomische Anzieger 99:257- 296.
- Powell, J. S. 1998. Sexual dimorphism in archosaurs: testing the limits of extant phylogenetic bracket method. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18:70A.
- Raath, M. A. 1969. A new coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Forest Sandstone of Rhodesia. Arnoldia 5:1-25.
- Rega, E. A., and C. A. Brochu. 2001. Paleopathology of a mature Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:92A.
- Rogers, S. W. 1998. Exploring dinosaur neuropaleobiology: computed tomography scanning and analysis of an Allosaurus fragilis endocast. Neuron 21:673-679.
- --------- 1999. Allosaurus, crocodiles, and birds: evolutionary clues from spiral computed tomography of an endocast. The Anatomical Record (New Anatomy) 257:162-173.
- Rhozhdestvensky, A. K. 1965. [Growth changes and some problems of systematics of Asian dinosaurs.] Paleontologeskii Zhournal 2:95- 109. [Russian]
- Romer, A. S. 1923. Crocodilian pelvic muscles and their avian and reptilian homologues. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 58:533-552.
- --------- 1924. The pelvic musculature of saurischian dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 58:605-617.
- --------- 1956. Osteology of the Reptiles. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 772 pp.
- Rothschild, B. M. 1997. Dinosaurian paleopathology; pp. 426-448 in J. O. Farlow and M. K. Brett-Surman (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
- --------- , and L. D. Martin. 1993. Paleopathology: Disease in the Fossil Record. CRC Press, London, 386 pp.
- --------- , D. Tanke, and K. Carpenter. 1997. Tyrannosaurs suffered from gout. Nature 387:357.
- --------- , D. H. Tanke, and T. Ford. 2001. Theropod stress fractures and tendon avulsions as a clue to activity; pp. 331-336 in D. H. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
- Rowe, T. 1986. Homology and evolution of the deep dorsal thigh muscles in birds and other Reptilia. Journal of Morphology 189:327- 346.
- --------- 1989. A new species of the theropod dinosaur Syntarsus from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9:125-136.
- --------- , and J. Gauthier. Ceratosauria; pp. 151-168 in D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmolska (eds.), The Dinosauria. University of California Press, Berkeley
- Rowe, T., C. A. Brochu, K. Kishi, J. W. Merck, Jr., and M. W. Colbert (eds.), 1999. Alligator. Digital Atlas of the Skull. Soceity of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir 6: 1-100 and CD-ROM.
- Ruben, J. A., W. J. Hillenius, N. R. Geist, A. Leitch, T. D. Jones, P. J. Currie, J. R. Horner, and G. Espe. 1996. The metabolic status of some Late Cretaceous dinosaurs. Science 273:1204-1207.
- --------- , T. D. Jones, N. R. Geist, and W. J. Hillenius. 1997. Lung structure and ventilation in theropod dinosaurs and early birds. Science 278:1267-1270.
- Russell, D. A. 1970. Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences Publications in Palaeontology 1:1-34.
- --------- , and Z.-M. Dong. 1993. A nearly complete skeleton of a new troodontid dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of the Ordos Basin, Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 30:2163-2173.
- Ryan, M. J., and A. P. Russell. 2001. Dinosaurs of Alberta (exclusive of Aves); pp. 279-297 in D. H. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
- Sabath, K. 1991. Upper Cretaceous amniotic eggs from the Gobi Desert. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 36:151-192.
- Sagan, C. 1996. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Random House, New York, 457 pp.
- Sampson, S. D., L. M. Witmer, C. A. Forster, D. W. Krause, P. M. O'Connor, P. Dodson, and F. Ravoavy. 1998. Predatory dinosaur remains from Madagascar: implications for the Cretaceous biogeography of Gondwana. Science 280:1048-1051.
- Schumacher, G. H. 1973. The head muscles and hyolaryngeal skeleton of turtles and crocodilians; pp. 101-195 in C. Gans and T. S. Parsons (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia Vol. 4. Academic Press, New York.
- Schwimmer, D. R., G. D. Williams, J. L. Dobie, and W. G. Siesser. 1993. Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from the Blufftown Formation in western Georgia and eastern Alabama. Journal of Paleontology 67: 288-296.
- --------- , and C. R. Kiernan. 2001. Eastern Late Cretaceous theropods in North America and the crossing of the Interior Seaway. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:99A.
- Sereno, P. C. 1993. The pectoral girdle and forelimb of the basal theropod Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 13:425-450.
- --------- 1997. The origin and evolution of dinosaurs. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 25:435-489.
- --------- 1998. A rationale for phylogenetic definitions, with application to the higher-level taxonomy of Dinosauria. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Geologie. und Palaontologie Abhandlungen 210:41-83.
- --------- 1999. The evolution of dinosaurs. Science 284:2137-2147.
- --------- 2001. Alvarezsaurids: Birds or ornithomimosaurs?; pp. 69-98 in J. Gauthier and L. F. Gall (eds.), New Perspectives on the Origin and Early Evolution of Birds: Proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom. Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven.
- --------- , and F. Novas. 1993. The skull and neck of the basal theropod Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 13:451-476.
- --------- , D. B. Dutheil, M. Iarochene, H. C. E. Larsson, G. H. Lyon, P. M. Magwene, C. A. Sidor, D. J. Varrichio, and J. A. Wilson. 1996. Predatory dinosaurs from the Sahara and Late Cretaceous faunal differentiation. Science 272:986-991.
- Sternberg, C. M. 1933. A new Ornithomimus with complete abdominal cuirass. Canadian Field Naturalist 47:79-82.
- Stovall, J. W., and W. Langston. 1950. Acrocanthosaurus atokensis, a new genus and species of Lower Cretaceous Theropoda from Oklahoma. American Midland Naturalist 43:696-728.
- Sues, H.-D. 1997. On Chirostenotes, a Late Cretaceous oviraptorosaur (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from western North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17:698-716.
- Sullivan, R. M., and T. E. Williamson. 1999. A new skull of Parasaurolophus (Dinosauria: Hadrosauridae) from the Kirtland Formation of New Mexico and a revision of the genus. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 15:1-52.
- Tanke, D. H., and P. J. Currie. 2000. Head-biting behavior in theropod dinosaurs: paleopathological evidence. Gaia 15:167-184.
- Thulborn, R. A. 1984. The avian relationships of Archaeopteryx, and the origin of birds. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 82: 119-158.
- Van den Berge, J. C., and G. A. Zweers. 1993. Myologia; pp. 189-250 in J. J. Baumel (ed.), Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium, 2nd ed. Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
- Varricchio, D. J. 2001. Gut contents from a Cretaceous tyrannosaurid: implications for theropod dinosaur digestive tracts. Journal of Paleontology 75:401-406.
- --------- , F. Jackson, J. J. Borkowski, and J. R. Horner. 1997. Nest and egg clutches of the dinosaur Troodon formosus and the evolution of avian reproductive traits. Nature 385:247-250.
- Von Huene, F. 1914. Das natiirlich System der Saurischia. Zentralblatt fur Mineralogie, Geologie, und Palaeontologie B 1914:154-158.
- Walker, 1980. The pelvis of Archaeopteryx. Geological Magazine 117: 595-600. '
- Welles, S. P. 1984. Dilophosaurus wetherilli (Dinosauria, Theropoda). Osteology and comparisons. Palaeontographica Abt. A 185:85- 180.
- Wellnhofer, P. 1985. Remarks on the digit and pubis problems of Archaeopteryx; pp. 113-122 in M. K. Hecht, J. H. Ostrom, G. Viohl, and P. Wellnhofer (eds.), The Beginnings of Birds; Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference. Freunde des Jura-Museums, Eichstatt.
- Wilson, J. A. 1999. A nomenclature for vertebral laminae in sauropods and other saurischian dinosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:639-653.
- Witmer, L. M. 1995. Homology of facial structures in extant archosaurs (birds and crocodilians), with special reference to paranasal pneumaticity and nasal conchae. Journal of Morphology 225:269-327.
- --------- 1997. The evolution of the antorbital cavity of archosaurs: a study in soft-tissue reconstruction in the fossil record with an analysis of the function of pneumaticity. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir 3:1-73.
- Xu, X., M. A. Norell, X.-L. Wang, P. J. Makovicky, and X.-C. Wu. 2002. A basal troodontid from the Early Cretaceous of China. Nature 415:780-764.