INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series N (Statistics) No. 17
(Second Revised

Edition)

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY
OF INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
OF COSTS OF LIVING
An Enquiry into the Cost of Living
of Certain Groups of Workers in Detroit (U.S.A.)
and Fourteen European Towns

GENEVA
1932
Published in the United Kingdom
For the

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE ( L E A G U E OF NATIONS)

By P. S. KING & SON, Ltd.
Orchard House, 14 Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. 1

P R I N T E D BY
ATAR, GENEVA

Note to the Second Edition
This study was originally published, in an English version
only in December 1931, under the title of An International
Enquiry into Costs of Living : A Comparative Study of Workers'
Living Costs in Detroit (U.S.A.) and Fourteen European Cities.
In the second edition, which is now published in English,
French and German, the opportunity has been taken to make
certain changes, as follows:
(1) The title of the report has been amended. The new
title gives perhaps a better description of the study.
(2) The "Summary of Results " given on page 29 of the
first edition has been considerably modified and expanded.
Tables are now given showing the results for each of the main
groups of expenditure both in national currency and in a
common currency. In these tables the. employers' contributions to social insurance have not been taken into account, as
the primary object of the tables is to show relative costs of living
in the different towns. Pull information on employers' social
insurance contributions will be found in the individual town
reports. In addition, the reservations and qualifications to which
the figures given in these summary tables are subject have been
emphasised and the conclusions which can and cannot be
drawn from the figures are set out in greater detail.
(3) As announced in the preface to the first edition, an
article was to be prepared for the International Labour Review
in which the information furnished and the results obtained
for the different cities were analysed and discussed in greater
detail. This article duly appeared in the International Labour
Review for September 1932 and it is now reproduced as Annex IV
to this study.
(4) Certain minor alterations have been made in the town
reports, chiefly as regards the method of presentation. It should
be emphasised, however, that none of the basic data as given
in the appendices to each town report, or any of the methods
of calculation, have been modified. These remain the same as
in the first edition.

PREFACE

The enquiry, which resulted in the following report, arose
originally out of a request from the Ford Motor Co. Ltd.
(London). In 1929, this Company approached the International
Labour Office for information as to the relative costs of living
in certain European cities in which the Company had established,
or proposed to establish, factories. In deciding upon the scale
of wages to be paid in these cities the Company wished to
consider the possibility of taking into account, among other
factors, that of the cost of living. They were therefore anxious
to have some authoritative source of information which would
indicate the extent to which the cost of living and taxation
varied in these cities in relation to the city of Detroit (U.S.A.),
the headquarters of the Ford interests.
The International Labour Office replied by supplying the
information it had collected and published at regular intervals
in the International Labour Review into the relative costs of
food, fuel, etc., in the chief countries, and pointed out that full
information for the specific towns in question could only be
obtained by means of special investigations on the spot by
persons acquainted with local conditions; enquiries which the
International Labour Office could hardly undertake for one
individual firm. The Ford Company, however, indicated that
they did not wish for a special enquiry on their behalf, but,
as indicated above, merely had need of some authoritative
source book which would give them the information they
needed as to what extent relative cost of living varied in these
cities.
The request of the Ford Motor Co., however, attracted
considerable attention in the United States of America and
an offer was made by the Twentieth Century Fund Inc. (President, Mr. Edward A. Filene) of Boston (Mass.) to defray
the cost of a special enquiry. This generous offer was gratefully

VIII

PREFACE

accepted by the Governing Body of the International Labour
Office towards the end of the year 1929 and the conditions
under which the special enquiry should be undertaken by the
Statistical Section of the International Labour Office were
agreed upon at interviews between the Director of the International Labour Office and the President of the Twentieth
Century Fund.
It was agreed that competent statistical authorities and
experts in each of the countries covered by the enquiry should
be consulted in order that the data secured might be reliable
and the methods adopted sound. The price data used have
been supplied in each case by a competent statistical authority
and the International Labour Office has confined itself to
making the necessary computations based upon these data.
This procedure, while, it is hoped, adding to the authority
of the enquiry and the confidence with which the results may
be accepted, somewhat prolonged its duration.
On completion of the enquiry the final figures were communicated to the Ford Company in London, and the task of
the Office was, strictly speaking, completed, but in view of
the great interest both in this special enquiry and in the general
question of relative costs and standards of living of workers
in different countries, it has been decided to publish the results.
The Office is aware that the information obtained is not of
equal value and it will be evident to students of the report
that the "margin of error" is greater for some cities than for
others, and although, as explained in the following chapters,
careful attempts have been made to reduce this margin as much
as possible, it has not always been possible to obtain strictly
comparable data. It is primarily as a study of methods that this
report is published. As far as the Office is aware, no similar
enquiry of this nature has been undertaken before and while
it is limited to a particular category of employee and to certain
cities in a limited number of European countries, it is thought
that a full account of the methods adopted, the difficulties
encountered, and the problems raised in the course of the
enquiry will be of special interest to all students of social questions. The experience gained in the course of the enquiry has
been extremely valuable and it is hoped that if an enquiry
of a similar nature is repeated (whether by the International
Labour Office or by others), this account of methods and results

PREFACE

IX

will be of service. For this reason all the original data used in
the calculations have been published for each city covered *.
It is unfortunate that at the early stages of the enquiry
the fall in the general level of prices became very marked.
Dependent as the Office has been on the goodwill of the various
statistical experts in the different countries it was not possible
to ensure that the local investigations should commence and
terminate at the same dates in each city; and the data received
therefore necessarily relate to various dates in 1930 and 1931.
The ideal method would have been a simultaneous enquiry
in each city, but this was precluded by the limited resources
and staff available. In order to eliminate as far as possible
this element of incomparability the calculations have been
brought to a uniform date, viz. January 1931, by utilising the
known information as to changes in the cost of living within
each country since the date of enquiry, but this factor brings
about a certain degree of approximation, which cannot in the
circumstances be avoided.
The thanks of the International Labour Office are due to
all those who have collaborated in this enquiry in each of the
towns and in particular to the Twentieth Century Fund Inc.,
without whose generous financial support this enquiry could
not have been undertaken, and to the United States Bureau
of Labour Statistics for its generous collaboration.

1
Note to second edition. — An article has been published in the
International Labour Review, September 1932, in which the information
furnished and the results obtained for the different cities are analysed
in greater detail and compared with other data on social conditions.
The greater part of this article is reproduced as Annex IV to this
edition.

CONTENTS

NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION
PREFACE
CHAPTER

Page
v
vu

I:

Scope of the Enquiry

Introduction
The American Standard of Living
Towns Covered by the Enquiry
Organisation of the Enquiry
Conclusion
CHAPTER II : Method of the Enquiry and Summary of Results .
Part I. — General
Part II. — Details of Methods Adopted
Basic Information and Collection of European D a t a . . . .
Food
•
Housing
Fuel and Light
Clothing
Medical Expenses
Miscellaneous Expenses
Insurance
Taxation
Part III. — Summary of Results

1
1
2
3
4
5
7
7
10
11
12
17
19
21
22
23
25
27
28

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES:

Berlin and Frankfort on the Main (Germany)
Copenhagen (Denmark)
Stockholm (Sweden)
Helsinki-Helsingfors (Finland)
Paris and Marseilles (France)
Antwerp (Belgium)
Rotterdam (Netherlands)
Manchester (Great Britain)
Cork (Irish Free State)
Warsaw (Poland)
Barcelona (Spain)
Istanbul (Turkey)
ANNEX I: Standard of Living of Employees of the Ford Motor Co.,
Detroit (reprinted from the Monthly Labour Review, June
1930, of the United States Bureau of Labour Statistics). .

39
52
60
75
82
95
108
115
127
135
142
148
155

CONTENTS

XII

Page

II: Memorandum on the Detroit Standard of Living circulated to the National Collaborators
201

ANNEX

III: How Ford's Lowest-Paid Workers Live (reprinted
from the Social Service Review (U.S.A.), March 1931) . . . 208
ANNEX IV: Further Observations on the Methods and the Validity
of the Results of the Present Enquiry (reprinted from the
International Labour Review, September 1932)
216
ANNEX

V: Conversion Tables (Currency, Weights and Measures)
American and European, used in the Enquiry
247

ANNEX

CHAPTER I
SCOPE OF THE ENQUIRÏ

INTRODUCTION

Before describing the exact scope of the enquiry which the
International Labour Office was asked to undertake, it is perhaps
advisable, in order to remove certain misconceptions, to state
at the outset what the enquiry is not.
First, it is not an enquiry into wages. The actual wages
paid in the different countries covered by the enquiry are of
no relevance to the present investigation and no statistics of
wages have been collected.
Secondly, it is not an enquiry into real wages (i.e. the relative
purchasing power of existing wages) in the different countries.
An enquiry of this nature has been conducted by the Office
for some years but the information has not been used for the
purpose of this enquiry.
Thirdly, it is not one of comparing the different existing
standards of living or of consumption in the different countries.
A large amount of information is already available as to the
mode of life of workers in various European countries, based
principally on family budget enquiries, and a comparison of
these, though difficult, would throw valuable light on social
conditions. Such comparisons, however, would throw no direct
light on the present problem.
In its simplest terms the enquiry may be said to be a "cost
of living enquiry ", similar to, but not identical with, those
carried out in different countries to show changes in the cost
of living over a period.
The Ford Motor Co. Ltd. (London) explained to the Office
that it was considering the policy of relating the conditions
of employment of their European employees to those in Detroit
and, for this purpose, was anxious to have some authoritative
source of information which would indicate how far the cost
of the necessaries of life differed from their cost in Detroit.

2

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY I N T O COSTS O F LIVING

It was desired to know, in other words, how much a European
worker would need to expend if his general standard of living
were to be approximately equivalent to that of his Detroit
counterpart.
If the habits and conditions of life of workers in the different
European countries were closely similar to those in the United
States of America, the question would have been simple. In
fact, however, there are great differences. The workers employed
in the European factories are not American workers but mostly
citizens of the country concerned, with their national habits,
customs and traditions.
If the question had been how much it would cost an American
worker to live in each of the European cities in the same manner
as in Detroit, the question would again have been relatively
simple.
It has been necessary (and the necessity was recognised
in the original request) to take into account the modes of life
in each city. The question thus involves taking into consideration not only the American standard of living but also the
national habits, traditions and customs of the different cities.
In this form the question becomes a difficult one to which only
an approximate answer can be given. The discussion of the
methods adopted to answer it is reserved for the following
chapter.
THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF LIVING

As the whole object of the enquiry was to take the standard
of living in Detroit as basis with which all the European cities
were to be compared, it was necessary at the outset to obtain
an authoritative account of the existing standard of living
of the Detroit worker.
The International Labour Office immediately addressed itself
to the United States Bureau of Labour Statistics, which has had
an exceptional and unique experience in making cost of living
and family budget enquiries. It most generously undertook
to make a special investigation which would act as a basis
for this enquiry. The scope of this investigation is discussed in the following chapter and the complete results are
given as an annex to this report. It is sufficient here to state
that it related solely to Detroit families of a certain size whose

SCOPE OF THE ENQUIRY

3

head had been working approximately full time throughout
the year 1929 on the lowest wage scale1.
The results of this enquiry show that such a type of family
on an average spent, during 1929, $ 1,720. This figure of
expenditure was taken as the basicfigureon which computations
were made for all the other cities.
The automobile industry is, however, one in which employment is somewhat irregular: seasonal fluctuations, changes in
fashion, introductions of new models, all conduce to a certain
irregularity of employment. Unfortunately, statistics are not
available as to the average annual expenditure of all Detroit
workers on the lowest wage scale, whether employed on fulltime or not, and could only be obtained at enormous cost by
personal enquiries or by separate tabulation of the weekly
earnings of each individual worker or of a large representative
sample. Such figures, to be representative, would have to cover
a number of years, owing to the exceptional conditions of the
last few years.
The object of the enquiry was therefore limited to finding
how much would be spent by employees in certain European
cities in order that these employees might have a standard of
living approximately equivalent to that of a Detroit employee
whose expenditure in 1929 was about 1,720 dollars.
The enquiry was thus a limited one and related solely to
this hypothetical employee. The figures obtained cannot
necessarily be applied to other categories of workpeople.
TOWNS COVERED BY THE ENQUIRY

The International Labour Office has made investigations for
the following fourteen cities in which the Company had established, or were considering the establishment of, factories:
Berlin and Frankfort on the Main (Germany);
Copenhagen (Denmark);
Stockholm (Sweden);
Helsinki-Helsingfors (Finland) ;
Paris and Marseilles (France);
Antwerp (Belgium);
1
This rate was $6 a day from 1919 to December 1929, when,
as an emergency measure, it was raised to $7 a day, but was reduced
again to $6 a day in October 1931. It must be remembered that in
1926 a five-day week was instituted.

4

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

Rotterdam (Netherlands) ;
Manchester (Great Britain);
Cork (Irish Free State);
Warsaw (Poland);
Barcelona (Spain);
Istanbul (Turkey).
Although it wouïd have been of great and general interest
to extend the enquiry to other towns, it was decided in view
of the experimental nature of the enquiry and of the limited
time and resources available to restrict the enquiry to these
towns only.
ORGANISATION OF THE ENQUIRY

The Office had agreed to consult in each country competent
experts who were familiar with the conditions in their country.
Hence during the year 1930 the International Labour Office
got into touch with the competent statistical authorities in
each of the countries covered and arranged for collaboration.
Visits were paid to each of the cities; the scope of the enquiry
and the nature of the information required was carefully explained and collaboration was arranged. For each of the localities mentioned above information was furnished, in most cases
readily, and the International Labour Office expresses its gratitude to all who have collaborated in this enquiry. Further
information on the machinery of the enquiry, the way in
which the basic data were handled, the various problems of
measuring " t h e equivalent standard of living" are dealt with
in the following chapter..
The price data used in the computations have been therefore furnished as a result of special enquiries made by competent persons or authorities in the city or country concerned,
but the computations have been made by the International
Labour Office. These computations, however, have been submitted to the competent authorities (where such a course
was requested) and their observations have been taken into
account in framing the estimates for each town. Moreover,
in 1931, a Conference was held in Geneva to which representatives from the collaborating countries were invited. Representatives of nearly all the cities were present and Mr. Ethelbert
Stewart, Commissioner of Labour Statistics in the Bureau
of Labour Statistics of the United States of America, came
to Geneva especially for this meeting, in order to give the

SCOPE OF THE

ENQUIRY

5

meeting the benefit of his advice and experience concerning
the standard of living of the Detroit employee as obtained
from the enquiry undertaken by his Bureau.
The preliminary results of the enquiry were submitted to
the Conference and a valuable exchange of views took place
which enabled the collaborators to compare their experiences
and explain to each other the methods they had adopted. As
a result, supplementary enquiries became necessary in respect
of some cities, in order to make the data more comparable,
and the International Labour Office was able to interpret the
data received with more confidence. The revised calculations
were then submitted to competent authorities in each country
(in most cases the Statistical Offices of the Central Government)
and their observations have been taken into account in preparing the final report.
CONCLUSION

Before describing in detail the methods adopted, it is necessary to state once again that this enquiry is a first attempt of
its nature to answer an important but particularly difficult
question. The ideal way of dealing with the problem would
have been by means of an international commission of experts
which would have visited each town in turn, would have
thoroughly investigated the conditions of living, would have
used the same "standards of appreciation" and would have
been able, especially in such matters as housing, to compare
the relative values of different classes of accommodation.
Such a method is precluded by the time and expense involved.
The Office attempted the next best method, visits were paid
to each of the countries (sometimes several visits to the same
country) ; the problem was explained in detail ; full information
on the qualities and grades of the articles and services bought
was circulated, in some cases (e.g. clothing, household linen, etc.)
actual samples of the Detroit articles were circulated, and the data
were closely scrutinised on receipt. In nearly every case,
supplementary enquiries were necessary and the figures were
revised in order to ensure greater comparability. A general
meeting of collaborating experts was held in Geneva when all the
preliminary results had been obtained and frequent other
consultations took place from time to time between the Office
and experts who happened to be present in Geneva. Even with

6

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

all these precautions, the Office realises that the data obtained
are not always strictly comparable; in certain cases, in fact, it
was impossible for the collaborators to obtain information satisfactory to the Office.
Finally, the figures given in the report only answer the question put to the International Labour Office. It is not the
purpose of this report to discuss the various factors which are,
or may be, considered in fixing the conditions of employment
of workers in different countries. One of the factors, when
the conditions of one country are taken as a standard, is that
of cost of living, or the level of prices, in the area in which
the wages are to be spent, and it is to this factor, and to this
factor only, that enquiries have been directed. Also, it should
be repeated, the figures given relate only to the estimated
annual expenditure in different countries, based on the family
budget of a particular category of Detroit worker. It should
not be assumed that similar results would be obtained if other
categories of Detroit workers, or the family budgets of another
country, had been taken as base.

CHAPTER II
METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

Part I. — General
The object of this enquiry is to find how much a worker
would have to spend in order that his standard of living might
be equivalent to that of a certain category of American employee.
It is therefore necessary at the outset to discuss what is meant
by the term " equivalent standard of living " and then to discuss
whether it can be measured and, if so, how.
The term "standard of living" or, as it has sometimes been
called, " standard of comfort " is intended to cover the sum of
the economic satisfactions or utilities which an individual (or a
family) derives from the consumption of the goods and services
which he is able to obtain with his income available during a
certain period of time. Hence, the essence of the enquiry is to
measure the "satisfactions" which the Detroit worker derives
from his expenditure and the equivalent satisfactions to be
obtained in certain European countries. There is, however, no
direct means of measuring "satisfactions" in the same absolute
sense in which bread is measured in pounds. In the case
of a single individual, the only objective way of dealing with
satisfactions of different magnitudes is to judge from his
choices; if he prefers a pound of beef to a pound of mutton
(costing the same price) it may be inferred that he enjoys
or expects to enjoy more satisfaction from eating the former
than the latter. But such a comparative measurement is not
possible when the satisfactions of different individuals are to
be compared, which is the essential object of this enquiry.
It is not here a question of determining what it would cost
an American worker to live in different European cities on the
American standard; the workers in question are the nationals
of the countries concerned: Swedes, Germans, Poles, etc.

8

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

It follows from the above definition of the standard of
living as a sum of satisfactions that different individuals, living
in different countries, under different climates and with different
customs and traditions, will be able to obtain the same amount
of satisfaction (i.e. the same standard of living) by distributing
their expenditure differently over the various commodities and
services.
The problem is somewhat similar to, though not identical
with, that of finding the cost of an equivalent standard of
living in one country over a series of years: a problem which
arose acutely in certain countries during the war 1 . If beef rises
in price more than mutton, people tend to buy more mutton
and less beef and by shifting their expenditure tend to reduce
to a minimum the effect of increased prices. The worker's
standard of living might thus be maintained, although the " cost
of living " as usually understood might have risen. In fact there
is a correlation between prices and consumption. There exists
everywhere a tendency towards buying more of the things
which are relatively cheap and less of the things which are
relatively dear. In the language of economics, expenditure
tends, where possible, to be distributed over different items
so that the "marginal utilities" of each "final dose" of
expenditure are equal. But this is not the only criterion by
which individuals distribute their expenditure: tastes, habits
and customs play a part and these may cause them to tend
to buy a thing which may be relatively dear rather than one
which seems less dear. Moreover, the degree to which individuals are influenced by tastes is the more pronounced the
larger the income available.
It is therefore clear that the question cannot be answered
by merely finding the prices of the various articles and
services as given in the American budget, and then
assuming that the European worker, to obtain an equivalent
standard of living, should buy each article or each service
in the same quantities as did the American worker. This
would give (even were it possible to carry out) the cost
to an American worker who was transferred to Europe
and insisted on living exactly as he did at home. Needless
1
See e.g. Report of committee appointed to enquire into "the actual
increase, since June 1914, in the cost of living to the working classes."
London, 1918. Cd. 8980.

M E T H O D O F T H E E N Q U I R Y A N D SUMMAKY O F R E S U L T S

&

to say, such a figure would be of little interest, even to
this American worker, for within a week he would have begun
to adapt himself to local conditions.
It is within the group of foodstuffs (and to some extent
in part of the miscellaneous group) that the influence of
national customs plays the largest part and where redistribution of expenditure over the different items is most
easily possible. Expenditure on fuel and light is to a large
extent determined by climatic and atmospheric influences:
clothing is partly subject to the same influences. Housing is a
rather special case where the individual's choice is limited. The
special problems raised by each of these groups are dealt with
below.
There is, however, one possible objection which may be raised
to a procedure by which the habits and customs of each country
have been taken into account; namely, that these reflect the
existing standard of living of the workers in the different
European countries. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that
the standard of living in a European country is admittedly
low, compared with the American, then the method adopted
by the Office, it may be urged, gives a biased result,
since the "equivalent standard of living" has been computed by taking account of a standard already lower than
the one used as base. The available information about food
consumption, for example, may show a low standard of living,
because wages are low: these, it may be urged, should not
be taken into account in fixing the cost of an equivalent (and ex
hypothesi higher) standard of living, since if the wages in this
country were higher the consumption habits would aller accordingly. Similarly, the prices obtained for a low standard country
might be biased in so far as they may re^te to lower qualities
and grades than those current for the same article in the country
with a higher standard. To this it may be replied that, as will
be seen by reference to the following paragraphs in which the
exact methods adopted in each of the main groups of expenditure are described, "local conditions " have been taken into
account in such a way as to obviate the above objections.
As already indicated, the problem is essentially one of finding,
for a worker of the type analysed in the Detroit sample, the
level of prices in each of the European towns compared with that
in Detroit, for all the commodities and services on which the

10

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

income of a manual worker of the type considered is usually
spent. This has been done for each of the main groups of
expenditure (food, rent, clothing, etc.) and the resulting percentage applied to the equivalent expenditure in Detroit so as to
obtain the expenditure for each group in the European town.
The addition of these group totals gives the equivalent European
expenditure.
It follows from the discussion in the preceding pages that
the problem of finding an equivalent standard of living is full
of difficulties and the figure arrived at for each town can only
be approximate. In fact all measures of this nature are approximate. In the U.S.A. there exist at least half-a-dozen index
numbers which purport to indicate changes in the general level
of (wholesale) prices. All differ from each other. In the case of
international comparisons the approximate nature of the answer
is due primarily to the inherent difficulty of measuring satisfactions quantitatively, but were this solved, the price-data available even after the most careful enquiry and with the advice
and help of the most competent statisticians are not always
sufficiently comparable. The exact qualities and grades are
not always given in sufficient detail in the Detroit study, and
in some cases corresponding qualities and grades were nonexistent in the European town. Even in the same town, identical housing accommodation may exist side by side, in the same
street, but at very different rents, owing to the operation of
rent restriction legislation. Hence, the answer has had to be
given for most towns in the form of a lower limit and an upper
limit, between which, it is considered, the figure most probably
lies. Considerable efforts have been made by means of supplementary enquiries to reduce the difference between these limits
where it appeared extreme and in no case do they now differ
by more than about 10 per cent., i.e. about 5 per cent, above
and below the mean of the two.

Part IL — Details of Methods Adopted
The first part of this chapter is entirely general and theoretical. It is intended to show that only approximate answers
can be given and that in obtaining such answers certain data,

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

11

viz. the standard of living of the Detroit family, the European
prices and habits of consumption, are an essential factor, whereas
others, mainly the existing standards of living in Europe, must
be eliminated from the data.
The following pages contain first a brief description of what
may be called the mechanism of the enquiry, i.e. the way in
which the necessary information was obtained and collected,
either by the collaboration of the national statistical authorities
of the countries concerned or by consultation of published official
documents. The methods applied to these data are then discussed
in detail.
BASIC INFORMATION AND COLLECTION OF EUKOPEAN DATA

On the receipt of the information on the standard of living
of a particular category of American worker it was transmitted
to the various national authorities which had promised their
collaboration in this enquiry. In view of the great detail given
in this enquiry it was neither feasible nor necessary to ask for
information in similar detail for each of the European cities.
The results of the American enquiry were therefore carefully
examined and adapted for the benefit of the European collaborating authorities which had agreed to provide comparable
price data. This method of compilation and tabulation had
to be modified in certain minor respects, and all the quantities
had to be reduced from American measures to metric units and
in some cases to British measures. A summary was prepared
to bring out the most salient features and a copy of this special
memorandum is given in Annex II. For the most important
articles of clothing, as given in this annex, sample articles were
obtained in representative Detroit shops, corresponding as
closely as possible in quality and price to those shown in the
Detroit enquiry. These samples were circulated to each of the
cities covered and the prices given in the Appendix tables to
each town report were obtained on the basis of these American
sample articles. The particular difficulties met with in the case
of certain price-groups are explained and discussed in the
following pages under the respective headings.
Information other than prices, i.e. data on consumption
weights for food, fuel and light in the European towns, was
obtained generally from official published material, but in some

12

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

cases it was specially supplied or supplied in greater detail by
the national statistical authorities. The sources used are given
in each of the various town reports.
After careful consideration of the problem, it was found
impossible, on the basis of the material available, to devise any
single method applicable to the whole of the family budget and
it was necessary to consider each of the main groups of expenditure separately. Different methods had therefore to be applied
to each of these groups and though these were not always exactly
uniform throughout, the results obtained are considered to be
fairly comparable.
FOOD

The expenditure on food is the most important of the different groups of items in the American budget amounting to
32.3 per cent, of the whole. Even this proportion is low compared with European countries where recent family budget
enquiries indicate a much higher proportion for food expenditure
(see Annex III for further comments on this point).
The first task was to obtain comparative price-data from
the different European towns. The list of foodstuffs supplied
for Detroit was examined and an abbreviated list was circulated
to all collaborators as shown in Annex II. This list set out first
the principal articles and in a second list the less important
articles. It was not considered necessary to obtain prices for
all the minor articles on which often less than a dollar was spent
during the year, and supplies of which, in some cases, are not
generally available in Europe.
In order to obtain comparable prices, the description of the
grade and quality of the article was given where possible.
In addition, the Bureau of Home Economics of the United
States Department of Agriculture generously furnished, at
the request of the International Labour Office, an analysis
of each of the foodstuffs, showing its caloric value and its
content in protein, calcium, phosphorus and iron (reproduced
in Annex I). This supplementary information proved of great
value in certain cases for obtaining comparable price data;
it also was used in one or two cases (see pp. 16 and 17)
for making alternative estimates.

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

13

In some cases, a range of prices was received for a particular
foodstuff based on quotations from different shops, or based on
various qualities and grades. In such cases, considerable care
was exercised in selecting a truly representative price comparable with the Detroit data, and in a few instances the Detroit
quotations for similar articles had to be grouped or combined
so as to yield a figure comparable with that of the European
town. It may be added that in all cases prices are based on
quotations from a large number of shops (in some cases several
hundreds) in the locality.
The next task was to find the relative level of food prices
in general in each European town compared with that in Detroit,
and for this purpose the relative importance of each foodstuff
had to be taken into account. The price data were selected for
those articles for which information was available as to consumption in the European town (consumption data for each
article in Detroit are available in the budget enquiry). For the
purpose of computing this price level a double calculation was
made. The prices in the American and in the European town
were weighted first by the consumption as shown in the Detroit
budget and, secondly, by the consumption as shown in the
European town. The latter was available from official family
budget studies, private enquiries, or special information supplied by the competent national statistical authorities. Thus,
in both calculations, the unit prices for each foodstuff (and
consequently the relative price of each foodstuff) in the American and the European town were identical. The only difference
lies in the weight attached to the different foodstuffs.
In order to explain the method more fully, an example of
the table compiled for Copenhagen is given on page 14. Similar
tables were compiled for each of the towns, but it has not been
considered necessary to reproduce them in this study. Columns
(1) and (2) give the quantities consumed of each article in Detroit
and Copenhagen respectively, and columns (3) and (4) the average prices of each article in the same towns. Four products
are then obtained, shown in columns (5) to (8). The ratio of prices
in Copenhagen to that in Detroit is then found by dividing the
total of column (6) by the total of column (5), and another ratio
is found by dividing the total of column (8) by column (7). These
ratios are 78.4 and 69.5 per cent, respectively. The average
(geometric) of these two figures is 73.8. This percentage is then

APPLICATION

OF T H E M E T H O D TO T H E C O M P A R I S O N OF T H E COST O F F O O

Quantities consumed per
family of 3.27 units

Foodstuffs
(Detroit designation)

Beef, fresh, roast
Veal
Pork, salt (bacon and ham) . . .
Cooked meat (other t h a n ham'» .
Fish, salt
Milk, fresh
Butter
B u t t e r substitutes
Cheese
Lard
Eggs

,

Tea
Coffee

Detroit

Copenhagen

Detroit

(1)
Kg.
17.4
22.5
7.4
30.2
24.7
7.6
7.9
1.8
507.0
30.0
11.6
7.3
22.1
55.0
87.0
236.1
50.9
88.6
268.3
2.3
14.8

(2)
Kg.
} 37.01
29.17
15.92
18.47
12.49 1
20.24
1.44
389.49
30.28
51.31
19.88
10.37
29.66
51.27
67.00
230.86
114.48
275.60
1.24
15.76

..(3)
Ore
321.7
273.1
276.5
221.3
246.7
258.4
236.1
228.6
51.8
413.8
186.7
278.9
134.9
247.6
39.5
67.5
75.0
53.6
20.5
603.0
322.5

Column
Column
Column
Ratio II:
Column
Ratio I

Copenhagen Co

}

..(4)
Ore
181
194
194
200
248
115
88
32
294
146
248
156
176
34
77
19
42
13
900
428
1

Totals

Mince-meat.

Prices per unit

6
0.784
5
8
= 0.695
7

Average (geometric)
or 73.8 per cent, of D

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

15

applied to the Detroit food expenditure (expressed in Danish
crowns at the current rate of exchange1) giving a total of 1,532
kroner. Practically expressed, these figures mean that an
American worker moving to Copenhagen and living in the same
way as in America would find his food expenditure reduced in
the ratio of 100 (Detroit) to 78.4 (Copenhagen) and that a Danish
worker moving to Detroit and living in the same way as in
Denmark would find his expenditure increased in the ratio
100 (Detroit) to 69.5 (Copenhagen). The best or "ideal " measure
in the words of Prof. Fisher is the geometric average of these
two figures, which has been adopted2.
It will readily be seen that the closer the standards of consumption in the two cities compared (one American and one
European) the closer will be these two figures, and the more
confidently can their average be accepted. Where consumption
habits are fairly similar to American (e. g. Great Britain and the
Irish Free State) the two terms aie fairly close, and the figure
may be accepted as a reasonable measure; but where they
differ widely (e. g. Poland and Finland) the two terms differ
considerably, and the average of the two, though still the best
approximation, cannot be received with the same confidence.
This is merely an illustration of the fact that the more widely
different the standards of consumption of two countries are,
the more difficult and vague are international comparisons.
It may be added that though the method adopted does not
require the computation of price-ratios for each individual
foodstuff, this was in fact done in many cases, in order to see
if a comparable quality or grade had really been taken;
1

The currency equivalents and other conversions (weights and
measures) are given in Annex V.
2
It is not necessary here to give a full account of the principles of
this method. Its theoretical justification and practical advantages have
been expounded in great detail by Prof. Irving Fisher in his treatise
The Making of Index Numbers (Boston, Mass.). The formula based on this
method is indeed called by him " the ideal formula " for measuring
comparative price levels, since it possesses certain qualities which he
considers an index number should possess. This book gives references
to all the eminent economists and statisticians who have recommended
or applied this index number. Since the publication of the last edition
of this volume the principles on which this formula is based have
been approved by Dr. Haberler in Der Sinn der Indexzahlen (Vienna),
and by Mr. Keynes in A Treatise on Money (London). While there is
no " absolute truth" in the matter of price comparisons whether in time,
or in space, the formula adopted appears to satisfy certain minimum conditions without, however, reaching a result which no formula can yield.

16

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

if thought necessary, supplementary enquiries were made to
see if it were possible to obtain more representative figures.
The question as to whether the use of the existing standards
of consumption has biased the results by reflecting the particular standard yielded by present incomes has been thoroughly
examined. In the first place, various budgets were taken,
when such existed, for a European town. Such are available
e. g. in the case of Germany, and it was found (see report for
Berlin) that the use of weights based on workers' budgets and
weights based on high paid officials' budgets gave similar
results. It is hoped to examine this interesting problem in detail
in a subsequent report.
One point which caused some difficulty should be mentioned
here. The Detroit prices per unit are generally averages obtained
by dividing the expenditure on a particular foodstuff by the
quantity bought, while the European prices are actual average
quotations based on shopkeepers' or market prices. The Office
realises that this may introduce an element of approximation
in the result, but it is believed that the averages shown for each
town are as accurate as the data warrant and may be looked
upon as fairly reliable.
The national collaborators have generally approved the
methods adopted by the Office as the best possible solution.
In two cases, however, supplementary suggestions have been
made.
The German statistical authorities have developed a method
which is presented in table II of the Appendix to the town
reports for Frankfurt and Berlin, and which yields a slightly
different result from that obtained by the Office's method.
The essential feature of this method is to take the same 29
articles which appear in the list of common consumption used
for the Office calculation and to find the cost of the American
quantities in the two German towns, allowing, however, at
various points for differences in the habits of consumption.
It will be seen from the table mentioned that the substitution
of certain German articles for certain American foodstuffs was
considered as necessary mostly in such cases where prices in
Germany seemed to be somewhat out of harmony with the
American prices. No definite criterion for such substitutions
could, however, be established in such a way as to be applicable
generally to all the cities considered in this enquiry. Though

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

17

the Office has much appreciated the suggestion of the German
authorities, it feels that the application of this method to other
countries would give too much room to arbitrary decisions and
the results for the various European towns might consequently
have been less comparable.
The other proposal was made by the Swedish Social Board
and a memorandum explaining this method is attached to the
report for Stockholm as Appendix B. It will be seen that the
result obtained by the Swedish statistical authorities is somewhat different from that of the Office method. The main
feature of this method consists in dividing the total expenditure
on food into two parts, the first containing some articles of
common consumption, and the second the remainder of the
food-budget. It will be seen, however, that this method also
leaves much room for arbitrary decisions as regards the division
of the food budget into two parts and the method seems to
lose in accuracy the more the percentages representing the
expenditure of the two parts of the budget are diflerent in the
two countries under consideration. While it has not been
possible to apply either of these methods throughout, the results
obtained by these methods have been adopted for these two
towns as representing the "lower limit" of equivalent food
expenditure.
HOUSING

This section of the budget has presented some special
difficulties. It is indeed very difficult to decide in a general
way which one of two similar dwellings situated in different
localities is preferable to the other, and hence it is even more
difficult to decide what criterion should be chosen to establish
the equivalence of dwellings in different countries. In addition
to this general difficulty, there are particular circumstances,
such as rent restriction legislation, which is still in force in some
countries, which result in the fact that rents for dwellings
practically equivalent, if not identical, may be quite diflerent
according as they happen to be subject or not to legal restriction.
The Detroit budget enquiry contains a very full description
of the dwellings (houses, flats and apartments) occupied by
the Detroit workers, from which it appears that the housing
accommodation of these workers has a strong tendency towards
a given type (see for details Annex I). This "predominant t y p e "
may be described as a detached house occupied exclusively
2

' 18

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

by the family, and equipped with electricity, gas, central heating
and a bathroom. In most of the European towns included in
this enquiry houses of such a type rarely exist. Moreover, no
indications were available as to the average size of the rooms
occupied by the Detroit workers and hence the number of
rooms is not in itself a completely satisfactory measure. In
certain European towns, the average size of room is said to
be considerably larger than in the United States. Particular
difficulty was also experienced with regard to bathrooms, since
in many European towns it is not usual to find bathrooms
installed in working class dwellings. Similar difficulties were
met with regarding the other details of the American dwelling.
In these circumstances, the Office originally asked its collaborators to supply a figure for each town representing a rent
for a dwelling which they considered as equivalent to the American type of house, as described in the questionnaire sent out
to the various statistical authorities (see Annex II). Upon
receipt of the replies it was found, however, that the interpretation given to the equivalence of housing had been very
different in the various towns, and the question was therefore
laid before the Conference of Statisticians held at Geneva in
May 1931 (see above, p. 4). After a thorough discussion of
the question, it was decided that as far as possible two figures
for rent should be supplied. The first, called the "lowerlimit",
was to refer to a dwelling, as it is actually occupied by the
working classes in the respective towns. This house or flal
was to have four to five rooms, and if working men generally
do not occupy dwellings of this size the rent was to refer to
a house situated in a working class district, and of the same
quality (according to local standards) as the smaller dwellings
usually occupied by qualified working men. The second figure,
called the "upper limit", was to refer to an apartment or house
which should be identical as far as possible in every detail
with the American type of dwelling.
It will be seen that these two figures imply a different
interpretation of what may be considered to be an equivalent
dwelling. In the case of the "lower limit" the theory underlying
the choice is that the number of rooms occupied by a family
of given size musi be considered as an expression of its standard
of living, whereas the details of the equipment depend mainly
on habits and tastes. In this interpretation, the presence or

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

19

absence of a bathroom, for instance, is regarded as being a
matter of custom. An interesting confirmation of this assumption is to be found (e. g.) in the report prepared by the Belgian
Ministry of Labour on the actual housing accommodation of
Antwerp workers (see Appendix B to the town report of Antwerp
below, pp. 105-107), where it is stated that Belgian workers would
not be prepared to spend any extra money for the advantage of
possessing a bathroom in their homes. This situation applies
probably to many other cities, and workers, if they were allowed
some extra income for the purpose of having dwellings equipped
with bathrooms, would not occupy such dwellings, but would
prefer to spend these sums in a different way.
The theory underlying the "upper limit" is evidently quite
different. Equivalence is interpreted as identity in this case,
and the assumption is that a bathroom will always yield the
same amount of satisfaction, whether it is a usual part of the
equipment of the working class house or not. The consequence
is that the rents obtained for the "upper limit " generally do
not refer to dwellings as usually occupied by working men in
the respective towns, but that the buildings are mostly inhabited
by families of a somewhat higher social class.
It has not been possible in all cases to obtain these alternative figures. For some towns, the figures used in the calculations
approximate to the "upper limit " whilst for other towns they
represent only the "lower limit ". As a further example the
valuable memorandum on housing conditions in Stockholm
(see report for Stockholm, Appendix C) may be cited from which
the Swedish Social Board concludes that the "lower limit "
would be higher than the "upper limit " since dwellings situated
in the working class district of Stockholm containing apartmenls
of four to five rooms simply do not exist and that for this reason
recourse would have to be had to houses of a much superior
type. It is realised that this introduces a certain degree of
incomparability into the results obtained for this section of
the budget, but the Office has endeavoured to make clear in
each case as far as possible, where only one rent figure is given,
whether it represents rather the upper or the lower limit.
F U E L AND LIGHT

The expenditure on this group of items in different European
countries furnishes a good example of the predominance of

20

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

circumstances other than the standard of living. Though the
quantities of fuel and light consumed by typical families vary
with income in every given country, the indications are that
this is due rather to the size of the dwelling and of the family
than directly to the increase of income. It thus appears that
climate is the most important factor to be taken into account
in deciding what expenditure must be regarded as equivalent
in the various European towns. The statistics of mean temperatures for Detroit seem to indicate that its climate is colder
than the European cities, and very much colder than cities
such as Barcelona and Marseilles. Hence the calculations have
not been based exclusively on the quantities of fuel (coal, coke,
wood, etc.), gas or electricity as consumed in Detroit; and in
the majority of cases the actual consumption usual in the European towns has been used. Unfortunately, however, comparable
information. was not always available on this consumption.
In some cases, information on quantities has either been found
in published official sources, or received from the national
statistical authorities, but in others different methods had to
be applied. Thus, in the case of Ireland, where the percentage
spent on fuel and light as shown by family budget enquiries
seems to be fairly independent of income, this percentage was
adopted to represent an equivalent expenditure for this group;
in Germany the results of special investigations have shown
that the expenditure of fuel and light per room was practically
constant, and the equivalent expenditure for 4.5 rooms was
therefore adopted; for Helsinki, allowance had to be made for
the predominant use of wood instead of coal. Wherever possible,
the results obtained were checked by reference to the usual
annual charge for heating in apartments equipped with central
heating system, and the results have been generally approved
by the competent statistical authorities as representing a
reasonable expenditure for the category of worker under consideration. It is clear, however, from the data given, that there
have been, in certain cases, some differences of method. For.
example, the relatively high figures shown for Manchester as
compared with other European towns, are evidently due, in
the main, to the larger quantities taken for the purpose of the
calculations relating to Manchester, rather than to differences
in prices. The methods adopted in each case are fully explained
in the separate reports.

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

21

CLOTHING

The price-data for this group were based on actual samples
of clothing as worn by the Detroit families in 1929 and 1930.
These samples were circulated to each city and quotations
were obtained from representative shops in the locality. In
some cases, however, no article similar to the sample could
be found in the European shops, and hence no quotation for
that particular item could be obtained; in others, recourse
had to be had to prices relating to articles of clothing corresponding in use to the American samples; in all cases, considerable
difficulty was met, especially for women's and children's clothes,
in obtaining prices based on the quality of the sample, without
giving too much weight to the cut, which was frequently different
from that of usual European clothes. Furthermore, in many
European countries children's clothes are usually made at
home, and hence the prices obtained for ready-made children's
wear were often too high and quite out of harmony with the
prices of adults' apparel.
To allow for the second difficulty, two methods have been
applied to the European clothing prices for each town. The
first method consisted in finding the cost of the American
quantities (given in the section "Clothing" in Annex II) of
all articles for which prices were available, separately for men,
for women and for children. From the totals thus obtained,
the price ratios for these three groups are calculated, and these
ratios then applied to the corresponding Detroit totals.
The procedure is illustrated in the following example for
Copenhagen :
m

Men's clothing
Women's clothing
Children's clothing

Cost oí representative clothing
articles for which prices are
available (using Detroit
Price ratios
quantities)
(Detroit •= 100)
at Detroit
at Copenhagen
Kr.
Kr.

175.2
158.9
213.1

178.3
148.9
240.9

101.7
93.7
113.0

Total clothing expenditure
Detroit
Copenhagen
Kr.
Kr.

Men's clothing
Women's clothing
Children's clothing
Total expenditure of family . . -

237.2
220.8
327.8
785.8

241.3
207.0
370.5
818.8

22

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

The second method consisted in combining the two ratios
found above for men's and women's clothing only and applying
this ratio to the total family expenditure. This gives a ratio
of 97.9 per cent, and an expenditure of 770 kroner.
The only difference between these two methods is the
omission of children's clothes from the second ratio. The choice
between the two results was left to the national statistical
authorities which decided according to the habits in regard
to children's clothing in the respective towns.
It is realised that, whereas the prices strictly represent the
American standard of living, the use of the American quantities
in the computations does not allow for differences in national
customs, nor for differences in the climate as between American
and the European towns. But, in order to apply to clothing
a method similar to that used for food, it would have been
necessary to have data on the average quantities of clothes
bought in each European town, and special Detroit price
quotations based on samples of the usual European clothes.
The differences in the kind and quality of specified articles of
clothing appear to be subject to such variation that a special
set of samples for each European town should have been sent
to Detroit in order to obtain results for clothing of a similar
degree of reliability as those reached for food. This alternative
had therefore to be disregarded.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

The Detroit budget enquiry shows that, of a yearly family
expenditure of $64.73, $38.17 were spent for the services of
physicians and surgeons, and $10.74 for dentists' services.
No detailed information on the kind of these services was available and it was assumed for the purposes of the enquiry that
the first of these two items was equivalent to the cost of 9 %
visits to the physician or surgeon at $2 each, and of 6x/ä "housecalls " of the physician at $3 each; and that the second sum was
equivalent to the cost of about 10 visits to the dentist for an
extraction or an ordinary filling (each costing $1).
The usual method was applied to this group of expenses,
viz. the cost of these representative medical services in each
European town was found and the ratio in which they stand
to their cost in Detroit was computed. This ratio is then

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

23

applied to the total expenditure shown for the Detroit family*
This assumes that the average state of health, or frequency
of sickness, was the same in all the towns included. There is
room for doubting the justification of this assumption: in fact
the workers included in the Detroit enquiry were in fairly full
employment throughout the year 1929, which precluded long
periods of absence on account of sickness for the head of the
family. But there was no means of estimating how much of
the medical expenses was incurred in respect of the different
members of the family, and the Office method seemed to be
the only possible one in the circumstances.
Compulsory insurance against sickness, for the whole family
or for the head of the family, is in force in many of the European
countries. The method of dealing with the payments made
under these schemes is dealt with below in the section on
insurance.
MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES

This group of expenditure proved perhaps the most difficult
to treat of all the groups. It consists of all the items not
covered by the previous groups (with the exception of insurance
dealt with in the following section) and includes, in addition
to certain necessary items such as daily transport, household
utensils, and cleaning supplies, all the various items, such as
educational expenses, holiday expenses, amusements, newspapers, subscriptions, etc., which, though not strictly necessary
to maintain a healthy and efficient life for the worker and his
children, are generally regarded as highly desirable. It is in
this group that individual idiosyncrasies, personal preferences,
and differing desires have their freest play. In this group also
appear all the expenditures left over, so to speak, after the
usual necessaries and comforts have been provided for. For
this reason, the proportion spent on this group in family budget
studies has been sometimes regarded as an indication of the
standard of living; workers with a low standard having little
available for the items in this group after their necessary
expenses have been met. The proportion shown in the Detroit
sample as spent on these remaining items is about 20 per
cent.
There are many reasons for the difficulties in dealing with
the items in this group. In the first place the averages are based

24

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

on 100 families only. In a group of expenses, where wishes
and whims, fancies and frivolities, frailties and follies, play
such a large part, the average amount spent on, or the average
quantities bought of, a particular article or service is liable to
be subject to much greater fluctuations of sampling than in
the case of foodstuffs, fuel and light items, etc., where the
expenditure on the different items tends to vary much less
widely about the average. Again, the quantities are not always
given in the Detroit study; indeed, many of the expenditure
items (such as holidays) cannot be expressed in the form of
quantity bought and prices per unit.
The Office considered two methods for dealing with this
group. The first method was to allow for the whole of this
group by a percentage addition to the total obtained for all the
preceding sections, thus allowing the European worker the same
percentage expenditure as the Detroit worker to do with as
he liked, so to speak. This would mean, in fact, that the "priceratio " for this group was assumed to be the same as that found
for the total of the preceding groups — an assumption not
necessarily justified. The second was to apply the usual price
ratio method. This involved obtaining prices for as many comparable articles and services as possible and was open to the
objection that, as indicated above, unit prices were not available
in the American budget in many cases. It was finally
decided to select all those items for which a definite unit price
seemed possible to obtain (e.g. week-day paper, Sunday
paper, tobacco and cigarettes, postage, telephone calls, cinema
visits, hair cuts, daily transport, laundry charges, certain linen
and household furnishings, etc.) and to obtain a price ratio
between Detroit and the European town by the use of Detroit
quantities.
Although this method gives a figure subject to a much
larger margin of error than that for the groups already dealt
with, the Office considers that the results obtained have been
fairly satisfactory and it gives results fairly comparable with
those of the firs; method. The percentage available for the
European worker for expenditure on this miscellaneous group
was found by the second method not to vary very much from
the Detroit percentage. In practically every case it varies
between 18 and 24 per cent. ; these variations do not seem
unreasonable in view of the approximate nature of the calcula-

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

25

tion and the difficulty of comparing items, many of which are
of such a dissimilar nature.
Certain modifications in the total arrived at for this group
have had to be made on account of certain social insurance
schemes. This is dealt with in the following section.

INSURANCE

A peculiar feature of the Detroit budgets is that though
the worker suffered no, or practically no, unemployment during
the year, he made no savings, apart from insurance premiums;
in fact, on the average, the 100 families showed a small deficit
for the year. The average premium of about 60 dollars
formed about 3.4 per cent, of his total expenditure and represented a premium of about 3 per cent, on a sum assured of
2,076 dollars. The first step in the procedure adopted by the
Office was to compute a premium for a corresponding sum in
each European city. As the sum of 2,076 dollars represents about
1.2 times the worker's annual expenditure, the premium might
have been computed (at the same ratio of 3 per cent.) on 1.2
times the total expenditure found for each of the European
cities. In fact, the "purchasing power equivalent" of 2,076 dollars was found in each European town on the basis of the price
ratio found for all the other groups, and the premium rate was
applied to this amount. This method naturally gives an identical
result.
Having reached this stage in the calculation, a very important problem arose, viz. that of social insurance. Apart from
the life insurance mentioned above, the average Detroit worker,
as shown by the 100 families investigated, made no provision
for loss of earnings during possible sickness, invalidity, unemployment; nor did any statutory provision exist by which the
employee, the employer, or the community should provide for
the risk of loss of earnings in these respects, and for the old age
of himself and his wife, and the possible widowhood of his
wife or orphanhood of his children. Apart from accident compensation, no compulsory social insurance of any kind exists
for the Detroit employee. In nearly every European town
provisions to meet some or all of these contingencies exist,
paid for partly by the employer, or partly by the employer

26

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

and the State. In one or two of the towns covered, such provision is on a generous scale.
Since no compulsory payments for social insurance are made
by the Detroit worker, there was no single item against which
could be set off the payments made in respect of the European
worker. The usual price ratio method was not applicable, and
in fact would not have been applicable had social insurance
payments figured in the Detroit expenditure, since it is impossible
to obtain unit-prices for comparable services.
A complete and exhaustive treatment of this subject would
have involved an actuarial evaluation of the annual value to
the worker of the benefits he derives, or may derive in the
event of certain contingencies, from social insurance schemes;
with separate evaluations of the benefits derived from the
contributions of the employer and from those of the community 1 . Such a course was not possible in the time and with
the resources available for this enquiry and would not have
been justified in view of their relatively small amount in most
of the European towns in relation to the total estimated expenditure — a total which in itself is often approximate and
a range between a lower and an upper limit. For example,
where it was possible to estimate the total expenditure only
with a range of +_ 5 per cent, of the total, it seems unnecessary
to perform elaborate calculations to compute the benefit to
the workers of social insurance contributions which rarely
represent more than one or two per cent of the total.
The American worker being under no legal obligation to
make provision for those contingencies covered in Europe by
social insurances, it is reasonable to assume that he should
be enabled to make these provisions voluntarily out of his wage,
and that the compulsory contributions made in respect of the
worker in Europe by his employer and by the State or community might be regarded as a "free policy" presented to the
worker, and therefore be deducted from the totals found by the
methods outlined in the preceding sections; health insurance
payments from the group medical expenses, old-age and
invalidity pension payments from the life insurance group and
1
A special committee on social charges appointed by the International Labour Office reported after careful examination and consultation with national experts that "on the basis of the information at
present available from the different countries, it was impossible to make
any international comparisons of social charges."

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

27

unemployment insurance payments from the miscellaneous
group. The resulting total gives the expenditure of the worker
himself: the employers' contributions only are then added,
giving a second total, viz. the total expenditure corresponding
to that of the Detroit employer. They are thus shown as part
of the cost of labour to the employer, but not as a cost of
living to the workman.
TAXATION

The amount of 1,720 dollars was below the exemption limit
for direct taxation on married workers in the United States,
whereas in all the European cities, with two exceptions, the
total expenditure computed was above the exemption limit.
The amount of direct taxation (almost entirely income tax)
legally due has been computed in all cases, from the scales in
force as supplied by the competent authorities and based on
the total obtained for all other expenditure, except payments
for insurance, which are generally allowed as an abatement for
income tax purposes. Account was also taken of the allowances
for married men and children. The sum thus calculated was
added to the total expenditure on the assumption that taxation
is an unavoidable expenditure imposed on the workers. This
course has been generally approved by the collaborating
statistical authorities.
The effects of new or increased taxation are frequently
minimised by the restriction of expenditure on other items, but
as the problem in this case was to find an equivalent of the
American standard of living, it was felt that an extra sum
should be provided to enable the European worker to meet this
burden from which the Detroit employee in question was exempt.
This assumes that the European worker does not obtain in
exchange for this expenditure more than the Detroit employee
gets for nothing.
Though there is a certain degree of interdependence between
taxation and State contributions to social insurance, it was not
found possible to allow for this fact. The level of taxation also
depends partly on the amount and distribution of the national
income; and if the computed figures of expenditure in the
different towns were reflected in the general level of incomes,
the level of taxation might be modified.

28

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

Pari III. — Summary of Results
The amounts found for each group of expenditure are brought
together at the end of each report. Where the total for any
group is expressed in the form of a range, all the lower limits
and all the upper limits are added together. The resulting
totals have a greater range than is justified by the data, since,
by a well-known theorem of probability, the total (or average)
of a series of items is subject to a less range than the sum of
the successive ranges, but it was thought advisable for the
purposes of this volume to add up all the minima and
all the maxima. It is hoped, however, in a subsequent publication, to subject these data to a more detailed analysis,
in which the degree of precision of the separate sub-groups and
of the general total and the proportionate distribution of
expenditure to the different groups will be studied 1 .
This enquiry was initiated at a time when prices were
falling in nearly every European country and in the United
States. Had the enquiry been undertaken simultaneously in
each city this problem would not have been serious. It was
not found possible for the national collaborators to commence
and conclude their investigations within the same period and
the time taken for the circulation of the boxes of clothing
samples throughout the different European countries was
necessarily protracted. In each case, however, the Office has
indicated in the first summary table the date to which the calculations relate. An attempt was then made to bring all the
totals to a uniform data by utilising the available information
as to the changes in the cost of living for each of the different
groups of expenditure. For this purpose January 1931 was
selected. In many cases, however, such information as to changes
in prices is available only for the country as a whole, and for
groups of items differing somewhat from those used in the
calculations. They do not therefore necessarily represent the
changes between the date of the enquiry and January 1931
for the particular category of worker and the particular European city, but it was felt that figures so computed would be
of greater comparative value than the original totals relating
to varying dates. A second estimate has therefore been added
1

See Annex IV.

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

29

giving the approximate totals for the month of January 1931,
together with the index numbers used.
A similar computation was made for the Detroit expenditure
using the figures given in the Monthly Labour Review for
February 1931, showing the changes in the cost of living at
Detroit at December 1928, June 1929, December 1929 and
December 1930. The result of applying the changes shown by
these figures to the figures of the Detroit budget (for each of
the six groups of expenditure) is to indicate that the level of
prices was in January 1931 about 9.8 per cent, lower than for the
average of 1929. This would give an equivalent expenditure of
about $1,550 for Detroit.
Finally, in order to bring out one of the aspects of the present
enquiry, viz. an international comparison of the cost of living,
the computed totals for each town for January 1931 (table I,
p. 30) have been converted into dollars at the rate of exchange
ruling in January 1931 and expressed as a percentage of the
corresponding American figure (table II, p. 31). All the
figures in these tables are subject to the reserves set out in the
Report and summarised on the pages following these tables.
The tables give a summary of the general results of the
present enquiry. It will be seen from table II that the results
show certain differences in the relative price-level in the various
towns, differences due to the fact that the data furnished by the
different statistical offices are sometimes not comparable, or to
differences in the method of calculation, or to real differences
in the situation in different towns. Without attempting to
explain every case in which such differences are noticeable, the
following observations give some examples of the reasons which
may have contributed to produce them.
As regards food, the method has been uniform throughout
with two exceptions: the "lower limits " for the two German
towns and for Stockholm have been obtained by special methods
proposed by the German and Swedish statistical authorities
(see pp. 16-17). It is possible that the quality of the articles
generally taken into account by the national collaborators has
not always been exactly the same. Moreover, the examination
of the data has shown that differences are due to organisation
and methods of sale in the retail markets and to the habits of
consumption of the different towns, which justify the differences
in prices. However, it may be admitted that the results of the

TABLE I.—AMOUNTS THAT WOULD HAVE TO BE SPENT BY WORKERS IN CERTA
IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A STANDARD OF LIVING APPROXIMATELY EQUIVALENT TO TH
IN DETROIT WHOSE EXPENDITURE IN 1 9 2 9 WAS ABOUT $ 1 , 7 2 0 (EQUIVALENT

(Absolute figures in national currency)
Othe
Town
and
currency

Food

(1)

(2)

Housing

Fuel
and
light

Clothing

(3)

(4)

(5)

100
Detroit1 .
$
468
350
195
180
Berlin . . RM. 1,625-1,690 1,020-1,380
660
Frankfort RM. 1,805-1,900 1,020-1,380
180
660
Copenhagen K r .
240-265
800-1,200
1,420
720
Stockholm K r . 1,340-1,620
1,500
195
795
Helsinki . Mk.
13,500
2,410
11,850
Paris. . . F r .
4,400-7,000
1,755
6,890
11,860
Marseilles. F r .
3,800-6,000
1,305
5,325
Antwerp . a F r .
10,885
4,380-6,500
1,075
5,325
R o t t e r d a m 3 Fl.
390-500
111
12,785
Manchester £
31.2-33.8 18.25-21.05 6,125
977
292
Cork
. .
£
35.0
20.75
Warsaw . Zl. 79.9-85.6
1,585
27.3
605
91.65
Barcelona *Ptas.
960
39.4
500
Istanbul . £ T .
2,255
300
1,350
125
2,515
1,225
638
470

Total lor
food, housing,
fuel and
light, and
clothing
(6)

Medical
expenses
(7)

61
1,113
3,485-3,910
1RS
3,665-4,120
185
3,180-3,605
105
3,830-4,110
145
1,810
34,650
670 1
23,340-25,940
670 1
21,315-23,515
750 1
24,365-26,485
58
1,770-1,880
4.93
156.65-167.75
8.2
186.8
275
5,795
215
5,200
43
1,533

1
Including workers' social insurance contributions, but excluding those of employers and of the
' The figures for Manchester given in columns 7, 8 and 9 were not available in detail when5 the Fren
of the figures now given has therefore been published in the French text. * September 1930. Including

TABLE II. — INDEX NUMBERS OF AMOUNTS THAT WOULD HAVE TO BE SPENT B
IN JANUARY 1931 IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A STANDARD OF LIVING APPROXIMATEL
WORKING-CLASS FAMILY IN DETROIT WHOSE EXPENDITURE IN 1 9 2 9 WAS ABOU
IN JANUARY 1931) l

(Base: Detroit = 100)

Town
and
currency

Food

(1)

(2)

(3)

Detroit . .
$
Berlin . . RM.
Frankfort. RM.
Copenhagen K r .
Stockholm K r .
Helsinki .. Mk.
Paris. . . Fr.
Marseilles. Fr.
Antwerp . Fr.
Rotterdam Fl.
Manchester
£
Cork
. .
£
"Warsaw . Zl.
Barcelona. P t a s .
Istanbul . £ T .

100
83-86
92-97
81
77-93
64
99
91
76
84
83-89
95
54
58
64

100
69-94
69-94
61-92
115
97
49-78
43-67
35-52
45-57
43-47
49
51
29
40

) See notes to table I,

Housing

Fuel
and
light

(4)

100
43
64-71
43
52
61
69
51
30
45
89-102
101
68
54
59

Clothing

T o t a l tor
food, housing,
fuel a n d
light, and
clothing

O
Medical
expenses

(5)

(6)

(7)

100
81
81
99
109
89
107
107
87
60
68
98
77
67
113

100
75-84
78-88
77-87
92-99
79
82-91
75-83
61-66
64-68
69-73
82
58
50
65

100
72
72
46
64
75
43
43
34
38
39
66
51
39
33

32

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

comparisons for the costs of food are relatively satisfactory
compared with those for other groups in the budget.
The special difficulties raised by comparisons of rent have
been noted on pages 17-19. It should be emphasised, however,
t h a t where one figure only is given in column 3 (table I) it is
sometimes the "lower limit " (Barcelona and Istanbul) and sometimes the " upper limit " (Stockholm, Cork, Warsaw). Also,
the two figures given for Manchester do not refer to the two
limits described on pages 18-19, but to the range within which
the rent representing the "upper limit " must lie (see p. 116,
note). It must be also emphasised that the national collaborators have not always followed exactly the same principles in
selecting their data. Thus, the "lower limit " given for Berlin
and Frankfort refers to a dwelling situated in a simple middleclass residential district while other "lower limits " refer to
districts inhabited predominantly by the working-class (see
p. 41). Finally, it is obvious that the cost of housing tends to
be relatively higher in those towns where the size of the dwelling
taken as a basis for the enquiry exceeds the usual size of workmen's dwellings, than in the towns where this is not the case.
As regards the cost of fuel and light, the methods of compilation have not always been uniform. While in the majority of
cases various data concerning local consumption have been
used for the calculations, other methods have been adopted, in
particular for Manchester (see pp. 20 and 116-117), which explains to a large extent why the indexes are somewhat high for
this town.
For computing the cost of clothing, the use of samples of
articles of clothing has certainly contributed to reduce the
possibility of differences in the basic data. But in view of the
fact that there is a considerable difference in the style of European and American clothing, which necessitated in some cases
rather arbitrary comparisons, it is possible that the data do not
always apply to the same qualities. Moreover, the differences
between the indexes in the different towns may also be due to
customs duties on textile goods and articles of clothing, to the
intensity of competition, and to the more or less favourable
situation of certain towns in relation to the great centres of
textile production.
In certain cases medical expenses are represented solely by
workmen's contributions to social insurance; in some cases, they

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

33

are based on the price of medical services and in others, both
are taken into account, according as the system of compulsory
insurance against sickness covers the expenses of the family
wholly or partially, or does not exist at all.
The amount of the expenditure for life insurance includes
workmen's contributions to the old-age and invalidity insurance
schemes which exist in certain countries (see pp. 25-27).
The computation of the group "miscellaneous expenses"
proved very difficult owing to the great difference in the composition of this group, not only between one country and one
town and another but also between different families in the
same locality. It was therefore necessary to take into account
a rather limited number of prices for computing this group.
As a result, only a part of the expenses in this group (varying
irom one-quarter to one-third) has been computed by the aid
of these unit-prices, whilst the remainder of the miscellaneous
group was estimated by using the price-ratio obtained for the
articles considered. It must be noted, however, that the sums
given in the table include the workmen's contributions to
unemployment insurance (see p. 26).
It is necessary to emphasise, however, the reservations and
limitations to which the figures are subject and to point out the
conclusions that should not be drawn and the comparisons that
should not be made.
First, the results are obviously not of the same degree of
precision for all the towns. Where conditions in general or
particular characteristics differ very considerably from those
in Detroit the results are less reliable than in those towns
where conditions are more similar. There is no doubt that if
more complete information had been available for certain
cities as to national habits and customs (as shown by family
budget enquiries), more satisfactory results might have been
obtained; but even if recent family budget enquiries had been
available (and the International Labour Office had no power
to hold or to arrange for the holding of such enquiries), the
inherent difficulty of comparing countries with fundamental
differences in living conditions would not have been overcome.
Again, the enquiry took place at perhaps the most unfortunate moment in recent years. When the Office undertook
to carry out this enquiry in 1929, it could not foresee the
marked fall in prices which took place in 1930 and 1931, and
3

34

INTERNATIONAL ENQUIRY INTO COSTS OF LIVING

had prices been mo:;e stable throughout this period the results
would no doubt have been more valuable. It was materially
impossible to arrange that the enquiry should relate to an
identical date in each town. The Office endeavoured to allow
for these differences in date by bringing all the original calculations up to a uniform date, namely, January 1931, but these
corrections were necessarily approximate (see pp. 28-29).
Since that date prices have continued to fall in most of the
towns and at uneven rates (in some cases by over 10 per cent.,
in others by only 1 or 2 per cent.). In addition, the abandoning
of the gold standard since the completion of the enquiry by
several of the countries covered upsets all comparisons in terms
of a common currency. It is therefore obvious that the results
published in the study and relating to January 1931 are no
longer applicable.
Moreover, the figures are based on a particular category of
worker living in a particular town in 1929 and having a specific
and definite income. In consequence, the ratios between the
incomes calculated for each town on the one hand and for
Detroit on the other represent the index numbers of the cost of
living for this single income level only; different data and a
different procedure would have to have been used in order to
obtain index numbers having a wider scope, and in that case
different results would probably have been reached. Further, the
results would have been different if a European budget had been
taken as basis. The figures therefore represent nothing but
comparisons between each of the European towns and Detroit,
with the latter taken as base. Further, the figures of total
expenditure in national currencies shown in the various town
reports and in table 1 are not to be considered as corresponding
to any actual level of wages in the different European towns.
In fact, the computation of these European expenditure figures
is only an intermediate step in the Office's method, leading up
to the chief object of the enquiry, which was to find international
cost-of-living ratios at a certain income level. That this level
happens to lie above the usual level of expenditure of industrial
workers in most European towns arises merely from the particular request which suggested the enquiry. It follows that
the results cannot be used for the comparison of real wages
in general.
Investigations of this kind if carried out in times of stable

METHOD OF THE ENQUIRY AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS

35

prices could be of interest and value to a firm or organisation
wishing to correlate the wages of its employees in different
countries; but the general level of wages does not depend only,
or even primarily, on the relative cost of living, and even if it
did there is no reason why figures based on a particular Detroit
level should be considered normal. Many other factors, such
as the productivity of the worker, the degree of mechanisation,
the organisation of the labour market, the efficiency of management, the supply of capital, the richness of natural resources,
the level of the national wealth and national income, etc., also
exert an influence on the level of wages in any given country,
town, or enterprise.
Nowhere in the report on the enquiry is it suggested that
these figures, even with all the qualifications and reservations
to be attached to their use, are any indication of the general level
of wages for this category of worker. They show merely the
estimated cost of maintaining in January 1931 a standard of
living approximately equivalent to that enjoyed by a certain
category of Detroit worker with a family of a certain size and
composition, which spent on an average a certain number of
dollars during 1929. Nothing more is claimed in the report
than to give an approximate answer to this question.

REPORTS
ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

BERLIN AND FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN
(Germany)

The data were supplied by the Statistisches Reichsamt and
valuable suggestions were made during their elaboration by
this Office.
FOOD

The prices supplied relate to November 1930. Two sets
of consumption weights for 29 articles, accounting for 70.9 per
cent, of the total expenditure on food in Detroit, and for 74.1
or 68.5 per cent, of the total food expenditure of workers or
officials in Germany respectively, were obtained from the recent
enquiry into workers' and officials' food budgets in Germany
(1927-1928) i.
The figures for prices and weights are given in the Appendix,
table I. It was found that the result of the comparison is practically the same, whether the average workers' (earning
RM. 3,325.12 a year) or the officials' (earning RM. 9,767.51 a
year) food consumption is taken as a system of weights. The
cost ratios obtained are as follows:
Ratio of cost of food in Berlin and Frankfort to Detroit, based on 29
foodstuffs (Detroit=100) :
I. Using Detroit weights:
(a) Berlin
82.3 per cent.
(b) Frankfort
93.5 „
„
II. Using German weights (workers' average income class):
(a) Berlin
67.6 „
(b) Frankfort
75.1 „
III. Using German weights (officials' in come class) :
(a) Berlin
69.8 „
(b) Frankfort
77.1 „
IV. Geometric average of I and II:
(a) Berlin
74.6 ,.
(b) Frankfort
83.8 „
V. Geometric average of I and III:
(a) Berlin
75.8 „
(b) Frankfort
84.9 „

The results of using workers' or officials' consumption
weights
being very similar, the geometric averages IV (a)
1

See Wirtschaft und Statistik, Dec. 1929, p. 979, and April 1930,
p. 313 respectively. Some additional information was obtained from the
Statistisches Reichsamt.

40

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

and IV (b) were adopted. They yield expenditures of RM. 1,742
for Berlin and RM. 1,957 for Frankfort.
While admitting the idea that differences in the habits of
consumption must be taken into account in computing the
relative cost of food in Germany and Detroit, the German
statistical authorities have expressed some doubts as to the
adequacy of the formula used by the International Labour
Office. They have therefore suggested a method of their own.
It consists mainly in finding the cost in Germany of the American
quantities of the 29 articles used by the International Labour
Office (accounting for 70.9 per cent, of the total food expenditure
in Detroit). In some cases, however, articles of current German
consumption have been substituted for American articles
ordinarily not consumed in Germany, the quantity of the
German article thus introduced being so calculated as to represent the same caloric value as its American "equivalent ".
The details of the calculation are shown in the Appendix,
table II. It yields cost ratios of 71.6 and 79.6 per cent, and
expenditures of RM. 1,673 and 1,860 for Berlin and Frankfort
respectively. Interesting though this method is, it cannot,
however, be applied to other countries unless certain guiding
principles be adopted and the special collaboration of the
statistical authorities be secured. For it assumes a profound
knowledge of local conditions and also leaves considerable room
for arbitrary decisions.
The result of the German method has been adopted as the
lower, and the result of the International Labour Office method
as the upper limit for this item of expenditure.
In addition to this, the German statistical authorities have
presented a valuable comparison of the caloric value of the
Detroit and the German workers' food consumption. Its result
is to show that, from this point of view, and if the different
size of the families is taken into account, the German budget
is practically equivalent to the American (applying the German
or the American scale). The calculations are reproduced in the
Appendix, table III.
HOUSING

A special enquiry into rents conducted by officials of the
Statistisches Reichsamt has shown that an apartment of
4 % rooms is not usually occupied by working men either in
Berlin or Frankfort, and it was therefore difficult to obtain

B E R L I N AND F R A N K F O R T ON T H E MAIN ( G E R M A N Y )

41

figures on rents paid for such apartments. Rent for a "simple"
apartment with 4 % rooms has with the collaboration of experts
been determined as being RM. 1,020 and for an apartment
with the same number of rooms but more similar to Detroit
conditions as RM. 1,380. Both figures relate to Berlin as well
as Frankfort. They are taken as the upper and lower limit
for the expenditure on housing and represent the rent of middleclass families occupying dwellings of this type in modest and somewhat superior districts. If dwellings in exclusively workingclass districts had been taken into account, the rents would
have been RM. 830 in old houses and RM. 1,170 in new houses,
the weighted average being RM. 875. These figures would
reduce the lower limit for the total budget for the two towns
by about 3 per cent. Details are shown in the Appendix, table IV.
F U E L AND LIGHT

Two methods were proposed for these items. The first
consists in finding the cost at November 1930 prices of the
quantities of fuel and light consumed by working men in
Germany. These quantities were collected in the 1927-1928
enquiry into workers' and officials' budgets, and their weights
and prices were supplied by the Statistisches Reichsamt as
follows :
Price
Expenditure
Berlin
RM.

Coal
Lignite briquettes (Braunkohlenbriketts) . . . .
Coke (Gaskoks)
Gas
Gas meter rent
Electricity
Electricity meter rent . .

kg. 1,950

—

„ 2,600
„ 1,950
m3
260
—
kwh. 65
—

3.56

Frankfort
RM.

5.50
-_

0.18
—
0.20
—

_
0.19
•—
0.45
•—

Berlin
RM.

—

Frankfort
RM.

107.25

92.56
—
_
_
_
46.80
49.40
4.80
•—
13.00
29.25
19.20
—
176.36
185.90

The second method makes use of the expenditure incurred
by German working men in 1927-1928, taking into account
changes in the cost of fuel and light since that date. From
material supplied by the Statistisches Reichsamt the following
table has been computed:
W O R K I N G M E N ' S E X P E N D I T U R E FOR F U E L AND LIGHT P E R ROOM
IN GERMANY
Under
2,5003,0003,6004,300Average
2,500 R M . 3,000 R M . 3,600 RM. 4,300 R M . a n d more
N u m b e r of cases . .
86
255
293
178
84
896
E x p e n d i t u r e for fuel
a n d light (RM.) . .
97.69
111.10
120.13
135.98
142.08
120.61
N u m b e r of rooms . .
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.5
3.7
3.2
E x p e n d i t u r e for fuel
a n d light per room
(RM.)
33.69
35.84
37.54
38.85
38.40
37.69

42

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

The expenditure per room in the highest income class in
1927-1928 is RM. 38.40, which gives a total of RM. 172.80 for
a 4 % room apartment at the same date. The average index
number for fuel and light, published by the Statistisches Reichsamt for the twelve months from March 1927 to February 1928,
is 144.025. For November 1930 it is 152.4. By multiplying the
amount of RM. 172.80 by 1.058, being the ratio of the above
two index-numbers, the sum of RM. 182.82 is found, representing the expenditure îor this item in November 1930.
The German statistical authorities suggested that the
second method would lead to a better approximation and the
figure of RM. 183 was chosen as the best amount for both
cities.
CLOTHING

The prices of the articles of clothing based on the American
sample collection relaite to November 1930 and were collected
under the responsibility of officials of the Statistisches Reichsamt. They are given in the Appendix, table V. The two
methods proposed for the evaluation of this item yield the
following results:
Method I
Method II

RM. 725
, 699

The German authorities have suggested the adoption of
the second method with an expenditure figure of RM. 699
since the prices obtained for children's clothing were not
considered very reliable.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

In Germany insurance against sickness is compulsory for
all workers, and the German authorities have indicated the sum
of RM. 145.60 as the amount of compulsory contributions of
the worker to this kind of insurance. Since, however, not all
medical expenses are included in this figure, the same authorities
have suggested an additional sum of RM. 40, giving a total of
RM. 185.60. If the worker when sick is also temporarily incapacitated, he is entitled under the insurance scheme to certain
payments from the fourth day of sickness in compensation for
loss of earnings. These amount to RM. 35 a week for the highest
wage class, payable normally during 26 weeks, but if the worker
has been insured for more than si-*. consecutive months they are
payable up to maximum of 39 weeks.

BERLIN AND FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN (GERMANY)

43

MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The prices for these items were supplied by the Statistisches
Reichsamt and are given in the Appendix, table VI. The
comparison with the corresponding prices in Detroit gives a
ratio of 85.8 per cent, for Berlin and 84.5 per cent, for Frankfort.
The total expenditure is consequently RM. 1,215 for the
former city and RM. 1,197 for the latter.
It has been decided to deal with compulsory contributions
to unemployment insurance under this heading. For the class
of workers here considered they amount to about RM. 237 \ half
of which being workers' and the other half being employers'
contributions. Accordingly, this amount has been deducted,
and the sums of RM. 977 and RM. 959 have been inserted
in the summary for Berlin and Frankfort respectively. The
worker's own contribution has been added separately in the
section dealing with social insurance, whereas the employer's
contribution, which is not paid at all to the worker, appears
below under the heading "Employers' Social Insurance
Contributions ".
L I F E INSURANCE AND SOCIAL INSURANCE

The method of calculating the purchasing power equivalent
to 2,076 dollars is the same as for other cities, giving RM. 6,460
or 5,930 for Berlin and RM. 6,700 or 6,140 for Frankfort. The
total premiums for the above figures are RM. 194 or 178 for
Berlin and RM. 201 or 184 for Frankfort. These sums have been
reduced by RM. 52, representing the employers' contribution
to invalidity and old-age insurance 2 and by the worker's own
contribution of RM. 52 which is shown separately. The contribution to unemployment insurance is also shown in this section
(see above " Miscellaneous Expenses ").
TAXATION

The procedure adopted in order to calculate the yearly
amount of national taxation payable for a given income in
Berlin and Frankfort is the following:
1
There are no statutory State contributions to the unemployment
insurance fund in Germany. It may he mentioned, however, that the
Reich contributed about RM. 36 per insured person in the course of 1930
to the
insurance fund.
2
The State contribution to this insurance, during 1930, amounted
to about RM. 12 per insured person. The amounts paid by the Reich,
including unemployment insurance (see footnote 1) therefore reached
about RM. 48 per insured person or about 1 per cent, of the total
budgets calculated for Berlin and Frankfort.

44

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

RM.
Yearly gross income RM. 4,935, i.e. monthly 411.25
rounded off
Amount free of taxation
Amount on which taxation is payable
Taxation rate (10-3% per cent.) = 6.5 per cent, on
RM. 310
Deduct a maximum of
Monthly amount of taxation
Annual amount of taxation

410.00
100.00
310.00
20.15
3.00
17.15
205.80

The same procedure was adopted for the calculation of the
various yearly amounts of national taxation corresponding
to the different incomes considered, both for November Ì930
and January 1931. For local taxes, the sum of RM. 9 has been
given as the amount payable in Berlin for an income not exceeding RM. 8,000. The same figure was adopted for Frankfort
and has been approved by the German authorities.
EMPLOYERS' SOCIAL INSURANCE CONTRIBUTIONS:
SICKNESS, INVALIDITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT

In Germany social insurance contributions by employers
are compulsory. The amount payable by employers in the case
here considered includes the following items, both for Berlin
and Frankfort:
RM.

Sickness insurance (RM. 1.40 a week)
Invalidity and old-age insurance (RM. 1.00 a week)
Unemployment insurance (RM. 2.28 a week) . . .

72.80
52.00
118.56

Total

243.36

SUMMARY
November 1930
Rerlin

Frankfort

Lowerlimit Upperlimit Lowerlimit Upperlimit
RM.
RM.
RM.
RM.

Food
1,673
Housing
1,020
Fuel and light
183
Clothing
699
Medical expenses (including
workers' contributions to
sickness insurance) . . . .
186
Miscellaneous expenses (excluding workers' contributions
to unemployment insurance)
977
4,738

1,742
1,380
183
699

1,860
1,020
183
699

1,957
1,380
183
699

186

186

186

959
4,907

959
5,364

977 .
5,167

BERLIN AND FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN (GERMANY)

45

Berlin
Frankfort
Lower limit Upper limit Lower limit Upper limit
RM.
RM.
RM.
RM.

Brought forward . . . 4,738
5,167
4,907
5,364
Life insurance
74
90
80
97
Invalidity and old-age insurance (employee's contribution)
52
52
52
52
Unemployment insurance
(employee's contribution)
119
119
119
119
Taxation :
National
206
233
217
248
Local
9
9
9
9_
5,198
5,670
5,384
5,889
Employer's contributions to:
Sickness insurance . . .
73
73
73
73
Invalidity and old-age
insurance
52
52
52
52
Unemployment insurance
119
119
119
119
Total
5,442
5,914
5,628
6,133
The above data relate to November 1930. In order to bring them to
January 1931, the index numbers for this date, published by the Statistisches Reichsamt, have been applied. The results are to be found
below in the summary for January 1931. The indices used are as follows :
GERMAN COST-OF-LIVING INDEX-NUMBERS (1913-1914 = 100)
November 1930 January 1931
Ratio

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Miscellaneous expenses . .
1

137.5
—
152.4
154.6
—

133.5
0.971
—
No change
150.4
0.987
146.4
0.947
—
1.032l

Special estimate by the Statistisches Reichsamt.

January 1931 (rounded off to the nearest RM. S)
_ Berlin
Frankfort
Lowerliinit Upperlimit Lowerlimit Upperlimit
RM.
RM.
RM.
RM.

Food
1,625
Housing
1,020
Fuel and light
180
Clothing
660
Medical expenses (including
workers' contributions to
sickness insurance) . . . .
185
Miscellaneous expenses (excluding workers' contributions
to unemployment insurance) 1,010
4,680
Life insurance
75
Invalidity and old-age insurance
50
Unemployment insurance . .
120
Taxation :
National
200
Local
10
5,135
Employer's contributions to:
Sickness insurance . . .
75
Invalidity and old-age
insurance
50
Unemployment insurance
120
Total
5,380

1,690
1,380
180
660

1,805
1,020
180
660

1,900
1,380
180
660

185

185

185

1,010
5,105
90

990
4,840
80

990
5,295
95

50
120

50
120

50
120

230
10
5,605

215
10
5,315

240
10
5,810

75

75

75

50
120
5,850

50
120
5,560

50
120
6,055

46

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected
and supplied by the Statistisches Reichsamt.]
TABLE I.

1.
2.
34.

Beef
Veal
P o r k , fresh (Hank) .
Pork, salt, bacon
(bacon, fat, G e r m a n ) .
5. P o r k , salt, h a m a n d
shoulder(cooked h a m )
6. P o r k , salt, other
("Kassler, K a m m u n d
7. Poultry.hens
. . . .
8 (a) Sausage (average ot
mettwurst,
Jagdwurst, fleischwurst
a n d leberwurst)
(i>) Cooked m e a t other
than ham
. . . .
9. Fish, fresh (cod) . .
10. Fish, salt, red herring
11. Milk, fresh (unskimm-

23. Coffee

J

28. Macaroni, spaghetti,
noodles ( m a d e with
29. Rice (medium quality)

Berlin

Frankfort

RM.
2.80
2.61
1.93

RM.
2.88
2.42
2.45

2.35
4.40
2.60
2.38

Berlin

(3)
Quantity
consumed
inGermany
b y a worker's family in 19271928

Frankfort

RM.
2.80 *
2.61
1.93

RM.
2.88 *
2.42
2.45

3.18

2.35

3.18

9.6

5.60

4.40

5.60

2.1»

2.60
2.70

2.60
2.38

2.60
2.70

4.5"
2.4*

Kg.
19.8
4.6
24.6

\

1

42.5 B

3.54»

3.07

3.30

I

1.60
1.36

1.60
1.40

3.60
1.60
1.36

3.80
1.60
1.40

J

0.28

0.29

0.28

0.29

3.20
2.20
2.00

3.50
2.40
2.00

3.20
2.20
2.00

350
2.40
2.00

17.9
15.3
33.6'

1.50
2.275
0.58
0.81
0.36
2.00

1.65
2.625
0.61
1.11
0.44
2.00

1.50
2.275
0.58
0.81
0.36
2.00

1.65
2.625
0.61
1.11
0.44
2.00

11.6'
27.0'
48.6 "
64.0 "
293.9 1!
19.0 "

0.57
0.06
6,00

0.72 "

0.68
0.07 '
6.00
0.82 " {

0.57
0.06
6.00
0.90
0.60

0.68
0.07
6.00
1.00
0.70

53.6
507.8
4.0
11.9"

0.70
3.20

0.72
3.20

0.70
3.20

0.72
3.20

10.6
1.5

1.00
0.67

1.00
0.70

1.00
0.67

1.00
0.70

7.5
6.2

j

1

wheat . . . .
wheat (rolls) .
r y e and mixed
a n d cookies .
(granulated,

26. Coffee substitutes

(2)
Price per kg.
in November 1930

JJ 3.32"

14. B u t t e r s u b s t i t u t e s . .
15. L a r d and lard subEggs
Flour,
Bread,
Bread,
Cakes
Sugar

(1)
Price per k g . as used
in t h e calculations '

i

12. B u t t e r (average of
farm a n d dairy b u t -

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21

FOOD

10.0
11.2'
481.2

1
J

1
1

The prices in this column are arithmetical averages of the corresponding prices in
column (2). »"Stew" ('/,) and sausage (•/•) on the suggestion of the German statistical
authorities.
' Ham.
» Poultry. » Sausage and other " charcuterie ". « Fish, other.
' Margarine. • Lard and other melted fats. • 472 pieces at 17.5 eggs per kg. » Bread
flour. " Wheaten bread and 15
rolls. " Different
kinds of bread (rye and mixed flour).
•» Pastry. " Southern fruits.
Other meat. u Weighted average.
SOURCE: Prices supplied by the German statistical authorities.
Quantities taken from the enquiry into family budgets of 1927-1928
(Wirtschaft und Statistik, 1929, No. 24).

TABLE II.

A L T E R N A T I V E COMPARISON O F FOOD COSTS AT B E R L I N A N D F R
B Y T H E GERMAN STATISTICAL A U T H O R I T
Workers in D e t r o i t

Designation

Quantity

Expenditure

Kg.
17.4

RM.
62.88

Designation

Beef, fresh, stew with bones !
Average of Mettwurst, Fleischw
22.5
l b . Beef, fresh, roast
69.06
a n d Leberwurst *
19.5
41.34
l c . Beef, fresh, stew
Beef, fresh, stew with bones
. .
23.13
7.4
2. Veal
Veal
75.09
30.2
3. Pork, fresh
43.01
13.8
Pork, flank, fresh
4. P o r k , salt, bacon
24.09
10.2
Bacon, £at, smoked, G e r m a n
. .
1.12
5. Pork, salt, h a m a n d shoulder .
0.6
H a m , cooked
38.63
11*0
6. Pork, salt, other
Kassler ( K a m m u n d Schuft) * .
7. Poultry, hens
Minced m e a t
8.5
21.96
8a. Sausage
Average of Mettwurst, Fleischwurs
7.6
22.04
8b. Cooked meat (other t h a n h a m )
Leberwurst
7.9
20.99
9. Fish, fresh
Pork, salt, cooked
1.8
4.55
10. Fish, salt
Cod, w i t h o u t h e a d
491.7
294.01
11. Milk, fresh
R e d h e r r i n g (smoked)
30.0
139.69
12. B u t t e r
Milk, u n s k i m m e d (from s h o p ) . .
5.0
16.81
13. Cheese, ordinary
B u t t e r , average of dairy a n d farm b
11.6
24.28
14. B u t t e r substitutes
Tilsitt cheese, fat
23.5
36.37
15a. Lard
Margarine ( B l a u b a n d t r a d e - m a r k )
55.0
153.48
15b. Lard substitutes
Lard, foreign
86.9
39.12
16. Eggs
Palmin
236.0
179.40
17. Flour, wheat
Eggs3
50.9
42.74
18. Bread, wheat
Flour, w h e a t
14.8
28.68
19. Bread, rye
Rolls, w h e a t *
88.6
53.17
20. Cakes and cookies
Bread, o t h e r t h a n wheat * . . .
268.2
61.69
21. Sugar
Cake
14.8
53.83
22. Potatoes
Sugar, fine (household)
30.6
22.01
23. Coffee
Potatoes
46.2
40.16
24. B a n a n a s
Coffee»
0.2
1.14
25. Oranges
Bananas
2.1
6.26
26. Coffee substitutes
Oranges
1,655.16
6.7
9.13
27. Cocoa
Malt coffee *
5.6
5.30
2 8 . Macaroni
Cocoa
29. *Rice
h water) of
. . A. m
The caloric value of t h e German articles is as far as possibleNoodles
t h e s a m(made
e as t hwei tquantities
Rice,
medium quality
Total for articles 1-29. .
(German table).
1
T
o
t
a
l
for
articles
1-29
.
. .
German articles of c o m m o n consumption have been substituted for t h e American foodstuffs.
' Average weight of one e g g = 52 gr.
* In accordance w i t h German h a b i t s of consumption t h e quantities of w h e a t a n d rye b r e a d h a
* In accordance with G e r m a n h a b i t s of consumption t h e American q u a n t i t y of coffee h a s b
The q u a n t i t y of malt coffee has been increased taking into account its smaller yield, compared t o t h e y
T o t a l expenditure in D e t r o i t = R M . 2,335.70, i.e. it is 41.1 per cent, higher t h a n t h e expe
expenditure for food in Berlin a n d F r a n k f o r t is therefore:
for Berlin: R M . 1,185.95 + 41.1 per cent. = RM, 1,673.38; for Frankfort:
RM. 1,318.27 +
la. Beef, fresh, steak

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+ 0.8
+28.7
—19.5

11.6
2.0
3.4

4,141
3,886
7,609

4,176
5,000
3,842

—28.3

11.8

26,326

18,880

3,746
3,581

360
2,500
1,130
990
1,840
890
1,600
1,150
1,160
3,650
3,590

+ 21.0
2.6
0.3

5,179
79,790
23,993

6,264
77,745
24,053

3,573
3,508
3,449
441
542
2,834
3,131

3,640
3,540
3,410
250
480
2,530
3.120

1.9
0.9
1.1
—43.3
—11.4
—10.7
— 0.4

5.4
21.3
6.7
8.8
5.6
5.7
194.9
23.0
9.5
1.8

31,442
19,645
19,659
85,951
12,466
26,923
5,636

32,032
19,824
19,437
45,075
11,040
24,035
5,616

2,289
540

2,420
1,605

+ 5.7
+ 197.2

9,843
11,124

10,406
33,063

4,975
6,044
3,177

4,170
5,000
3,000

—16.2
—17.3
— 5.6

10,448
29,011

8,757
24,000
10,500

227

3,130
470
3,320
900
420

Buttermilk
Cream . .
Mutton. .

357
1,943
2,238

Liver a n d other m e a t .

—
—
2,231
—
959
—

(Soup) bones . . . .
Semolina a n d similarproducts
Macaroni, spaghetti, noodles
Other cereals and starch
products
Rice
Beans, n a v y
Vegetables, n o t canned
Berries, fresh
Dried fruits
Nuts
Jellies, preserves, m a r m a l a d e
a n d fruit b u t t e r
Other fruits (canned) . . .
Coffee substitutes . . . . ' .
Cocoa
Sweets a n d chocolate . . .
Molasses, syrup, a n d honey .
Canned soup

Soft drinks, fruit juices, etc,
Other foodstuffs
Total I I . . .
All foodstuffs .

•

—
—
.761
—.

+
+
+

4.3
20.6
0.2
2.1
4.8
3.5
6.7

-44.8

1.2
43.6

11,120
1,521
913
125,776

20,971

504
125,776

530,996
552,402
3,871,874 3,724.305

* According t o family b u d g e t enquiry of 1927-1928.
' Kassler.
» e.g. smoked a n d salted m e a t , canned m e a t .
' H e n (for soup).
J a g d w u r s t , Fleischwurst a n d Leberwurst.
• Smoked a n d salt m e a t .
' R e d herring.
(canned)
" Cut beans (canned).
" e.g. liver sausage, lung a n d h e a r t .

Sk
Cre
Mu
Ho
Mi
Ga
Ot
Fr
Bo
Sem
Ma
Oth
Ric
Be
Ve
Ber
Dr
Nu
Jel
Oth
Ma
Coc
Ch
Syr
Ho
Sal
Sou
Bee
Spi
Wi
Sof
Oth

Ave
° C

50

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE IV. — HOUSING

1

Rents in January 1931 in RM.
(1) Rent in a modest middle-class quarter for 4.5 rooms (including
kitchen), with heating by stoves, running water, without bathroom, w.c. inside, in Berlin and Frankfort:
In an old house

In a new house

RM. 80.—
RM. 110.—
Average of old and new houses 2 : RM. 85.—.
(2) Rent in a better quarter for 4.5 rooms (including kitchen), with
central heating, running hot water, bathroom, w.c. inside, in Berlin
and Frankfort:
In an old house

In a new house

RM. 110.—
RM. 140.—
Average of old and new houses 3 : RM. 115.—.
1

In Germany two classes of rents must be distinguished, namely:
(a) Rent for apartments in old houses, i.e. which were ready before 1 July 1918 —
this rent is subject to State regulation;
(6) Rent for apartments in. new houses, i.e. finished after the above date and free from
State control — this rent accordingly adjusts itself to the cost of production. Old
dwellings, which the great majority of workers' families occupy, are subject to a
special fiscal charge, the Hauszinss teuer, which is included in the rent, and paid
to the State by the landlord. This tax varies with the pre-war mortgage on the
property and may amount to as much as 48 per cent, of the pre-war rent.
* Apartments in new houses form according to a preliminary estimation about oneseventh of the total number for Berlin and Frankfort respectively.
TABLE V. — CLOTHING

/ . Men's clothing

1. Hat
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton, trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Vest, cotton
8. Pants, cotton
9. Socks
10. Shoes
11. Cotton gloves
12. Tie
13. Belt
14. Overall
II. Women's clothing
1. Hat
2. Dress, rayon
3. House dress
4. Dress, cotton
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat, cotton
7. Bloomers, step-ins, drawers
8. Shirt, cotton
9. Stockings, rayon
10. Shoes
11. Gloves, cotton

x

Average Prices
in November 1930
(Berlin and Frankfort )

KM.

5.00
2.25
71.50
70.50
5.10
6.00
2.50
2.75
1.30
16.50
1.60
1.45
2.25
7.50
6.80
28.25
3.35
5.75
58.00
3.40
2.65
1.60
1.95
15.75
1.50

* As stated in the introduction, the prices given are average prices for Berlin and
Frankfort. For some articles the prices were not supplied for the samples, but for corresponding articles more common in Germany, the former being little used here. The price
for a man's belt, for example, is given for a more narrow belt than the Detroit sample.

BERLIN AND FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN (GERMANY)

71/. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Cotton shirt
7. Cotton union suit
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b) Girls
1. Hat
2. Cotton dress
3. Dress, rayon
4. Woollen coat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Bloomers, step-ins, drawers
9. CottonTABLE
stockings
VI.
MISCELLANEOUS
10. Shoes

RM.
1.50
33.00
2.50
23.00
10.00
3.25
3.50
1.10
8.50
3.25
5.75
15.00
30.00
7.25
1.50
4.25
1.25
1.50
EXPENSES
7.00
Prices in November 1930
Berlin

RM.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
1

51

Blanket
12.50
Sheet 1
4.50
Pillow-case
1.20
Cotton towel
0.80
Cotton or linen tablecloth
4.50
Transport:
tramway
0.25
bus
0.25
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (man)
0.80
1 hair cut (child)
0.60
1 shave
0.25
Moving pictures (matinee)
0.60
Newspapers, monthly
2.60
Tobacco:
cigarettes, each
0.045
tobacco, 50 gr
0.50
Postage (1 inland letter)
0.15
Telephone (1 call from public station) . . . 0.10

Frankfort

RM.

12.75
4.50
1.20
0.90
4.90
0.25
0.25
0.65
0.50
0.20
0.65
2.25
0.045
0.50
0.15
0.10

Instead of prices for the sample articles prices for corresponding articles commonly
consumed in Germany have been supplied, because the quality (width) corresponding to
the former is not used in Germany.

COPENHAGEN (Denmark)

The basic data were supplied by the Danish Central Statistical Department.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to July-August 1930. The
figures on Danish consumption were supplied by the Danish
Statistical Department from the family budget enquiry of
1922 l. Twenty-one articles were taken which were common
to each budget and which covered 56.9 per cent, of the Danish
and 62.6 per cent, of the American workers' expenditure on
food. The data (prices and weights) used are shown in the
Appendix, table I. The result of the calculations is as follows:
Ratio of cost of food in Copenhagen to Detroit, based on 21 foodstuffs
(Detroit = 100):
(1) Using Detroit weights
78.4 per cent.
(2)
„ Danish
„
69.5
(3) Average of (1) and (2)
73.8

Applying the last ratio to the Detroit food expenditure
gives as result 1,532 kroner. This figure has been approved
by the Chief of the Danish Statistical Department.
HOUSING

The information supplied by the Danish Statistical Department indicates that the yearly cost of a dwelling similar to the
one generally lived in by the Detroit worker amounts to about
1,200 kroner. On the other hand, an apartment of 4% rooms
as usually occupied by a Danish skilled worker's family is given
as 800 kroner.
On the advice of the Danish Statistical Department the
figures of 800 and 1,200 kroner are taken as the lower and upper
limits respectively.
1

Husholdningsregnskaber for 1922, Danmarks Statistik, 4th Series,
69th volume.

COPENHAGEN

53

(DENMARK)

FUEL AND LIGHT

The prices of the various articles are given in the Appendix,
table II. The quantities consumed for the usual Danish apartment of 4 1 / 2 rooms are given by the Danish Statistical Department as follows:
Coke
Wood
Gas
Electricity
Kerosene

40 hectolitres
400 kg.
250 m s
150 kwh.
• 59.4 litres

While for a type more approaching to the Detroit one,
the figures supplied are as follows:
Coke
Wood
Gas
Electricity
Kerosene

65 hectolitres
150 kg.
200 m3
150 kwh.
59.4 litres

The total costs of fuel and lighting on the basis of these two
lists are, after allowing for an annual fixed electricity charge
of 6 kroner a year, and an addition of 1.56 per cent, for expenditure on matches, 245 and 271 kroner respectively.
CLOTHING

The prices of the various items of clothing are given in the
Appendix, table III. The cost of these items was worked
out by the usual two methods and gave the following results :
Method I
Method II

819 kroner
770

The figure of 770 (Method II) was recommended by the
Danish Statistical Authorities. It was pointed out that the
latest figures of Danish consumption indicate that from 11 to
13 per cent, of the worker's income is spent on clothing.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

In Denmark, practically all workers are members of State
recognised sick funds to which the annual contribution is
63 kroner a year. The fund covers members of the family and
children up to 15 years. There are therefore no further medical

54

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

expenses in the Danish workers' budget except for medicines
(one quarter payable by the worker) and for dental care.
Assuming 10 visits to the dentist at 4 kroner a visit gives
40 kroner, which added to the 63 kroner above makes 103 kroner.
This is the figure suggested by the Danish statistical authorities.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The prices of the different items are given in the Appendix,
table IV. Their cost in Copenhagen is 363.04 kroner. Applying
the same ratio to the remaining expenses in this group gives
a total of 1,103 kroner.
In Denmark, trade union subscriptions are practically compulsory on workers and amount to 130 kroner a year. Of this
sum, 70 kroner are ordinary subscriptions, " a n indispensable
expense for a Danish worker in order to get regular work ",
and 60 kroner represent the employee's contribution to unemployment insurance, the State contributing in addition about
30 kroner. Accordingly, the amount of 70 kroner is included,
whereas the total contributions to unemployment insurance
(those of the worker and of the State, since the employer is
exempted) to the amount of 90 kroner are deducted from the
above total for "Miscellaneous expenses", giving for these
a remainder of 1,013 kroner. The worker's own payments
(60 kroner) are then added separately, whereas the State
contributions do not re-appear, thus representing a reduction
of the cost of living to the worker, and a reduction of the cost
of labour to the employer.
L I F E INSURANCE

The premium for life insurance is calculated on the Danish
"purchasing power equivalent" of the American amount of
2,076 dollars. This is estimated at 5,670 kroner for the lower
and 6,200 kroner for the upper estimate. The corresponding
premiums are about 170 and 186 kroner.
There exists in Denmark a non-contributory old-age pension
available to needy persons 65 years of age and over. This
organisation certainly reduces the feeling of insecurity which
induced American workers to take considerable life insurance
policies. But the absence of compulsory contributions makes
it impossible to take this fact numerically into account.

55

COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)
TAXATION

Direct taxation plays an important part in the expenditure
of a Danish worker. At the present time the taxation rates
are as follows for a Danish worker with wife and 2 1 / 2 children:
Income of 4,000 kroner = 174 kroner
„ 5,000
„
= 284
„
„ 6,000
„
= 412
Special calculations have been made by the Danish statistical authorities of the amounts of taxation due on the incomes
here considered.
EMPLOYER'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL INSURANCE SCHEMES

The total for this item amounts to 25 kroner per annum,
whereof 17 kroner for accident insurance. Accordingly, a sum of
8 kroner has been inserted.
SUMMARY
July-August 1930
Lower estimate
Kr.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses (including
trade union subscription) . . . .
Life insurance
Worker's unemployment
contribution
Taxation

Upper estimate
Kr.

1,532
800
245
770
103

1,532
1,200
271
770
103

1,083
4,533
170

1,083
4,959
186

60
223
4,986

60
266
5,471

insurance

Employer's contributions to social
insurance (other than accident) . .
8
8
Total . . .
4,994
5,479
In order to bring the data for the different towns all to a uniform
date, viz. January 1931, the following cost of living index numbers have
been applied:
Expenditure in kroner
July 1930 Jan. 1931

Food
1,140
1,056
Fuel and light
145
141
Clothing
403
375
Other expenses
685
682
SOURCE: Statistiske Efterretninger, 1931, No. 5.

Coefficient of
reduction

92.6
97.2
93.1
99.6

56

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

January 1931
(rounded off to the nearest 5 kroner)
Lower estimate
Kr.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses (including
trade union subscription) . . . .

Upper estimate
Kr.

1,420
800
240
720
105

1,420
1,200
265
720
105

1,080
4,365
170

1,080
4,790
185

60
200
4,795

60
250
5,285

Employer's contributions to social
insurance

10

10

Total . . .

4,805

5,265

Life insurance
"Worker's unemploj'ment
contribution
Taxation

insurance

57

COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced In the tables have been collected
and supplied by the Danish Central Statistical Department.]
TABLE I.

FOOD

Annual
quantity
Price
per
kg.
Price per kg.
consumed at
as used in the at Copenhagen Copenhagen
(July-August
calculations
by a family
1930)
ot 3.27 units
(2)
(1)
of consumption
in 1922
ore
Kg.
(3)
ore

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

181
181
37.01 !
Beef, fresh, steak . . . .
181
181
Beef, fresh, roast . . . .
194
194
29.17
Veal
194
194
15.922
Pork, fresh
200
200
18.47
Pork, salt (bacon & ham)
248
248
12.493
Cooked meat (other than
20.24*
115
115
ham)
1.44»
88
88
389.49
7. Fish, fresh
32
32
30.28
8. Fish, salt
294
294
51.316
9. Milk, fresh
146
146
19.88
10. Butter
10.37
248
248
29.66
11. Butter substitutes . . .
156
156
51.27
176
176
12. Cheese
67.00
34
34
13. Lard
230.86
77
77
114.48
14. Eggs
275.60
19
19
15. Flour, wheaten . . . .
1.24
42
42
16. Bread, -wheaten
15.76
13
13
17. Bread, rye
900
900
18. Sugar
428
428
* Beef, fresh.
' Sum of " pork " and " pork,
loin ". ' Mince-meat.
* Sum of cod:
5
Potatoes,
Irish • Margarine.
. . . .
and19.
plaice.
Dried codfish.
20. Tea
SOURCE : Prices supplied by the Danish statistical authorities.
21. Coffee
Quantities
taken from "Husholdningsregnskaber for 1922 ", Danmarks
Statistik, Staiistiske Meddelelser, 4. Raekke, 69. Bind, 5. Haefte, p. 42,.
where the data are given per consumption-unit.

TABLE 11.

Coke
Wood
Gas
Electricity
Kerosene
w. = 50 kg.

FUEL AND LIGHT

Prices in
Units July-August
1930

hi. »
kg.
m.
kwh
It.

ore
241
11
14
30
25

58

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

TABLE I I I .

CLOTHING
Prices in
July-August 1930

J. Men's Clothing

1. Felt h a t
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots and shoes
10. Cotton gloves
11. Tie
12. Belt
13. Overall
/ / . Women's clothing

III.

'. .

1. H a t
2. Dress, cotton
3. Dress, rayon
4. House dress or bungalow apron
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon . . . .
8. Shirt or vest, cotton
9. Stockings, rayon
10. Shoes . . . "
11. Gloves, cotton
Children's clothing
(a) Bogs
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b)

Girls
1. H a t
2. Dress, cotton
3. Dress, rayon
4. Woollen coat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Bloomers or drawers, cotton
9. Cotton stockings
10. Shoes

10.50
4.50
100.00
80.00
7.50
4.00
4.50
1.35
18.00
1.00
2.50
2.50
5.00
7.00
4.50
30.00
3.00
85.00
2.50
3.50
1.50
4.00
16.00
1.75

2.50
55.00
3.50
35.00
12.00
2.50
3.25
1.75
12.00
4.00
3.00
16.00
35.00
7.00
1.75
3.35
1.25
1.50
11.00

59

COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)

TABLE IV. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Prices in
July-August 1930
Kr.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Table oilcloth
Cotton and linen tablecloth
Daily transport (1 ride)
Barber's expenses:
1 hair cut (man)
1 hair cut (child)
1 shave
9. Moving pictures (1 ticket)
10. Newspapers:
1 daily paper
1 Sunday paper
11. Tobacco:
20 cigarettes
2 ounces
12. Laundry work sent out:
1 man's shirt
1 sheet
13. Postage (1 inland letter)
14. Telephone (1 call from public station)

5.85
3.35
1.45
0.85
1.85
4.85
0.17
1.00
0.50
0.30
1.05
0.10
0.30
0.70
0.60

. . .

0.50
0.29
0.10
0.10

STOCKHOLM (Sweden)

The enquiries were made by the Swedish Social Board which
has had the opportunity to take part in, and to give its advice
as to, the calculations made by the International Labour Office.
FOOD

The retail prices of foodstuffs relate to October 1930. On
the basis of these prices the cost of this section of the budget
was calculated by using the results of the Detroit enquiry, and
of a family budget enquiry conducted in Stockholm by the
Swedish Social Board in 1922-1923 1 . It was found possible to
select 31 articles for which consumption weights were available
for the two localities; these articles accounted for 70.5 per cent.
of the total expenditure on food in Detroit in 1929, and similarly
for 77.9 per cent, at Stockholm in 1922-1923. The Stockholm
weights and prices are indicated in Appendix A, table I. On
the basis of these data the following ratios were computed.
Ratio of cost of food in Stockholm to Detroit, based on 31 foodstuffs
(Detroit = 100):
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2) Using Stockholm weights
(a) Income class less than 1,300 kr. .
(Z>)
„
„
1,300-1,950 kr. . . .
(c)
„
„
over 1,950 kr. . . .

89.8 per cent.
74.5
73.9
75.2

„
„

In the opinion of the Swedish Social Board the second income
class is the more appropriate, which gives an average between
ratio (1) and ratio (2) (b) of 81.45 percent. This figure yields
a cost of 1,689 kronor. In addition to this the Social Board
presented a special memorandum on the calculation of the expenditure on food, yielding a ratio of 68.2 per cent..and a sum
of 1,394 kronor. This memorandum " is reproduced below as
Appendix B. As is explained on p. 17 of this report, this method
could not be applied to all countries included in the enquiry. Its
1
" Levnadkostnaderna i Städer och Industriorter omkring âr 1923 ",
Sveriges Offlciella Statistik, Socialstatistik, Stockholm 1929, p. 193, col. 2:
some further details were taken from ; " Statistisk Undersökning angaende
Levnadkostnaderna i Stockholm 1922-1923." Stockholms Stads Statistik,
Specialundersökningar Nr. 13. Stockholm, 1927, p. 7.

61

STOCKHOLM (SWEDEN)

result has, however, been adopted as the lower, and the result
of the International Labour Office method as the upper, limit
for this item of expenditure.
HOUSING

A valuable memorandum on rents in Stockholm was furnished by the Swedish investigators which is reproduced below
as Appendix C. In view of the fact that Swedish workers do
not in fact live in a dwelling of 4-5 rooms, it was not possible to
give the alternative figures indicated in Chapter II. After
discussion it was decided to take a figure of 1,500 kronor, as this
would cover the rent of a house of 4-5 rooms in the suburbs of
Stockholm, as well as the rent for a 3-room apartment of two
rooms and kitchen in a modern building equipped with the
latest "comfort ", situated in the city.
FUEL AND LIGHT

The prices of the different items are given in Appendix A,
table II. The quantities consumed in Stockholm per "normal
family " of 3.3 units are as follows:
Article
Wood
Coal
Coke
Gas
Electricity
Kerosene

Unit
m3
hi.
hi.
m3
kwh.
It.

Quantity
5.3
0.7
2.3
211.5
74.6
22.4

The application of these quantities gives a figure of 114.52
kronor. As the Stockholm quantities, however, relate to a
dwelling of 0.83 rooms per unit 1 , whereas the Detroit dwelling
contains 1.41 rooms per unit, this figure must be increased
in the ratio ^5 L70, which gives 195 kronor. The Swedish
Social Board considers that this sum would cover the cost of fuel
and light for a dwelling of 4% rooms without central heating
and hot water supply. If it is assumed that an apartment of
two rooms and kitchen in a modern building and equipped with
central heating and hot water supply is occupied by the worker
(see above under "Housing "), the following calculation would
be appropriate :
1
" Statistisk Undersökning angaende Levnadkostnaderna i Stockholm 1922-1923. " Stockholms Stads Statistik, Specialundersökningar
Nr. 13. Stockholm, 1927, p. 7.

62

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

Charge for central heating and hot water (50 kronor
per room)
Electricity (Stockholm budget quantity)
Gas (Stockholm budget quantity)
Total

Kr.
150.00
18.65
21.15
189.80

Since the two calculations yield practically the same result,
the figure of 195 kronor has been adopted.
CLOTHING

The prices of the various items of clothing are given in
Appendix A, table III. The cost of these items was computed
by the usual two methods, and gave the following' results:
Method I
Method II

916 kronor
802
„

As in the case of Copenhagen, the Swedish authorities
consider that Method II gives the more satisfactory results,
and it has therefore been adopted. The Swedish authorities
point out that ready-made clothing for children is comparatively
rare, owing to the large extent to which children's clothes are
made in the home.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

The data supplied are given in Appendix A, table IV. In
spite of the existence of voluntary sickness funds, the Swedish
Social Board proposes to adopt the ordinary calculation based
on doctor's fees in Stockholm, allowing however for the facilities
available to small income earners at Stockholm by a reduction
of 15 per cent. The details of the computation are as follows:
Kr.

Cost of 9V-2 visits to the doctor at 5 kronor each
,, „ 6V3 „
of „
„
,, 10
,,
,,
Reduction of 15 per cent . . . .
Cost of 10 visits to the dentist at 5 kronor each .
Total
MISCELLANEOUS

47.50
63.33
110.83
16.62
94.21
50.00
144.21

EXPENSES

The data supplied are given in Appendix A, table V. Calculating the cost of comparable items in Detroit and Stockholm
gives a percentage of 94.8. Applying this to the appropriate
total of the Detroit budget a figure of 1,192 kronor is obtained.

STOCKHOLM

63

(SWEDEN)

L I F E INSURANCE

The same method is adopted as for other towns. The equivalent purchasing power in Stockholm of 2,076 dollars is estimated at 6,500 and 7,000 kronor for the lower and upper
estimates respectively. The premiums on these figures are
about 195 and 210 kronor respectively. A. compulsory workers'
pensions fund exists in Sweden, with contributions by the
workers and a State contribution. It is not possible, however,
to compute the State contribution pei insured worker. The
contributions payable by a married man earning between 5,000
and 6,999 kronor per year, viz. 26 kronor, have been deducted
from the above premiums, and are shown under a separate
heading.
TAXATION

The taxation, State and local, in Stockholm for a family of
husband, wife and two children under fifteen years is given by
the Swedish Statistical authorities as 255 kronor on an income
of 5,000 kronor, and 352 kronor on an income of 6,000. Figures
of 320 and 352 kronor are inserted, based on incomes of roughly
5,700 and 6,000 kronor respectively.
EMPLOYERS'

SOCIAL

INSURANCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Under existing legislation employers are compelled to
contribute only to accident insurance. In addition to this they
are, however, bound by collective agreements or special obligations to pay contributions for other social purposes. In mechanical engineering at Stockholm, these supplementary charges
amount to 0.43 kronor per week per employee, or about 22 kronor
per year.
SUMMARY
October 1930
Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses

Lower estimate
Kr.
1,394
1,500
195
802
144
1,192
5,227

per estimate
Kr.
1,689
1,500
195
802
144
1,192
5,522

64

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

Brought forward
Life insurance
Workers' contributions to pensions
fund
Taxation
Employers' social insurance contributions
Total

5,227
169

5,522
184

26
320
5,742

26
352
6,084

22

22

5,764

6,106

In order to bring the calculations for the different towns to a uniform date (January 1931), it is proposed to modify the above figures in
accordance with the changes in the cost of living. According to the
official statistics for Sweden the following changes took place.
Cost oí living index of the Social
Board (July 1914 = 100)
October 1930
July 1931

Food
137
132
Housing
205
205
Fuel and light
156
155
Clothing
178
177
Taxation
176
176
Miscellaneous expenses .
176
177
The results are as follows :
January 1931
(rounded off to the nearest S kronor)
Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses

0.96
1.00
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.01

Lower estimate
Kr.

Upper estimate
Kr.

1,340
1,500
195
795
145
1,205
5,180
170

1,620
1,500
195
795
145
1,205
5,460

.

Life insurance
Workers' contributions to pensions
fund
Taxation
Employers' social insurance contributions
Total

Coefficient
of
reduction

185
.25
350

25
320
5,695

6,020

20

20

5,715

6,040

APPENDIX A
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected
and supplied by the Swedish Social Board.]
TABLE I. — FOOD
Yearlyq u a n t i t y consumed in
Price per kg. Price per kg. 1922-1923 b y a
as used in t h1e a t Stockholm family of 3.3
units in Stockcalculations
in October 1930 holm with a n
a n n u a l income
per unit of
1,300-1,950 k r .
(2)
(3)
(1)
Kr.
Kr.

1. Beef, fresh
(a) Beef, fresh, steak . .
(b) Beef, fresh, roast . .
(c) Beef, fresh, stew . .
2. Veal
4. Pork, salt
(i>) Ham and shoulder .
(c) Pork, salt, other . .
5. Sausage
7. Fish, salt
8. Milk, fresh
(a) Ordinary
American
(b) Other
10. Butter
11. Butter substitutes . . .
12. Lard and lard substitutes
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

(b) Lard substitutes
. .
Eggs
Flour, wheaten
. . . .
Bread, wheaten . . . .
Bread, rye
Cakes and cookies . . .
Sugar
Potatoes (Irish) . . . .
Tea
Coffee
Cream and condensed milk
Mutton
(a) Chops
(b) Roast

2.66
—.
—
—
2.45
2.55
2.76
.—.
—
—
1.60
1.44
0.70
0.24
1.94
—
—
2.82
1.39
1.32
.—
.—
1.94
0.39
0.96
0.67
2.62
0.39
0.13
9.26
3.36
1.196
2.52
—.
-—.
.

24. Beef, salt and preserved
(a) Beef, salt, corned , .
(b) Beef, salt, dried. . .
25. Buttermilk
26. Flour other than wheaten
27. Breakfast foods . . . .
(a) Wheat
(b) Oats
28.
29.
30.
31.

Molasses, syrup . . . .
Dried beans (navy) . .
Cocoa
Other meat not canned .

—

•

2.48
—.
—.
0.09
0.35
1.82
—
—
—
1.89
0.80
2.08
1.45

—
4.37
2.07
1.53
2.45
2.55
—.
4.07
2.34
1.86
1.60
1.44
0.70
0.24
—
2.23
1.64
2.82
1.39
—
1.16
1.47
1.94
0.39
0.96
0.67
2.62
0.39
0.13
9.26
3.36
1.19»
—
3.22
2.65
1.71
—
2.04
2.92
0.09
0.35
—
2.52
0.40
2.54
1.89
0.80
2.08
1.45

30.7
—.
—
—

•

17.8
25.7
15.2
—.
—
—
31.7'
50.2 2
35.6 3
940.1 8
14.9
—.
—.
39.6 9
18.8
7.6 10
—
—
39.7
155.5
28.0
100.0«
6.6
108.9
389.4
0.26
20.1
35.6«
6.9"
—
—
—
5.0"
—
—18.3
45.1"
31.4"
—
—.
—.
4.3
8.3 !"
2.0
18.5 16

1
The prices of this column are simple arithmetic averages of the corresponding data
in column
(2). ' Sum of "herrings and small herrings of the Baltic Sea " and "other fresh
fish ". s Sum of "salt herrings "e and "other salt fish ". * Sum of "dry ", "fresh and
sour " and "sweet " rye bread. Price oí cream. ' Quantity of cream. ' Sausage and
galantine. • Natural milk. * Margarine. " Fats. " Mutton and lamb. » Salt and
smoked meat. » Sum of rye flour, sifted rye flour and other flour. » Gruels. " Dried
peas and brown beans. " "Other meat ".
5

66

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

SOURCE : Quantities taken from page 7 of "Statistisk Undersökning
angaende Levnakosnaderna i Stockholm 1922-1923 ", Stockholms Stads
Statistik, Specialundersökningar No. 13.
Prices supplied by the Swedish statistical authorities with the
following special remarks:

1 (a). Beef, fresh, steak. Beefsteak without bones has been noted
but not fillet of beef properly so-called (compare the French translation
"filet de bceuf")> which in Stockholm fetches a considerably higher
price.
9 (a) and (b). Cheese. The price given under (a) is that for Swedish
cheese made from unskimmed milk, and under (b) commoner Swedish
cheese.
15. Bread, wheaten. Wheaten bread (household bread) is baked in
Sweden either with water or milk. The price represents an average
between the two kinds of bread.
16. Bread, rye. The price represents the most usual kind of rye
bread in Stockholm, i.e. "sweet bread ", baked from rye flour and
wheat meal and somewhat sweetened and spiced.
24 (b). Beef, salt, dried. This is not met with in Stockholm. In
place of it the price for dried mutton has been given.
26. Flour, other than wheat. The price given is for sifted rye flour,
which is employed to a comparatively large extent (33 kgs.) for breadmaking at home.

TABLE II. — FUEL AND LIGHT
Prices
in October 1930
Kr.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Anthracite coal
Bituminous coal
Coke
Wood
Gas
Electricity
Kerosene

hi.
7.00
,,
3.02
„
2.63
m 3 11.25
m3
0.10
kwh. 0.25
It.
0.29

TABLE III. — CLOTHING
Prices
in October 1930

1. Men's clothing
1. Felt hat
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots and shoes
10. Cotton gloves
11. Tie
12. Belt
13. Overall

K"-7.50
3.50
65.00
65.00
4.50
5.25
5.25
0.95
18.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
11.00

STOCKHOLM (SWEDEN)

67
Prices
in October 1930
Kr.

II. Women's clothing
1. Hat
11.00
2. Dress, rayon
35.00
3. Dress, cotton
5.50
4. House dress or bungalow apron
7.50
5. Woollen coat
.
55.00
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
3.50
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon . . . .
4.50
8. Shirt or vest, cotton
2.65
9. Stockings, rayon
4.60
10. Shoes
18.50
11. Gloves, cotton
1.75
III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
3.25
2. Woollen suit
45.00
3. Cotton trousers
4.50
4. Overcoat
37.50
5. Sweater or lumberjack
12.00
6. Cotton shirt
3.00
7. Union suit, cotton
4.65
8. Cotton socks
2.00
9. Boots
15.00
(b) Girls
1. Hat
2.00
2. Dress, cotton
4.50
3. Dress, rayon
35.00
4. Woollen coat
32.50
5. Sweater or lumberjack
9.00
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
2.50
7. Union suit, cotton
4.65
8. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
2.00
9. Cotton stockings
1.85
10. Shoes
15.00
SOURCE : Data supplied by the Swedish statistical authorities,
with the following remarks:
On a comparison between the specimens of American articles of
clothing which were supplied for this enquiry and the qualities most
commonly used by the social group in question in Stockholm, the
remark might be made that as regards men's clothing the American
suit (13) was of comparatively low quality, while the wives' and children's clothes in some cases were of markedly higher quality than is
usual here. Thus, silk and artificial silk are used here only exceptionally,
except for stockings, and the prices for clothes wholly or partly of silk
are in Stockholm, owing among other things to high duties, considerably
higher than in Detroit. In some cases commoner qualities of artificial
silk are used than that in the samples.
As regards the particular articles, the following remarks may be
made :
I. Men's clothing, 8: cotton socks. The price given corresponds to
the sample. Here, however, woollen socks are used to a greater extent
at a considerably higher price and of a more lasting quality.

68

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

I. Men's clothing, 10 : cotton gloves. The type of gloves shown in
the sample is hardly to be met with in Stockholm. The price is, therefore,
practically an estimate. Dubbed leather gloves are often used as outdoor working gloves, otherwise thinner gloves of cotton or skin are
used.
II. Women's clothing, 9: stockings, silk or rayon. The quality
shown by the sample is considered here as quite high. The usual quality
here costs about 3.75 kronor.
III. Girls' clothing, 3: silk or rayon dress. The sample showed a
very high quality which, practically speaking, is not used in children's
clothes here. A good child's dress of another material costs here about
20 kronor.
The consumption of clothing articles in the Swedish budget is affected by the commoner but often more lasting material of such articles.
It is also the case to a very great extent that the wife makes clothes
for herself and her children out of bought material. A less special
enquiry among 175 families shows among other things that the articles
which are found in the Labour Office's list of women's clothing only
represent from 45-50 per cent, of their entire clothing account as against
72 per cent, in the Detroit enquiry.
TABLE IV. — MEDICAL EXPENSES
Prices
in October 1930
Kr.

Visit to doctor
House call
Visit to dentist

5.00
10.00
5.00

TABLE V. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Prices
in October 1930
Kr.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton or linen tablecloth
Oilcloth
Transport {1 return ticket)
Barber expenses
1 hair cut (man)
1 hair cut (child)
1 shave
Moving pictures (1 ticket)
Newspapers
1 daily paper
1 Sunday paper
Tobacco
20 cigarettes Bridge
10 cigarettes Arab
Tiger Brand 1 kg
Laundry work sent out
1 man's shirt
1 sheet
Postage (1 internal letter)
Telephone (1 call from public station) . . .

15.00
4.50
1.75
0.60
5.00
3.50
0.15
1.75
1.25
0.40
1.00
0.15
0.20
0.50
0.50
20.00
0.75
0.50
0.15
0.20

STOCKHOLM

(SWEDENÌ

69

APPENDIX B

Memorandum regarding a method of comparing food costs in different
places, suggested by the Swedish Social Board
In comparing the cost of food in different places consideration
should be given to the quantity as well as the quality of the food.
The first requirement is met simply by calculating the caloric
content of the food. In comparing the cost of living at two places the
cost of a given number of calories of the same composition should be
calculated, possibly with due reference to climatic factors and the
different nutritive requirements of different races. With the help of
expert physiological knowledge, it ought, in any case, to be fairly easy
to solve this problem without allowing too much margin for arbitrary
approximations.
When quality is taken into account, the food budget should be
divided into two parts. In the first should be ranged the relatively
few (staple) articles of food which form the main basis of nutrition.
The composition may vary somewhat between different places but it
seems to be fairly homogeneous at least for countries of Western
civilisation. All the other foods should form the second group. A
calculation should be made of the nutritive value of the two groups
respectively. The sum of the caloric values of the two groups should
previously have been reduced, through a proportionate reduction of
all the items in the richer budget or through an increase of the items
in the poorer budget, to a uniform quantity. If it is found that the
two groups in the places compared are of different weight the respective
weight of the groups should be calculated again on the basis of the
conditions in that place which is taken as a norm. If, for instance, a
place is taken as a norm where both groups form 50 per cent, of the
nutritive value respectively and it is compared with a place where the
relation is respectively 55 and 45 per cent., the cost for the former
group should consequently be decreased in the relation oí 55 to 50 and
the cost for the latter group should be increased in the relation of 45
to 50. It seems that on the basis of these reductions it would be
possible to arrive at a truer picture of the relative cost of food than by
Irving Fisher's formula.
The above method has the advantage that — although it is necessary in order to arrive at a qualitative comparability to increase or
decrease the quantities of all foodstuffs — their relation within the two
groups remains nevertheless constant. A change in the relation between
the two groups seems to represent in a satisfactory manner the change
also in the quality of the budget. If a comparison is made of the
composition of budgets between different income groups (of the same
social class at the same place and time) the greatest difference is that
with increasing income the primary foodstuffs lose in relative importance and higher weight is given to the second group. It is not overlooked, however, that the elasticity of consumption of different foodstuffs varies considerably and that it is therefore in each practical case
hardly reasonable to change the consumed quantities of all items in
exactly the same proportion. These shortcomings, however, can hardly

70

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

be avoided without an arbitrary treatment of the material, and are
hardly likely to be of great practical importance.
A calculation, on the above method, of the cost of food in Detroit
and Stockholm is appended.
In agreement with the calculation of the Labour Office the Swedish
weights refer solely to Stockholm conditions. It will be seen that the
ratio between the cost of food in the two places is somewhat different
from that calculated by the International Labour Office.
Stockholm, 2 July 1930.
(signed) HUGO HEYMAN.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE COST OF FOOD IN STOCKHOLM
AND IN DETROIT 1
Detroit

Stockholm

I.
Group A.

Quantity
kg.
Wheaten Hour
155.5
Rye flour (other flour) . .
31.1
Ordinary rye bread . . .
55.5
Swedish hard bread (rye) .
44.5
Wheat bread
28.0
Breakfast foods
31.4
Potatoes
389.4
Peas and beans
8.3
Sugar
108.»
Syrup
4.3
Oleo-margarine
18.8
Total
—
Group B.
Other articles
—
Total A and B . . .
—

549,508
111,612
141,127
134,390
72,436
117,640
260,984
28,621
435,541
13,690
141,174

Cost
Kr.
60.65
10.89
37.19
29.82
26.88
48.67
50.62
6.64
42.47
8.13
26.13

2,006,723

348.09

Calories

Calories

Quantity
kg.
87.0
3.2
50.9

307,295
11,389
129,367

—

—

236.1
27.5
268.3
5.7
93.3
3.5
11.6

Cost
Kr.
34.76
2.40
38.18

—

611,067
101,339
179,786
19,706
373,322
11,096
86,955

158.12
31.10
55.78
5.13
46.96
3.01
21.69

1,831,322

397.13

2,031,572 1,645.82
3,862,894 2,042.95

2,482,184 1,314.80 (appr.)
4,488,907 :1,662.89

II. The Stockholm figures reduced to the caloric value of the
Detroit budget (approximately):
Group A
Group B
Total A and B . . .

Calories
Kr.
number
per cent.
1,727,000
44.7 300.—
2,136,000
55.3 1,131.—
3,863,000
100.0 1,431.—

Calories
Kr.
number
per cent.
1,831,000
47.4 397.—
2,032,000
52.6 1,646.—
3,863,000
100.0 2,043.—

III. Recalculation of the costs of groups A and B in Stockholm
with regard to their relative caloric percentages in the Detroit budget:
Group A
Group B
Total

300 . | ^ 4
44.7
^2 ß
1,131 . ¿=V
55.3

Stockholm
318 kr.
1,076

„

1,394

„

. IV. If the cost in Detroit is taken as 1 the relation for Stockholm
is 0.682.

1

The modifications necessitated with regard to differences in race
and climate are neglected.

STOCKHOLM

(SWEDEN)

71

APPENDIX C
Attempt at a Comparison between the Expenditure of a Worker's
Family for Housing in Detroit and Stockholm
The type of dwelling for which the cost has in the first place to be
determined is the ordinary form of dwelling for the hundred workers
employed at the Ford works in Detroit whose standard of living was
investigated by the United States Bureau of Labour Statistics. The
type of dwelling in question is described as follows :
"The family occupies generally a separate house (61 cases in a
hundred), or a whole floor in a two-family house (32 cases). The
houses are mostly detached wooden houses situated in improved
streets with street lights. The house has four or five rooms (76 cases)
and bath-room (62 cases) and is provided with w.c. (indoors),
running water (hot and cold in 65 cases), kitchen sink and sewer
connection. All rooms have outside exposure and there are no
dark rooms. The house has one room or more per person (77 cases).
The usual arrangement of a four or five roomed house with four or
five persons, consisting of husband, wife and two or three children,
consists of two or three bed-rooms, a living-room or living-diningroom and a kitchen or kitchen-dining-room. The heating usually
consists of fire-places or stoves, but these are found in only half of
the rooms. Central heating is found in 44 cases. Houses are, in the
majority of cases, rented, but 32 families lived in their own houses."
The type of dwelling so described is comparatively unusual in
Stockholm, at least among the working classes. It ismetwith only among
barely one-fifth of the inhabitants of the city, who live outside the town,
properly speaking, in suburbs, nearly half of which (reckoned by
population) are incorporated with Stockholm, while the rest (separately
or together with others) constitute separate communes. The distance
from the centre of the town mostly does not exceed 10-15 kilometres,
and good means of communication exist by railway, tramway or
omnibus. The buildings erected in such districts consist generally of
detached two-storey wooden houses, mostly provided with one or two
rooms and a kitchen on the ground floor and a few rooms on the first
floor.
Where the owner of such a house is a workman or a person in a
similar economic position, his family not infrequently only lives on the
ground floor, while the upper rooms are let out to another family. In
this way two dwellings are constituted, each consisting of one or two
rooms and kitchen, which number of rooms is the usual number for
workers' dwellings in Stockholm. This is illustrated by the fact that
in the two districts (Enskede- and Brommaroten) which in great part
are built in the manner just described, the distribution of dwellings as
regards size, according to the housing census of 1925, did not differ
much from that prevailing in the inner town. In both cases dwellings
of one or two rooms and kitchen predominate, constituting in the one case
about one-third, and in the other case a quarter of the whole. Dwellings
of 3-5 rooms and kitchen make up together somewhat over one-fifth in

72

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

the inner town and about a quarter'in the outer districts referred to.
In the inner town about nine-tenths of the dwellings are rented. In the
outer districts about two-thirds of the small dwellings consisting of
1-2 rooms and kitchen are rented, while on the other hand this is the
case with only one-third of the dwellings with from 3-5 rooms, while the
remaining two-thirds are occupied by the owners. The dwellings in the
said outer districts, moreover, appear to be supplied with practically
the same conveniences (water supply and drainage, w.c, electric light,
gas, etc.) as the American dwellings. Bath-rooms, hoivever, are found
only in at most one-tenth of the small dwellings, while they are probably
found in about two-fifths of the 3-5 roomed dwellings. About onethird of the dwellings are heated by central heating, the rest with
cooking ranges in the kitchen and tiled stoves in all the other rooms.
The rents x for such dwellings, according to the Rent Returns for
the end of 1929 and beginning of 1930 were as follows:
«IT IN KRONOR PER YEAR FOR DWELLINGS

1 room and kitchen
2 rooms

»?

)>

3

»?

M

JÏ

4

?»

M

ÎÎ

5

J?

I

without central heating
with
,,
j>
without
5
?>
with
5
5)
without
>
i>
with
>
JS
without
>
)>
with
>
>>
•without
»
ÎS
with
9
>>

Inner town
628
1,062
1,009
1,604
1,479
2,192
1,931
2,799
2,434
3,496

Suburban area
4 7 5 - 498
726- 895
684- 707
907-1,238
852- 929
1,177-1,614
1,159-1,282
1,516-1,856
1,463-1,470
1,841-2,373

The rents in the suburban area are therefore considerably lower than
in the inner town, but this is accompanied by higher costs and loss of
time in travelling to and from the workplace, etc. It should be pointed
out that the rents for dwellings with central heating are given exclusive
of the charge for the heating itself, which on an average would amount
to about 100 kronor a year for a one-room dwelling, and for larger
dwellings increases by about 50 kronor for every additional room.
As has been said, however, three to five-room dwellings in the
suburban area are principally occupied by the owners. Building and
maintenance costs for such a home are difficult to give generally, as
they vary considerably according to the age, size, character and
situation of the house. By way of guidance one may take the costs of
the so-called small cottages by means of which the city of Stockholm
endeavoured to assist the less well-to-do classes to better housing and
which have in recent years been erected in the suburban area to the
number of several hundreds. These cottages, which consist of a house
for a single family, are built of wood on a concrete foundation and
contain up to four rooms and kitchen with modern conveniences
(including central heating, warm water and bathroom), are built of
standardised material which the town supplies to intending owners who
are also granted building loans up to 90 per cent, of the costs of building
and may make up the remaining 10 per cent, by their own work on the
1
These rents include all outgoings for maintenance of the building,
water, chimney-sweeping, etc., but not for heating, electric light, gas,
etc. Taxes in Sweden are principally based on income and have no
connection with the kind or size of dwelling occupied.

STOCKHOLM

(SWEDEN)

73

house. These cottages are estimated to cost about 11,400 kronor to
build and the total yearly costs amount to about 950 kronor; this includes
the charge for the site, which is granted by the city on a so-called
ground lease (60 years' lease).
As may be seen from the foregoing, the type of dwelling just
described is, so far as Stockholm is concerned, only applicable to the
suburban population and not even for the whole of such population.
The overwhelming majority oí the working-class population of Stockholm, even the better-paid, live in the large tenement houses in the
inner town and are therefore most comparable to the 7 per cent, of the
Detroit workers included in the enquiry who lived in "apartments ".
These were reckoned on an average as containing 4.1 rooms, while the
number of inhabitants constituting a family was 4.4. The dwellings
were principally in stone-built houses and were provided with w.c,
running warm and cold water and bathroom. Cellars existed, but no
pantries or boxrooms.
While these dwellings were evidently chiefly of a modern type,
only about one-third of the working-class population of Stockholm
(that is to say, in the inner town) occupy modern dwellings, while the
remainder must be satisfied with old tenements.
The last-mentioned type of older dwellings may be said to consist
of a large kitchen and one or two rooms, while the kitchen is also used
as a living and sleeping room. Usually there is a pantry, cellar and
boxroom. In the majority of cases there is a w.c, water supply and
drainage installed in the dwelling and also gas and electric light.
Heating is carried out by tiled stoves in every room and a cooking
range in the kitchen. The fuel consists principally of wood and in some
cases of coal or coke. The total floor area may be estimated at 25 to
40 square metres for a one-room dwelling and 45 to 60 square metres
for a two-room dwelling. The total floor area may be considered as
increased by 15 to 20 square metres for every additional room.
The modern type of dwelling, at least so far as small dwellings are
concerned, has about the same area as the older ones, but this area is
distributed in a different way, the area of individual rooms being less,
so that there is space for other important accommodation such as
larders, hall, bathroom, alcoves, etc. As regards modern conveniences,
in addition to the bathroom there is central heating and warm water.
The rent for a modern dwelling, as appears from the foregoing rent
table, is generally about 50 per cent, higher than for one of the older
type with the same number of rooms. The cost may, however, be
reduced in the case of persons who are in a position to invest a little
capital in the co-operative building societies in whose houses probably
about one-tenth of the population of Stockholm lives. These societies
usually reckon for modern dwellings of one room and kitchen a yearly
cost of 700 to 900 kronor, and for two-room dwellings 1,100 to 1,500
kronor, including heating and hot water and 6 per cent, interest on the
invested capital, but exclusive of sinking fund (which usually amounts
to about 100 or 200 kronor a year, as the case may be). This is based
on a rent of 20 to 25 kronor per square metre, while on the general
market this would usually be 30-40 kronor.
In order to ascertain what effect these higher rents have on the
budget of a working-class family, it is necessary to know the annual
income of a Stockholm worker. According to the wages statistics of
the Social Board, the average earnings of a male industrial worker in the
year 1929 amounted to about 3,900 kronor, but in different occupations

74

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

and branches the average income varied from about 2,700 kronor up
to 5,000 kronor or more.
What class of dwelling a worker with these various levels of income
can obtain depends upon what part of his income he is prepared to
spend on rent. In the family statistical enquiry of the Social Board for
1922-1923, which in Stockholm covered 85 working-class families, it
was found that expenditure for housing among the workers did not
exceed on an average 12 per cent, of the total income. At that time,
however, rents were subject to Government regulation and were
therefore comparatively low. Since then there has been an increase
in rent of about 20 per cent, which has resulted in an increase up to
about 20 per cent, (from 15 per cent, in 1914) in the proportion for rent
in the normal budget forming the basis for the calculation of the
official index number for the whole kingdom. For Stockholm alone,
however, the normal portion of income expended in rent must certainly
reach or even exceed the 23 per cent, which constituted the proportion
of expenditure for housing in the Detroit enquiry.
The following table shows what a working class family with a
yearly income varying from 2,500 to 5,000 kronor would pay for rent
on the assumption that 20, 25 and 30 per cent, of income respectively
is applied for that purpose:
Yearly income

Expenditure on rent with a proportion of
20 per cent.
25 per cent.
30 per cent.

2,500
500
625
750
3,000
600
750
900
3,500
700
875
1,050
4,000
800
1,000
1,200
4,500
900
1,125
1,350
5,000
,1,000
1,250
1,500
Even if one takes so high a proportion as 25 per cent, it will be
found that the lowest-paid group of workers can hardly obtain more
than a one-room dwelling of the older type, while with the medium
incomes a family can rent a modern one-room dwelling or a two-room
dwelling of the older type. Only families on the highest level of
income, however, and hardly even they, can afford a modern two-room
or an old three-room dwelling. This explains the most striking difference
between Swedish and American housing standards, namely, the greater
overcrowding in Stockholm, at least reckoned according to number of
rooms. It must, however, be remembered that a Stockholm workingclass family is in general smaller than an American one. According
to the family statistical enquiry for 1922-1923, already referred to,
the family of an industrial worker comprised on an average 2.99 units
of consumption, while the corresponding figure for Detroit workers in
1929 was 3.27 according to the same American scale of units of consumption. Since 1923 the size of families has certainly still further
decreased in Stockholm, especially by reason of the considerable
decrease in the birth rate during the last few years.

HELSINKI-HELSINGFORS (Finland)

The enquiry was conducted by the Bureau of Social and Statistical Research of the Ministry of Social Affairs. Dr. Harmaja,
the Director of this Bureau, gave valuable advice at various
stages of the enquiry.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to September 1930. Information on family budgets in Finland was obtained from the
publication Elinkustannukset tilinpitokaudella 1920-1921 1 . From
this source it was possible to select 20 articles accounting for
68.3 per cent, of the total expenditure on food in Detroit and
for 74.3 per cent at Helsinki in 1920-1921, for which prices and
quantities consumed were known in both towns. These are
given in the Appendix, table I. The results of the calculations
are as follows:
Ratio of cost of food in Helsinki to Detroit, based on 20 foodstuffs
(Detroit = 100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights . . . .
70.5 per cent
(2)
„
Helsinki
„
47.6 „
„
(3) Average of (1) and (2)
57.9 „
„

The great discrepancy between ratios (1) and (2) is due to
the considerable difference in the habits of consumption in
Helsinki and Detroit. The use of ratio (3) gives for Helsinki
a figure of 12,784 marks. This result was approved by the
Finnish statistical authorities.
HOUSING

The problem of housing has presented considerable difficulties in Finland owing to the special character of the housing
accommodation in this country. Workers' dwellings of the size
indicated by the Detroit enquiry are in fact almost unknown in
Finland. Moreover, the size of the rooms is generally somewhat
larger than in the U.S.A.
1

Suomen Virallinen Tilaslo, Socialisia Erikoistulkimuksia

V.

76

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

A special enquiry was conducted in November and December 1930 by the Bureau of Social and Statistical Research
and showed that the rent for 3-roomed dwellings (2 rooms
and kitchen) was about 12,230 marks and for 4-roomed dwellings
(3 rooms and kitchen) about 16,560 marks.
A further enquiry was made in 1931 into the rents of villas
in the outskirts of Helsinki, from which it appears that the
rent of a dwelling of 3 rooms and kitchen varied between
11,200 and 12,600 marks, or an average of 11,900. Such villas
are equipped with running water, w. c. and scullery. The
corresponding rent for 3 % rooms and kitchen is given as 13,500
and the Bureau of Social and Statistical Studies recommends
the adoption of this figure, as it is considered after consultation
with the Swedish statistical authorities to be comparable with
the rent figure adopted for Stockholm. It represents the
"upper limit".
FUEL AND LIGHT

The original price data are given in the Appendix, table II.
Owing to the fact that coal is not used for heating in Finland,
where wood is abundant, and where gas and electricity are not
yet fully developed for household use, the items of the Detroit
budget cannot be compared directly. The actual consumption
per "unit m a n " of these items as shown by family budget
enquiries has been communicated by the Bureau of Social
and Statistical Studies as follows:
Wood
Gas
Electricity
L a m p oil

Quantity
1,200 kg.
18.3 m 3
19.9 kwh.
5.6 litres

These quantities applied to the prices give a total of 1,036
marks. The figure, however, relates to a dwelling of 0.57 rooms
per unit-man as compared with about 1.4 rooms at Detroit.
For a dwelling corresponding to the one at Detroit, the expenditure is estimated at 2,486 marks.
Finally, a small allowance must be made for expenditure
on matches, candles, etc. This is estimated at 40 marks, giving
a total of 2,526 — a calculation which has been approved by
the Bureau of Social and Statistical Studies.

HELSINKI-HELSINGFORS (FINLAND)

77

CLOTHING

The list of clothing prices is given in the Appendix, table III.
Considerable difficulty was found in obtaining prices for the
representative selection of articles, especially as regards children's clothing. In Finland, children's clothing articles are very
rarely bought ready-made but are usually made at home.
It was therefore considered desirable, on the advice of the
Bureau of Social and Statistical Studies, to base the cost
of clothing on the prices for adults' clothing only (Method II).
The results obtained by the two usual methods are as follows:
Method I
Method II

7,458 marks
6,988

Accordingly, the figure of 6,988 marks has been adopted.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

No compulsory system of sickness insurance exists in Finland. The cost of medical expenses has been evaluated on the
basis of the cost of doctors' and dentists' consultation fees
(Appendix, table IV), yielding a cost ratio of 71 per cent and
an expenditure of 1,807 marks.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

Table V gives the prices of the "miscellaneous items".
The comparison of these prices gives a cost ratio of 70 per cent
corresponding to an expenditure of 9,380 marks.
L I F E INSURANCE

For life insurance the "purchasing power equivalent" of
$2,076 is estimated at roughly 60,000, giving an annual payment of 1,800 marks.
TAXATION

The total of the previous items amounts to about 47,000
marks. According to information supplied by the Bureau of
Social and Statistical Studies, the total amount of taxation on
an income of 50,000 marks is 4,369 marks (State tax, local tax
and ecclesiastical tax) and on an income of 45,000 marks,
3,790 marks. The amount due on an income of 47,000 marks
has been estimated at 4,050 marks.

78

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

SUMMARY
September 193©
Marks

Food
Rent
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Taxation

Total . . . .

12,784
13,500
2,526
6,988
1,807
9,380
46,985
1,800
4,050
52,835

In order to bring the data for the different towns to a uniform
date, viz. January 1931, the following cost-of-living index numbers
have been used:
Index numbers
Sept. 1930
Jan. 1931

Food
Fuel and light . . . .
Clothing
Miscellaneous expenses

893.7
1,225.5
853.8
—

828.4
1,168.8
841.8
—

Coefficient of
reduction

92.7
95.4
98.6
95.0 1

1

Estimated figure.
SOURCE: Sosialinen

Alikakauskirja: 1930, No. 12; 1931, No. 2.

January 1931
(rounded off to the nearest 10 marks)
Marks

Food
Rent
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Taxation

Total . . . .

11,850
13,500
2,410
6,890
1,810
8,910
45,370
1,800
3,790
50,960

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected and
supplied by the Bureau ot Social Research and Statistics ol the Finnish Ministry of
Social Aflairs.]
TABLE I.

FOOD

Price per kg. Price per kg.
as used in the at Helsinki in
calculations '
September
1930
(1)
(2)
Fmks.

Fmks.

Annual
quantity
consumed at
Helsinki per
unit man in
1920-1921
(3)
Kg.

14.92
1. Beef
18.7
21.00
(a) Fresh, steak . . . .
13.11
(b) Roast
10.64
(c) Stew .
15.17
15.17
2.5
2. Veal (fat and milk calf) .
17.08
8.7
3. Pork, fresh
17.60
(a) Breast
16.57
(b) Ham
20.46
0.8
27.67
4. Pork, salt
16.71
(a) Bacon
17.00
(¿>) Ham and shoulder .
19.75
19.75
6.3 =
(c) Other, breast
. . .
20.2
9.22
5. Sausage
5.13
6. Fish, fresh
10.08
(a) Baltic Sea herring .
12.46
6.96
7.1
(b) Perch
5.67
(c) Pike
8.25
7. Fish, salt
389.8
1.55
1.55
(a) Baltic Sea herring .
26.95
18.8
(b) Herring
28.10
8. Fresh milk
25.80
9. B u t t e r
2.4
1st grade
17.00
17.00
1.0
19.88
2nd grade
21.75
10. B u t t e r substitutes (mar18.00
garine)
1.3"
15.07
11. Cheese
18.00
(a) Full-cream
12.13
(b) Half-cream
. . . .
3.33
19.00
19.00
33.70
4.93
12. Lard and lard substitutes
4.93
13.30
6.06
(a) Lard
6.06
41.00
3.09
(i>) Lard substitutes . .
3.09
1.50
11.50
13. Eggs
12.00
14. Flour, "wheaten
. . . .
11.50
15. Bread, wheaten
. . . .
11.00
201.22 4
16. Bread, rye
1.00
1.00
13.00
6.00
17. Fresh fruits
7.13
(a) Apples
4.88
(b) Bananas
5.20
24.00
24.00
(c) Oranges
'
The
prices
in
this
column
are
arithmetical
averages
of
the
corresponding
prices
in
18. Potatoes
column (2). * Sausage and "charcuterie". s Fats. * 268.3 litres = 201.22 kg.
19. Sugar
SOURCE:
supplied
by t h e Finnish statistical authorities.
(a) RePrices
fined, lump
sugar.
Quantities taken from Suomen Virallinen Tilasto, Sosialisia Eri(b)
Granulated
.
.
.
.
koistutkimuksia
V, Elinkustannukset
Tilinpitokaudella
1920-1921,
20. Coffee
Helsinki
1925, p p . 82-83.

80

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE 'II. — FUEL AND LIGHT
Prices
in September 1930
Fmks. '

Wood
Gas
Electricity
Paraffin

kg.
m3
kwh.
It.

TABLE III. — CLOTHING

I. Men's

clothing
1. Felt hat
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots or shoes
10. Cotton gloves
11. Tie
12. Belt
13. Overall
II. Women's clothing
1. H a t
2. Dress, rayon
3. Dress, cotton
4. House dress or bungalow apron
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat or slip
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers
8. Shirt or vest, cotton
9. Stockings, rayon
10. Shoes .
11. Gloves, cotton
III. Children's clothing
(ai Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b) Girls
1. H a t
2. Dress, cotton
3. Dress, rayon
4. Woollen coat
5. Sweater
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
9. Cotton stockings
10. Shoes

0.195
1.30
2.40
2.00
Prices
in September 1930
Fmks

100.00
30.00
650.00
600.00
65.00
30.00
50.00
11.00
175.00
12.00
25.00
12.00
90.00
90.00
300.00
55.00
50.00
600.00
27.50
45.00
14.50
29.00
150.00
20.00
26.00
300.00
38.00
240.00
68.00
25.00
40.00
19.50
115.00
20.00
40.00
200.00
300.00
60.00
20.00
25.00
13.50
12.00
105.00

HELSINKI-HELSINGFORS (FINLAND)

TABLE IV.

MEDICAL

81

EXPENSES
Prices
in September 1930
Fmks.

Visit t o doctor
House call
Visit to dentist
T A B L E V.

50.00
75.00
40.00
MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES
Prices
In September 1930
Fmks.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Blanket
Sheet, cotton
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton or linen tablecloth (average price
125 cm x 125 cm)
Table oilcloth (115 cm x 115 cm)
Daily transport (simple course)
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (man)
1 hair cut (child)
1 shave
Moving pictures (1 ticket)
Newspapers:
Daily paper
Sunday paper
Tobacco:
25 cigarettes
100 gr. of smoking tobacco
Laundry work sent out:
1 men's shirt
1 sheet
Postage (1 inland letter)
Telephone (1 call from public station) . . . -

75.00
55.00
17.50
8.00
49.75
38.00
1.00
7.50
7.00
3.50
8.00
1.25
2.50
3.50
25.00
3.50
2.50
1.50
0.50

6

PARIS AND MARSEILLES (France)

For these two towns, valuable information was supplied by
two factory inspectors of the Ministry of Labour who were fully
acquainted with the local conditions in their respective districts;
statistics published in the Bulletin of the " Statistique générale
de la France " and special information supplied by this Office
as indicated below have also been utilised.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs in each of these towns are obtained
regularly by the "Statistique générale de la France" derived
from information collected by the local authorities every three
months. Those for Paris are published in the official Bulletin
and relate to January 1931 ; those for Marseilles are not published
in this Bulletin but were communicated to the International
Labour Office by the "Statistique générale de la France" in
connection with the Office's annual enquiry into the level of
retail prices in certain countries, and relate to February 1931.
Certain supplementary information as to food prices in Paris
was also supplied in this way.
Some difficulty arose in making the calculations for France
owing to the absence of any official family budget enquiries.
The data collected by the British Board of Trade in 1905 1 and
some data on consumption drawn up by the "Commission
régionale du coût de la vie de la région parisienne " were
examined, but it was not found possible to use them, the former
being too old and the latter entirely hypothetical. Fortunately,
a recent study published in the Bulletin du Comité technique de
l'alimentation 2 gives some carefully compiled figures as to the
average quantities consumed of certain foodstuffs based principally on the "octroi" statistics. From this publication it has
1

BOABD OF TRADE: Report of an Enquiry into Working Class Rents,
Housing and Retail Prices in France, Cd. 4512, 1909.
* Cf. Supplement to Number 101 for 15 April 1931.

PARIS A N D MARSEILLES

(FRANCE)

83

been possible to select 23 articles accounting for 62.3 per cent.
of total food expenditure at Detroit in 1929, and for 63.9 per
cent, at Paris in 1931 (according to the calculations of the
"Comité technique de l'alimentation"), for which consumption
weights are available for the two cities (Detroit and Paris).
In the absence of any reliable information for Marseilles, it has
been necessary to use these data for this city also.
The data (French prices and weights) used in the calculations
are given in Appendix A, table I. The results obtained are as
follows:
Ratio of cost of food in Paris and Marseilles to Detroit, based on 23
foodstuffs (Detroit = 100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights
(a) Paris
(6) Marseilles
(2) Using Paris weights
(a) Paris
(Z>) Marseilles
(3) Average of (1) and (2)
(a) Paris
(b) Marseilles

85.9 per cent.
78.5
81.4
72<7
83.6
75.5

By applying ratios (3) (a) and (3) (i>) to the Detroit total
food expenditure, corresponding totals are obtained of 11,860
francs for Paris and 10,710 francs for Marseilles. '
HOUSING

The housing situation in French cities is extremely complex
owing to the legal restrictions imposed during and since the war.
As a result it frequently happens that rents for identical housing
accommodation vary enormously. We are informed that solely
owing to the operation of the rent restriction Acts, one dwelling
may be rented at double the figure of another identical dwelling.
This phenomenon, as pointed out in Chapter II, exists in all the
countries which have experienced rent restriction, but it seems
exceptionally marked in France.
The experts who collaborated with the International Labour
Office have supplied a vast amount of information based on
personal enquiries concerning the conditions in their respective
cities. It is unnecessary to reproduce this in extenso, but some
of the data supplied in respect of Marseilles are given in
Appendix B. After careful consideration and analysis of the

84

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

data and in consultation with other competent authorities, it
may be concluded that the rent representing the "lower limit"
should refer to apartments of 4 to 5 rooms of the type of a
"moderate rent" dwelling as available in application of the
housing law of 13 July 1928 (loi Loucheur). Such dwellings are
situated in new buildings, and are equipped with running cold
water and inside w.c. However, they do not generally contain
bathrooms. The figures are approximately 3,900 francs per
annum in Paris and 3,300 francs in Marseilles 1, to which various
charges (water supply, fire insurance, etc.), amounting to about
500 francs per annum must be added.
As regards the "upper limit", the "moderate rents"
payable in respect of independent houses might have been
taken, since these dwellings correspond most closely to the
description of the Detroit house, but for the fact that they are
not generally equipped with bathrooms. In the circumstances
it has been considered justifiable to increase these rents (6,000
francs for Paris; 5,000 francs for Marseilles, including various
rates, fire insurance and an addition for a small garden) by
1,000 francs each, so as to cover also a bathroom. In the
opinion of the experts which the Office has consulted this
solution seems acceptable and these figures would also approximate to the rent in a modern building equipped with the
latest comfort. Rents of 4,400 and 7,000 francs have therefore
been adopted for Paris, and of 3,800 and 6,000 francs for
Marseilles.
FUEL AND LIGHT

In the absence of official information, the calculations had
to be based on data supplied by the experts in the respective
towns. The average yearly consumption of coal or lignite has
been given for Marseilles as amounting to 1,250 kg. for a family
of 4 to 5 persons. This quantity has been subdivided between
the two kinds of fuel according to the proportion in which these
two articles of fuel are imported into the city of Marseilles. For
wood, gas and electricity, the corresponding annual quantities
are 325 kg., 600 cubic metres and 120 kwh. respectively. The
following table shows the details of the computation:
1

For

fuller

information

Housing Policy in Europe,
Series G, No. 3, 1931.

see

INTERNATIONAL

p . 216, footnote.

LABOUR

OFFICE:

Studies a n d Reports,

85

PARIS AND MARSEILLES (FRANCE)

Cost of fuel and lighting in Marseilles :
Unit

"Agglomérés " or house-coal . .
Lignite
Wood
Gas
Electricity

Quantity
consumed

kg.
„
„
m3
kwh.

875
375
325
600
120

Price in
January 1931
Fr.

Cost
Fr.

37.50
328.13
26.00
97.50
36.00
117.00
0.955
573.00
1.59
190.80
Total: 1,306.43

For Paris the usual charge for heating, where central heating
exists, amounts to 27.50 francs per month (for 12 months) and
per radiator. Since an apartment containing 4 to 5 rooms is
generally equipped with three radiators, the yearly expenditure
amounts to 990 francs. The consumption of gas and electricity
being assumed to be the same as in Marseilles the total expense
for this section is found to be 1,754 francs. Figures of 1,306
and 1,754 francs have been adopted. This difference is fully
justified by the different climates.
CLOTHING

Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining satisfactory prices for the samples of clothing owing to the great
ranges of prices and qualities of articles commonly consumed in
France and to the important differences between American and
French clothing. The results obtained for the two cities have
been averaged for each article (as is also the case for Berlin and
Frankfort), thus yielding a series of prices which may be assumed
to be fairly representative.
The prices of clothing articles (averages for Paris and Marseilles) are reproduced in Appendix A, table II, and refer to
January 1931. By application of the two usual methods the
following results are obtained:
Method I
Method II

5,327 francs
5,389 „

It is considered that the results obtained by Method I give
the most accurate result for the purposes of this enquiry.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

The compulsory system of social insurance applies only to
workers earning less than 25,000 francs per annum. For this

86

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

reason the social insurance contributions payable under the
Act are not taken into account.
The prices of medical services in January 1931 are given in
Appendix A, table III. By applying the usual procedure, a
ratio of 40.7 per cent., corresponding to 667 francs, is obtained
both for Paris and Marseilles.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The data supplied are given in Appendix A, table IV. The
calculation yields a figure of 70 per cent, for Paris and 71.7 per
cent, for Marseilles. The corresponding total costs are 6,084
francs and 6,169 francs for Paris and Marseilles respectively.
L I F E INSURANCE

The "purchasing power equivalent" of 2,076 dollars is
estimated at about 38,000 or 41,000 for Paris, and at about
35,000 or 38,700 for Marseilles, according as the upper or lower
rent figures are utilised. The corresponding annual premiums
are about 1,140 or 1,230 francs for Paris, and 1,050 or 1,161 francs
for Marseilles.
TAXATION

Working men's incomes in France are subject to income tax.
For a family consisting of the parents and 2 % children, the
father being the only income-earner, the tax is calculated as
follows :
Family income per annum
Abatement applicable to all incomes 10,000
Abatement of 3,000 francs per dependant 10,500
Total abatements
Remaining taxable income
Whereof the first 10,000 francs are taxed at 5 per
cent, and the second at 7.5 per cent., in this
case therefore
Reduction for 2x/2 minor dependants: 25 per
cent, of the above amount
Remaining amount due for income tax

Francs
30,100
20,500
9,600
480
120
360

By similar calculations the tax payable has been computed
for the incomes considered, as follows: 360 or 499 francs for
Paris, and 287 or 370 francs for Marseilles, for the lower and
upper estimates respectively.

PARIS AND MARSEILLES (FRANCE)

87

SUMMARY
January 1931
The whole of the data in the above paragraphs relate to January
1931, with the exception of the food prices in Marseilles, which relate
to February. No official information is available as to the change in
food prices in Marseilles from January to February 1931. The official
figures for Paris (based on 29 articles) show a small decrease from January
to February of about IV2 per cent. Applying this figure to Marseilles,
gives 10,886 francs. The figures below are rounded off to the nearest
5 francs.
Paris
Fr.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses . . . .
Miscellaneous expenses. .
Life insurance
Taxation
Total . . . .

11,860
4,400-7,000
1,755
5,325
670
6,085
30,095-32,695
1,140- 1,230
360- 500
31,595-34,425

Marseilles
FT.

10,885
3,800-6,000
1,305
5,325
670
6,170
28,155-30,355
1,050- 1,160
285- 370
29,490-31,885

R E P O R T S ON T H E D I F F E R E N T

CITIES

APPENDIX A

TABLE I. —

FOOD

Marseilles

Paris

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Quantity
consumed
per year
by
4.5 persons
in Paris
in 1928/29
(5)

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Kg.

Prices as used in
t h e calculation '

Prices in
Marseilles
in
February
1931

Prices in
Paris
in
January
1931

1. Beef roast a n d steak
30.05
26.20
26.20
30.05
42.12*
(sirloin)
2. Beef (stew) (plat de
13.65
10.40
13.65
10.40
46.98 B
côtes)
46.98 '
18.14 •
21.71s
3 . Veal
(a) "Quasi " (without
23.75
32.18
(14.04)
bones)
15.75
17.25
(32.94)
(b) Breast
17.75
8.64
17.75
16.50 !
16.50
4 . Pork, fresh (rib or
1085
10.85
7.02'
10.00
10.00
spine)
5 . P o r k , salt, bacon (fat)
17.28 •
25.90
30.70
25.90
30.70
6. M u t t o n (chops a n d
13.15
11.20
8.64 s
13.15
11.20
roast) (leg)
. . . .
7. Mutton (stew) (breast)
2 037
1.649
2.037
1.649
556.74
32.40 *•
2360
21.00
21.00
8. Milk, fresh (unskim25.00
med)
22.20
9. B u t t e r (fresh)
. . . .
11.75
1175
6.75
10.80
10.80
(a) Istgny
7.85
7.85
6.75
12.50
12.50
(b) Fresh, superior . .
15.50
15.50
16.20
20.10
20.30
14.00
14.00
33.86
10. Margarine
19.25
19.25
2.25
2.25
648.00
1 1 . L a r d (French) . . . .
2.35
4.05
4.05
13.50
2.35
12. Cheese (Gruyère). . .
3.25
3.60
3.25
18.90
3.60
13. Eggs
4.85
4.85
14. B r e a d (white) . . . .
21.60
4.10
4.10
5.70
5.70
351.00
15. Flour (wheaten) . . .
1.10
1.10
1.28
1.28
12.96
3.15
3.15
3.35
16. Rice
3.35
35.64 »
3.55
3.55
4.25
17. Macaroni (spaghetti,
4.25
28.35
4.25
4.25
7.90
7.90
noodles)
18. Potatoes (ordinary). .
3.90
3.50
67.50 "
3.90
3.50
19. D r y peas (chick-peas)
18.50
21.65
13.50
18.50
21.65
20. White beans (Swis<0 .
2 1 . Vegetable t a b l e oil . .
22. Sugar, white (lump or
1
The granulated)
prices in columns
. . . (1)
. a n d (2) are simple arithmetical averages of t h e corresponding
prices
in columns (3) and (4). * Price for August 1930. 3 Weighted average of t h e t w o prices
23. Coffee
given in columns
(3)
a
n
d
(4),
using t h e quantities given in column (5). * S u m of roast-beef
a n d ribs. £ Sum of " m a c r e u s e " a n d "10p l a t de côtes". • S u m of four qualities. » Breast.
* Stew a n d shoulder. ' Middle ribs.
B u t t e r of Charentes. " Sum of t w o kinds. " Sum
of lump and granulated sugar.

SOURCE: Prices for Paris taken from Bulletin de la Statistique générale de la France, April-June 1931, p. 363. Some additional information
for Paris, as well as the prices for Marseilles were communicated to the
International Labour Office by the "Statistique générale de la France "
in connection with the Office's current enquiries into the level of retail
prices in certain countries.
Quantities taken from Bulletin du Comité de l'Alimentation, Supplement to No. 101, for 15 April 1931.

PARIS AND MARSEILLES (FRANCE)

89

TABLE II. — CLOTHING
Average prices ol
Paris and Marseilles
in January 1931.

/ . Men's clothing
1. Woollen suit
2. Overcoat
3. Cotton trousers
4. Cotton socks
5. Cotton gloves
6. Belt
7. Boots
/ / . Women's

clothing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
/ / / . Children's
(a)

Fr.
550.00
460.00
50.00
8.00
10.00
17.00
120.00

Hat
Dress, rayon
Dress, cotton
Petticoat or slip, cotton
Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon . . .
Shirt or vest, cotton
Gloves, cotton
clothing

65.00
155.00
50.00
30.00
19.00
14.80
15.00

Boys

1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack, wool
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b) Girls
1. H a t
2. Dress, rayon
3. Woollen coat
4. Sweater or lumberjack
5. Petticoat or slip, cotton
6. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
7. Cotton stockings

15.00
170.00
26.00
150.00
60.00
16.00
18.00
7.00
75.00
35.00
90.00
170.00
42.00
17.00
11.80
10.00

TABLE HI. — MEDICAL EXPENSES
Paris and Marseilles
January 1931
Fr.

Visit to doctor
House call
Visit to dentist

20.00
25.00
15.00

90

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE IV,. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Prices in January 1931
Marseilles
Paris
Fr.
FT.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Blanket
Sheet, cotton
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton and linen t a b l e c l o t h . . . .
Table oilcloth
Transport, weekly
Barber expenses
(a) 1 hair cut (man)
(b) 1 hair cut (child)
(c) 1 hair cut (wife)
(d) 1 shave
Moving pictures
Newspaper
Tobacco, 20 cigarettes
1 kg
Postage
Telephone
APPENDIX B

80.00
30.00
7.00
3.00
20.00
24.00
15.00

—
—
—
—
—
—
15.00

4.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
5.00
—
2.00
—
4.50 2.00-3.50
0.25
0.25
2.50
—
62.50
62.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75

Memorandum on Workers' Housing Conditions in Marseilles1
During the last few years, in order to remedy the severe housing
crisis in the large city of Marseilles, the Public Offices for Cheap
Dwellings (Offices publics d'habitations à bon marché) in the Bouchesdu-Rhône department and of the City of Marseilles —• established,
as will be remembered, in virtue of the Law of 5 December 1922, which
codified previous legislation on cheap dwellings and small properties
— have erected a certain number of blocks of houses in Marseilles
itself as well as in the suburbs.
By the law of 13 July 1928 (the loi Loucheur) important sums of
money have been placed at the disposal of these bodies, with a view
to improving the housing conditions of the worst-housed classes.
Before proceeding to survey the housing conditions of the workers
living in these new buildings, it may be interesting to give some
account of the position of housing in general in the city of Marseilles.
A few years ago an enquiry was conducted into the number of
people occupying one-room dwellings and the following results were
found :
4,256 dwellings occupied byy a single person
2,637
. 2 persons
1,347
, 3
651
, 4
361
, 5
122
, 6
102
,
or over
, 7
V

1

This memorandum is not given in full.

PARIS AND MARSEILLES

91

(FRANCE)

As regards two-room dwellings, the following results were obtained :
603 dwellings containing 6 tenants each
246
„
„
7
111
,,
,,
8
•,
„
36
„
„
9
These figures are only intended to give an idea of the gravity of
the housing crisis at Marseilles and of the conditions in which numerous
workers are obliged to live. They are no doubt not the majority,
and we shall give some information on the average figures obtained
from our enquiry in the various working-class quarters of the centre
of Marseilles.
It is important to note that the population of the city of Marseilles
has increased in these last years by 10,000 or 13,000 new inhabitants
per year. Assuming one dwelling were to be allotted to every 4
persons, this means that about 3,000 dwellings would have to be
erected each year. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that demolition of old property, new and widened streets necessitate the destruction of 300 or 400 houses per year.
In order to prevent the housing crisis from becoming still worse,
without any alteration in the existing condition of the city population,
it would be necessary to build about 4,000 dwellings per year.
What would be the effort necessary to solve the housing crisis
at Marseilles, and to enable people living in conditions worse than
those of the Middle Ages to move out of their insanitary hovels ?
Experts in the matter give the enormous figure of about 20,000
dwellings.
We shall now show by a few examples the housing conditions of
the workers in the houses built by the above-mentioned Public Office
since the war.
Group of the Chartreux District :
Total number of dwellings
Dwellings with 4 rooms

172
108

îï

))

à

,,

ZI

>>

?>

^

j ,

O l

This group contains about 862 persons occupying these 172
dwellings. Most of these have a small garden.
Basic annual rent:
(with garden) for 4 rooms. . . .
1,310 francs
» 3
1,048
„
,,
,, 2 „ . . . .
786 ,,
For 2 rooms without garden . . .
655 „
In the big tenement houses with several storeys the rent for a
four-room dwelling (without garden) is 1,092 francs per year.
To this price must be added various charges amounting to 5.10
francs per month or 61.20 francs per year for persons living in separate
houses (pavilions) (2 flats on the ground-floor, and two on the first
floor). These charges are 3.90 francs per month or 46.80 francs per
year for tenants occupying houses with several storeys (tenement
nouses).
Moreover, tenants having small gardens at the back pay 13 francs
a month per garden, or 156 francs a year.

92

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

Tenants having many children are granted reductions on the above
rents. The reductions amount to:
3 per cent. for 3 children
6
4
9
5
s>
14
6
>>
20
7
»
30
8
„
or more
j>

These dwellings have inside w.c's., running water in the kitchen
(at the sink); electricity; gas; Dutch oven heated with coal.
Average number of rooms that can be heated, per family: 2. Bathrooms are not provided.
A well sheltered wash-house is placed in the middle of the group
of buildings where the housewives can easily do their washing.
Water is supplied free of charge to all tenants.
The total population of the group amounts to 862 persons or about
5 persons per dwelling.
This group of cheap and sanitary dwellings is very well planned
and well maintained.
Group ai Chutes-Lavie.
Total number of dwellings: 170, divided as follows:
10 dwellings of 5 rooms
14H
4
6
»
>> 3
,,

11
)>
» 2
„
Total population of the group: 946 persons.
Most of the tenants in this group have a small garden.
Average number of persons per dwelling: about 5.5.
The basic price for five-room dwellings is 1,310 francs per annum,
to which must be added various charges and the rent of the garden,
as was already indicated above for the group of Chartreux.
The prices for the other dwellings are very similar to those indicated
for the group of Chartreux.
In this group are shops for the sale of groceries, but it must be
noted that the Public Office does not insist on these shops.
The Public Office for the Bouches-du-Rhône department has on its
programme an important list of cheap dwellings to be built, 50 million
francs being provided for this purpose, about 39 millions for 600 cheap
dwellings and about 11 millions for 144 medium rented dwellings; a
sum of 5 millions is reserved for demolition of uninhabitable dwellings.
On 29 July 1930 the General Council of the department voted 110
millions for coping with the housing crisis.
The dwellings in the above-mentioned groups are generally occupied
by manual workers; they are usually let to families having a certain
number of children. They must be considered as being privileged
with respect to housing. All workers in Marseilles are far from living
in as good housing conditions. In the working-class quarters of this
town, these are very unsatisfactory from the point of view of hygiene
and modern conveniences.
We shall study now the housing conditions of workers and employees in two of the principal working-class quarters of the City of
Marseilles.

P A R I S AND M A R S E I L L E S

(FRANCE)

93

Belle-de-Mai district.
The dwellings of the workers are here situated in tenement houses,
i. e. several-storey buildings — generally three or four — divided into
flats. Each floor contains two flats: one with front view directly
into the street, and another looking into a court-yard. These flats
usually contain three rooms, consisting of a kitchen (10 or 11 square
metres and often less), a rather large bedroom (16 to 18 square metres)
and a very small room. The latter is often dark, the window being
quite small and looking on the staircase. The w.c. is usually inside
(next to the kitchen).
The rent for these dwellings varies from 600 to 700 francs per
year (it was 180-200 francs per year before the war) for tenants
benefiting from the rent restriction laws.
When, however, dwellings of this type are let to persons who are
not pre-war tenants, the price for rent must be estimated much higher.
One may say that on account of the housing crisis mentioned above
the owners do not state a price. It seems that the rent for these
three-room apartments in old buildings is 1,200 to 1,500 francs per
year. The water rate is at the charge of the owner, as well as insurance
of the building against fire.
For four-room dwellings (which are less frequent) rents reach
3,000 francs per year in pre-war buildings.
But for new buildings, i.e. recently finished and ready for letting,
rents vary from 900 to 1,000 francs per room (the kitchen being
counted as a room). Very few workers only can afford a dwelling at
such prices; these are rather rented to better paid employees and
officials.
Working-class district of the 8th canton. — It seems that the predominant type in this quarter is the two-room dwelling.
The rent for these dwellings is about 500-600 francs per room when
the occupier is not a pre-war tenant. But it may be useful to indicate
here the following facts which are not at all unusual when the head
of a family wishes to-day to get hold of an apartment become vacant:
he is obliged to pay what is called at Marseilles a "pas de p o r t e "
(key-money), in addition to the price for rent charged by the owner.
This practice is punishable by law, but in case of complaint, proof is
almost impossible. Moreover, the insufficient number of apartments
to be let incites people to suffer exploitation without taking action
against the delinquent. They accept with resignation the exploitation
to which they are subject.
It is very difficult under these circumstances to give a representative figure of the annual rent actually paid for a working-class
dwelling by post-war tenants since the nominal price is often increased
by the sums which the new occupant has to pay either to the owner,
the former tenant, the principal tenant of the house, or the houseagent.
During the last few years many four-room dwellings have been
built by workers in the suburban area of Marseilles, some taking advantage of the law on cheap dwellings and borrowing money from
building societies. These are the privileged. There are many pieces
of ground divided into allotments, so that it has been possible to build
houses with adjoining gardens. The price of land is often prohibitive.
Also the workers in Marseilles prefer living near the place of their
work, so as to take their midday-meal with their family.

94

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

The worker of to-day refuses to be badly housed. It seems therefore that we are advancing towards that type of workers' family
dwelling containing as a minimum 4 rooms, consisting of a kitchenliving room and three bedrooms, one of which is of large dimensions (at
least 4.25 x 4 metres). It is understood that it has an adjoining w.c,
water at the kitchen-sink, gas, electricity and a Dutch oven for cooking,
expecially during the cold season. As regards bathrooms, it may be
said that they are not met with in workers' dwellings.
Summing up, we may say that workers in Marseilles are usually
badly housed when they live in old houses.
Three-room apartments (kitchen and two bedrooms) are the most
usual type. The rent is 600-700 francs per annum for tenants benefiting from rent rectriction legislation. The minimum prices are
1,200 to 1,500 francs for post-war tenants living in old houses (the
prices vary according to the district). It should be emphasised that
the owners do only what is strictly necessary for the maintenance of
their houses in a fit state of tenantable repair (due to dear raw materials
and high price of labour).
It must be noted that the law of 29 June 1929 prolongs the old
rents until 1 July 1939, but liberates from all restriction those houses
which were put on the market only after 24 October 1919, the official
date for the end of hostilities. It is rare, however, that a tenant
taking an apartment after 30 June 1929 avails himself of his right to
the minimum rent fixed by the law.
As regards recently erected dwellings, or at least those built after
the war, the minimum annual rent may be estimated at 1,000 francs
per room; but no worker can afford an apartment of 4 rooms at such
prices.

ANTWERP (Belgium)

The enquiries have been made by the Belgian Ministry
of Industry, Labour and Social Affairs. Valuable assistance
has been given by Mr. Paternotte, Inspector-General of the
Labour Office of that Ministry.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to October 1930. Antwerp
consumption weights were obtained by an advance tabulation
of the results of the 1928-1929 budget enquiry specially
supplied by the Belgian statistical authorities. This tabulation
relates to the quantities of foodstuffs consumed by 45 families
(having an average income of about 5,030 francs per annum
and per "unit-man ") living in the city and the suburbs of
Antwerp. It has been possible to select from these data
42 articles of food accounting for 76.1 per cent, of the total
food expenditure at Detroit in 1929, and for 83.5 per cent, at
Antwerp in 1928-1929, for which weights are known both for
Detroit and Antwerp. The data (Belgian prices and weights)
used in the calculations are given in Appendix A, table I.
The results are as follows:
Ratio of cost of food in Antwerp to Detroit,
(Detroit = 100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2) Using Antwerp weights
(3) Geometric average of (1) and (2) . .

based on 42 foodstuffs
74.3 per cent.
63.1 ..
68.4 „
„

By applying ratio (3) the corresponding total food expenditure is found to be 13,675 francs. This result has been approved
by the Belgian statistical authorities.
HOUSING

The information supplied by the Belgian statistical authorities is reproduced in Appendix A, table II. After careful
consideration it has been decided to take as the "lower limit"
the rent payable for an apartment consisting of four rooms and

96

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

scullery, according to the rates charged by the municipal administration of the city of Antwerp. The figure is 4,380 francs
per annum. Such a dwelling is equipped with gas, electricity,
running cold water and inside w.c.
For the "upper limit" the rent for the same kind of dwelling
charged in the open market (about 5,500 francs per year)
might have been taken, but for the fact that no bathroom is
generally available. After consultation with experts it has been
found admissible to allow for a bathroom by an increase of
1,000 francs per annum and the figure of 6,500 francs has
therefore been adopted. Both "limits" include the tax on
rents existing in Belgium.
In addition to these data, the Belgian statistical authorities
have collected some very valuable information on the actual
housing accommodation occupied by families of working men
engaged in the Antwerp Ford factory. A summary of this
special enquiry conducted in June and July 1931 is to be found
in Appendix B. Analysis of the schedules (not reproduced in the
Appendix) shows that sixteen families paid rents amounting to
1,100 francs per room (no bathroom being available) including
the existing tax on rents. The family considered at Detroit
occupied 414 rooms. The corresponding rent at Antwerp should
therefore be about 5,000 francs, and this falls well within the
"limits" computed above. The results of the special Antwerp
enquiry thus support the solution adopted.
FUEL AND LIGHT

The prices relate to October 1930. From the schedules
supplied by the Belgian statistical authorities concerning the
housing accommodation of a certain number of Antwerp Ford
workers it may be concluded that the yearly consumption of
coal amounts to about 375 kg. per room. The quantity of gas
consumed is 85 m 3 per person and of electricity 32 kwh. per
room. It has thus been possible to make the following computation.
TTnit
umt

House c o a l . . .
Gas
Electricity . . .

ton
ms
kwh.

Quantity Antwerp prices
consumed in October 1931
Fr.

1.690
385.0
144.0

325.00
0.91
1.37

r
t
w,sï

FT.

549.25
350.35
197.28
1,096.88

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)

97

This result has been approved by the Belgian statistical
authorities.
CLOTHING

The prices of clothing articles given in Appendix A, table III,
relate to March 1931. The application of the usual methods
yields the following results:
Method I
Method II

6,310 francs
6,040
„

On the advice of the Belgian statistical authorities the result
of Method II has been adopted.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

There exists no compulsory health insurance system in
Belgium. Workers frequently are members of "mutual assistance
societies ", but the great variability of membership fees
excludes this alternative from consideration.
The prices for medical services supplied are given in Appendix A, table IV. The ratio obtained by the usual calculation
for their cost at Antwerp and Detroit is 32.2 per cent, and the
corresponding expenditure 748 francs.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The prices supplied for various articles and services are
given in Appendix A, table V. By the usual calculation and by
utilising other miscellaneous information a ratio of about
60 per cent, and expenditure of about 7,200 francs are
obtained.
LIFE INSURANCE

The "purchasing power equivalent" of 2,076 dollars is
estimated to be 41,500 or 44,500 francs, for the lower and upper
estimates respectively. The corresponding annual premiums
would amount to 1,245 or 1,335 francs.
There exists in Belgium a compulsory old-age insurance.
The monthly contributions in respect of a worker earning more
than 200 francs per week amount to 25 francs, half of which is to
be paid by the employee and half by the employer. Accordingly
the yearly total of 300 francs has been deducted from the above
premiums. The worker's own contributions (150 francs per
7

98

REPORTS. ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

annum) are then added separately, whereas the employer's
contributions (150 francs per annum) appear below in a special
section.
TAXATION

Incomes in Belgium are subject tc direct taxation on the
following scale:
Income

Income tax due when there are
3 dependants
4 dependants
Fr.
Fr.
396
300
624
538
828
720

Fr.
30,000
35,000
40,000

The amounts due on the two incomes here considered have
been estimated to be 470 and 581 francs, to which a fourth for
local taxation at Antwerp must be added. The sums of 587
and 726 francs have been adopted.
EMPLOYER'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL INSURANCE SCHEMES

The employer's contributions to compulsory old-age insurance
have been inserted in this section (see above "Life Insurance").
SUMMARY
October 1930
Fr.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing (March 1931)
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses

13,675
4,380- 6,500
1,097
6,040
748
7,200
33,140-35,260

Life insurance
945- 1,035
Employee's contributions to old-age insurance
150
Taxation
587- 726
34,822-37,171
Employer's contributions to old-age insurance
150
Total

34,972-37,321

Belgian index numbers (April 1914 = 100)
October 1930

Food
Housing
Fuel and light . . .
Clothing (March 1931)
Miscellaneous items .

January 1931

211.1
197.4
no change
202.7
198.6
253.2
256.7
no change

„fEgSg*

• 0.935
—
0.980
1.014
—

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)

99

January 1931
(rounded of to the nearest 5 francs)
Fr.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Employee's contributions to
insurance
Taxation
r, ,
,
. ~u •
,
Employer's contributions to
insurance
Total

12,785
4,380- 6,500
1,075
6,125
750
7,200
32,315-34,435
945- 1,035
old-age
„
old-age

150
585- 725
33,995-36,345
150
34,145-36,495

100

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

APPENDIX A
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected and
supplied by the Belgian Ministry ot Industry, Labour and Social Affairs.]

TABLE I. — FOOD

Prices as used Prices at Antwerp
in the calcula- in October 1930
per kg
tions *
(1)
Fr.

Beef, fresh, steak . . .
„
.„ roast . . .
„
„ stew . - .
Veal
Pork, fresh ( c h o p ) . . . .
Pork, salt
(a) Bacon
(b) Ham (fresh) . . .
(c) Shoulder
Poultry (boiling hen)
Sausage
. . . . . . .
(a) Antwerp
(b) Boulogne
(c) Bloekworst
(d) Metworst
Fish, fresh
(a) Cod
10. (b) Haddock (big) . . .
(c) Haddock (medium) .
(d) Plaice
11. (e) Ray
12.
Fish, salt (red herring) .
(a) Is* quality
13. (¿>) 2nd quality
Milk, fresh
Butter
(a) Farm
(b) Dairy
14.
Cheese:
15, (a) Ordinary American .
(b) Other
Gouda
Gruyère
16.
17.
Eda
18. Butter substitutes
(Margarine Axa) . . .
(See
notes
page 102.) :
Lard
andonsubstitutes
(a) Lard
(b) Lard substitutes (beef
suet)
Eggs
Flour, wheaten . . . .
Bread, wheaten . . . .

(2)

Fr.

32.50
32.50
16.00
35.00
33.00

30.00-35.00
30.00-35.00
14.00-18.00
32.00-38.00
30.00-36.00

20.00
29.50

18.00-22.00
28.00-30.00
30.00
16.00-18.00

17.00
28.69

7.90

9.625
2.134
28.50

35.00
28.00-29.50
31.00
20.00
8.00-10.00
7.00-8.00
5.00
7.00
10.00-12.00
10.00-12.00
7.50-9.00
2.134
26.00-29.00
29.00-30.0a

41.54
22.25

41.54

12.00

12.00

18.00

16.00-20.00

11.00
18.38
2.625
2.10

10.00-12.00
13.13-23.63"
2.25-3.00
2.10

20.00
28.75
18.00

Annual quantity consumed
at Antwerp per
adult male (3.5
quets) in 1928/
1929

101

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)
TABLE I.

FOOD

(COnt.)

Prices as used Prices at Antwerp
in the calcu- in October 1930
per kg.
lations •
(1)
FT.

19. Bread, rye
20. Cakes and cookies. . .
(a) Small
21. (b) Big
22. Sugar (lump)
23. Apples
24. Bananas
25. Oranges
26. Potatoes
Canned vegetables:
(a) White beans, baked cut
beans "Marie
Thumas"
(b) Peas (green peas "Mariel
27.
Thumas ")
28.
29. Tea
30. Coffee
Beef, salt, corned
. . . .
Mutton
(a) Chop
31. (b) Roast
32. (c) Stew
Bones
Canned and potted meats .
33. (a) Pressed head
34. (b) Galantine
(c) "Pain de veau " . . .
Fish, canned, salmon . . .
. .
|35. Fish, canned, other
(a) Pilchards
(¿>) Sardines "Cocagne " .
Vegetable table and cooking oils
|36. (a) Olive oil
(b) Ordinary salad oil
("huile d'arachide ") .
Macaroni, spaghetti,
noodles
37. (a) Macaroni
38. (b) Spaghetti
39.
(c)
Noodles syrup
(ai Sugar
RiceHoney
(b)
40. Tapioca
Lemons .
41. Molasses,
Dried fruits
syrup and honey
(a) Apricots
(b) Peaches
Prunes
42. (c)
J a m , jellies, preserves and
marmalade
(See notes on page 102.)

1.90
21.875

(2)
FT.

1.90

3.65
4.00
7.75
7.43
0.725

15.00-20.00
25.00-27.50
3.40-3.90
4.00
6.50-9.00
6.6-8.25«
0.65-0.80

5.79

5.79

10.66
33.50
22.00
13.33
20.50

9.47-11.84
33.50
18.00-26.00
13.33

2.50
30.50

14.83
14.52

22.00-26.00
20.00-22.00
15.00-18.00
2.00-3.00
34.00
32.50
25.00
10.96-18.70
6.36-6.82
21.88-23.00

15.75
19.26 "
12.21 »
6.25

4.15
6.00
4.066 *
5.94
16.75

6.35
6.20
6.20
4.15
6.00
3.60-4.00
20.00-22.00
5.28-6.60 "
18.00-20.00
18.00
13.25

4.95

4.95

Annual quantity consumed
at Antwerp per
adult male (3.5
quets) in 1928/
1929

102

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
(NOTES TO TABLE I )

1
The figures in this column are simple averages of the corresponding prices in column (2).
* Weighted average ol sugar syrup and honey according to Antwerp quantities (Sugar
syrup kg, 1,32 and honey kg. 0.02). ' Rib. * Other kinds. ' 1-1.25 frs. one orange,
6.6 oranges weighing 1 kg. ' Sausage and other kinds of pork meat. ' Fish, smoked,
dried, pickled.. * Cream cheese. ' Various kinds. ,0 Margarine. " 11-17.35 frs. per
litre of 900 gr. 1 ' Sum of "tarts and Cakes", "biscuits" and "ginger-bread". " Sum
of lump sugar, granulated sugar and other kinds of sugar. *' 0.60-0.75 frs. a lemon,
8.8 lemons weighing one kg. " Quantity of dried peas. " Quantity of ".beans",
17
Frozen beef: rib and stew. '* Pudding and pressed head. "Sardines and "other
kinds ". !0 Sum of macaroni, vermicelli and other similar products. " Sugar syrup,
fruit syrup and honey. "Raisins, figs and other. " Gooseberry jam, strawberry jam,
other kinds. '• 0.75-1.35 frs. per piece, 17.5 eggs weighing 1 kg.

SOURCE: Prices and quantities supplied by the Belgian statistical
authorities. Quantities based on the enquiry into the consumption of
food of 1928-1929 (Special tabulation concerning 45 Antwerp families).

TABLE I I . — HOUSING

/. Houses owned by the Municipal Administration of Antwerp^
situated in the city
Apartments of 4 rooms and
scullery facing the street

Ground-floor
1st floor. . .
2nd
3rd ,. . . .
4th ,. . . .

. . 1 8 5 francs per m o n t h
295-365
,.
265-340
„
230-300
„
195-260
„

N.B. — Rates and taxes are included in the rent. These dwellings are supplied
with gas, electricity, water and w.c. The prices of similar apartments in private houses
are generally 25 per cent, higher.

Apartments of 3 rooms
facing the back-yard.

/ I s t floor.
\ 2nd „ .
J 3rd ,, .
( 4th „ .

.
.
.
.

150-180 francs per m o n t h
110-145
„
„
„
95-120
„
80-95

NJÌ. — Rates and taxes are included in the rent,

II. Houses owned by the "Assistance Publique" of Antwerp,
situated in the city
;' Ground-floor
Apartment of 4 rooms . . \ 1st floor
/ 2nd „
3rd „
N.B. — Rates for the removal of waste are paid

. . 249 francs per month
238 „
,,
„
205 „
,,
,,
190 „
by the tenant. The above rents

have been fixed by the law on rents which is in force until 1 January 1933.

III. Houses owned by the Antwerp Association
for Cheap Dwellings
(a) Apartments situated in large tenement houses:
Apartments of 4 rooms

Ground-floor . . 215 francs per month
1st floor. . . 193-212
2nd „ . . . 187-201
„
3rd „ . . .
4th „ . . .

103

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)

Ground-floor . . 206 francs per month
1st floor
187
Apartments of 3 rooms
2nd „
179
3rd „
150
4th „
124
„
(ft) Apartments consisting of living-room, scullery, cellar, terrace,
w.c. and equipped with electricity, water and gas:
with 3 bedrooms with 4 bedrooms

Ground-floor
400 francs
450 francs
1st floor
400 „
450
2nd „
350 „
400
3rd „
300
„ 3 5 0
4th „
250 „
300
5th „
200 „
250
The following reductions are available to poor families:
With 3 minor children
s?
>i
SJ

20 per cent.

4
£>

,,
5J

,,
>>

o\)
4U

,,
,,

^

J»

ÎÎ

*}V

};

r

,.
,,
>>

N.B. — These rents include rates and taxes.

TABLE III. — CLOTHING
Prices
at Antwerp in
March 1931

/. Men's clothing
1. Woollen suit
2. Overcoat
3. Cotton trousers
4. Cotton socks
5. Cotton gloves .
6. Belt
,
/ / . Women's clothing
''.'.' 1. Hat
2. Dress, rayon
3. Cotton dress
4. Petticoat or slip, cotton
5. Drawers, rayon
6. Cotton shirt
7. Cotton gloves
III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack, woollen
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots

Fr.
650.00
600.00
50.00
9.50
10.00
15.00
95.0Q
225.00
30.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
15.00

6.00
500.00
15.00
195.00
95.00
17.00
30.00
10.00
75.00

104

REPOBTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
Prices at Antwerp
in March 1931

(b) Girls
1. Hat
2. Dress, rayon
3. Woollen coat
4. Lumberjack
5. Slip, cotton
6. Drawers, cotton
7. Cotton stockings

Fr.
29.00
175.00
275.00
25.00
7.00
4.95
12.00

TABLE IV. — MEDICAL EXPENSES
Prices at Antwerp
in March 1931
FT.

Visit to doctor
House call
Visit to dentist
1

20.00
30.00 1
17.50

Estimate.

TABLE V. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

1. Cost of transport by tram (monthly season
ticket giving right to 2 rides a day). . . .
2. Barber expenses
1 hair cut (man)
1 hair cut (child)
1 shave (ordinary barber)
3. Moving pictures (one cheap seat) . . . .
4. Laundry work sent out
1 man's shirt
1 sheet (ordinary size)
5. Tobacco
20 cigarettes
1 kg. smoking tobacco
6. Newspaper

Prices at Ant- Prices as used
werp in March in the calcula1931
tions
Fr
Fr

30.00

30.00

3.00, 3.50
3.00, 3.50
2.00
5.00,6.00,7.00

3.25
3.25
2.00
6.00

2.00,2.50,2.75
1.40

2.50
1.40

—
—
0.35

1.50
25.00
0.35

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)

105

APPENDIX B

Memorandum on the Housing Conditions of Workers of the Ford
Factories at Eeekeren (Antwerp)
N.B. — The following is a summary of the main conclusions of an
enquiry into the actual housing conditions of 21 workers of the Antwerp
Ford factory, situated at Eeekeren. The. enquiry was carried out in June
1930 by the Ministry of Industry, Labour and Social Affairs, with the
assistance of officials of the factory, and took the form of a questionnaire.
Out of the 21 workers whose names were given by the factory,
5 owned the house they lived in;
4 were living with their parents-in-law and paid no rent;
1 lived with his parents and paid a rent of 75 Belgian francs per
month ;
1 lived in rooms adjoining a grocery and vegetable shop (kept by
his wife);
10 lived in flats in different parts of the city of Antwerp and its
suburbs.
The workers who owned their houses had acquired them through
a mortgage society and had paid for them by taking out a life insurance
policy. All these houses were of recent date (maximum 10 years),
and built in a simple style. The plain brick front was generally
decorated with white stone over the entrance and round the windows;
as a rule the shutters were painted the same colour as the door; the
sash-frames were white; the roofing was of Boom tiles. A small front
garden separating the house from the street enhanced the appearance
of these modest dwellings.
The houses, which were situated along country roads, were twostoried buildings with a frontage of not more than 6 metres. The
internal arrangement seemed to meet the needs of the tenant. The
house consisted usually of a cellar, three rooms on the ground floor
(living room, kitchen and scullery), and three rooms and an attic on
the first floor, which were usually sublet. The size of the first two
rooms was the same: 4x4x2.8 metres; the third room was smaller
(4x2 metres). Only one of the houses had a larger number of rooms;
it had in addition a parlour and fifth room used as an office. The
furniture was ordinary. Two of the families had a wireless set.
The two ground floor rooms had large windows (one-fifth of the
wall surface). The ceilings were whitewashed, the floors marbled or
covered with linoleum, and the walls papered. The kitchen and
scullery were usually tiled or lined with granite. An enamel stove,
burning coal, in the kitchen served also to heat the living room. The
scullery was fitted with a hand pump and running water. The w.c.
was of the old type, i.e. without running water. As regards bathrooms, they are almost unknown in the type of dwellings in question.
The Belgian worker evidently tends to be refractory where measures
for promoting personal hygiene are concerned. At the Ford factory

106

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

itself, where the sanitary equipment is completely up to date and cost
186,000 Belgian francs, in spite of frequent recommendations, very
few workers avail themselves of the shower-baths placed at their
disposal free of charge. It may be said in their defence, however,
that this is not entirely their fault, for the public authorities have
their share of responsibility. The water supply, is in the hands of a
private firm, and the concession is running out. : In the uncertainty
whether it will be renewed, the company does not repair the pipes and
conduits which have long ago become insufficient to meet the needs
created by suburban development; the population has to bear the
consequences, water being scarce or even impossible to obtain. A
case in point is the Dam district, where for three days in the week it
is impossible to obtain water before midnight in sufficient quantity
for a bath because the slaughter houses have to be supplied first.
Even in the centre it is quite usual for people to have to wait twenty"
minutes before they can fill one pail of water. The working class
tenant tends to choose his dwelling regardless of the requirements of
hygiene. The important thing for him is to house his family as
cheaply as possible, and if by chance he is influenced by the proximity
of a school for the children, his chief motive is to avoid travelling
expenses.
What with these, conditions and what with the worker's natural
indifference, it is not surprising to find that no working-class dwelling
is equipped to permit of washing oneself properly. However, if the
aversion of the workers were not so pronounced, it would be easy to
use the scullery for this purpose, for there is plenty of rain-water.
However this may be, the workers in question here, whether owners
or not, were getting the same wages; they all had dependants and had
been employed the same number of years in the factory. The question
arises, therefore, why so few of them owned their houses, especially
in view of the financial facilities they could have claimed as houseowners: namely, the bonus granted by the State, three years' exemption from the land tax, the power to acquire full ownership after 15
years, the right to sublet either the first floor or the ground floor and
thus substantially to reduce the burden of interest "and redemption
charges.
No doubt, indifference, lack of initiative, and ignorance of the
advantages offered are among the main causes which have brought
about this situation. There is no doubt also that the instability of
a good wage and the insecurity of employment are apt to discourage
the most enterprising.
So far, only the workers owning their houses have been considered.
Those who lived with their parents or parents-in-law, being in a
privileged position, can be left out of account. There remain the
workers renting their dwellings. . The information given in the replies
to the questionnaires shows sufficiently their complete lack of modern
conveniences and renders it unnecessary to give further details and to
draw conclusions from the point of view of public health.
. It may be noted, however, that the wages earned are no criterion
of the cleanliness of the dwelling. It happens fairly often that workers
with a large family and earning comparatively little live in better
hygienic conditions than certain workers whose families are smaller
and who earn much more.
Another point to observe is that the workers had their homes
relatively far from the factory which is situated at Eeckeren, and that

ANTWERP (BELGIUM)

107

only a minority lived in that town. While, indeed, it is easy to understand that workers do not move every time they change their job, it
is just as clear that those who have been employed in the factory for
some years must find it to their advantage to live as near as possible
to the place where they work. Yet precisely these workers live
farthest away. There are several reasons to account for this. First,
the factory itself was recently moved from Hoboken to Eeckeren;
secondly, communications are very convenient by tramway as well as
by bicycle, the country being very flat. Moreover, the repeal of the
Rent Restriction Act meant that most workers' families had to settle
in the suburbs. Besides, many workers have a pronounced taste
for gardening.
But interesting as it is to have an indication of the standard of
comfort of the Ford workers at Antwerp, it is no less important to
know the wages they earn and the taxes they have to pay.
According to the replies received, the rate of pay per hour varied
between 9 and 18 Belgian francs, according to occupation and length
of service. The working day was 8 hours, with one hour's break at
midday; Saturday was a full holiday.
' The worker also received the family allowances provided by the
Belgian Act of 4 August 1930, namely, Ì5 francs a month for the first
child, 20 francs for the second, 40 francs for the third, etc., in respect
of children under 14 years of age or, if attending school, under 16.

The workers received no bonuses. All exceptions to the Washington
Eight-Hours Day Convention were formally prohibited.

ROTTERDAM (Netherlands)

The enquiry was conducted by the Director of the Bureau
of Statistics of this city. Valuable information and advice
were also furnished by the Director of the Bureau of Statistics
of the city of Amsterdam.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to the months of AugustSeptember 1930. As no figures of consumption exist for Rotterdam, the Office decided to make use of the family budget
enquiry for the city of Amsterdam of 1923-1924 x as being
applicable to Rotterdam. This study does not give the quantities
consumed by working class families, but only the expenditure
on each article. These quantities, however, have been kindly
supplied by Dr. van Zanten, the Director of the Amsterdam
Municipal

Statistical Bureau.

Twenty-one

principal

articles

of food for which prices and quantities are known both in
Detroit and the Netherlands were chosen. The data (prices
and weights) used in the calculations are given in the Appendix,
table I. On the basis of this material the following results were
obtained :
Ratio of cost of food in Rotterdam to Detroit,
(Detroit=100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2) Using Amsterdam weights . . . .
(3) Average of (1) and (2)

based on 21 foodstuffs
8.1.4 per cent.
67.8 ,,
,,
74.3 „
„

By applying the latter ratio, the food expenditure for
Rotterdam is found to be 1,028 florins. This figure has been
approved by the Rotterdam Statistical Bureau.
HOUSING

An enquiry conducted into rents at Rotterdam indicates
that a dwelling approximately equivalent to the Detroit house
1
Huishoudrekeningen van 212 Gezinnen uit verschillende Kringen
der Bevolking, Statistische Mededeelingen van het Bureau van Statistiek
der Gemeente Amsterdam, No. 80. Amsterdam 1927.

ROTTERDAM

(NETHERLANDS)

109

would cost about 500 florins per annum, while the rent for
a dwelling of the size of the American house, but of the kind
usually occupied by a Dutch skilled workman, would be about
7*/2 florins a week (390 florins a year). The figures of 500
and 390 florins are therefore taken as the upper and lower
estimate for rent.
FUEL AND LIGHT

The prices for the articles in this group are given in the
Appendix, table II. The quantities used are taken, on the advice
of the Director of the Amsterdam Statistical Bureau, from a
group of 32 families whose annual expenditure per " man-unit "
was from 940 to 1,150 florins in 1923-1924. This consumption
was as follows:
Gas
Electricity
Anthracite
Bituminous coal
"Agglomérés "

129 cubic metres
48.1 kwh.
2.31 hectolitres
0.17 hectolitres
6.76 hectolitres

These figures were applied to the prices shown in the Appendix, table II — the price of coke being taken as that of
"agglomérés ". The above consumption figures, however,
relate to families occupying 1.74 rooms per "man-unit",
whereas the American families occupied only 1.41 rooms per
unit-man. They also relate to one " m a n - u n i t " whereas the
average family for the purpose of this enquiry is 3.27 units.
The cost of the above items was therefore multiplied by the
ratio \^l and then by 3.27. The resulting figure is 114 florins.
CLOTHING

The prices for the various articles of clothing relate to April
1931 and were based on the sample collection of American
articles. The services of an expert adviser of the firm of C. & A.
Brenninkmeyer were obtained for this purpose. They are given
in the Appendix, table III. The usual two methods give the
following results:
Method I
Method II

280 florins
265

The figure of 280 florins has been adopted.

110

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

MEDICAL EXPENSES

In the Netherlands workers earning 3,000 florins per annum
or less are legally entitled to receive 80 per cent, of their wages
for a certain period in case of sickness. This is paid for by the
employers who have the right to deduct 1.15 per cent, of the
wage. On a wage of 2,500 florins this would amount to about
30 florins per annum. In addition, there exist voluntary insurance funds against medical expenses incurred by members
and their families. Membership costs 0.54 florins per week
for a man with wife and children under 16 years (about 28 florins
per annum). These two payments amount together to 58 florins
and this sum is taken as covering the cost of all medical care,
if the workman insures himself and his family against medical
expenses.
For a worker who would earn over 3,000 florins and does
not insure himself voluntarily, expenses for medical care have
been estimated on the basis of the price of doctor's services
(visit to doctor 2 florins, to specialist 3 florins). They yield
an approximate expenditure of 64 florins, — almost identical
with the preceding calculation. On the other hand, such a
worker would not receive any portion of his wages in case
of sickness.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The prices supplied are given in the Appendix, table IV.
The comparison with the corresponding prices in Detroit gives
a ratio of 60.7 per cent, or a cost in Rotterdam of 509 florins.

L I F E INSURANCE

The "purchasing power equivalent" to 2,076 dollars is
estimated at about 3,000 florins. The annual premium for a
policy of this amount is 90.00 florins. From this sum the
contributions to old-age and invalidity insurance which are
entirely paid by the employer must be deducted. They are
0.60 florin per week (31 florins per annum) for male persons
21 years and over. The amount of 59 florins has therefore been
inserted in the summary for life insurance.

ROTTERDAM (NETHERLANDS)

IH

TAXATION

Direct taxation is in force in Rotterdam on the following
scale supplied by the above-mentioned authority:
Income

2 children

2,500
2,800

88.42
113.74

3 children

72.06
96.86

Average

80.24
105.30

The figure of 80 florins is taken for the purpose of this
enquiry.

EMPLOYERS' COMPULSORY SOCIAL INSURANCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Dutch employers are liable to contribute to old-age and
invalidity insurance, and to the Sick Benefit Fund. Their
contributions are as follows:
Old-age and invalidity insurance (see above "Life
insurance ")
Sick benefit: 2.30 (Class I risk), or 3.40 (Class II risk)
per cent, of wages; but employers may deduct
1.15 per cent, from wages, leaving 1.15 per cent.
to 2.25 per cent, to be paid by them. The lowest
risk class is taken, amounting to about

31 fl.

30 fl.
61 fl.

SUMMARY
August-September 1930
Florins

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing (April 1931)
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Taxation
Employer's social insurance contributions
Total

1,028
390-500
114
280
58
509
2,379-2,489
59
80
2,518-2,628
61
2,579-2,689

In order to bring the calculations for the different towns to a uniform
date (January 1931) cost-of-living index numbers have been applied.

112

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

No figures being published for Rotterdam, the following official figures
for Amsterdam have been taken:
Sept. 1930
Dec. 1930 Coefficient oí
(Indices 1911-1913=100)
reduction

Food

152.5

144.8

0.950

(Expenditure per man-unit)

Fuel and light
Housing
Miscellaneous expenses . .
Clothing (March 1931) . . .

63
—
1761/2
70V2

6IV2
0.976
—
No change
171
0.969
73Va
1.043

December 1930
(rounded off to nearest florin)
Florins

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses

977
390-500
Ill
292
58
493
2,321-2,431

Life insurance
Taxation

59
80
2,460-2,570
60

Employer's social insurance contributions . .
Total

2,520-2,630

113

ROTTERDAM (NETHERLANDS)

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected
and supplied by the Rotterdam Municipal Statistical Office.]
TABLE I. — FOOD
Prices at
Annual quanPrices as used Rotterdam in tity consumed
in the calAugust-Sep- at Amsterdam
culations
tember 1930 per consumpper kg.1
per kg.
tion unit in
1923-1924
(1)

1. Wheaten bread

. . . .

4. Milk, fresh (per litre) . .
6. Eggs (per piece)
7. Reef
(a) Beef, steak

. . . .
. . . .

9. Pork
10. Veal
12. Fish, salt (herring) . . .
13. flutter
14. Margarine (butter sub15.
16.
17.
18.

Lard (and substitutes) .
Tea
Coffee
Sugar

20. White beans, baked. . .
21. Peas (canned)

Htl.

Htl.

0.3125
0.245
0.24
0.16
1.155
0.085
2.55 s

0.3125
0.245
0.24
0.15-0.17
1.11-1.20
0.07-0.10
2.50-3.40
1.95-2.35
1.40-1.60
1.60-2.00
1.60-2.00
1.10-1.20
0.90-1.20
2.55

1.50
1.80
1.80
1.15
1.05
2.55
1.23
1.00
3.34
1.97
0.40
0.045
0.60
0.40

(3)

(2)

Kg.

145.60
16.12
3.12
182Í00«
3.90 6
70.00
5.20»
3.64«
2.08
0.16
1.72
1.92
5.20
7.44
0.73
2.60
2.60
20.80
182.00
2.60
2.60 2

1.16-1.30
1.00
2.48-4.20
1.97
0.40
0.045
0.60
0.28-0.52

1

The prices in this column are simple averages ot the corresponding prices in column (2).
* Dried peas.
• Beef, Dutch (1st quality).
• Beef, frozen (1st quality).
* Cheese, full cream.
' Milk, unskimmed.
SOURCE: Prices supplied by the Rotterdam statistical authorities.

Quantities based on the household budgets of working men's families
in 1923-1924 supplied by the Statistical Office of the city of Amsterdam.
TABLE II. — FUEL AND LIGHT
Prices in AugustSeptember 1930
Florins

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Gas
Electricity
Anthracite coal
Rituminous coal
"Agglomérés"

Price of coke.

0.11
0.11
2.85
1.03
0.90 x
8

114

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE III. — CLOTHING

Prices in April 1931

/ . Men's clothing
Florins
1. Woollen suit (coat, waistcoat and two pairs of
trousers)
30.00
2. Overcoat
24.00
3. Cotton trousers (not worn in the Netherlands)
2.50
4. Cotton socks
0.40
5. Cotton gloves
0.50
6. Belt.
1.00
II. Women's clothing
1. H a t
3.50
2. Dress, rayon.
7.50
3. Dress, cotton
3.50
4. Petticoat or slip, cotton
0.90
5. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon
0.80
6. Shirt, cotton
0.60
7. Gloves, cotton
0.50
/ / / . Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
0.75
2. Woollen suit (coat, waistcoat and two pairs of
trousers). .
10.00
3. Cotton trousers
1.60
4. Overcoat
8.00
5. Sweater or lumberjack
5.00
6. Cotton shirt
1.10
7. Union suit, cotton
1.40
8. Cotton socks
0.45
9. Boots
4.50
(Z>) Girls
1. H a t
0.90
2. Dress, rayon
5.00
3. Woollen coat
10.00
4. Lumberjack
2.50
5. Slip, cotton
0.75
MISCELLANEOUS
EXPENSES
TABLE IV.
6. Bloomers or drawers, cotton
0.50
Prices as
Prices in
7. Cotton stockings
0.50
ised in the
Augustcalculations
Florins

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

12.00
Blanket (woollen)
2.00
Sheet
1.00
Pillow-case
0.20
Cotton towel
2.25
Cotton or linen tablecloth . . . .
2.00
Table oilcloth
0.10
Daily t r a n s p o r t : t r a m (1 ride) . .
Barber expenses:
0.25
1 hair cut
0.15
0.625
1 shave
0.25
Cinema (1 ticket)
2.25
Newspaper (per week)
0.06
Tobacco (1 kg.)
0.06
Laundry work sent out (1 pièce) .
Postage (1 inland letter)
Telephone (1 call from public
station)
0.10

September
1930
Florins

8.00-16.00
1.50-2.50
0.75-1.25
0.20
1.50-3.00
1.50-2.50
0.10
0.25
0.15
0.25-1.00
0.25
1.50-3.00
0.06
0.06
0.10

M A N C H E S T E R (Great Britain)

The price-data used in this report have been supplied by
the Statistics Branch of the British Ministry of Labour and are
shown at the end of this report.
FOOD

The price-data for foodstuffs relate to January 1931 and are
shown in Appendix A, table I.
Official information as to the consumption of foodstuffs
is available for the year 1914 in the report of the committee
appointed to inquire into and report upon (inter alia) "the
actual increase, since June 1914, in the cost of living to the
working-classes " 1. In order to obtain figures more representative of the post-war period, the information given in an
article by Dr. Bowley in the Economic Journal for June 1928 2,
and, as regards consumption of meat, a report prepared in 1929
by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries on The Agricultural
Output and the Food Supplies of Great Britain were utilised.
The weights used and the average prices of the different qualities
and grades of foodstuffs are given in Appendix A, table II.
By applying the Detroit weights and the British weights
respectively to the Manchester and Detroit prices, the following
figures were obtained:
Ratio of cost of food in Manchester to that in Detroit (=100) based
on 20 foodstuffs:
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2) Using British weights
(3) Average (geometric) of (1) and (2)

77.0 per cent.
67.7 „
72.2 „

1
Cd. 8980, Working classes cost of living Committee, 1918. (Chairman:
Lord Sumner).
2
"Notes on Index Numbers ", Economic Journal, Vol. XXXVIII,
June 1928, p. 228.

116

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

In view of the wide range of qualities covered by the quotations supplied and the absence, in some cases, of an exact
description of the American quality, the average prices shown
in column 1 of the appended table II are in the nature of approximations. Moreover, the consumption weights are not based on
a recent family budget inquiry. The above percentages should
therefore be considered as approximate, but they may be taken
to indicate that food prices in Manchester at January 1931
were between 70 and 75 per cent, of those in Detroit at 1929.
These percentages yield an expenditure on food of £79 18s.
and £85 12s. respectively.

HOUSING

In a memorandum supplied by the British Ministry of Labour
(see Appendix B) the opinion is expressed that, while any attempt
to determine what rent in Manchester would be comparable
with the average paid by workers in the Detroit sample must
necessarily be somewhat arbitrary, it appears probable after
consideration of all the available data that the figure would be
about 12s. to 13s. a week. An annual expenditure of £31 4s.
to £33 16s. has been taken for this section. 1

F U E L AND LIGHT

The prices of the various items included in this section are
given in Appendix A, table III.
If the average quantities of each article consumed by the
selected families at Detroit are applied to the prices of these
articles in Manchester, the price-ratio in Manchester (compared
with Detroit = 100) is about 99.5 as shown in the following
table. It should be remembered that the prices of coal, coke
and wood in Detroit are the special prices accorded to the
Detroit employees by the company, and had the normal prices
been obtained the above price-ratio of 99.5 would have been
somewhat lower.
1
This range does not conform to that of the upper and lower limits
as discussed in Chap. II, Part II, p. 18. The figure representing the lower
limit would be approximately £27 (see Appendix B).

117

MANCHESTER (GREAT BRITAIN)
Cost in
Detroit
Dollars

Coal (4.1 tons) . . . .
Coke (1.3 tons) . . . .
Gas (28,600 eft.) . . .
Electricity (407.6 kwh.)
Kerosene (13.1 gallons)

34.98
10.41
22.69
20.43
2.90

Total for above items . .

91.41

Price in
Manchester
s. d.

39 2
28 4
3 63A
*
0 10.1

Cost in
Manchester
s. d.

160 7
36 10
101 11
63 0 *
11 0

373 4

* See Appendix, table III.

If the above price-ratio is applied to the total expenditure
on all fuel and light in Detroit (viz. $103.20, which covers
in addition to the quantities shown above 0.6 tons of anthracite
coal, 0.4 tons of wood and a small allowance for matches and
candles) a sum of £21 Is. is obtained as the equivalent expenditure in Manchester.
While exact information is not available as to working-class
consumption of fuel and light in Manchester, the British Ministry
of Labour is of opinion that the quantities used on an average
by working-class families in Manchester are lower than those
shown in the Detroit sample and, in view of the differences
in the climate of the two towns, it would seem reasonable to
assume that a smaller consumption in Manchester would
suffice to provide for the maintenance of a similar standard
of comfort. Any allowance which may be made on this account
must necessarily be somewhat arbitrary, but if the maximum
deduction to be made were assessed at the equivalent of one
sixth of the total cost of coal, coke and gas, the total expenditure
in Manchester on fuel and light would be reduced to about
£18 5s. In the summary table of average expenditures, the
first figure (£21 Is.) has been used as the maximum, and
the second figure (£18 5s.) as the minimum expenditure on
fuel and light. The method adopted differs from that applied
in other towns.
CLOTHING

Comparisons of prices of clothing in Detroit and Manchester
are subject to special difficulties owing to the differences in the
character of the articles of apparel worn in the two towns.
Although these differences were to some extent overcome by
utilising samples of the actual articles worn by Detroit workers,
it was, in many cases, found impossible to obtain prices in

118

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

Manchester for approximately comparable garments and the
particulars obtained were necessarily limited in many cases to
estimates of the prices which would be charged for articles of
somewhat similar material and workmanship. Consequently,
the prices quoted by shopkeepers in Manchester showed considerable variation, but for most of the items of men's and
women's clothing the ratios of the Manchester prices to the
Detroit prices are sufficiently consistent to suggest that the
weighted average of these ratios provides a satisfactory indication of the relative price levels of clothing generally.
By applying the price ratios for men's and for women's
clothing for the total Detroit expenditure by the usual methods
a figure of £26 13s. 2d. is obtained. As this figure is based on
Manchester prices prevailing in April 1931 it is necessary to
adjust it to allow for the change in clothing prices between
January and April. On the basis of the official statistics in the
movement of clothing prices in Great Britain which show a
fall of between 2 and 3 per cent during this period, it would
appear that the corresponding expenditure in January 1931
would have been about £27 6s.
MEDICAL

EXPENSES

From such information as is available it appears that the
cost of a visit to the physician and to the dentist may be estimated at about 2s. 6d. each. The application of these prices to
the Detroit quantities yields a percentage of about 40 per cent.
with a corresponding expenditure for this item of about £5 6s.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES

The prices for these items are given in Appendix A, table V.
On the basis of these prices a figure of 80 per cent, was found,
which would yield a sum of about £55 7s. when applied to the
corresponding expenditure in Detroit.
LIFE

INSURANCE

The purchasing power equivalent of the amount of life
insurance carried by the selected Detroit workers, viz. $2,076,

MANCHESTER (GREAT

BRITAIN)

119

is found to be roughly equivalent to between £275 and £285.
The corresponding yearly premiums (at the rate of 3 per cent.)
would therefore amount to £8 5s. and £8 l i s . respectively.

TAXATION

This item does not appear in the present calculation as the
total obtained lies below the exempted minimum for a married
man with two children, in January 1931.
SOCIAL INSURANCE

As pointed out in Chapter II, Part II, it is not possible,
except very approximately, to evaluate, in terms of equivalent
annual expenditure, the privileges which employees in different
European countries derive from various social services, and
which are non-existent (except for accident insurance) for the
Detroit worker. Thus, the Manchester worker aged between 16
and 65 receives, under certain conditions, a weekly payment
while unemployed, with supplements for wife and dependent
children; a weekly payment while incapacitated through illness,
and payment of medical fees, chemists' bills, etc. ; on reaching
65 he and his wife become entitled to a weekly pension and
on death the widow is entitled to receive a pension with
supplements for dependent children ; orphans' pensions are also
provided for. The cost of these services is borne jointly by the
employee, the employer, and the State.
In January 1931 the Manchester worker paid in respect
of these services about £3 6s. 8d. a year (assuming 50 weeks'
contributions a year) and the employer about £3 l i s . In addition
the State contributed about £2 per annum per insured worker
in respect of unemployment and health insurance, and State
grants are made in respect of old-age, widows', and orphans'
pensions. It should be added, however, that the unemployment
fund derived from the joint contributions of the three parties
has proved insufficient in recent years ; the Exchequer has
provided the full cost of benefit in respect of certain classes and
the balance has been met by borrowing under statutory powers.
The only provision in the budget of the Detroit employee
for loss of earnings through sickness and unemployment, and for

120

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

old age, appears to be the life insurance of $2,076 at a premium
of 60 dollars a year. In addition he incurred medical, etc.
expenses for the whole family of about $65 a year. The equivalent cost of these two services has been estimated above to cost
in Manchester about £13 to £14 per annum. If it is assumed that
about four-fifths of the sickness expenses (for a family of 4.6
persons) were incurred for members of the employee's family and
one-fifth for the employee, the cost in Manches ter of the employee's
own medical expenses and of insurance may be estimated on
a Detroit basis at about £9. The life insurance of the Detroit
employee is equal to a little over one year's annual income,
whereas it is estimated by the competent authorities in Great
Britain which have been consulted that the value of the State
scheme under the widows, orphans and old-age pension Acts
is equivalent to a cover of about two years' annual income,
and that if he entered insurance at the age of 16, an annual
premium of from £5 to £6 throughout working life (i.e. until 65)
would cover the benefits to which he is entitled. The high
premium for the Detroit worker is probably due in large
measure to the fact that he entered insurance at a much higher
age, generally after marriage. On the other hand, the British
worker usually provides for funeral expenses of himself and
members of his family by private insurance. The allowance to
be made for all these factors is difficult to ascertain, but is in
any case small in relation to the total expense of about £230.
As shown above, the employers and the State make direct contributions of about £5 l i s . per annum in respect of unemployment, health and pensions insurance of a fully employed
worker, whilst in addition the State makes payments to meet
the deficiency of unemployment insurance and to finance the
widows and old-age pensions scheme. These latter payments are
of varying nature, the figures for 1930 and 1931 falling well
below the real cost.
SUMMARY
The figures given in the above paragraphs yield totals of about
£226 and £237. If it is considered that the insurance contributions
might be regarded as of the nature of a "free policy " presented to the
worker, the amount of about £226-£237 might be reduced, as in the
case of the other towns, by at least the £5 l i s . mentioned. This would
give approximate figures of about £220 to £231 ; or about £224-£235 if
employers' contributions are included.

MANCHESTER (GREAT

121

BRITAIN)

January 1931
(rounded off to nearest

shilling)
Lower
estimate

Food
Housing
Fuel and Light
Clothing
Medical E x p e n s e s 1
Miscellaneous I t e m s 1
Life Insurance 1
Direct contributions, by Employers and State,
to social insurance (see paragraph above)
at least

£

s. d.

79
31
18
27
5
55
2258

18 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
6 0
7 0
5 00
11

85 12 0
33 16 0
21 1 0
27 6 0
5 6 0
55 7 0
1 1 00
2368 19

5 11 0

* 5 11 0

220
Employers' direct
insurance

contributions
Total

to

Upper
estimate

0 0

£

s.

231

d.

8 0

social
3 11 0

3 11 0

223 11 0

234 19 0

1
Owing t o t h e difficulty, in view of t h e system of social insurance in Great Britain,
of deducting separately from these totals a m o u n t s representing exactly t h e contributions,
made b y employers and t h e State t o social insurances, these contributions are dealt with
in one t o t a l . For t h e purposes, however, of t h e table given on p . 30, it is estimated t h a t t h e
total of £5 l i s . , representing t h e direct contributions of employers and t h e State to social
insurances, m a y be allocated approximately as follows: Medical Expenses, 7s. 6d.; Life
Insurance, 18s. 9d.; Miscellaneous Items, £4 4s. 9d. After deducting these a m o u n t s from
t h e total costs shown under these three headings, t h e net expenditure is approximately
as follows: Medical Expenses, £4 18s. 6d.; Life Insurance, £7 6s. 3d. to £7 12s. 3d.;
Miscellaneous Items, £51 2s. 3d. These figures have accordingly been utilised for t h e table
on p . 30.

122

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

APPENDIX A

TABLE I. — AVERAGE PRICES PER LB. AT MANCHESTER IN JANUARY 1 9 3 1
FOR DIFFERENT QUALITIES AND GRADES OF FOODSTUFFS
Pcn.cc

1. (a) Beef, British:
Brisket
Thin flank
Gravy beef
Ribs
Sirloin
Silverside
Steak (shoulder)
Steak (rump)
(£>) Beef, imported:
Brisket
Thin flank
Gravy beef
Ribs
Sirloin
Silverside
Steak (shoulder)
Steak (rump)
2. Pork, fresh (British):
Legs
Loin
Spare ribs
Belly
Chops
3 . (a) L a m b , British:
Legs
Shoulders
Chops (trimmed and boned)
Neck (best end)
Scrags
Breasts
(£>) L a m b , imported:
Legs
Shoulders
Chops (trimmed and boned)
Necks (best end)
Scrags
Breasts
(c) Mutton, imported:
Legs
Shoulders
Chops (trimmed and boned)
Necks (best end)
Scrags
Breasts
4 . Sausages:
Pork
Beef

7.8
8.0
11.2
14.1
15.4
15.9
13.8
19.8
4.6
5.0
7.3
9.1
10.7
11.8
9.9
14.5
16.3
17.1
16.9
11.4
18.1
16.7
16.1
18.9
14.5
10.6
8.4
12.5
11.0
12.2
8.8
5.6
4.4
9.5
7.4
9.2
7.5
5.6
3.8
13.4
9.7

MANCHESTER (GREAT

123

BRITAIN)

5. (a) Bacon, rolled:
Danish
Other and unspecified
(b) Bacon, Danish, unrolled:
Back
Thick streaky
Cuts unspecified
6. L a r d :
British
American
7. B u t t e r :
Danish
Australian and New Zealand
8. Margarine (proprietary and other):
Best quality
Other qualities

10.0
9.2
10.6
10.3
10.0
7.5
6.8
16.3
13.9
12.0
i 10.0
j HQ

1 6.0
9. Milk, fresh:
Loose
Bottled
10. Cheese:
Colonial
Cheshire
Lancashire
11. Eggs:
English
Irish
Dutch or Danish
12. Bread:
1st grade ("Milk " bread)
2nd grade (Fine household)
3rd grade
13. Flour:
Plain
Self-raising
14. Potatoes:
King Edward
Majestic
Cheshire
Other
15. Tea
16. Coffee
17. Sugar:
Lump
Granulated
18. (a) Rice:
Carolina
J a v a (including American J a v a )
Spanish J a p a n
Rangoon
(b) Tapioca
1 19. Oatmeal (Scotch)
The prices vary according to the quantity bought.
20. Cocoa:
Proprietary 1
Other

2.5
2.7
9.0
12.5
14.7
15.6
12.6
11.9

j

2.0
1.8
J;J
1.3
2.2
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
24.0
29.1
2.9
2.5
5.0
4.4
2.9
2.2
4.1
2.9

Í 24.0
{ 22.0
I 21.0
13.4

124

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

TABLE II. — FOOD
Average price
used
Pence

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Beef and veal
Pork, fresh (British)
Mutton and lamb
Sausages
Bacon
Lard
Butter
Margarine
Milk, fresh
Cheese
Eggs
Bread
Flour
Potatoes
Tea
Coffee
Sugar
Rice and tapioca
Oatmeal (Scotch)
Cocoa

11.2 2
16.0
10.8
11.6
10.0
7.2
15.1
9.0
2.6
12.1
13.4
1.7
1.8
1.2
24.0
29.1
2.7
3.7
2.9
17.9

British consumption
weights
lbs1

3.91
0.34
1.42
0.62
1.44
1.00
1.70
0.42
11.89
0.84
1.42
25.50
8.00
15.60
0.88
0.09
5.90
1.40
1.30
0.18

' Estimated weekly TABLE
consumption
for FUEL
a familyAND
equivalent
III. —
LIGHTto 4.57 "men".
' Price of beet.

(Prices for January 1931)

Coal. — There is a wide variation in the price of coal in Manchester
according to the quality, description, etc. of the coal. The kind of coal
sold to working-class customers varies in different cases. For house coal
of the description most frequently reported as bought by working-class
customers in Manchester the average price in January 1931, according
to the returns received by the Ministry of Labour, was 36s. 8d. to 41s. 8d.
per ton. These prices are for bituminous coal; anthracite coal is not used
by Manchester working-class families. For the purpose of calculation a
mean price of 39s. 2d. per ton is taken.
Coke. — Relatively little coke is used by working-class families in
Manchester. The predominant price in January 1931 was 28s. 4d.per ton.
Gas. — The price of gas (through ordinary meters) for lighting and
domestic purposes in Manchester in January 1931 was 3s. 9d. per
thousand cubic feet, subject to a discount 3of 2Vid. per thousand cubic
feet for payment within 28 days, i.e. 3s. 6 /id. net per thousand cubic
feet.
Electricity. — The charges for electricity for lighting and domestic
power, eunder
an " all-in " tariff, consist of an annual fixed charge of
12V2 P r cent, on the net rateable value of the house, plus 1/2d. per kwh.
consumed. For a house of the rental suggested under "Housing " this
fixed charge would amount to £2. In Manchester electric light bulbs
must be purchased by the consumer, whereas in Detroit they are supplied
free by the electricity company, and in the table on page 117 an allowance has been included for this item.
Lamp Oil (Kerosene). — The average price in Manchester in January
1931 was lO.ld. per gallon.

125

MANCHESTER (GREAT BRITAIN)

TABLE IV. — CLOTHING
Average price in
March-April 1931

/ . Men's clothing
1. Woollen suit
2. Overcoat
3. Cotton trousers
4. Cotton shirt
5. Union suit, cotton (underclothing)
6. Cotton socks
7. Boots
8. Tie
9. Belt
10. Overall
/ / . Women's clothing
1. Dress, rayon
2. Dress, cotton
3. House dress
4. Coat, woollen

46
48
4
3
5

0
6
6
4
0
7
12 11
1 6
2 3
6 3

5. Petticoat or slip

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Bloomers
Shirt or vest
Stockings
Shoes
Gloves, cotton

23
2
3
50

9
11
10
0

2

6

2
1
2
11
1

9
3
0
9
10

TABLE V. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Average price in
January 1931
Pence

10.
11,
12.
13.

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton tablecloth
Transport (1 journey)
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (men)
1 shave
Cinema (1 visit)
Tobacco :
20 cigarettes
1 oz. pipe tobacco
Laundry work sent out:
1 man's shirt
1 sheet
Postage (1 inland letter)
Telephone (1 call from public station)
Newspaper:
1 week-day-paper
1 Sunday paper

121
52
9
87 s
36
l1/2
7
3
6
10
9

. . . .

5l/a
4
ll/g
2
1
2

126

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

APPENDIX B

Memorandum on Rents of Working-Class Houses in Manchester
The average number of rooms per family shown by the Detroit
figures is 4.8. The predominant types of dwelling are stated to contain
four or five rooms. In Manchester the predominant types of workingclass dwellings also contain either 4 or 5 rooms, though there are some
dwellings with less or more than this number of rooms. The great
majority of the working-class dwellings are houses built before the
war, and the rents of the great bulk of these are controlled under the
Rent Restriction Acts. A proportion of pre-war working-class houses,
however, have become de-controlled, and the rents of houses built
since the war are not subject to control. There is consequently a
considerable variation in the rents charged.
As a result of special enquiries which have been made in Manchester,
it is estimated that the average rents, including local rates and water
charges, of all 4 and 5 roomed houses taken in the proportions yielding
the average number of rooms (4.6) shown in the Detroit sample is
between 10s. and 10s. 6d. per week.
The rents of pre-war houses, which form the great majority of the
total number of working-class dwellings, are on the average, below
this figure. Of these houses, the four-roomed type contains livingroom and kitchen, Avith in some cases a small scullery, downstairs,
and two bedrooms upstairs; houses with five rooms contain parlour
or living-room and kitchen, with separate scullery on the ground-floor,
and three bedrooms above. Water, hot water to the kitchen sink or
from a tap on the kitchen range, separate w.c. and back yard, and gas
are provided, but not, as a rule, electricity. Bathrooms, though
sometimes provided, are not usual in this type of house, which would
appear to be somewhat inferior to the houses in the Detroit sample,
72 per cent, of which had bathrooms, and all of which were supplied
with electricity.
For new (post-war) houses in Manchester, the rents are higher,
ranging generally from about 12s. to rather more than 18s. a week,
inclusive of local rates and water charges according to the accommodation provided. It seems probable that, on average, these houses, all of
which are provided with bathroom and supplied with electricity, are
superior to those in the Detroit sample.
In the absence of more detailed information as to the Detroit
houses, any attempt to determine what rent in Manchester would be
comparable with the average paid by workers in the Detroit sample
must necessarily be somewhat arbitrary; but after consideration of all
the available data it appears reasonable to adopt a figure for Manchester of 12s. to 13s. a week.

CORK (Irish Free State)

The data were supplied by the Statistics Branch of the
Department of Industry and Commerce and valuable suggestions
were made during their elaboration by the Director, Mr. Stanley
Lyon.
FOOD

The prices of the various foodstuffs relate to mid-July 1930.
Information on the consumption of an Irish family obtained
in a budget enquiry in 1922 as used in the calculation of the
Irish Free State cost of living index number was obtained
from the Statistics Branch of the Department of Industry
and Commerce. The data (prices and weight accounting for
80 per cent, of the total food expenditure at Detroit in 1929
and for 93.1 per cent, in Ireland in October 1930 for 20 articles)
used in the calculations are given in the Appendix, table I.
The results are as follows:
Ratio of food-prices in Cork to Detroit, based on 20 articles (Detroit = 100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2)
„
Irish
„
(3) Average of (1) and (2)

81.9 per cent
80.7 „ „
81.3 „ „

According to the last ratio the cost of the Irish food expenditure is £92 17s. 6d.
HOUSING

Old houses fitted with modern equipment are very rare
in the city of Cork. The rent in such cases is controlled under
the Rent Restriction Act and amounts to about £35 per annum.
Houses similar to the Detroit type have been erected in recent
years by the Cork Corporation. The policy of this Corporation,
however, has not been to let but to sell these houses. The Irish
statistical authorities have therefore suggested as a good
working solution to regard the annuity charged by this Corporation as a rent. For the more recent houses the annuity
is £27 6s. (i.e. 10s. 6d. per week), rates at about £6 per annum
being additional.

128

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

In view of this information, the Irish Department of Industry
and Commerce considers that a rent of £35 per annum might
fairly be taken as a representative figure for the upper limit.
FUEL AND LIGHT

According to the information on Irish family budgets
collected in 1922 l the percentage of expenditure spent on
fuel and light does not vary much from one income group to
another. The following table has been supplied by the Irish
Free State Department of Industry and Commerce:
Under £3

Percentage of total
expenditure on
fuel and light . .

8.7

Weekly income per household
£3
£4
£5

7.6

7.3

8.1

£6 and
upwards

9.0

The Irish Free State statistical authorities therefore suggested to take 8 or 9 per cent, as the expenditure on fuel and
light. Correspondingly, a figure of £21 Is. 10d., representing
8 per cent, of the total, has been inserted in the summary.
CLOTHING

The prices for the various items of clothing based on the
American sample collection are given in the Appendix, table II.
They relate to July 1930. The cost of these items has been
calculated by the two methods. The results are as follows:
Method I
Method II

9,638d.
9,378d.

In the opinion of the Irish Free State authorities a procedure
similar to that applied to " Food " should be used in the calculation for " Clothing•". As is explained on p. 22 of this report,
this is however not possible because of the great differences
in quality and kind between the American sample articles and
the clothes usually worn in most of the European countries.
Of the two methods the Irish Free State authorities suggest
the adoption of Method I. The sum of £40 3s. 2d. was therefore
taken for this section of the budget.
1

See Report on the Cost of Living in Ireland, June 1922, p. 15.

CORK (IRISH FREE STATE)

MEDICAL

129

EXPENSES

The prices supplied are given in the Appendix, table III.
Their application to the Detroit quantities yields a cost ratio
of 68.9 per cent and a total expenditure of £9 Is. 9d.
In Ireland there exists a compulsory health insurance scheme
with contributions by the employer and the worker.
The
benefits however are only available to the insured person
himself. The above sum has therefore been reduced by the
employer's contribution (amounting to 17s. 4d. per annum) which
appears below in the special section dealing with such contributions. Accordingly, a sum of £8 4s. 5d. has been inserted
in the final summary.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES

The prices for these items are given in the Appendix, table IV.
On the basis of these prices the price ratio of 99.7 per cent.
was found, yielding an expenditure of £68 19s. lOd.
Contributions to compulsory unemployment insurance are
dealt with at this stage. The total yearly contribution of
about £4 per male employee (7d. weekly to be paid by the
employer, 6d. by the worker, and three-sevenths of the total
amount received from employers and workers to be contributed
by the State) has been deducted from the above calculated
total for " Miscellaneous Expenses ", giving for this item a
remainder of about £65. The worker's contribution (£1 6s.)
is added separately, and the employer's contribution (about
£1 10s.) is shown in the section called "Employer's Contributions to Social Insurance Schemes ", whereas the State contribution does not re-appear at all, thus representing a reduction of the cost of living to the worker, and a reduction
of the cost of labour to the employer.
TAXATION

This item does not appear in the present calculation, as
the total obtained lies below the exempted minimum for the
type of family here considered.
9

130

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

LIFE

INSURANCE

The calculation of the life insurance premium has been
carried out by the same method as for other cities. The " purchasing power " equivalent to $2,076 is found to be roughly
£330, the corresponding yearly premium amounting to £9 18s.
There exists in the Irish Free State a non-contributory
old-age pension available to persons 70 years of age and over,
and it is probable that this fact reduces the feeling of insecurity
in view of old age which induced the American workers to
take their considerable life insurance policies. But the absence
of any compulsory contributions makes it impossible to take
this fact numerically into account. The above premium has
therefore been inserted without modification.
EMPLOYER'S CONTRIBUTION

TO SOCIAL

INSURANCE

SCHEMES

In the Irish Free State employers are liable to contribute
to the national health insurance (17s. 4d. per annum, see above
"Medical Expenses ") and to unemployment insurance (£110s.4d.
per annum, see above "Miscellaneous Expenses"). These two
contributions have been inserted in the final summary.

SUMMAßY
July 1930
Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses (including employee's contribution to national health insurance)
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Employee's contribution to unemployment
insurance
Employer's contribution to national health
insurance
Unemployment insurance
Total

£

s.

d.

92
35
21
40

17
0
1
3

6
0
10
2

8
65
262

4 5
0 0
6 11

9 18 0
1
6 0
273 10 11
17 4
110 4
275 18 7

CORK (IRISH FREE STATE)

131

In order to bring the calculations for the different towns to a uniform
date (viz. January 1931), it is proposed to modify the above figures in
accordance with the changes in the cost of living. For this purpose, the
Irish Free State authorities have supplied the following indices:
Irish Free State cost ol living
index number (July 1914=100)
Julyl930
January 1931

1

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Miscellaneous expenses. .

156
129
177
211
—

Coefficient
January 1931October 1930

154
130
174
207.
—

98.7
no change
98.3
98.1
98.0 x

Estimated.

January 1931
(rounded off to nearest shilling)
£

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses (including the employee's
contribution to national health insurance)
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Employee's contribution to unemployment insur
ance
Employer's contributions to:
National health insurance .
Unemployment insurance .
Total

s.

d.

91 13
35 0
20 15
39 8

0
0
0
0

. 8 4
258
63 13

0
0

9 18

0

1

6

0

269

17

0

17
1 10

0
0

272

4

132

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected by
the Statistics Branch of the Department of Industry and Commerce.]

FOOD

TABLE I.

Prices as
used in t h e
calculations *

Price per lb.
in J u l y 1930

(1)

(2)

Quantity
consumed •
in Ireland per
family of
5.6 persons
during
1.892 weeks
in 1922
(3)

d.

d.

lbs.

1. Beef, fresh (roast,
2. Pork, fresh (shoulder) . .
3. Pork, salt, bacon (Irish,
(a) Beef
(b) Pork
5. Milk, fresh
6.

Milk,

condensed

6.823
0.680

19.50
13.63
—

19.50
—
14.00
13.25 a
1.75

4.868
0.960 6
—
•—
37.434

—
17.50
10.75
10.50
14.64
2.11
2.63
0.64

12.00
.—
20.25 2
18.50 2
17.50
10.75
10.50
14.64 2
2.11
2.63 3
0.64

0.155
6.463 *
—
—
0.300 s
0.351 «
0.400
5.592
27.314
43.466 '
50.890

38.00
2.75
13.40
—
—

38.00
2.75
.—.
16.00
10.80

2.227 s
10.303
3.578
—

3.29
—
•—•
5.50
—
•—

—
3.31
3,27
.—.
5.00
6.00

6.174«
—
—
1.908'

12.00

12.00

1.409"

—

1.75
(Irish

15. Tea (as used by wage
earners)
16. Sugar (white, granulated)
17. Mutton
(a) Leg
(Ô) Neck
18. Breakfast foods, oat (oat(a) Oatmeal" Pinhead ".
(b) Oatmeal " F Lake " .
19. Rice

1

11.50
15.50

•

7. Butter
(a) Irish creamery .. .
(&) Farmers'
8. Cheese (ordinary grade) .
9. Margarine (1st grade) . .
10. Lard
11. Eggs (1st grade) . . . .
12. Flour, wheat (and other).
13. Bread, wheat (and rye) .

20.

11.50
15.50

Jellies, jam, preserves,
marmalade (strawberry
jam)

12.00
19.38
• — •

•

•

—

•

—

—

The prices in this column are arithmetical averages of the corresponding prices in
column (2). ! Yearly average price. ' Price of wheatena bread only. * Sum of 2 kinds.
* Cheese: Golden Spray. * Pork sausages. ' Bread.
Sum of 3 kinds. * Jam.

133

CORK (IRISH FREE STATE)

TABLE II.

CLOTHING

£

Men's clothing.
1. H a t , felt
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit*
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
10. Cotton gloves
11. Tie
12. Belt
13. Overall
II. Women's clothing
1. H a t
2. Dress, rayon
3. Dress, cotton
4. House dress or bungalow
apron
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat or slip cotton . . .
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers,
silk or rayon
8. Shirt or vest, cotton . . . .
9. Stockings, rayon
10. Gloves, cotton
11. Shoes
III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit*
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack. .
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton . . .
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b) Girls

Retail prices
(July 1930)
s.
d.

Remarks '

/.

1
1

1

Dress, cotton
Dress, rayon
Woollen coat
Sweater or lumberjack.
Petticoat or slip . . . .
Union suit, cotton . . . .
Bloomers, drawers, cotton
Cotton stockings . . . .
Shoes

6
6
6
0
11
6
11
3
0
11
11
6
6

6

11
0
6

—

6
3
10
0
2 6

—
—
—

1 3
6
2

No sample received
—
—
—
Tweed trousers
—•—
Woollen socks
—
Woollen gloves
—
—
—

3

3
3 3
3
6
1 11
19
6
2
1 6
1

1. Hat
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

7
3
17
15
6
4
9
2
0
1
1
2
7

4
12
6
1
4
1
10

3
0
11
6
6
10
6
9
0

—
—
—
—
—
Tweed trousers
—
Woollen pullover
—
•—
Woollen stockings
—

2 3
1

4
16
12
7
1

11
0
6
11
11
5 0
1 6
1 11
9 6

—
Two pieces
—
—
—

* Consisting oí one coat, one waistcoat and too pairs of trousers.

—
—

1
In the cases where the sampled article is not used a description of
the corresponding article in use for which a price is furnished is given in
" R e m a r k s " column.

134

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

TABLE III. — MEDICAL EXPENSES
s.

Visit to the physician
House call
Visit to dentist:

d.

5 0
10 0
2 6

TABLE IV. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton tablecloth
Daily transport (fare for one tramway or bus
ride
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (man)
1 hair cut (child)
1 shave
Moving pictures. Price of the cheaper seat at a
matinée in an ordinary cinema
Newspapers. Price of daily and Sunday newspapers
.
Tobacco:
1 usual package of smoking tobacco per oz.
1 usual package of cigarettes per packet of 10

s.

d.

8
7
1
0
4

3
6
0
8
3
2

1 0
9
0 6
1 3
2
1 0
6

11. Laundry work sent o u t :

1 man's shirt
1 sheet
12. Postage. Inland letters
13. Telephone. Call from a public station

. . . .

6
5
2
2

WARSAW (Poland)

The data have been supplied by the Central Statistical
Office of the Republic of Poland which made special enquiries
on behalf of the International Labour Office.
FOOD

The food-prices relate to July 1930. Thanks to the great
detail with which the price-data have been furnished and the
large amount of information contained in the publication
concerning the budget enquiry of 1927 l, it has been possible
to select 41 articles accounting for 72.9 per cent, of the total
expenditure on food in Detroit and for about 84 per cent, at
Warsaw in 1927, for which both prices and quantities were
known for the two towns. The data used in the calculations
are shown in the Appendix, table I. The results are as follows :
Ratio of cost of food in Warsaw to Detroit, based on 41 foodstuffs
(Detroit=100) :
(1) Using Detroit weights . . .
62.6 per cent.
(2)
„ Warsaw
„
. . .
44.1
(3) Average of (1) and (2) . .
52.5

The difference between ratio (1) and (2) indicates that the
habits of consumption are considerably different in the two
towns.
The application of ratio (3) gives an expenditure in Warsaw
of 2,604 zloty.
HOUSING

A special enquiry was made into rents in Warsaw and
the information obtained is given in the Appendix, table II.
The figure of 1,585 zloty (average rent for 41/» rooms) is taken
on the proposal of the Central Bureau of Statistics. It represents most probably the "lower limit" for rent.
1
Budzety Rodzin Robotniczych 1927, Statystyka Polski, Tom XL,
Zeszyt I, Warsaw 1930.

136

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES
FUEL AND LIGHT

The prices of the various
table III. The information
enquiry of 1927 mentioned
for the heating and lighting

articles are given in the Appendix,
furnished by the family budget
above gives the following figures
of one room:

Coal
Wood, etc
Lamp oil

1,351.68 kg.
238.95 kg.
47.29 It.

These quantities give a total (allowing 6.12 zloty for minor
expenditure) of 171 zloty. Assuming that 30 per cent, of this
expenditure represent the cost of cooking, the cost of heating
and lighting for each additional room would be about 120 zloty,
giving a total of 591 zloty for an apartment of 41/2 rooms. This
figure has been approved by the Polish Central Statistical
Office.
CLOTHING

The prices of clothing are given in the Appendix, table IV,
and relate to February 1931. The two methods give the
following results:
Method I
Method II

1,327 zloty
1,317
„

Method I is selected on the advice of the Central Statistical
Office. By use of the official cost of living index number for
Warsaw, this result becomes about 1,470 zloty for July 1930.
MEDICAL

EXPENSES

A system of compulsory sickness insurance exists in Poland
which covers the medical expenses of the worker and his family,
wages during sickness, and up to three weeks' wages in case
of death. The payment is 57.18 zloty per month for a monthly
income of 700-720 zloty. Of this 60 per cent, (or 411 zloty
per year) is paid by the employer and 40 per cent, (or 274 zloty
per year) is paid by the worker.
MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES

The prices obtained are given in the Appendix, table V.
On the basis of these prices the cost ratio at Warsaw
compared with Detroit is found to be about 70 per cent., giving
a total expenditure of 2,205 zloty.

WARSAW

137

(POLAND)

Unemployment insurance is compulsory in Poland. The
total contributions amount for a daily wage of 10.00 zloty or
more to 0.27 zloty per day, or about 81 zloty per year. Twosixths of this sum are paid by the public authorities (national
and local), three-sixths by the employer, and the remaining
sixth by the worker himself. Accordingly, the whole amount
of 81 zloty is deducted from 2,205 zloty, giving a remainder
of 2,124 zloty for "Miscellaneous Expenses " ; the worker's
contributions (13.5 zloty) are added separately below in the
section dealing with his contributions to social insurance
schemes, the employer's contributions (40.5 zloty) appear in
the last section dealing with employer's charges for social
insurance schemes, whereas the State contributions (27 zloty)
do not re-appear at all, thus representing a net reduction of the
cost of living to the worker, and of the cost of labour to the
employer.
L I F E AND SOCIAL I N S U R A N C E

The method applied to determine the "purchasing power
equivalent " to $2,076 is the same as for other cities, yielding
for Warsaw an insurance sum of about 10,000 zloty. The
annual premiums payable on this sum are about 300 zloty.
This sum has been inserted in the final summary. The worker's
contributions to unemployment insurance also appear in this
section (see above "Miscellaneous Expenses").
TAXATION

The Polish statistical authorities have supplied the following
information with regard to taxation:
I. Income tax. For incomes from 8,000 to 8,800 zloty the
rate is 3.9 per cent., giving a total for the computed income of
337 zloty.
II. A tax on rents payable by the tenant representing
8 per cent, of the rent, giving a total of 127 zloty.
EMPLOYER'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL

INSURANCE

SCHEMES

An amount of 451 zloty has been adopted, representing the
employer's contributions to sickness insurance (411 zloty, see
above "Medical Expenses") and unemployment insurance
(40 zloty, see above "Miscellaneous Expenses ").

138

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

SUMMARY
July 1930
Zloty

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses (less contributions to unemployment insurance)
Life insurance
Worker's contribution to unemployment insurance .
Taxation

2,604
1,585
591
1,470
274
2,124
8,648
300
14
464
9,426

Employer's social insurance contributions:
Sickness
411
Unemployment
40
Total
9,877
The above data relate to July 1930. In order to bring them to
January 1931, the index number for this date, published by the Central
Statistical Offlce, has been applied. The results are to be found below
in the summary for January 1931. The indices used are as follows:
Polish cost of living index numbers

July Í930

Food .
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Miscellaneous expenses

.

"
January
1931

87.7
113.7
135.7
108.9
112.3

76.0
113.7
139.6
100.2
109.3

~ "
Ratio

86.6
100.0
102.9
92.0
97.3

January 1931
(rounded off to the nearest 5 zloty)
Zloty

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses (less contributions to unemployment insurance)
Life insurance
Worker's contribution to unemployment insurance .
Taxation
Employer's social insurance contributions:
Sickness
Unemployment
Total

2,255
1,585
605
1,350
275
2,065
8,135
300
15
440
8,890
410
40
9,340

139

WARSAW (POLAND)

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected and
supplied by the Central Statistical Office of the Republic of Poland.]

TABLE I. — FOOD

Price per kg. Price per kg.
as used in the at Warsaw in
calculations '
July 1930
(1)

zi.
Beef
2.93
(a) Fresh, steak . . . .
(b) Roast
(c) Stew
3.00
Veal
3.20
Pork, fresh
3.25
Bacon
3.50
4.30
Poultry
4.10
Sausage
1.20
Fish (a) Fresh
. . . .
It. 0.44
(b)
Salt
5.59
9.
4.125
10. Milk, fresh
Butter
Cheese
11. (a) Ordinary American .
4.36
12. (b) Other
2.45
13.
0.91
Lard
14.
0.95
0.44
15. Eggs
. . . .
16. Flour, wheaten
4.00
Bread,
wheaten
.
.
.
.
17.
4.50
18. Bread, rye
1.69
19. Cakes and cookies . . .
0.20
20. Oranges
27.43
21. Sugar
9.89
22.
3.10
Potatoes, Irish
Tea
Coffee
23. Mutton
1.00
24. (a) Chops
3.50
25.
2.70
(b)
Roast
26.
(c) Stew
4.00
27. Bones (soup)
It. 2.30
28. Other meat, not canned
6.00
29. Cooked meat, ham . .
0.44
30. Fish, canned, other t h a n
salmon
1.82
31. Cream
1.40
32. Vegetable oils
0.83
Flour other t h a n wheaten
Macaroni, spaghetti and
noodles
Rice (Pathma)
. . . .
• See Breakfast
footnote to table
foodsI on .next
. . page.
.
(a) Wheat
(b) Oats
(c) Other

(2)

zi.
3.00
2.94
2.85
3.00
3.20
3.25
3.50
4.30
4.10
1.20
It. 0.44
5.59
4.75
3.50
4.36
2.45
0.91
0.95
0.44
4.00
4.50
1.69
0.20
27.43
9.89
3.00
3.30
3.00
1.00
3.50
2.70
4.00

It. 2.30

6.00
0.44
82
40
1.10
0.90
0.48

140

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT

CITIES

Price per kg. Price per kg.
as used in the at Warsaw in
calculations '
July 1930
(1)

33. Cabbage (white-heart)
34. Sauerkraut

.

37. Honey (molasses, syrup)
38. Cocoa
39. Jellies, preserves, marmalade and fruit b u t t e r .
40. Coffee substitutes . . .
41. Sweets (candy)
. . . .

(2)

Annual
quantity
consumed in
1927 at
Warsaw per
unit of
consumption
(3)

0.30
0.30
0.36
2.00
3.00
6.00

0.30
0.30
0.36
2.00
3.00
6.00

18.3
4.2
•3.0
0.1
0.1
0.1

2.50
2.67
3.00

2.50
2.67
3.00

0.3
0.7
1.9

• The figures in this column are arithmetical averages of the corresponding prices in
column (2). ' 1 It. = 0.719 gr. 3 Pastry. * Sardines and sprats. « Flour, "rye " and
"other ". " Macaroni. ' Ham.

SOURCE: Prices supplied by the Polish statistical authorities.
Quantities taken from: Budzety Rodzin Robotniczych, 1927, Statystyka
Polski, Tom X L , Zeszyt I.
TABLE II.

HOUSING

Rent for apartments of different size in July 1930

Dwelling of
of
of
of
of
of

1
2
3
4
5
6

room
rooms
rooms
rooms
rooms
rooms

298
495
892
1,279
1,890
2,502

TABLE III.

Coal
Wood
Lamp oil

clothing
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Overcoat
4. Cotton trousers
5. Cotton shirt
6. Union suit, cotton
7. Cotton socks
8. Boots and shoes
9. Cotton gloves
10. Tie
11. Belt
12. Overall

10 gr.
•—• gr.
20 gr.
40 gr.
70 gr.
— gr.

a
a
a
a
a
a

year
year
year
year
year
year

February

1931

LIGHT
Price in
July 1930
Unit
Zloty

kg.
kg.
It.
TABLE IV.

Men's

FUEL AND

zlotys
zlotys
zlotys
zlotys
zlotys
zlotys

CLOTHING

0.08
0.105
0.664

Price i n z l °ty
2.83
102.50
95.00
9.88
8.08
13.83
2.08
32.67
1.50
2.90
6.00
13.00

WARSAW

141

(POLAND)

F e b r u a r y 1931

/ / . Women's Clothing
1. H a t
2. Dress, rayon
3. Dress, cotton
4. House dress or bungalow apron
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon
8. Shirt or vest, cotton
9. Stockings, rayon
10. Shoes
11. Gloves
III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(b) Girls
1. H a t
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

. . . .

9.
10.
11.

12.

1

13.
14.

2.67
46.88
5.10
29.63
16.00
3.42
6.00
2.38
19.00
2.00

Dress, cotton

11.00

Dress, rayon
Woollen coat
Sweater or lumberjack
Petticoat or slip, cotton
Union suit, cotton
Bloomers, drawers, cotton
Cotton stockings
Shoes

37.50
48.13
11.10
2.13
5.92
2.13
2.75
15.00

T A B L E V. —• MISCELLANEOUS E X P E N S E S

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Price in zloty
5.00
61.88
14.50
11.00
110.00
5.25
6.17
4.48
5.95
26.00
4.06

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton or linen tablecloth
Table oilcloth
Daily transport (1 ride)
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (man)
1 shave
1 hair cut (child)
Moving pictures (1 ticket)
Newspapers:
1 daily paper
1 Sunday paper
Tobacco:
1 package of 20 cigarettes ( " G r a n d P r i x "
brand)
1 package of 2 ounces
Laundry work sent out:
1 men's shirt
1 sheet
Postage (1 inland letter)' ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' .
Telephone (1 call from public station) . . .

The prices for Nos. 1-6 relate t o F e b r u a r y 1931.

J u l y 1930 >
Price in zloty

60.00
12.33
2.85
1.50
11.40
11.85
0.25
1.25
0.80
0.80
1.50
0.20
0.30
1.00
2.50
1.80
0 75
0^25
0.15

BARCELONA (Spain)

The enquiries were made by the Spanish Ministry of Labour
in collaboration with the Regional Delegation of Labour for
the province of Cataluña at Barcelona.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to September 1930. Information on Barcelona consumption weights was obtained mainly
from the published figures on average per capita consumption
of certain important foodstuffs in that city for the year 1916 K
It has been possible to find weights and prices both at Detroit
and Barcelona for 20 articles. The data (prices and weights
for Barcelona) are given in the Appendix, table I. The calculations yielded the following results:
Ratio of cost of food in Barcelona to Detroit, based on 20 foodstuffs

(Detroit = 100) :

(1) Using Detroit weights
(2)
„ Barcelona weights
(3) Average of (1) and (2)

51.5 per cent.
45.7 „
„
48.5 „
„

By applying the latter ratio to the Detroit food expenditure
(calculated at the average exchange rate for September 1930,
viz. 0.1073 dollar for 1 peseta), the corresponding Barcelona
food total is found to be 2,514 pesetas.
HOUSING

Only information concerning the "lower limit" for rent
(see pp. 19 of this report) could be obtained for Barcelona.
The following description is given of this dwelling: It contains
4 to 5 rooms, is equipped with electric light and gas for cooking
(slot meters), has neither bathroom (which is practically never
met with in workers' dwellings) nor central heating, but running
cold water and inside w.c. The rent is 960 pesetas per annum.
This figure has been adopted. Taxes on rent are dealt with
below (see "Taxation ").
1

See Appendix, table I.

BARCELONA (SPAIN)

143

FUEL AND LIGHT

Barcelona working men have no central heating in their
homes. In some very rare cases petroleum stoves are met
with. Wood-coal is generally used for heating, but the average
quantity consumed is very small. One "arroba " (i.e. 10 kg.)
per month and per person is sufficient for heating during spring
time (February to April), and this quantity may double in
winter (November to January). The total yearly consumption
per family of 4-5 persons is estimated at 500 kg. The average
monthly consumption per person of gas for cooking is given
as 7.50 m3, the yearly quantity per family of 4.5 persons being
about 405 m3. The yearly consumption of electricity for lighting
is estimated at 120 kwh. By applying the prices given in the
Appendix, table II, the estimated expenditure of 502 pesetas
is obtained. For taxation on this kind of consumption see below
"Taxation ".
CLOTHING

The prices for clothing articles relate to September 1930 and
are given in the Appendix, table III. By applying the usual
two methods the following results are obtained:
Method I
Method II

1,440 pesetas
1,227
„

The large difference between these results is due to the
very different habits and climate in Detroit and Barcelona.
The last figure has been adopted in the final summary.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

The data supplied are given in the Appendix, table IV. By
the ordinary evaluation an expenditure of 215 pesetas is obtained.
This is in fair agreement with information supplied by the
Spanish statistical authorities, according to which families may
become members of private sickness funds by a monthly payment of 10 pesetas. The benefits in this case include all kinds
of medical services, but not medicaments. The sum of 215 pesetas
has therefore been adopted.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

The prices supplied are reproduced in the Appendix, table V.
By calculating the cost of comparable items in Detroit and

144

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

Barcelona the ratio of 56.4 per cent, and the corresponding
expenditure of 1,773 pesetas are obtained.
LIFE INSURANCE

The "purchasing power equivalent " to 2,076 dollars is
estimated at 9,000 pesetas. The premium on this sum would
be about 270 pesetas per annum.
TAXATION

Incomes are subject to the general income tax according
to the following scale:
Income
6,000-7,000 pesetas . . . .
7,000-8,000
„
. . . .
8,000-10,000

Rates
8 per cent.
9
12

In the case here considered, the income tax amounts to
647 pesetas per annum. In addition there exist various forms
¿f direct taxation as follows:
(1) a t e n a n t s ' t a x , due on rents above 840 pesetas per
annum, and in t h e present case amounting to .
(2) a t a x on consumption of gas and electricity, fixed
a t 17 per cent, of expenditure, amounting to . .
(3) a personal t a x , also fixed according to t h e rent
paid, and amounting to
Total miscellaneous taxation

Pesetas
30
56
30
116

SUMMARY
(September 1930)
(rounded off to the nearest 5 pesetas)
Food
Housing . . :
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Taxation
(a) Income t a x
(6) Miscellaneous taxation

Pesetas
2,515
960
500
1,225
215
1,775
7,190
270

645
115
Total
8,220
There exists only a general cost of living index-number for Barcelona
•which was 174 in September 1930 and 182 in J a n u a r y 1931 (average
1914 = 100). By applying t h e coefficient 1,046 t o the above total, this
becomes approximately 8,600 pesetas, relating to J a n u a r y 1931.

145

BARCELONA (SPAIN)

APPENDIX
[Unless otherwise stated, the data reproduced in the tables have been collected and
supplied by the Spanish Ministry of Labour in collaboration with Regional Labour
Delegation lor Cataluña.]

TABLE I.

FOOD

Prices as used
in the
calculations '

Prices at
Barcelona in
September
1930

(1)

(2)

Pesetas

Pesetas

Annual
quantity
consumed at
Barcelona per
inhabitant
in 1916

1.

Beef
4.25
5.00
(a) 1st class
3.50
(b) 2nd class
6.50
6.50
2. Pork, fresh (lean) . . .
3.25
3.25
3. Bacon
6.00
4. Poultry and game . . .
6.00
(a) Fowl
6.00
(b) Rabbit
2.375
1.00-5.00
5. Fish, fresh
1.75
(a) "Fish, fresh" . . .
(b) Cod, fresh
2.75
2.75
6. Fish, dry and salt (cod,
0.70
0.70
dried)
0.35
0.35
7. Bread (wheaten) . . . .
1.125
8. Potatoes
0.44-1.326
9. Fruits, fresh
1.25
1.75
(a) Lemons
0.34-0.66 4
(b) Apples
1.25 3
(c) Pears
1.75
1.75
(d) Oranges
4.90
(e) Other
5.25-7.00
10. Sugar
2.92,3.50-3.81,4.38
0.679
0.679
11. Eggs
10.00-12.00
11.00
(a) Spanish
3.90
3.90
(b) Imported
12. Milk
1.75
1.75
13. Coffee
1.375
1.00-1.75
14. Mutton
1.00
0.75-1.25
15. Macaroni (spaghetti,
1.50
0.75-2.25
0.53
—
noodles)
—
0.40
16. Rice
—
0.40-1.00
17. Peas
—
0.50
18. Beans
2.22
2.22
19. Fresh vegetables
. . .
(a) Spinach
1
The prices
ot this column are simple averages of the corresponding prices in column(2).
Tomatoes
* A hen (b)
is considered
to weigh 1.500 kg. ' Price of plums. * 6.6 oranges per kg. • 8.8
lemons per
• Average per ¡head at (Barcelona in 1916, distributed according to 1923
(c) kg.
Onions
figures. ' Bread. • Average per head in Spain in 1916.
20. Olive oil
10

146

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

SOURCE: Prices supplied by the Spanish statistical authorities.
Quantities taken from " Anuario Estadístico de la Ciudad de Barcelona ",
Año XV, 1916, p. 568. The distribution of meat consumption between
different kinds in 1923 was obtained from"Boletín de Estadística", issued
by the Jefatura Superior de Estadística, July-September 1924. Furthermore the average per capita consumption of coffee in 1916 in Spain was
taken from Anuario Estadístico de España, Año XIV, 1928, p. 340.

TABLE I I .

FUEL AND LIGHT
Prices in
September 1930
Pesetas

Unit

1. Wood-coal
2. Gas
3. Electricity

10 kg.
m3
kwh.
TABLE III. — CLOTHING

Prices in
September 1930
Pesetas

/ . Men's clothing

1. Felt hat
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Cotton socks
8. Boots and shoes
9. Cotton gloves
10. Tie
77. Women's clothing
1. Dress, rayon
2. House dress or bungalow apron
3. Woollen coat
4. Petticoat or slip, cotton
5. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon
6. Shirt or vest, cotton
7. Stockings, rayon
8. Gloves, cotton
III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys
1. Cap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton shirt
6. Cotton socks
7. Boots
(b)
Girls
1
Price at Barcelona for "cotton skirt"
Pesetas 10.00 1
1. „Hat „
„
„ " cotton blouse "
„
8.00 J
* ,. 2. „Cotton
„ dress
„ "woollen skirt"
„
17.50 1
„ 3. „Woollen
..
„ "vTOollen blouse"
„
15.00 i
coat
4. Petticoat or slip, cotton
5. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
6. Cotton stockings
7. Shoes

3.50
0.60
0.70

15.00
6.00
90.00
100.00
3.50
4.50
1.75
18.00
4.00
3.00
75.00
9.00
87.50
15.50
11.00
12.00
4.25
4.00
.

5.00
80.00
3.00
50.00
7.50
4.00
12.00
15.00
18.00 »
32.50 2
6.00
3.25
3.00
8.50

147

BARCELONA (SPAIN)

TABLE IV.

MEDICAL EXPENSES
Prices in September 1930
Pesetas

1. Visit to doctor
2. House call
3. Visit to dentist
TABLE V.

5.00
10.00
5.00
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Prices in September 1930
Pesetas

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Blanket
Sheet
Cotton towel
Cotton or linen tablecloth
Transport (1 return ticket)
Barber expenses:
(a) hair cut (man)
(b) hair cut (child)
(c) shave
7. Moving pictures (1 ticket)
8. Tobacco: 20 cigarettes
1 kg
9. Postage (1 inland letter)

18.00
12.00
3.00
10.75
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.30
20.00
0.30

ISTANBUL (Turkey)

The enquiries have been made by the Istanbul Chamber of
Commerce and Industry. Valuable assistance has been given
by Mr. Mehmet Vehli, Secretary General, and by Mr. Necmettin
Osman, Chief of the Statistical Bureau of the Chamber.
FOOD

The prices of foodstuffs relate to January 1931. Istanbul
consumption weights were taken from the official cost of living
index number published by the Chamber of Commerce. After
some adjustments in order to take into account the considerable
differences in the habits of consumption, it has been possible
to establish a list of 19 articles for which prices and consumption
weights are available. The Turkish data used in the calculations
are given in the Appendix, table I. The following results were
obtained :
Ratio of cost of food in Istanbul
(Detroit = 100):
(1) Using Detroit weights
(2) Using Istanbul weights
(3) Average of (1) and (2)

to Detroit, based on 19 foodstuffs
58.4 per cent.
50.0 „ „
54.0 „ „

By applying ratio (3) to the total Detroit food expenditure
(taking the exchange at £T.2.123 for one dollar) the corresponding expenditure at Istanbul is found to be about £T.638.
HOUSING

The only information available for Istanbul is to indicate
that the average rent for a dwelling of 4 to 5 rooms is £T.300
per annum. Such a dwelling, however, is not equipped with gas,
and only in rare cases with electricity. Experts consulted by the
Office have confirmed this figure as representing an acceptable
estimate of the " lower limit ".
F U E L AND L I G H T

The calculations for this item of expenditure have been
based on the consumption weightsused in the Istanbul cost of

149

ISTANBUL (TURKEY)

living index. They represent the monthly consumption of a
family living in a house to which the above rents might refer.
Consequently no expenditure for gas is shown, wood coal being
used for cooking. Also there is no expense shown for electricity,
which is usually substituted by lamp oil. The following table
shows the calculation for this item, using prices for January 1931.
Monthly quantities consumed
at Istanbul
kg.

Lamp oil (or electricity) . . 12.8
Wood coal
64.2
Wood
250.0
Monthly expenditure .
—
Yearly expenditure . .
—

Price

Cost at
Istanbul

£T.
100

£T.

21.82
4.68
400.00
—
—

2.80
3.00
4.00
9.80
117.60

Allowing a small sum for the consumption of matches,
candles, etc., the yearly expenditure has been estimated

at

£T.125. This figure has been inserted in the final summary.
CLOTHING

The prices for clothing articles at Istanbul relate to January
1931 and are given in the Appendix, table II. By applying
the usual two methods the following results are obtained :
Method I
Method II

£T.470
£T.549

The considerable difference between these results is due to
the very different habits and climate between Detroit and
Istanbul. The special difficulty of obtaining prices for women's
clothing in a country where the samples are not frequently
worn accounts largely for the greater sum obtained by Method II,
which is based on adults' clothing only. For this reason, Method I
has been given preference and its result has been adopted in
the final summary.
MEDICAL EXPENSES

The prices supplied are reproduced in the Appendix,
table III. By the ordinary evaluation a cost ratio of about
32 per cent, is obtained with a corresponding expenditure of
about £T.43.

150

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

MISCELLANEOUS

EXPENSES

The data supplied are reproduced in the Appendix, table IV.
By calculating the cost of comparable items in Detroit and
Istanbul, the ratio of about 70 per cent, and an expenditure
of about £T.500 are obtained.
LIFE

INSURANCE

The "purchasing power equivalent" of 2,076 dollars is
estimated at £T.2,600. The annual premium for this sum at
the rate of 3 per cent, would be £T.78.

SUMMARY
The following is a summary of rough estimates obtained for the
various sections of the budget. The great dissimilarity between the
general conditions of life at Istanbul and Detroit makes it practically
impossible to compare the cost of living in these two towns. Furthermore,
no information on taxation has been available, and this item has therefore
been omitted. The only result which seems approximately comparable
in degree of reliability to those obtained for other towns included in this
enquiry is that relating to food. The following table should therefore
not be compared with similar summary tables for the other towns and
the final result should only be used with caution.
January 1931
Estimated cost
at Istanbul
£T.

Food
Housing
Fuel and light
Clothing
Medical expenses
Miscellaneous expenses
Life insurance
Total

638
300
125
470
43
500
78
2,154

151

ISTANBUL (TURKEY)

APPENDIX
[The data reproduced in the tables have been collected and supplied by the Istanbul
Chamber of Commerce and Industry.]

TABLE I. — FOOD
Prices at Istanbul in January
1931
£T.
100

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
1

Meat (fresh) (mutton)
Fish (fresh)
Milk (fresh)
Buttermilk (Yoghourt)
Cheese
Butter i
Vegetable oils (olive oil)
Eggs
Bread
Sugar
Fruits (fresh)
Potatoes
Vegetables, fresh
Beans (dry)
Peas (dry)
Onions
Rice
Macaroni
Coffee

Kg.

58.46
50.66
23.38
46.77
50.66
132.50
54.56
61.43
8.60
39.75
19.49
9.74
10.91
25.72
23.38
4.68
31.18
28.84
102.88

Butter is only used for cooking.
TABLE II. — CLOTHING

Monthly quantity consumed
by a family at
Istanbul

10.3
3.8
29.5
6.4
3.8
3.8
3.8
2.9
57.7
7.7
12.8
5.1
38.5
2.6
2.6
7.7
5.1
2.6
0.6

Prices in January 1931

J. Men's clothing
1. Felt hat
2. Cap
3. Woollen suit
4. Overcoat
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots or shoes
10. Cotton gloves
11. Tie
12. Belt
13. Overall
II. Women's clothing
1 Hat
2. Dress, rayon
3. Dress, cotton
4. House dress or bungalow apron
5. Woollen coat
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Bloomers, step-ins or drawers, rayon
8.
or
vest,
' 11.
10.
Arithmetical
9. Shirt
Stockings,
Shoes
Gloves,
average
cotton
rayon
ofcotton
prices quoted for cotton shirts and cotton

£T

10.00
2.00
50.00
45.00
10.00
2.75
2.00
0.45
12.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
2.00
6.00
30.00
10.00
5.00
35.00
2.50
2.00
1
1.25
vests.
10.00
1.50

152

REPORTS ON THE DIFFERENT CITIES

III. Children's clothing
(a) Boys

Prices in January 1931

1. Gap
2. Woollen suit
3. Cotton trousers .
4. Overcoat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Cotton shirt
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(f>) Girls
1. Hat
2. Cotton dress
3. Rayon dress
4. Woollen coat
5. Sweater or lumberjack
6. Petticoat or slip, cotton
7. Union suit, cotton
8. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
TABLE III. — MEDICAL
9. Cotton stockings
10. Shoes

, , .

1.00
3.00
10.00
8.00
3.00
1.50
1.20
0.50
EXPENSES
0.40
Prices in January
5.00

1931

£T.
1.00

Visit to doctor

2.001
1.001

House call
Visit to the dentist
1

1.00
15.00
3.00
15.00
3.00
1.00
1.20
0.25
5.00

Estimated price.

TABLE IV. — MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES
Prices in January 1931
£T.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Blanket
Sheet
Pillow-case
Cotton towel
Cotton or linen tablecloth
Table oilcloth
Transport (per day)
Barber expenses:
1 hair cut (men)
11 hair cut (child)
Estimated price.
1 shave
9. Tobacco (packet of 20 cigarettes)

10.00
1.50
0.40
1.00
2.25
1.50
0.135
0.25
0.251
0.251
0.125

ANNEXES

ANNEX I
Standard of Living of Employees of Ford Motor Co. in Detroit1
SELECTION OF FAMILIES

In making the study it was believed by the bureau that budgets
from 100 families, covering the full year 1929, would be a sufficiently
representative sample, provided the families selected were of approximately similar type. With this in mind the families canvassed were
restricted to those which met the following requirements:
The husband must have earned approximately ?7 per day during
the year 1929.
He must have been in the employ of the Ford Motor Co. throughout
the year and have worked at least 225 days.
He must have been the breadwinner in the family, and the family
must have had no material income other than the earnings of
the husband.
The family must have consisted of a husband, a wife, and not less
than two nor more than three children. No child must have
been more than 16 years of age on the birthday occurring in 1929.
There must have been no other person living in the family. This
excludes boarders and lodgers and relatives.
There must have been no expenditures for the benefit of persons
living outside the family.
The family must have kept house in a single house, flat, or apartment
throughout the year.
Families buying homes could be included when the payment on the
home was fairly comparable to the rental value of a similar house.
In the case of families owning their homes the rental value of
the home was considered equivalent to a payment of rent. Any
payment in excess of the rental value was considered a surplus and
any amount, less than the rental value was considered a deficit.
It was very difficult to find families that met or even closely
approached these requirements. All told, 1,740 married men receiving about $7 per day were selected by the company as prospects.
These men were interviewed in the factory by trained agents of the
bureau. The great majority of the prospects had to be rejected
for various reasons—the average wage for the year was too high or
too low, or the men worked less than 225 days in the year. Many
families had boarders and lodgers, or dependants in or outside the
family other than the wife and children. Often it was found that
families had more or fewer children than the number decided on for
the standard, or had children above the age limit. In many families
the wife or children worked and contributed money to the family fund
and many families lived considerably above or below the wage income
of the husband.
The whole purpose of the study was to determine how a selected
type of natural family lived on approximately a $7 per day wage.
Therefore, if the family spent any material income other than the
$7 per day, it was not living at the $7 per day standard. If the family
1
From the Monthly Labour Review (June, 1930) of the Bureau oí Labor Statistics,
United States Department ol Labor.

156

ANNEX I

undertook to support others than those in the natural family such
charge was outside the support of a family proper. If the family
kept boarders and lodgers it is assumed that they did so to supplement
the family income, and if the wife and children were working and
bringing in any appreciable amount of money the family was not
living on the husband's $7 wage.
A list was finally secured of families that appeared to meet the
requirements. The bureau agents then visited these families and
obtained the desired data. Despite the care exercised in the preliminary interview in the factory, close questioning of the family in the
home sometimes showed that it did not meet the requirements after
all, due to incomplete or incorrect statements made by the husband at
the factory.
The amount of the income was obtained from the husband and the
factory records, but the information as to expenditures was obtained
mainly from the wife. The questionnaire used contained 480 items.
As had been found in former family budget studies made by the
bureau, few families kept a record of expenditure during the year
and few families had any definite plan for spending their money.
Also, as in former studies, the memory of the housewife was the principal
source of information. Use was made of such bills or other records
as the housewife had.
It is believed that the facts reported as to the cost of living of these
families are fairly accurate and dependable. While there may be
minor defects in the returns, it is believed that collectively the figures
show very thoroughly and concisely the way these selected families
of semi-skilled and unskilled wage earners of the Ford Motor Co. in
Detroit are living.
The families were conscientious in supplying the information and
willingly co-operated in furnishing data to the agents. Only two
families refused to furnish information. A considerable number of
families barred from the study by the limitations stated manifested a
great interest in the study and were disappointed because they could
not be included.
The days worked by the husbands ranged from 225, the minimum
set for the study, to 279, and averaged 250 for all husbands. Only
6 per cent, of the men in this study worked fewer than 230 days;
17 per cent, worked 230 and less than 240 days; 28 per cent, worked
240 and less than 250 days; 28 per cent, worked 250 and less than
260 days; 12 per cent, worked 260 and less than 270 days; while 9 per
cent, worked 270 and less than 280 days. In 1926 a five-day week was
instituted by the Ford Motor Co., and therefore a man employed full
time would work 260 days a year. This study included 18 men who
worked more than full time during 1929.
It was found not to be practicable to adhere absolutely to a $7 daily
rate. It was not until December, 1929, that the $7 minimum was
established in the plant. All of the men for whom the family budget
was obtained received increases in wage rates during the year.
The daily factory earnings of the husbands in these families throughout the year ranged from $6.40 to $7.23 and averaged $6.78 per day.
Seven men earned less than $6.50 per day; 20 earned $6.50 and less
than $6.70 per day; 64 earned $6.70 and less than $6.90 per day;
4 earned $6.90 and less than $7.10 per day; and 5 earned $7.10 and
less than $7.30 per day. The average year's earnings in 1929 for all
husbands was $1,694.63.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

157

As before stated, families who reported an appreciable amount of
income other than the earnings of the husband were eliminated from
the study. The schedule, however, called for the sources and type of
any additional income even though it was an insignificant factor in
the family budget. For all families the additional income averaged
only $17.24 and constituted only 1 per cent, of the total income. A
few of the husbands in the families covered earned a little money for
work done outside the factory, in various lines such as carpenter work,
painting, repairing automobiles, repairing shoes, or working in a
store. A small amount of money was earned by wives in sewing and
washing. Eight of the families were reported as raising a little garden
truck, two received a small amount from the temporary rental of
garages on the home properties, and four families reported some fuel
picked up. A few families raised chickens which netted a little income.
Small gifts from persons outside the family constituted most of the
supplementary income. These gifts were mainly of clothing, although
there were some small gifts of food, money, wood, toys, etc.
SUMMARY OF INCOMES AND EXPENDITURES

As above stated, the average earnings of the husband in the families
canvassed was $1,694.63, and the average income from all other
sources was $17.24, making a total average income of $1,711.87.
The average expenditures of the 100 families were $1,719.83. This
leaves an average deficit for all families of $7.96.
Table I shows the expenditures of the families during the year,
distributed among the principal classes of items. As would be
expected, food constituted the principal item of expense, forming
32.3 per cent, of the total expenditure. Housing was next in importance, forming 22.6 per cent, of the year's expenditures, while 12.2 per
cent, went for clothing. No other single item required as much as
10 per cent.
TABLE I. —

AVERAGE AMOUNT AND P E R CENT, O F EXPENDITURE
FOR EACH GROUP O F ITEMS
<Number of families, 100; average persons per family, 4.5; average equivalent adult males
3.27; average income per family, $1,711.87)
Per
Average cent, of
yearly
yearly
expense
expense

Item

$556.12
Clothing of:
63.59
59.21
87.87

Wife
Total, clothing.

. .

32.3
3.7
3.4
5.1

210.67

12.2

388.81
103.20

22.6
6.0

Per
Average cent, of
yearly
yearly
expense
expense

Item

Furniture

and

house

Miscellaneous expenses .

$88.55
59.16
37.40
64.73
6.41
16.64
12.37
175.77

5.2
3.4
2.2
3.8
0.4
1.0
0.7
10.2

Total expenses . .

1,719.83

100.0

Life insurance . . . .
Street-car a n d bus fares.
Expenses of sickness . .
School expenses. . . .
Cleaning supplies . . .

Table I I shows the number of families living on, above, or below
their income. Here it is seen that 19 families came out even at the
end of the year. They lived on their income but saved nothing. A

158

ANNEX I

total of 44 families had living expenses above their income and closed
the year with an average deficit of $130.74. There were 37 families
that lived on less than their income and were able to make a saving
of $133.96 per family. All 100 families considered, the average
deficit was $7.96 per family.
TABLE II.

FAMILIES LIVING ON, ABOVE, AND BELOW INCOME

Class of family

Families living on income .
Families living above income
Families living below income

Number Average Average Average Average Average
of
persons income expendisurplus deficit
ture
families
in family
19
44
37
100

4.5 $1,718.97 $1,718.97
4.5 1,698.28 1,829.01
4.4 1,724.40 1,590.44
4.5

1,711.87 1,719.83

$133.96

—

$130.74
7.96

FOOD

Detailed data regarding the quantity and cost of each item of food
purchased during the year were obtained from each of the 100 families
scheduled.
Equivalent adult male. — Food requirements vary according to sex
and age, and in order to secure comparability between families of
different composition it is necessary to ascertain the food requirements
of individuals of different sex and age and convert t h e m into t e r m s of

a common unit of measurement, namely, the equivalent adult male.
Several such scales of equivalents have been proposed, but as there is
no general agreement on any one of them, the bureau has used in this
study the same scale it has used in previous budgetary studies. This
scale, using the food requirements of an adult male, engagedatmoderate
muscular labour, as a basis of 1.00, expresses the requirements of
other persons as percentages thereof, as follows: Adult female, 0.90;
child 11 to 14 years, 0.90; child 7 to 10 years, 0.75; child 4 to 6 years,
0.40; child 3 years or under, 0.15.
On this basis the 100 Detroit families covered in the present inquiry
contained an average of 3.27 "equivalent adult males ". Other tables
of equivalents, when applied to these same families, give averages
ranging from 3.01 to 3.51 equivalent adult males.
As regards the laboriousness of the work done by the husbands in
these families, it is evident that on the average they fall in the class of
those engaged in "moderate muscular labour". Many occupations
were represented, but few if any required any unusually hard muscular
work.
Character, Cost, and Quantity of Food Purchased
Food is the most expensive item in the family budget of the wage
earner, and in the case of these Detroit families represented 32.3 per
cent, of the average expenditures for all purposes.
The average expenditure for each of the principal food items in
the budgets of these families, together with its percentage importance
in the total, are shown in table III.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

TABLE III.

Item

159

AVERAGE COST PER FAMILY AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
COST OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF FOOD
Average
expenditure

Milk and milk products . $120.83
104.37
54.20
Vegetables, Iresh. . . .
36.59
36.57
32.90
Lunches and meals bought
19.68
Vegetables, dried and
14.59
12.82

Per
cent.
of total
expenditure
21.7
18.8
9.8
6.6
6.6
5.9
3.5

PerAverage ofcent.
total
exexpendipenditure
ture

Item

Flour and meal

. . . .

Fruit, dried and canned .
All other items

. . . .

«10.37
1.9
1.8
10.16
17
9.50
1.3
6.99
1.2
6.94
14.3
79.61
556.12 100.0

2.6
2.3

As shown in this table, milk and milk products constituted the most
expensive group of items (21.7 per cent.), with meat, not including
poultry and sea food, second (18.8 per cent.), and bread, including
rolls, buns, and similar products, third (9.8 per cent.).
Lunches and meals bought outside the home constituted 3.5 per
cent, of the aggregate food cost. The lunches were for the most part
purchased by the father, only an occasional schedule of the 63 families
having this expense reporting lunches for school children. Sometimes the father carried his lunches from home and bought only coffee,
soup, or pie to supplement his lunch.
Ice is classed under food and cost 1.2 per cent, of the total. Only
86 of the 100 families used ice. The majority of these families used
ice only a part of the summer. Cellars were used in place of refrigeration in" a number of cases.
The food data that were collected cover the quantity and cost of
each article consumed. Food furnished from a garden, a poultry
yard, or received as a gift was entered in the food expenditures as
though it had been purchased by the family and was also shown in
the budget under supplementary income from other sources.
The prices reported by the families were checked with the average
retail prices of the articles of food as reported to the bureau during
1929 by representative grocers, bakers, and meat dealers in Detroit.
There were 4 exceptional cases of high expenditure for food, 2
families spending 42 per cent, and 2 families spending 41 per cent, of
their expenditures for this item. In 4 instances the expenditure for
food was rather low, 2 families spending 24 per cent., 1 family 23
per cent., and the other family spending 22 per cent, of their expenditures for this item.
More detailed data regarding the average quantity and cost of
each of the articles of food consumed by the 100 families are given
in table IV. The average size of the family was 4.5 persons. The
second column of this table shows the average quantity of food consumed per equivalent adult male. The fifth column shows the number of families using each specified article of food, while the sixth
and seventh columns show the average quantity and cost for the
families using such article. The table thus presents two sets of
figures of consumption per family, the first an average based upon
all families included in the study, and the other an average based
upon the number of families using the article specified.

160

ANNEX I

TABLE IV.
AVERAGE QUANTITY AND COST OF SPECIFIED ARTICLES OF
FOOD CONSUMED PER FAMILY AND PER EQUIVALENT ADULT MALE
IN ONE YEAR IN 1 0 0 FAMILIES
(Average size ol family—4.5 persons, equivalent to 3.27 adult males)
Families using articles

AU families
Average q u a n t i t y
consumed per—

Article

Average cost
per—

V

Average for
these families

£3

Meats :
Beef,
Beef,
Beef,
Beef,
Beef,
Veal

fresh, s t e a k .
fresh, roast
.
fresh, stew
.
salt, corned. .
salt, dried . .

..
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

P o r k , salt bacon . . . .
P o r k , salt, h a m a n d

Pounds
38.3
49.6
43.0
2.4
0.4
16.4
66.5
30.4
22.6
1.4
0.2
3.8
3.5
24.2
2.6
18.7
8.3
12.0
17.8
0.5
4.1
16.7

P o r k , salt, other . . . .

Other m e a t , n o t c a n n e d .
Canned a n d p o t t e d m e a t s .
Cooked meat, h a m . . .
Cooked meat, o t h e r . . .
Total

383.4

EquivFamily

Pounds
11.71 $14.97
15.14 16.47
13.13
9.83
0.73
0.57
0.13
0.25
4.99
5.49
20.30 17.85
9.30 10.25

11!

Family

Equivalent
adult
male

S

z

$4.57
5.03
3.00
0.17
0.08
1.68
5.45
3.13

92
90
84
17
8
55
96
87

5.74
0.27
0.07
1.34
0.87
9.22
0.94
5.26
1.91
1.50
3.86
0.15
2.48
5.24

1.75
0.08
0.02
0.41
0.27
2.82
0.29
1.61
0.58
0.46
1.18
0.05
0.76
1.60

81
16
2
9
20
87
29
79
66
42
57
6
44
69

117.06 114.53

34.99

—

6.91
0.44
0.06
1.17
1.06
7.40
0,79
5.70
2.54
3.66
5.42
0.14
1.24
5.10

-a
e
3
o
a
t.

Quantity

Cost

s

Pounds
Cents
41.7 $16.28 39.1
55.1 18.29 33.2
51.2 11.70 22.9
14.0
3.34 23.8
5.1
3.08 60.0
29.7
9.99 33.6
69.2 18.60 26.9
35.0 11.79 33.7
27.9
8.9
10.0
42.4
17.4
27.9
8.9
23.6
12.6
28.5
31.1
7.8
9.2
24.2

7.08
1.69
3.45
14.87
4.35
10.60
3.24
6.66
2.90
3.56
6.77
2.47
5.65
7.60

25.4
19.0
34.5
35.0
25.0
38.0
36.2
28.2
23.0
12.5
21.7
31.8
61.2
31.4

581.4 173.96

—

Sea food:
17.4
3.9
10.5
1.2
0.3
0.02

5.30
1.20
3.22
0.38
0.09
0.01

4.98
1.09
2.94
0.35
0.13
0.01

1.52
0.33
0.90
0.11
0.04
0.004

86
20
73
20
10
1

20.2
19.6
14.4
6.2
3.0
1.8

5.79
5.44
4.03
1.75
1.29
1.45

28.7
27.8
28.0
28.1
43.7
80.6

33.32

10.20

9.50

2.904

—

65.2

19.75

—

1,117.8

341.49

69.90

21.35 100

1,117.8

69,90

6,3

68.9
25.5
4.4
7.8
66.1
11.0
5.0

21.04
7.78
1.33
2.38
20.21
3.36
1.52

7.05
1.18
1.31
2.72
33.24
4.00
1.43

2.15
0.36
0.40
0.83
10.16
1.22
0.44

62
49
45
91
95
84
38

111.1
52.0
9.7
8.6
69.6
13.1
13.1

11.37
2.42
2.92
2.99
34.99
4 76
3.75

102
4.7
30.2
34.9
50.3
36.4
28.7

399.11 120.83

36.91

—

1,395.0 133.10

—

1.77
2.44
0.20

42
88
8

.
Fish, canned, salmon. . .
Fish, canned, other . . .
Other sea food

. . . .

Milk a n d milk products :
Milk.condensedandevapo-

Butter
Cheese, ordinary American

1,306.5
F a t s a n d oils:
B u t t e r substitutes

. . .

L a r d substitutes . . . .
Vegetable cooking and

25.5
48.8
3.1

7.79
14.90
0.94

5.79
7.98
0.64

60.7
55.4
38.5

13.78
9.07
8.04

22.7
16.4
20.9
23.8

4.7

1.42

1.11

0.34

23

20.2

4.81

82.1

25.05

15.52

4.75

—

174.8

35.70

—

37.07

36.57

121.3

36.57

30.1

11.17 100

STANDARD O F L I V I N G O F D E T R O I T E M P L O Y E E S

161

T A B L E I V . —• A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y A N D COST O F S P E C I F I E D A R T I C L E S O F
FOOD C O N S U M E D P E R F A M I L Y AND P E R E Q U I V A L E N T A D U L T MALE
IN O N E Y E A R IN 1 0 0 F A M I L I E S (COIit.)
Families using articles

AH families
Average q u a n t i t y
consumed per—•

Article

Cereals and s t a r c h :
Flour, wheat
Flour, other
Corn meal
H o m i n y or grits . .
Cornstarch
Breakfast foods:
Wheat
Oats
Corn
Other
Bread, wheat
Bread, rye
Bread, other
Rolls and b u n s . . .
Crackers
Cakes and cookies .
Macaroni, spaghetti,
noodles
Rice
Tapioca and sago. .
Pastries—Pies
. . .
Total

Family

Equivalent
adult
male

Pounds
191.7
7.0
8.1
0.3
2.7

Pounds
58.56
2.13
2.46
0.09
0.81

14.0
21.3
10.9
0.7
520.5
112.2
1.8
11.7
19.1
32.6
14.8
12.3
1.3
10.2
993.2

4.29
6.51
3.33
0.22
159.02
34.28
0.56
3.58
5.83
9.96

Average cost
per—

Family

$

Average for
these families

Equivalent
adult
male

2.83
0.19
0.15
0.01
0.08

Quantity

9.25
0.64
0.49
0.02
0.27
2.46
1.95
2.11
0.35
42.44
10.18
0.16
1.42
3.18
6.84

0.75
0.60
0.65
0.11
12.96
3.11
0.05
0.44
0.97
2.09

100
31
51
5
69
67
84
74
9
97
40
1
32
88
84

4.52
3.77
0.41
3.11

2.18
1.26
0.29
1.44

0.66
0.38
0.09
0.44

81
94
24
26

303.44

86.93

26.56

195.4
7.7
10.4

59.70
2.34
3.19

12.67
0.80
2.74

3.87
0.25
0.84

Total

213.!

65.23

16.21

4.96

Fruits, Iresh:
Apples. . .
Peaches . .
Bananas . .
Lemons . .
Oranges . .
Grapes . .
Berries . .
Cantaloupes
Watermelons
Grapefruit
Other . . .

1S6.6
23.4
67.4
10.7
101.8
33.3
11.1
8.5
36.3
6.3
12.5

57.01
7.16
20.60
3.27
31.09
10.17
3.39
2.59
11.07
1.93
3.82

10.10
1.24
5 24
1.36
9.56
1.39
1.26
0.61
0.73
0.54
0.86

3.09
0.38
1.60
0.42
2.92
0.43
0.38
0.19
0.22
0.17
0.26

497.9

152.10

32.89

10.06

9.1
10.0
0.3
1.6
21.0

2.77
3.04
0.10
0.49

1.43
1.16
0.07
0.35

0.44
0.35
0.02
0.11

6.40

3.01

0.92

.

.
.
and
.
.

Sugars :
Sugar
Molasses, syrup, and honey
Candy

Total . .

Fruits, dried
Prunes .
Raisins .
Peaches .
Other . .
Total .

100
57
92

99
79
99
97
100
87
74
48
42
30
49

84
9
25

•o

c
3

Cost

Pounds
$
191.7
9.25
22.5
2.05
0.96
15.8
0.42
5.8
0.39
3.9
3.67
21.0
2.32
25.4
2.86
14.7
3.90
7.8
536.6 43.75
280.5 25.44
183.0 16.47
4.45
36.6
3.62
21.7
8.15
38.8
2.69
18.3
1.34
13.1
1.22
5.5
5.55
39.1 138.50
1,481.8

195.4
13.4
11.3

12.67
1.41
2.98

220.1

17.06

188.5
29.7
68.1
11.1
101.8
38.3
15.0
17.7
86.3
21.0
25.6

10.20
1.57
5.29
1.41
9.56
1.60
1.70
1.26
1.74
1.82
1.76

603.1

37.91

11.6
11.9
3.6
6.4
33.1

1.83
1.38
0.77
1.39
5.37

11

162

ANNEX I

T A B L E I V . — A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y A N D COST O F S P E C I F I E D A R T I C L E S O F
FOOD CONSUMED P E R FAMILY A N D P E R E Q U I V A L E N T A D U L T MALE
I N O N E Y E A R I N IGO F A M I L I E S
(cOtlt.)
All families
Average q u a n t i t y
consumed per—

Article

F r u i t s , canned and
preserved :
Other
Jellies, preserves, marmalade a n d fruit b u t t e r .
Total
Vegetables, fresh:
P o t a t o e s , sweet a n d y a m s
Spinach and kale

. . . .

Vegetables, dried :
Other
Total
Vegetables, canned:

Other

Miscellaneous vegetable
foods :

Nuts

Families using articles

Average cost
per—

Family

EquivEquivalent
alent
a d u l t Family a d u l t
male
male

Pounds

Pounds

$

ou

1
3
-A

$

11.1
6.5
4.7

3.39
2.00
1.44

1.88
1.21
0.90

0.57
0.37
0.27

Average for
these families

•Ö

tí
3
O

a
EH

Quantity

Pounds
69
59
36

16.1
11.1
13.1

11

Cost

?

O.
a>

Cents

2.72
2.05
2.50

16.9
18.4
19.1

9.4

2.86

2.41

0.74

61

15.4

3.95

25.7

31.7

9.69

6.40

1.95

—

55.7

11.22

—

591.4
11.9
65.3
6.9
4.5
20.4
76.5
3.4
39.2
13.8
17.9
15.7
47.8
9.4
4.6
0.2
957.2
5.6
22.7

180.67
3.62
19.94
2.10
1.37
6.22
23.37
1.03
11.97
4.21
5.47
4.80
14.61
2.87
1.42
0.06
1.71
6.92

14.94
0.59
2.65
0.69
0.53
1.92
3.10
0.65
1.64
3.27
1.70
0.56
1.82
0.33
0.27
0.05
0.55
1.34

4.56
0.18
0.81
0.21
0.16
0.59
0.95
0.20
0.50
1.00
0.52
0.17
0.56
0.10
0.08
0.02
0.17
0.41

100
52
96
45
48
85
98
55
91
95
86
51
88
37
25
10
41
50

591.4
22.8
68.0
15.2
9.4
24.0
78.1
6.1
43.1
14.5
20.8
30.8
54.4
25.4
18.6
1.9
13.7
45.3

14.94
1.13
2.77
1.54
1.10
2.26
3.16
1.18
1.80
3.45
1.97
1.10
2.07
0.89
1.09
0.53
1.33
2.67

2.5
5.0
4.1
10.1
11.7
9.4
4.1
19.2
4.2
23.7
9.5
3.6
3.8
3.5
5.9
27.6
9.7
5.9

292.36

36.60

11.19

—

1,083.5

44.98

12.6
44.2
6.7
63.5

3.85
13.51
2.06
19.42

1.38
1.74
0.77

0.42
0.53
0.24

70
96
47

18.0
46.1
14.3

1.97 10.9
1.82 3.9
1.64 11.5

3.89

1.19

—

78.4

5.43

29.5
20.1
12.3
23.4
14.1

9.00
6.15
3.75
7.13
4.30

$2.83
2.57
1.49
2.36
1.46

$0.86
0.78
0.45
0.72
0.45

88
80
67
71
51

33.5
25.2
18.3
32.9
27.6

$3.21
3.21
2.22
3.32
2.87

9.6
12.8
12.1
10.1
10.4

99.4

30.33

10.71

3.26

—

137.5

14.83

—

0.1
3.2
4.6
4.0

0.04
0.97
1.42
1.23

0.06
0.68
1.50
1.15

0.02
0.21
0.46
0.35

8
51
81
87

1.8
6.2
5.7
4.6

0.74
1.33
1.86
1.32

11.9

3.66

3.39

1.04

—

18.3

5.25

—

—

42.3
21.5
32.4
28.7

—

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

163

TABLE IV.
AVERAGE QUANTITY AND COST OF SPECIFIED ARTICLES OF
FOOD CONSUMED PER FAMILY AND PER EQUIVALENT ADULT MALE
IN ONE YEAR IN 100 FAMILIES (cOTlt.)
All families
Average q u a n t i t y
consume d per—

Article

Family

Pounds

Miscellaneous items :

Coffee
Coffee substitutes

. . . .

Equivalent
adult
male

Families using articles

Average cost
per

Family

%

u

Equivalent
adult
male

$

Average for
these families
Quantity

Cost

§

o
0.
S3
p.

8
PH

$

Cents

3.0
14.8
5.1
32.7
0.4

Pounds
0.91
4.53
1.56
9.99
0.12

1.24
2.26
3.75
12.82
0.25

0.38
0.69
1.15
3.92
0.08

61
70
80
94
5

56.0

17.11

20.32

6.22

3.3

1.01

1.73

~0.79

2.63
6.83
0.83
0.18

1.80

12.20

3.73

—

' 11.2

16.80

—

28.41

19.68

6.01

63

147.6

31.23

0.212

« 4.970.82 « 1,518.44 549.18 167.81

—

«6,283.7 756.19

0.109

Pounds
4.9
21.2
6.4
34.8
8.0

2.03
3.23
4.69
13.64
4.94

—

75.3

28.53

0.53

64

5.2

0.80
2.09
0.25
0.06

100
100
43
7

41.5
15.3
73.5
39.2
61.8

—

Chow-chow, pickles, olives,
Baking powder, soda, yeast,
Condiments and extracts . .
Soft drinks, fruit juices, etc.

(')

C)

2.6

(')
'5.9
Lunches and meals bought

.

T o t a l a l l food

3

93.0

' 13.62
1,293.00
Grand total including Ice
Average per d a y including ice

—'

1

*4.16
395.01

—

1.50
6.94

0.46
2.12

556.12 169.93
1.52
0.47

86

—

(

\o
(')

«17.2
1,503.5

—

2.70 52.3
2.63
6.83
1.94 32A.
2.70

2.07
8.07
764.26
2.09

0.005

—

1
Quantity not reported and not significant.
"3 Not including items for which quantities are not reported and not significant.
Estimated pounds based on 113.6 lunches and other meals per family.
• Not including insignificant items for which quantities are not reported.

An explanation of the first line of the table will make plain the
reading of the remainder of the table. The 100 families as a whole
consumed 38.3 pounds of fresh beefsteak in the year, which was equivalent to 11.71 pounds per adult male. This fresh beefsteak for the year
cost $14.97, or $4.57 per adult male. Eight families did not buy fresh
beefsteak. The 92 families that did buy this article consumed 41.7
pounds per family. The average cost for these families was $16.28
and the average cost per pound was 39.1 cents. These averages are
all computed from the unpublished aggregates. Because of decimals
dropped in the table a division of average cost by average quantity as
printed may give an average price per unit slightly different from the
price per pound as given in the table.
For most of the food items purchased the quantities were reported
on a pound basis. Where this was not the case (as, for example, with
eggs, milk, and bananas), conversion to a pound basis has been made
by the bureau, according to the conversion scale prepared by the
Bureau of Home Economics of the United States Department of
Agriculture.

164

ANNEX I

Food Analysis
The analysis of food values, as presented in table VI, is based on a
table of equivalents, prepared by the Bureau of Home Economics of
the Department of Agriculture, giving the number of calories and the
amount of protein, calcium, phosphorus, and iron in each pound of
each food item. Table V brings into comparison the average contents
of the budgets of these families in calorie value and in the four elements
specified, with the standards set up by scientific students of the subject
(such as Sherman, Hawley, and Rose).
TABLE V. —• A N A L Y S I S O F FOOD C O N T E N T P E R E Q U I V A L E N T A D U L T M A L E ,
P E R DAY

Item

Calories

Protein
(grams)

Calcium
(grams)

Average of 100 Detroit families

3,236.5
3,000-3,500

96.9
70-101

0.957
0.70-1.02

Phosphorus
(grams)

Iron
(grams)

1.58
0.016
1.32-2.75 0.015-0.023

It would appear from these comparisons that the food consumption
of the Detroit families was, on the average, sufficient in quantity and
well balanced as regards the important constituents of protein, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.
Lunches purchased outside the home. —• Lunches bought away from
home averaged, in cost, $19.68 per family. Entirely satisfactory data
could not be obtained regarding the character of the food items
entering into these lunches. It was necessary, therefore, for the bureau
to make some more or less arbitrary assumptions as to the contents
of such lunches in order to incorporate them into the food analysis
study given in table VI. In doing this, two assumptions were made.
In the first place, it was assumed that the lunches contained the same
relative numbers of calories, and grams of protein, calcium, phosphorus,
and iron as the food purchased at home. In the second place, it was
assumed, as is known to be substantially true, that bought lunches,
on the average, represented only about one-half the weight, per
dollar of expenditure, as food bought for the home. On this latter
assumption, the lunches purchased for $19.68 would represent93 pounds
of food. Various estimates made of the weight and composition of
lunches bought gives an average of about 630 calories per lunch.
This method of handling the problem of lunches is recognised as
being crude, but it was the only available method.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

165

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TABLE VI. — ANALYSIS OF FOOD CONSUMED BY 1 0 0 FAMILIES
Calories
Protein
Average
quantity
per
Total
Total
family in P e r calories per Grams grams per
per
p o u n d family i n
year
pound family i n
(pounds)
year
year

Article

Milk a n d milk p r o d u c t s : (coni.)

25.5
4.4
7.8
66.1
11.0
5.0

F a t s a n d oils:

Vegetable cooking and table oils

. . . .

Total

Cereals a n d s t a r c h :

Breakfast foods:
Wheat
Oats
Other

Macaroni, spaghetti, a n d noodles

. . . .

Grams gra
per
fam
pound

162
881
955
3,488
1,994
498

4,131.0
3,876.4
7,449.0
230,556.8
21,934.0
2,490.0

13.6
11.3
13,6
4.5
130.6
94.7

—

698,525.5

—

25.5
48.8
3.1
4.7
82.1

3,410
4,080
4,080
4,080

86,955.0
199,104.0
12,648.0
19,176.0
317,883.0

121.3

595

72,173.5

53.8

0,525.94

0.268

191.7
7.0
8.1
0.3
2.7

1,603
1,627
1,613
1,608
1,632

50.8
60.3
41.7
37.6

9,738.36
422.10
337.77
11.28

0.091
0.177
0.082
0.050
0.082

14.0
21.3
10.9
0.7
520.5
112.2
1.8
11.7
19.1
32.6
14.8

1,545
1,803
1,696
1,657
1,174
1,153
1,155
1,174
1,875
1,670
1,624

307,295.1
11,389.0
13,065.3
482.4
4,406.4
21,630.0
38,403.9
18,486.4
1,159.9
611,067.0
129,366.6
2,079.0
13,735.8
35,812.5
54,442.0
24,035.2

60.9
75.7
38.1
54.9
42.2
40.8
42.0
42.2
44.4
25.9
60.8

852.60
1,612.41
415.29
38.43
21,96510
4,577.76
75.60
493.74
848.04
844.34
899.84

0.322
0.307
0.079
0.182
0.129
0.104
0.159
0.129
0.100
0.095
0.097

—

5.4

—

346.80
49.72
106.08
297.45
1,436.60
473.50

Calci

22,238.50
137.70

137.70

0.476
0.441
0.168
0.070
4.227
1.360

—
0.068

—

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STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

168

ANNEX I
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Miscellaneous vegetable foods:

Nuts
Total

0.1
3.2
4.6
4.0

2,772
2,741
2,256
1,420

58.5
132.9
98.0
32.5

—

277.2
8,771.2
10,377.6
5,680.0
25,106,0

11.9

—

1,011.93

—

3.0
14.8
5.1
32.7
0.4

1,662
103

4,986.3
1,524.4

414.6
4.8

1,243.80
71.04

1.215
0.052

56.0

—

6,510.4

—

1,314.84

—

5.85
425.28
450.80
130.00

0.417
0.322
0.508
0.308

Miscellaneous i t e m s :
Tea
Coffee
Total

3.3

281

2.6

345

(!)
(')

Baking powder, soda, yeast, etc

8
927.0

5.1

16.83

0.147

897.0

1.8

4.68

0.050

21.51

—

(')
(')

C)
Total

5.9
5

Average per equivalent a d u l t male per year
Average per equivalent a d u l t male per d a y
1
2

93.0
4,970.82
13.52
.
1,518.44
4.16

—
777

1,824.3
72,261.0
3,862,893.9
10,583.3
1,181,313.1
3,236.5

No food value.
Quantity not reported and not significant.

—
23.3

2,166.90
116,019.20
317.86
35,479.88
96.93
3
4

0.230

2
1,14
34

Estimated pound
Not including 1,2

170

ANNEX I

CLOTHING

The average outlay for clothing per year per family was $210.67,
representing 12.2 per cent, of the total family expenditures.
Clothing of Husband and Wife
Table 7 enumerates all of the clothing purchased by the husband
and by the wife, and in connection with each article it shows the average number of articles purchased for all families, the average expenditure per family, and the average expenditure per article. It also shows
similar averages for the families which purchased each specified
article.
In the case of some items such as cleaning and pressing, shoe repairing, jewellery, ribbons, and other clothing, the number of articles is
not reported.
An explanation of the first item of table VII will help to make clear
the method of presentation. Only 54 of the 100 husbands actually
bought felt hats during the year. They bought 56 such hats, making
an average in round figures of 1 hat per husband buying. The average
expenditure per family was $3.82 and the average cost per hat was
$3.68. However, the more common inquiry is, How many felt hats
are consumed per man per year and what do felt hats cost per year ?
The first two columns of the table show that the average man buys
0.56 felt hats per year and pays out an average of $2.06 per year for
felt hats. The other items are analysed in like manner.
The average expenditure for clothing for the 100 husbands, $63.59
for the year, absorbed 3.7 per cent, of all the family expenditures. Of
the husbands' clothing expense, 43 per cent, was for outer garments,
25 per cent, for footwear, 7 per cent, for underwear, and 6 per cent, for
headgear.
On an average the husband appears to buy a felt hat once in about
every 2 years, a wool suit every 21/2 years, an overcoat every 7 years,
and a sweater or "lumberjack" every 3 years. Five shirts, 2 ties,
2 cotton union suits, 14 pairs of cotton socks and 1 pair of silk or rayon
socks, 1 pair of garters, 2 pairs of shoes, 2 pairs of leather work gloves,
and 9 pairs of cotton work gloves were purchased by each husband,
on the average, during the year. The husband usually buys shirts
with collars attached; the replacement on separate collars was only
1 every 2 1 /, years.
The men's felt hats cost on an average. $3.68 each, the caps $1.41,
the wool suits $27.43, overcoats $23.75, cotton shirts $1.14, cotton
union suits $1.34, cotton socks 24 cents, and silk or rayon socks 54 cents
a pair. High shoes averaged $4.23 and low shoes averaged $4.56 a
pair, leather work gloves 39 cents, and cotton gloves 21 cents. The
quantity and cost of other accessories and the upkeep and repair of
clothing are shown in the table.
The value of clothing for the 100 wives, $59.21 per year, absorbed
3.4 per cent, of all expenditures. For the wives, 44 per cent, of their
clothing expenditures was for outer garments, 26 per cent, for footwear, 15 per cent, for underwear, and 6 per cent, for headgear. From
the standpoint of replacement of the principal articles of clothing, the
wife purchased, on an average, a wool coat every 2x/a years, 3 hats every
2 years, a pair of cotton gloves every 2 years, and a corset and bras-

S T A N D A R D OF L I V I N G OF D E T R O I T

171

EMPLOYEES

sière every 2 years. During the year she purchased 2 dresses, 4 pairs
of cotton stockings, 4 pairs of silk or rayon stockings, 2 pairs of shoes,
3 house dresses, 2 petticoats or slips, 2 pairs of bloomers, a nightgown,
and a pair of house slippers.
The wife's wool coat averaged in cost $25.09, the hat $2.55, cotton
gloves $0.89, corset $2.63, and brassière $0.53. The cotton dress had
an average cost of $1.74 and the silk or rayon dress $7.51, the cotton
stockings $0.35, and the silk or rayon stockings $1.01 a pair. The
shoes averaged $4.27 for the low and $5.25 for the high shoes, the house
dresses $1.04, the cotton petticoats or slips $0.76, and the rayon petticoats or slips $1.31. The cotton bloomers averaged $0.57 and the
silk or rayon bloomers $0.85, the cotton nightgowns $0.87, and the
house slippers $0.98.
TABLE VII.

AVERAGE QUANTITY OF AND EXPENDITURE FOR CLOTHING
PURCHASED PER FAMILY IN ONE YEAR

Clothing of 100 husbands
Families purchasing

All families
Aver- Average
Numage
number expendber ol
oí
iam.
iture
articles
per
ilies
per
family
ta roily
Headgear :
H a t s , felt
H a t s , straw
Caps
Outer g a r m e n t s :
Suits, wool
Coats (separate)
. . . .
Trousers :
Wool
Cotton
Overcoats
Mackinaws
Raincoats
Sweaters a n d lumberjacks
Overalls
Jumpers
Shirts (work or dress):
Cotton
Wool
Underwear :
Undershirts :
Cotton
Wool
Drawers :
Cotton
Wool
Union suits:
Cotton
Wool
Pyjamas
Nightshirts
Footwear :
Socks :
Cotton
Wool
Rayon
Shoes :
High
Low
Shoe repairing
Shoe shines
House slippers
. . . .

Aver
Average
dumage
AverI bf.r , o t number expend- age
artjc.es
iture cost per
ol
per
article
chased articles
per
family
I
family

!

0.56
0.18
0.86

Î2.06
0.44
1.22

54
17
62

56
18
86

1.04
1.06
1.39

$3.82
2.58
1.96

$3.68
2.44
1.41

0.41
0.02

11.25
0.14

40
2

41
2

1.03
1.00

28.12
6.75

27.43
6.75

0.73
1.39
0.14
0.03
0.02
0.32
0.35
0.08

2.10
2.82
3.33
0.37
0.15
0.97
0.60
0.11

73
139
14
3
2
32
35
8

1.83
2.24
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.07
1.94
1.60

5.25
4.55
23.75
12.17
7.38
3.24
3.34
2.16

2.88
2.03
23.75
12.17
7.38
3.04
1.72
1.35

4.50
0.12

5.14
0.31

40
62
14
3
2
30
18
5
98

450
12

4.59
1.50

5.25
3.84

1.14
2.56

0.45
0.02

0.40
0.03

17
2

45
2

2.65
1.00

2.35
1.50

0.89
1.50

0.45
0.01

0.37
002

16
1

45
1

2.81
1.00

2.34
1.50

0.83
1.50

2.28
0.15
0.18
0.08

3.05
0.35
0.25
0.09

81
7
11
4

228
15
18
8

2.81
2.14
1.64
2.00

3.77
5.04
2.30
2.31

1.34
2.35
1.41
1.16

14.09
0.57
0.98

3.41
0.36
0.53

99
21
30

1.409
57
98

14.23
2.71
3.27

3.44
1.69
1.77

0.24
0.62
0.54

0.87
1.44

3.68
6.57
2.88
0.02
0.52

51
84
92
4
36

87
144

1.71
1.71

4.23
4.56

19
36

4.75
1.00

7.21
7.82
3.13
0.48
145

0.19
0.36

0.10
1.45

172

ANNEX I

TABLE V I I . •—• A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y O F A N D E X P E N D I T U R E F O R C L O T H I N G
P U R C H A S E D P E R F A M I L Y IN O N E Y E A R
(cont.)

Clothing of 100 husbands—(cont.)
Families purchasing

All families

Article

F o o t w e a r : (coni.)
Rubbers
Arctics
Gloves and m i t t e n s :
Leather, dress
Leather, work
Cotton
Wool
Collars
Ties
Handkerchiefs
Mufflers and scarfs
Garters
Belts
Suspenders
Umbrellas
Pocketbooks
Watches
Other clothing
Cleaning, pressing a n d repairing
T o t a l , h u s b a n d s ' clothing

Headgear: hats
Outer g a r m e n t s :
Waists a n d blouses:
Cotton
Silk or rayon
Dresses :
Cotton
Wool
Silk or r a y o n
House dresses a n d bungalow
aprons
Aprons
Coats :
Cotton
Wool
Fur
Raincoats
Sweaters :
Cotton
Wool
Furs
Underwear :
Petticoats a n d slips:
Cotton
Silk or r a y o n
Corsets
Brassières
Chemises :
Cotton
Silk or r a y o n
Union s u i t s :
Cotton
,• • Wool
Shirts and v e s t s :
Cotton
Silk or rayon

AverAverAverAverage
umage
age
age
Num- N
number expendber
of
number
|
expendber of articles
oí
of
iture
iture
famarticles! per
p u r - articles
per
ilies
per
chased
per
family
family
family
family

0.54
0.06
0.12
2.06
9.34
0.04
0.39
1.89
5.73
0.21
1.18
0.48
0.19
0.02
0.09

Ï
0.78
0.22
0.21
0.81
1.97
0.04
0.10
1.52
0.60
0.33
0.33
0.37
0.11
0.05
0.06
0.88
0.23
1.46
63.59

48
6

54
6

1.13
1.00

1.63
3.67

11
12
60
4
12
84
70
19
71
44
15
2
9
7
12
52

12
•206
934
4
39
189
573
21
118
48
19
2
9

1.09
17.17
15.57
1.00
3.25
2.25
8.19
1.11
1.66
1.09
1.27
1.00
1.00

1.87
6.78
3.28
1.11
0.85
1.81
0.86
1.73
0.46
0.85
0.72
2.25
0.66
12.53
1.91
2.81

Clothing of 100 wives
1.49

$3.80

94

149

1.59

$4.04

0.02
0.01

0.03
0.02

1
1

2
1

2.00
1.00

3.00
2.25

1.02
0.05
1.03

1.77
0.48
7.73
3.33
0.21

102
5
103
320
63

2.04
1.00
1.36

3.20
0.63

50
5
76
94
25

3.55
9.59
10.18
3.55
0.85

0.01
0.42
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.09
0.01

0.12
10.54
1.00
0.27
0.04
0.30
0.30

1
40
1
4
2
9
1

1
42
1
4
2
9
1

1.56
0.42
0.51
0.51

1.19
0.55
1.34
0.27

67
27
46
23

156
42
51
51

2.33
1.56
1.11
2.22

1.77
2.04
2.92
1.17

0.05
0.17

0.04
0.21

2

5
17

2.50
1.89

1.75
2.38

0.70
0.02

0.68
0.06

70
2

2.33
1.00

2.25
2.79

1.65
0.37

0.65
0.28

165
37

3.44
2.06

1.36
1.53

9
30
2
48
18

3.40
2.52

1.00 12.00
1.05 26.35
1.00 100.00
1.00
6.63
1.99
1.00
1.00
3.32
1.00 29.75

STANDARD O P L I V I N G O F D E T R O I T E M P L O Y E E S

TABLE VII.

173

A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y O F A N D E X P E N D I T U R E FOR C L O T H I N G
P U R C H A S E D P E R FAMILY IN O N E Y E A R
(cOilt.)

Clothing of 100 wives—(cont.)
Families purchasing

All families

Article

U n d e r w e a r : (coni.)
Bloomers, step-ins a n d
drawers :
Cotton
Silk or rayon
Night gowns, cotton . . .
Pyjamas:
Cotton
Silk or rayon
Kimonos a n d b a t h r o b e s :
Cotton
Wool
Silk or rayon
Footwear :
Stockings :
Cotton
Wool
Silk or rayon
Shoes :
High
Low
. .
Shoe repairing
House slippers
Rubbers
Arctics
Gloves and m i t t e n s :
Kid
Cotton
Wool
Silk
Collar a n d cuff sets
. . . .
Handkerchiefs
Scarfs
Garters
Belts
Hairpins, fancy combs, ornaments, nets, etc
Sanitary supplies
Umbrellas
H a n d bags a n d purses . . .
Watches a n d jewellery . . .
Other clothing
Cleaning, pressing, a n d repairing
Total, wives' clothing . .

Aver- Average
age
Numn u m - expend
ber
ber of
iture
of
famarticles
per
ilies
per
family family

i

AverAverage
Numage
ber of n u m - expend'
articles ber of
iture
pur- articles
per
chased
per
family family

1.40
1.28
1.31

0.80
1.08
1.14

48
49
62

140
128
131

2.92
2.61
2.11

1.66
2.21
1.84

0.01
0.01

0.01
0.03

1
1

1
1

1.00
1.00

0.80
2.95

0.07
0.02
0.01

0.16
0.10
0.03

7
2
1

7
2
1

1.00
1.00
1.00

2.27
5.00
2.95

3.74
0.06
4.01

1.30
0.06
4.03

68
4
93

5.50
1.50
4.31

1.91
1.38
4.33

0.02
1.87

2
100
73
55
8
34

1.00
1.87

0.82
0.08
0.34

0.10
7.99
1.15
0.80
0.08
0.76

374
6
401
2
187
82
8
34

1.49
1.00
1.00

5.25
7.99
1.58
1.46
1.01
2.23

0.12
0.52
0.02
0.02
0.02
4.49
0.14
0.80
0.04

0.30
0.46
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.50
0.23
0.15
0.01

12
46
2
2
2
60
14
49
2

1.00
1.13
1.00
1.00
1.00
7.48
1.00
1.63
2.00

2.49
1.00
0.98
0.88
0.60
0.83
1.64
0.30
0.28

0.20
0.71
0.18
0.93
0.13
0.01
0.52

63
41
8
46
10
2
24

12
52
2
2
2
449
14
80
4
8
48

1.00
1.04

0.31
0.72
1.22
2.03
2.32
1.74
2.17

—

—
0.08
0.48

—.
—.
—
—

59.21

Children's Clothing
The average expenditure for clothing for children amounted to
.87 per year for the 100 families and constituted 5.1 per cent, of all
expenditures. This expenditure clothed an average of 2.45 children
per family.
In the detailed analysis of the cost of children's clothing the data
have been divided according to age groups for each sex. These age
groups, together with the number of children in each age group and
the average age of these children, are given in table VIII:

174

ANNEX I

TABLE

VIII.

DISTRIBUTION OF CHILDREN
B Y AGE GROUP

IN

FAMILIES

Boys
Age group

Girls

Number oí
families
having

Number of
children

Average

27
28
34
10
3

28
29
38
11
3

1.9
5.1
9.5
12.7
15.7

Under 4 years
. . . .
4 a n d u n d e r 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years .
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . . .

STUDIED,

Num- Number of ber
of
famchililies
dren
having
23
40
35
12
8

25
48
40
14
9

Average
age
1.9
5.4
9.4
13.2
15.6

These age groups are arbitrary, but represent the ages at which the
demands for clothing tend to change most markedly. The kind of
article, as well as the cost price, changes with the age. Boys were
found in 76 families and girls in 83 families. Fifty-nine families had
both boys and girls.
In table IX, which shows in detail the clothing of the children in
the families-canvassed, two sets of figures are given, the first set, as in
table IV, spreads the quantity and expense over the entire 100 families,
while the second set of figures applies only to the families who purchased the articles in question.
TABLE I X .

A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y O F AND E X P E N D I T U R E FOR CLOTHING
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS

Boys
(Age groups have been omitted in cases where no entries occurred)
All families
(100)

Age group

Article

Headgear:
H a t s , straw

Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years .
Under
4 years . . .
H a t s , other . . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years.
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Outer g a r m e n t s :
Suits, wool . . . . Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15years
15 and 16 years . .
1

. . . .

Less t h a n 1 cent.

Average
number of
articles
per
family

Average
expenditure
per
family

0.01 (')
0.01 C)
0.04 $0.03
0.06 0.05
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.07
0.26 0.18
0.36 0.30
0.59 0.56
0.17 0.19
0.01 0.02
0.07
0.16
0.21
0.07
0.04

0.14
0.76
2.07
0.90
0.61

Families purchasing
Articles
purchased
Number of
families

1
1
3
5
2
2
18
27
32
9
1
4
13
18
6
3

Average expenditure

Number of
chil- N u m - AverPer
Per , arage
dren ber
per child ticle
child

1
1
3
6
2
2
19
28
36
10
1
4
14
21
7
3

1
1
4
6
2
2
26
36
59
17
1
7
16
21
7
4

1.00 «0.92 $0.25
1.00 0.25 0.25
1.33 0.25 0.69
1.00 0.89 0.89
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 3.48 3.48
1.37 0.97 0.71
1.29 1.09 0.85
1.64 1.55 0.95
1.70 1.90 1.12
1.00 2.00 2.00
1.75 3.62 2.07
1.14 5.42 4.74
1.00 9.87 9.87
1.00
1.33 12.79 12.79
20.50 15.38

STANDARD O F LIVING O F DETROIT E M P L O Y E E S

TABLE IX.

175

AVERAGE Q U A N T I T Y O F A N D E X P E N D I T U R E FOR C L O T H I N G
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS (COllL)

Boys (cont.)
All families
(100)

Article

Age group

Aver-1 Average
num- 1 age
ber of exarti- pendcles iture
per
per
fam- family
ily

Outer garments (cont.)
Suits, cotton
. . Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and under 15years]
Under 4 years . . .
Trousers, wool
4 and under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years.
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
Trousers, cotton .
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years,
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
Under 4 years . .
Overcoats .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 a n d under 12 years.
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years .
8 a n d under 12 years.
Mackinaws
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
8 and under 12 years.
Raincoats .
12 and under 15years
U n d e r 4 years . . .
Sweaters a n d lum- 4 and under 8 years .
berjacks
8 a n d under 12 years.
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
Under 4 years . .
4 and under 8 years .
Overalls
8 and under 12 years
12 and under 15years
Under 4 years . .
4 and under 8 years
Shirts, cotton . .
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years .
4 and under 8 years
8 a n d under 12 years]
Shirts, w o o l . . .
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
Underwear :
Undershirts, cotton

Union suits, cotton

Union suits, wool.
Pyjamas

. . . .

Articles
purchased
Number of
children

0.78
0.66
0.121
0.02
0.01
0.0811
0.34
0.05
0.04
0.031
0.23
0.81
0.24
0.13
0.17
0.11
0.051
0.021
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.12
0.25
0.35
0.08
0.25
0.37
0.23
0.06
0.23
0.73
1.9S
0.63
0.11
0.02
0.10
0.02

0.731
0.711
0.32
0.11
0.01
0.09
0.70|
0.11
0.161
0.01
0.191
0.93!1
0.47
0.49
1.01
0.701
0.42
0.31
0.21
0.13
0.07
0.06
0.18
0.39
0.83
0.26
0.17
0.29
0.22
0.06
0.08
0.39
1.30
0.51
0.13
0.02
0.15
0.02

0.25
0.08
0.02
0.15
0.06
0.021
0.54
1.01
1.141
0.35
0.05
0.02!
0.04
0.04
0.15
0.19!
0.19
0.06
0.01

0.07
0 03
0.01
0.10
0.02
0.01
0.32
0.70
1.01
0.35
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.14
0.05
0.01

Average expenditure

--

Num
ber of |
AverfamPer
ilies Num- age Per artiber
p e r child cle
child

18
18
6
2
1
4
14'
3
2
1
10
23
8
13
17
11
5!
2
4
2|
2]
1
11
20
22
8
10
12
9
4
5|
18
32
107
32
16
4|
1
1
15
27
33
10
2
1
2
2
9
9
8
4
1
T-l

Undershirts, wool
Drawers, cotton .

Linder 4 years . ,
4 and under 8 years .
15 a n d 16 years
Under 4 years .
4 and under 8 years .
15 and 16 years
Under 4 years .
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 and under 12 years
12 and under 15years
Under 4 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 and under 15 years
15 and 16 years.

Families purchasing

191
78 4.111 $ 3.821 [0.93!
18
66 3.671 3.941 1.081
2.00 5.33 2.67
121
6!
2 1.00 5.48 5.48
2
1 1.00 1.00 1.00
1
S 1.60 1.87 1.17
5
4.64 2.05
341 2.27 3.62 2.17
15
1.67
5 2.00 7.90 3.95i
3|
4 3.OO1 1.50 0.50'
2
1
3 2.301 1.941 0.85!
3.45
io!
10|
23 3.00 5.25! L
1.97 i
27
2.67
81
3.75
3.75!
9
1.00
24| 0.94! 5.6OI 5.92
13
18
13 0.92! 5.83 6.36
12
17 1.00] 8.381 8.38
5
11 1.00 15.501 15.50!
2
5 1.00 5.23 5.23;
4.28 6.43
4
2 0.67 2.33 2.33
3
4 1.00I 6.00 6.00Í
3
2 1.00; 1.461 1.46
1
3 1.00I 1.86 1.56';
12
2.38
1 1.19 3.20
21
2.88 3.24!
12 1 1.351 1.73| 0.69!
26
0.89
9
25
0.80Ì
1 2.47
10
35 2.50 2.231 0.971
12
3.08
1.20
1.00
8
10
1.361 0.35
25 2.30 2.03 0.53
5
37 1.20 3.60i 0.65]
6
19
23 3.83! 4.65|1 0.81
36
6| 3.84| 4.33 1.18!
11
1.78
23 1 5.50 2.94 0.891
I.47I
3
73 5.73 2.00 1.00!
1
198| 3.6'
5
63 2.00 0 95 0.27;
1
11 2.00 1.30 0.33
7
2 2.00
3.57 1.00 0.50;
2
101 4.00 1 6 7 0.67!
1
2.IOI
2
! 2.001 1.00 0.35;
6'
2.50! 1.97 0.50
25
1
6.00! 2.52! 0.58;
8 2.00
1
2 3.38| 2.73 0.701
161
15 3.61 3.21 0.89 '
28 1
6i 3.08 2.771 1 . 0 1 1
2| 3.18 3.96 l . l l !
37
54 2.50 3.10 1.98!
11
2.62 I.55!
101 1
2 114 2.00 1.061 1.311
2.00 1.521 0.64
1
35 2.00
5 1.67 1.41 0.80
2
2 1.90! 1 2 2 0.74
2
4 1.90] 1.001 0.81
9
l.OOJ
4 1.50
101
15 1.00
10
19
4
19¡
6|
1
1

I

i

176

ANNEX I

TABLE I X . — A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y O F A N D E X P E N D I T U R E F O R C L O T H I N G
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS (COTlt.)

Boys (cont.)
All families
(100)

Age group

Article

Underwear : (cont.)
Nightshirts . . .
Footwear :
Socks, cotton

. .

Socks, wool

Socks, silk or rayon
Shoes, high . . .

Shoes, low . . .

Shoe repairing . .

R u b b e r boots . .
House slippers

.

Rubbers

Arctics
Gloves a n d mittens,
leather, dress.

Gloves a n d
cotton.

mittens,

Gloves a n d
wool.

mittens,

1

Less t h a n 1 cent.

Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . .
U n d e r 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years .
Under 4 years . .
4 and under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and under 15 years
15 a n d 10 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 and 16 years
Under 4 years .
8 and under 12 years
Under 4 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 and under 15years
15 a n d 16 years .
4 and under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 and uriderlö years
15 and 16 years .
Under 4 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
•Under 4 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 years

Average
number of
articles
per
family

Average
expenditure
per
family

Families purchasing
Articles
purchased
Number of
families

Number of
Per
chil- Num- AverP e r artiage
dren ber
per child cle
child

0.21 $0.09
0.03 0.01
0.04 0.03
2.02
3.35
4.44
1.91
0.18
0,12
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.09

0.45
0.78
1.32
0.56
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.03

0.40
0.54
1.05
0.28
0.26
0.44
0.59
0.18
0.08

0.68
1.19
2.45
0.63
0.43
0.97
1.51
0.62
0.31
0.03
0.19
0.58
0.28
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.01
0.07
0.29
0.12
0.02
0.05
0.25
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.12
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.15
0 01

0.01
0.02
0.02
0.07
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.08
0.27
0.10
0.02
0.03
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.13
0.05
0.01
0.06
0.29
0.39
0.03
0.01
0.10
0.07
0.04
0.04

('
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.03

21
3
4
23
28
34
10
3
4
1
4
2
21
23
32
10
16
25
31
8
3
4
14
25
10
3
1
2
2
7
6
2
1
8
22
8
2
3
13
1
1
6
11
4
1
5
17
22
3
1
7
5
2
4

Average expenditure

24
29
38
11
3
4
1
4
3
3
22
24
36
11
17
26
34
9
3
4
15
28
11
3
1
2
2
7
7
2
1
9
24
9
2
3
14
1
1
6
13
5
1
5
18
25
3
1
7
5
2
5

3.00 $1.27 «0.42
1.50 0.60 0.40
2.00 1.39 0.70

202
335
444
191
18
12
3
8
5
9
40
54
105
28
26
44
59
18
8

8.42
11.55
11.68
17.36
6.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.67
3.00
1.82
2.25
2.92
2.80
1.53
1.69
1.74
2.00
2.67

1
2
2
7
8
2
1
8
27
10
2
3
13
1
1
6
13
5
1
6
29
39
3
1
10
7
4
4

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.14
1.00
1.00
0.89
1.13
1.11
1.00
1.00
0.93
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.61
1.56
1.00
1.00
1.25
1.40
2.00
0.80

1.87
2.69
3.48
5.07
1.53
1.38
2.25
1.21
1.17
1.13

0.22
0.23
0.30
0.29
0.26
0.46
0.75
0.60
0.70
0.38

3.09
4.97
6.80
6.29
2.54
3.72
4.45
6.93
10.33
0.69
1.27
2.09
2.54
2.02
3.00
2.49
0.55
0.80
0.95
1.18
1.45
0.76
1.19
1.39
1.13
1.58
1.79
2.95
0.75
0.77
0.91
1.09
2.25
0.39
0.49
0.60
0.38
0.20
0.73
0.75
1.23
0.52

1.70
2.21
2.33
2.25
1.66
2.20
2.57
3.46
3.88

3.00
2.49
0.55
0.80
0.83
1.18
1.45
0.85
1.06
1.25
1.13
1.58
1.93
2.95
0.75
0.77
0.91
1.09
2.25
0.33
0.30
0.39
0.38
0.20
0.58
0.54
0.61
0.65

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

TABLE IX.

177

AVERAGE Q U A N T I T Y O F AND E X P E N D I T U R E F O R CLOTHING
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS (cOIit.)

Boys (cont.)
All families
(100)

Article

Ties

Handkerchiefs .

Mufflers a n d scarfs .

Belts

. . . .

Suspenders .
Pocketbooks
Watches a n d jewellery
Cleaning, pressing, and
repairing.
Infants' wear (not specified above):
Dresses
Rompers
Underwaists. . . .
Petticoats
Other infants' w e a r .
Other clothing . . . .

Total, boys' clothing

Average
number oí
articles
per
family

Average
expenditure
per
family

4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 and 16 years .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
4 a n d under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and 8 years . . .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
Under 4 years . .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
8 a n d under 12 years
15 and 16 years .

0.23
0.64
0.22
0.08
0.18
0.91
1.79
0.61
0.14
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.32
0.56
0.61
0.23
0.03
0.21
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.01

0.05
0.20
0.09
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.12
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.02
0.01
0.06
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.03

Under 4 years . .
U n d e r 4 years . .
Under 4 years . .
4 and under 8 years
Under 4 years . .
Under 4 years . .
Under 4 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years
8 a n d under 12 years.
15 a n d 16 years .

0.19
0.26
0.07
0.02
0.16

0.17
0.16
0.02
0.01
0.06
0.29
0.01
0.05
0.02
0.02

Age group

Under 4 years . .
4 and under 8 years
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and n n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years

«

C)

0.01
0)
0.08
0.03
0.10
0.07

Families purchasing
Articles
purchased
Number of
families

Average expenditure

Number of
chil- Num- Average
dren
ber
per
child

10
27
7
2
3
14
24
7
2
1
3
2
1
15
24
24
9
2
15
5
2
2
4
1
1
1
3
1
5
2

10
31
8
2
3
15
26
8
2
1
3
2
1
16
25
27
10
2
17
6
2
2
5
1
1
1
3
1
6
2

23
64
22
8
18
91
179
61
14
1
3
2
1
32
56
61
23
3
21
7
2
2
6
1
1
1

2.30
2.06
2.75
4.00
6.00
6.07
6.88
7.63
7.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00
2.24
2.26
2.30
1.33
1.24
1.17
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.00
1.00
1.00

19
26
7
2
16

4.75
4.33
2.33
2.00
3.20

5
20
27
10
7

7
36
32
12
8

6
31
49
17
15

0.86
1.19
1.53
1.42
1.88

5.29
9.11
16.67
6.30
2.05

Girls
Headgear :
Hats . .

1

Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years ,
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years

0.06
0.31
0.49
0.17
0.15

?

0.06
0.45
0.76
0.31
0.30

$

$

0.89 1.04
1.73 1.45
2.37 1.55
2.60 1.83
3.79 2.02

Less t h a n 1 c e n t .
12

178

ANNEX

I

TABLE IX. — AVERAGE QUANTITY OF AND E X P E N D I T U R E FOR CLOTHING
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS (COTlt.)

Girls (cont.)
All families
(100)

Article

H e a d g e a r : (cont.)
Caps . .

Outer garments :
Ensembles, cotton

Less t h a n 1 cent.

Articles
purchased

Average
number oí
articles
per
family

Average
expenditure
per
family

Number of
families

Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 and 16 years .

0.24
0.43
0.27
0.08
0.01

S
0.20
0.31
0.22
0.06
0.01

19
27
20
6
1

20
31
22
8
1

4 and under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s

0.02
0.04
0.01

0.03
0.08
0.01

1
4
1

2
4
1

1.00
1.00
1.00

0.01
0.02
0.01
0.0Ö
0.12
0.05
0.03

0.05
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.22
0.13
0.07

1
2
1
5
11
4
3

1
2
1
6
12
5
3

1.00
1.00
1.00
0.83
1.00
1.00
1.00

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02

1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1

1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00

0.01

0.01

1

1

0.01
1.19
2.53
1.72
0.47
0.21
0.04
0.17
0.17
0.02
0.02
0.041
0.09
0.22
0.10
0.16
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.08
0.02
0 07
0.03
0.11
0.25
0.19
0.06
0.07

0.03
0.69
2.01
1.83
0.53
0.29
0.07
0.34
0.50
0.05
0.08
0.06
029
0.77
0.Ö5
0.80
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01

1
23
40
34
11
7
4
10
11
2
2
2
9
14
7
8
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
6

0)

a
11
18
15
5
6

1
25
48
39
13
8
4
14
13
2
3
3
10
IS
8
9
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
3
9
3
13
22
19
6
7

Age group

Ensembles, silk or
rayon
. . . .
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
Skirts, cotton . .
8 and under 12 years
15 and 16 years .
Skirts, w o o l . . . . 4 and under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years .
Waists a n d blouses
cotton.
4 and under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 and 1(5 years .
Waists and blouses,
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
wool
Waists a n d blouses,
8 a n d under 12 years
silk or r a y o n . . . Under 4 years . .
Dresses, cotton . . 4 a n d under 8 years
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years .
Under 4 years . .
Dresses, wool
4 and under 8 years
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
4 years . . .
Dresses, silk or rayon 4Under
and under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
House dresses a n d 4 and under 8 years.
bungalow aprons 8 and under 12 years
15 and 16 years .
8 and under 12 years
Aprons
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
Coats, cotton . .
4 a n d under 8 y e a r s .
8 a n d under 12 years
Under 4 years . . .
Coats, wool . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l ö y e a r s
l ö and 16 years . .

1

Families purchasing

0.0Ö
0.07
0.32
0.18
0.Ö3
1.55
1.58
0.75
1.03

Average expenditure

Number of
chil- Num- Average
dren
per
ber
child

24
43
27

1.20
1.39
1.23
1.00
1.00

1.00
1
119
253
172
47
21
4
17
17
2
2
4
9
22
10
16
3
3
3
2
2
1
8
2
7
3
11
20
19
6
7

1.00
4.76
Ö.27
4.41
3.62
2.63
1.00
1.21
1.31
1.00
0.67
1.33
0.90
1.22
1.25
1.78
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
4.00
0.67
0.78
1.00
0.85
1.14
1.00
1.00
1.00

3.00
2.77
4.19
4.71
4.07
3.58
1.81
2.41
3.85
2.49
2.63
1.83
2.89
4.27
6.91
8.85
1.20
1.80
2.00
2.00
0.38
0.39
2.25
2.33
3.55
6.00
4.07
7.02
8.34
12.49
14.711

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STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

TABLE IX.

181

A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y OF AND E X P E N D I T U R E F O R C L O T H I N G
FOR C H I L D R E N , B Y AGE GROUPS
(cOftt.)

Girls (cont.)
All families
(100)

Article

Age group

Footwear: (coni.)

Gloves
kid.

and

mittens,

Gloves and
cotton.

mittens,

Gloves a n d
wool.

mittens,

Gloves
silk.

mittens,

and

Handkerchiefs

. . . .

Belts

Hairpins, fancy combs,
ornaments, nets, etc.
Sanitary supplies. . .

Handbags a n d purses .

1

Less t h a n 1 cent.

Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 y e a r s .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 and under 15 years
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
8 and under 12 years
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 a n d under 12 years
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 and u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
4 and under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . .
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .
4 a n d under 8 years .
12 and u n d e r l ö years
15 a n d 16 years . .
Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 y e a r s .
8 and under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l ö y e a r s
15 a n d 16 years . .

Average
number of
articles
per
family

Families purchasing
Articles
purchased

Average
expenditure
per
family

Number of
families

0.05 «0.08
0.32 0.58
0.28 0.53
0.06 0.11
0.05 0.12
0.01 0.01
0.04 0.03
0.01 0.01
0.02 0.02
0.06 0.02
0.13 0.05
0.27 0.13
0.09 0.05
0.11 0.08
0.03 0.01
0.22 0.14
0.15 0.10
0.03 0.03
0.02 0.01
0.01 0.01
— 0.04
— 0.03
.— 0.01
0.05
(')
0.99 0.05
2.20 0.16
0.32 0.03
0 47 0.04
0.01 0.01
0.02 0.02
0.05 0.05
0.04 0.04
0.09 0.08
0.29 0.05
1.01 0.15
0.73 0.10
0.30 0.04
0.10 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
0 02 0.01
0.02 0.01

5
29
25
6
5
1
3
1
1
6
13
20
6
6
3
17
11
2
1
1
5
4
1
2
15
24
4
7
1
2
5
4
6
12
34
26
11
5
3
3
1
1

5
36
28
7
5
1
4
1
2
6
15
23
6
7
3
21
13
3
1
1
5
5
1
2
17
28
4
8
1
2
5
4
7
13
41
31
13
5
3
4
1
1

2
10
5
5
2
4
1
1
1
1
7
5
4
8

2
11
5
6
2
5
1
1
2
1
8
5
4
9

—
—
—
—
0.01
—

•

—

•

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.06
0.04
0.09

(')

0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.07
0.01
0.03
0.01

(')

0.02
0.02
0.03
0.09

Average expenditure

Number of
chil- N u m - AverPer Per
age
dren ber
per child article
child

5
32
28
6
5
1
4
1
2
6
13
27
9
11
3
22
15
3
2
1

.—
.—.
—
5
99
220
32
47
1
2
5
4
9
29
101
73
30
10
5
5
2
2

—
—
—
—
—
—
1
1
1
1
9
6
4
9

1.00 $1.62 $1.62
0.89 1.61 1.82
1.00 1.89 1.89
0.86 1.54 1.80
1.00 2,47 2.47
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.75 0.75
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.36 0.36
0.87 0.34 0.39
1.17 0.55 0.47
1.50 0.87 0.58
1.57 1.15 0.73
1.00 0.42 0.42
1.05 0.66 0.63
1.15 0.80 0.69
1.00 0.90 0.90
2.00 1.00 0.50
1.00 0.75 0.75
— 0.82
—
.—. 0.67
—
.2.50
— 0.50
—
0.13 0.05
5.82 0.29 0.05
7.86 0.58 0.07
8.00 0.63 0.08
5.88 0.55 0.09
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.05 1.05
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.29 1.13 0.88
2.23 0.41 0.18
2.46 0.36 0.15
2.35 0.31 0.13
2.31 0.33 0.14
2.00 0.25 0.13
1.67 0.18 0.11
1.25 0.13 0.10
2.00 0.50 0.25
2.00 0.50 0.25

—•
—
—
—
—
—

•

1.00
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.13
1.20
1.00
1.00

0.10
0.14
0.25
0.28
1.50
1.40
1.25
3.00
0.73
0.15
0.28
0.50
0.80
1.03

—
—•
—
—
—
•

—

1.25
3.00
1.45
0.15
0.24
0.42
0.80
1.03

182

ANNEX I

TABLE I X . —• A V E R A G E Q U A N T I T Y O F AND E X P E N D I T U R E F O R CLOTHING
FOR C H I L D R E N , BY AGE GROUPS (cOTlt.)

Girls (cont.)
All families
(100)

Article

Age group

Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
15 and 16 years . .
Gleaning, pressing, a n d 8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d u n d e r l 5 y e a r s
repairing.
15 and 16 years . .
Infants' wear (not specified a b o v e ) :
Rompers
. . . . Under 4 years . . .
Underwaists . . . Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years.
8 a n d under 12 years
Other infant's wear Under 4 years . . .
Other clothing . . Under 4 years . . .
4 and under 8 years .
8 a n d under 12 years
12 a n d under 15 years
15 a n d 16 years . .
Total, girls' clothing Under 4 years . . .
4 a n d under 8 years .
8 and under 12 years.
12 and u n d e r 15 years
15 and 16 years . .

Average
number of
articles
per
family

Average
expenditure
per
family

Families purchasing
Articles
purchased
Number of
families

0.03
0.18
0.06
0.02

Number of
chil- N u m - AverPer
age
Per
dren ber
per child article
child

C)

1
6
8
3
2
4
2
4

1
6
10
4
2
4
2
4

0.02
0.04
0.01

1
6
3
1
5
7
4
3
1
1

1
6
3
2
6
8
4
4
1
1

$0.02
0.06
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.02
0.15

C)

0.29
0.10
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.01

Average expenditure

$0.10
0.32
0.56
1,00
3.80
1.44
1.08
3.81
3
18
6
2

3.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

1.60 $0.53
0.70 0.23
0.35 0.18
0.20 0.20
4.84
1 26
1.88
0.57
1.00
1.00

4.93
14.32
16.01
6.36
6.82

•Less than 1 cent.

HOUSING EXPENSES

The dwellings occupied by these families have been classified into
single houses, flats, and apartments. A single house is a house occupied by one family only. A flat is a building in which each family
occupies one whole floor, each flat usually having a separate entrance.
An apartment is a building having living quarters for several families
with two or more families to a floor and usually a common entrance.
The majority of the families covered in the study (61) were living
in 1-family houses, 32 families in flats, and 7 in apartments.
Living rooms, bedrooms, and kitchens are counted in the number
of rooms in these homes, but bathrooms, pantries, attics, and cellars
are not. The kitchen has been included because this room, in the
homes of the working-class families, often serves as a dining room
and sitting room as well as a room for the preparation of the family
meals. In this study, 22 families had dining room and kitchen combined, 3 families had living room and dining room combined, while
another family had living room, dining room, and kitchen combined.

183

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

Table X presents a picture of the construction and equipment of
the dwellings occupied, both rented and owned. Among the conveniences reported by these families, bathrooms warrant special
comment. This convenience was reported by 72 families.
TABLE X. — CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF DWELLINGS

Type of dwelling
House

Average n u m b e r of rooms per family . . . .
Average n u m b e r of persons p e r family
. . .

Flat

..

Apartment

61
4.8
4.5

32
4.6
4.4

7
4.1
4.4

59
2

31
1

2
5

49
12

32

7

14
33
27
39
58
33
25

11
8
23
26
32
25
15

49
12
20
58
51

30
2
12
32
31

T y p e of construction:
Interior :
Rooms in addition t o living r o o m s :
Cellar
Sanitation :

Water-closet :

7
7
7
7
3
7
6
7
7

Table X I shows the number of families living in rented dwellings,
the average size of the families, the number of rooms per family,
the number of families living in dwellings having a specified number of
rooms, and the average rent paid during the year. For the families
living in apartments and flats, the cost of heat was included in the
rent in 7 cases and the light in 2 instances. In order to include these
families in the housing and the fuel and light tables, it was necessary to
estimate the cost of heat and light and deduct this amount from the
rent. These estimates were based on the cost of heat and light to
other famihes who occupied flats and apartments of the same number
of rooms and the same type of heating system. The rent of a garage
was included in the house rent of 18 famihes.
The cost of rent for the families occupying rented homes averaged
$394.03 for the 29 families living in houses, $381.64 for the 32 families
living in flats, and $425.76 for the 7 families living in apartments.
The average for all rentals was $391.47.

184

ANNEX I

TABLE X I . —• N U M B E R O F F A M I L I E S L I V I N G I N R E N T E D D W E L L I N G S
W I T H S P E C I F I E D N U M B E R O F ROOMS, A N D A V E R A G E A N N U A L R E N T
Type of

dwelling
Total

House

Average n u m b e r ol persons per family

Flat

Apartment

29
4.6
4.7

32
4.4
4.6

2
9
15
3
19
23
3.1

2
14
11
5
26
30
3.8

*

$

7
4.4
4.1

68
4.5
4.6

1

1
4
26
29
8
52
60

N u m b e r of families occupying dwellings
having :

Average n u m b e r of rooms equipped for
Average rent per y e a r :

394.03
84.64
86.57

381.64
83.08
86.61

3
3
7
7
3.9
425.76
102.77
96.14

3.5
S
391.47
85.59
87.57

The housing payment for the 32 families purchasing their homes
was $512.10 per family, distributed as follows:
Paid on principal
5233.90
Paid on interest
137.05
Taxes
79.39
Special assessments
4.53
Repairs and improvements
42.12
Water rent

8.05

Insurance
7.06
Total
512.10
Rental value of owned home
375.31
Payments above rental value of owned home . . 136.79
It will be observed that the average rental value of these owned
homes was $375.31, as compared with $391.47 — the rent paid by

the families that rented. These families thus not only paid the

equivalent of a rental charge but paid in addition an average of
$136.79 on their homes. This latter sum may beregarded as representing
savings and has been so treated in balancing the several budgets.
The number of persons per family for the home-owning families
averaged 4.4 and the average number of rooms was 4.8, as compared
with an average of 4.6 rooms per family reported by the renting
families. Regarding the number of rooms in the owned homes, 13
families lived in dwellings of 5 rooms, 8 in 4 rooms, 7 in 6 rooms, and
3 in 3 rooms, while 1 family lived in a 7-room house. Twenty of
the 32 owned homes had bathrooms and 26 had inside water-closets.
The number of rooms equipped for heating averaged 3.4 for the
families owning their homes.
Housing Characteristics
Preceding tables have shown the average cost and average conditions of housing among the 100 families covered by this survey.
The average, however, is to some extent an abstraction, and for the
purpose of visualizing better the housing of these families the outstanding characteristics of the housing situation have been isolated
as well as possible, bringing out the fact that the homes of the great

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

185

majority of these 100 families tend toward a definite "type," which is
fairly representative of the group as a whole and which is subject
to quite precise description.
Thus, the "typical " house of these 100 families may be described
as having the characteristics listed below:
(1) The family occupies a separate house or a whole floor in a
2-family house. Almost all of the buildings, other than the 7 apartment buildings included, were detached frame structures (86 detached,
5 semi-detached, 2 row), this being the type prevailing in Detroit.
(2) The house has four or five rooms and bath, all plastered.
There were 34 houses with 4 rooms, 42 with 5 rooms; only 16 with
more than 5 rooms and only 8 with less than 4 rooms. Attics, pantries,
cellars were frequent but not typical.
(3) The house is equipped with bathroom, inside toilet, running
water inside (65 had hot running water), kitchen sink, and sewer
connection (stationary laundry tubs were frequent but not typical).
(4) All rooms have outside exposure and there are no dark rooms.
(5) The house has one room or more per person. (This was the
situation in 77 of the 100 houses.) The usual arrangement of a 4 or
5 rooms house for 4 or 5 persons, consisting of husband, wife, and
2 or 3 children, consists of 2 bedrooms, a living room or a livingdining room, and a kitchen or a kitchen-dining room.
(6) The house faces an improved street, with street lights (only
15 families lived on unimproved streets).
(7) The house has individual stoves, with half of the rooms equipped
for heating. Central heating, all the rooms being heated, is frequent
but in the minority (44 families). The averages for all rented dwellings were: Average rooms per family, 4.6; average number of rooms
equipped for heating, 3.5.
(8) The house is rented. Of the 100 families, 68 were renting,
while 32 were acquiring ownership at the time of the study.
EXPENDITURE FOR F U E L AND LIGHT

The cost of fuel and light depends upon the type of house as well
as the type of heating plant. This class of expense includes coal,
coke, wood, gas, kerosene, electricity, matches, and candles.
Á general distribution of the several items of fuel and light over
all of the 100 families regardless of the number of families using
these articles, results in the following averages:
TABLE

XII.

A V E R A G E CONSUMPTION A N D E X P E N D I T U R E O F
AND LIGHT FOR 1 0 0 FAMILIES
Item

Unit
Ton

Wood
Gas

l.OOo'cu. It.
Kilowatt-hour
Gallon

Average
consumption
0.6
4.1
1.3
0.4
28.6
407.6
15.7

—
Average n u m b e r of rooms per family . .
Average annual cost of heat a n d light

FUEL

Average
expenditure

«
8.59
34.98
10.41
1.59
22.69
20.43
2.90
1.61
103.20

4.7
22.15

186

ANNEX

I

Anthracite coal was somewhat of a luxury for these families, as only
18 used it. For these 18 families the average quantity was 3.2 tons,
at a cost of $14.81 per ton. Bituminous coal and coke were used principally, most of it having been purchased from the Ford Motor Co. at less
than market prices. For the 81 families using bituminous coal, the
amount used averaged 5.1 tons at a cost of $8.47 a ton and for the 29
families using coke, the amount used averaged 4.5 tons at a cost of
$7.94 a ton.
It was necessary to estimate the weight of the wood used by these
families. For the most part it was kindling wood, composed of sticks,
slabs, blocks, etc., and sold by the load. It also was in most cases
obtained from the employing company at less than market prices.
Wood was used by only 33 families and averaged $4.83 per family.
The average quantity of gas used by 88 families in this study was
32.5 thousand cubic feet, costing $25.78. Although chiefly used for
cooking, some gas was used for heating water during the summer
months. One family used electricity for cooking, 2 families used coal
and wood for cooking, while 9 families used kerosene only.
Electricity was used by all of the 100 families and averaged 407.6
kilowatt-hours per family, at an average cost of $20.43 per year. The
average cost of lighting per room per year for all families was $4.38.
Bulbs are replaced free by the electric light company.
The total cost of fuel and light combined was $103.20 per family for
the entire group of 100 families, and constituted 6 per cent, of all
expenditures.
The average annual cost of fuel and light per room was $22.15.
The winters in Detroit are usually cold and considerable fuel is required
for heating, but personal family preferences as to the quantity of heat
and light constitute a considerable factor in the cost of fuel. Some
of the families kept their rooms very warm during the winter months
on account of the small children, while others practised economy in
fuel and light even to the extent of being uncomfortable.
Cost of various fuels used for heating, cooking, and lighting exclusively. —• Most of the families covered by the study did not and could
not apportion among heating, lighting, and cooking the exact amount
of fuel used, as the same fuel was used for more than one purpose, or
several types of fuel were used in combination. In a limited number
of cases, however, such apportionment was possible, and these instances
are shown in table XIII. This table gives the quantity and cost
of heating exclusively by separate types of coal, of cooking exclusively
by gas and kerosene, and of lighting exclusively by electricity. While
the number of households represented in certain cases is small, the
results are believed to be fairly representative.
T A B L E X I I I . —• Q U A N T I T Y A N D COST O F F U E L F O R H E A T I N G , FOR C O O K I N G ,
AND FOR L I G H T I N G
Item

Number
of
families

Fuel used
Unit

Amount

$

H e a t i n g exclusively:
Coke
Cooking exclusively:
Gas

Average
cost

4
51
13

Ton

73 1,000 cu. t t .
Gallons
9
Kilowatt99
hour

4.1
6.2
6.3

61.63
52.71
50.20

34.9
123.6
404.4

27.61
22.83
20.27

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

187

EXPENDITURES FOR FURNITURE AND HOUSE FURNISHING

The annual expense for this purpose for all families averaged
$88.55, or 5.2 per cent, of all expenditures. In considering this item
it should be remembered that these were established families and
hence not many were buying much new equipment.
Only the amounts paid during the year were reported for furniture
and house furnishings purchased on the instalment plan. The value
of these purchases is discussed under "Instalment buying," page 197.
In 11 families the amounts spent were exceptionally low, being less
than 2 per cent, of the total expenditures, and in 6 of these cases less
than 1 per cent.
In 12 families the expenditures represented new investments rather
than replacement of old articles; in these cases the amount spent
ranged from 9 to 23 per cent, of the total expenditures of these families.
These investments included stoves, washing machines, radios, and
pianos. In every case except one, these articles were bought on the
instalment plan.
Of the 36 families owning radios, 14 purchased them in 1929 and
expended an average of $44.71. Four families expended $105.31
each on pianos, 2 expended $17 each on phonographs, and 17 families
expended an average of $51.90 on washing machines.
Table XIV shows the average quantity and expenditure for all the
families of the study as well as for the families which purchased the
various items of furniture and house furnishings.
TABLE XIV. — QUANTITY OF AND EXPENDITURE PER FAMILY FOR
FURNITURE AND HOUSE FURNISHINGS IN ONE YEAR
Average,
all families
Article

Rugs
Grass rugs a n d m a t t i n g
Linoleum rugs and linoleum
Suites :
Living room '
Dining r o o m 2
Bedroom D
Chairs and stools
Tables
Couches, davenports, sofas, and settees
Bureaus, chiffoniers, a n d dressing tables
Bookcases and magazine r a c k s . . . .
Clocks
Mirrors
Pictures, frames, a n d other ornaments
Sideboards, buffets, a n d china closets

Average, families purchasing

NumN u m - Expenber of Expenber of
Cost
N u m - articles
diture
articles diture
per
per
ber
per
per
per
family family article
family family

1.6
3.01
16
18.78
11.56
0.3
1.0
0.09
4.49
2
4.49
0.02
1.3
2.90
8.06
28
10.36
0.4
7
3.0
54.30
0.2
3.80
18.10
2.37
5.77
7
5.9
33.82
0.4
4.62
25.64
6
76.92
0.2
1.48
2.65
19
7.80
0.6
0.36
1.0
6.04
6.04
0.1
2.91
1.0
32.28
0.63
1.0
4
32.28
0.1
15.87
0.01
1.0
1
15.87
1.00
0.04
0.38
16
1.1
2.10
1.00
0.01
0.19
6
1.2
2.66
2.36
0.2
0.40
9
1.4
3.10
0.10
3.10
0.1
1
1.0
10.00
4.48
0.1
10.00
0.01
1
Consists of d a v e n p o r t a n d 2 chairs in each suite.
* Consists of 1 suite of table, 6 chairs, buffet, and china closet ; 1 suite of table, 6 chairs
a n d buffet; 1 suite of table, 2 chairs, and buffet; 4 suites of table and 4 chairs.
3
Consists of 1 suite of bed, dresser, chifforobe, and 1 chair ; 3 suites of bed, dresser, and
chifforobe ; 1 suite of 2 beds and chifforobe ; 1 suite of bed and dresser.

li

188

ANNEX I

TABLE XIV. —
Q U A N T I T Y OF AND E X P E N D I T U R E P E R F A M I L Y
F U R N I T U R E A N D H O U S E F U R N I S H I N G S I N O N E Y E A R (COllt.)
Average,
all families
Article

FOR

Average, families purchasing

Num- ExpenNum- Expenber oí
Cost
ber of
articles diture N u m - articles diture
per
per
per
ber
per
per
article
family
family family
family

$

Bedsteads and cribs
0.2
1.64
17
1.1
0.1
1.17
13
1.0
Bed springs
0.2
3.21
22
1.1
Mattresses
02
0.24
7
2.6
Pillows
0.6
1.79
28
2.1
Blankets
0.1
0.48
9
1.4
Quilts and comforts
2.1
2.51
56
3.7
Sheets
2.6
0.93
46
5.6
0.3
0.89
28
1.2
Pillowcases
12.6
1.79
88
14.3
Spreads
2.0
0.35
25
8.2
Dishes and glassware
0.3
6.12
25
1.1
Knives, forks, spoons, etc
0.02
0.17
2
1.0
Stoves, ranges, and heaters . . . .
0.02
0.27
2
1.0
Fireless, waterless, a n d pressure cookers
2.4
0.97
74
3.2
Kitchen cabinets
0.1
2.50
11
1.0
Kitchen utensils (pots, p a n s , etc.) .
2.1
1.20
93
2.3
0.1
0.42
5
1.0
Refrigerators
0.6
0.40
42
1.5
Brooms a n d brushes
0.3
0.49
27
1.2
Carpet sweepers and v a c u u m cleaners
0.1
0.10
5
1.2
Mops
0.3
0.07
4
7.5
Tablecloths, cotton
4.7
1.29
73
6.5
0.3
0.07
4
8.5
Tablecloths, linen
1.3
0.67
69
1.9
Napkins, cotton
0.03
0.03
3
1.0
Towels, cotton
0.8
0.68
31
2.6
Towels, linen
0.1
6.26
14
1.0
Table oilcloth
1.09
13
—. 4.21
—
Electrical appliances, toasters . . .
0.04
4
1.0
L a m p s , electric bulbs, and l a m p shades
0.02
0.34
2
1.0
R a d i o s , cost
0.45
19
—
—
0.01
0.05
1
1.0
Radios, upkeep
0.10
3
Pianos, cost
—.
—
0.4
0.35
7
5.9
P h o n o g r a p h s , cost
0.5
0.36
14
3.8
Phonographs, upkeep
Other musical i n s t r u m e n t s , cost . .
3.4
59
5.7
3.11
Other musical instruments, upkeep .
Window shades
0.1
0.08
5
1.2
Screens, window a n d door
0.1
0.24
7
1.0
0.2
0.15
20
1.1
Curtains, draperies, portières, and sofa
0.02
0.09
2
1.0
pillows
0.1
0.21
6
1.0
L a u n d r y utensils:
0.2
8.82
17
1.0
Tubs . . :
6.3
0.12
15
41.7
Boilers
0.01
0.12
1
1.0
5.0
5.16
89
5.6
Washboards
0.04
0.69
4
1.0
Wringers
0.1
2.12
10
1.0
Irons
0.73
23
—
—
Washing machines
Others
Total
— 88.55
—
—•
T r u n k s , travelling bags, and suitcases
Toys, sleds, carts, etc
B a b y carriages a n d go-carts
Sewing machines
Other furniture and EXPENDITURE
furnishings . . . FOR L I F E INSURANCE

$

$

5.27

0.92

1.67
3.49
0.76
4.50
3.42
51.90
0.80
12.00
5.80
17.30
21.17
3.22

1.39
3.49
0.69
4.50
3.42
51.90
0.02
12.00
1.04
17.30
21.17

9.66
9.12
9.01
9.01
14.58 13.36
3.50
1.36
6.39
3.08
5.31
3.67
4.48
1.21
2.02
0 36
3.17
2.69
2.04
0.14
1.40
0.17
24.47 22.66
8.25
8.25
13.50
13.50
1.32
0.41
22.73 22.73
1.29
0.57
8.40
8.40
0.95
0.64
1.82
1.49
2.06
1.71
1.69
0.2
1.77
0.237
1.65
0.19
0.98
0.52
1.06
1.06
2.19
0.84
44.71 44.71
8.37
—.
105.31 105.31
17.00 17.00
2.34
—
5.00
5,00
3.43
—
4.99
0.85
2.58
0.68

—

—
—

Life insurance, in various forms, was carried by 87 of the 100 families scheduled. The average insurance amounts and costs are shown
in table XV.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

TABLE X V .

LIFE INSURANCE CARRIED BY FAMILIES STUDIED

Item

Average for
all (100)
families
1

1

189

$2,076.00
59.16

Average for
families
carrying
insurance
' $2,386.00
68.01

These figures a r e based on detailed reports of 78 families.

The amounts of the insurance premium paid by the 87 families
carrying life insurance were distributed as follows :
TABLE XVI.

INSURANCE PREMIUMS PAID B Y
INSURANCE

Amount of premium paid

FAMILIES

Families paying
classified a m o u n t
of p r e m i u m
Number

$75 a n d under $100 a year . . . .
$100 a n d under $125 a y e a r . . . .
$125 a n d under $250 a y e a r . . . .
Total

CARRYING

5
22
22
26
9
3
87

Per cent.
of t o t a l
5.7
25.3
25.3
29.9
10.3
3.5
100.0

There were 6 families which reported 2 or more policies per person.
Three families, with 4 persons in each family, had 8 policies per
family. One family of 4 persons had 10 policies. One family of 5
persons had 12 policies, and another of the same number of persons
had 13 policies. The premiums in these families ranged from $55.20
to $125.62 and the amounts of insurance from $1,873 to $4,555.
One family, consisting of husband, wife, and three small children,
7, 5, and 3 years old, respectively, living on an income of $1,882 spent
12 per cent, of their total annual outlay in insurance premiums.
STREET CAR AND Bus

FARES

Under this head are included street car, bus, and suburban commuting fares for the husband to and from work, for the children to and
from school, and for other purposes, such as shopping by the wife.
The large area covered by the city of Detroit and its suburbs made
it necessary for most of the employees to ride to and from work.
Operations carried on at the Highland Park plant of the Ford Motor
Co. were transferred to the River Rouge plant as rapidly as possible
during 1929. Due to this change, the distance to and from work was
materially increased for many of the working men.
The distance from home to factory, together with the time required
to get to work, is given in table XVII. Considering all families, the
distance to the factory averaged 8.2 miles. Thirty-six families lived
less than 5 miles from the factory, 25 lived 5 but less than 10 miles,
24 lived 10 but less than 15 miles, 13 lived 15 but less than 20 miles,
and 2 families lived 20 miles from the husband's working place.

190

ANNEX I

TABLE XVII.
TRANSPORTATION OF HUSBAND FROM HOME TO FACTORY,
CLASSIFIED BY MODE, DISTANCE, AND TIME REQUIRED
Distance from home to factory
Mode of transportation

5 and 10
Un- un- and
der 5 der . under
miles 10
15
miles miles

Time required

Under 30 minutes . . .
30 and under 60 minutes
60 and under 90 minutes
90 to 105 minutes . . .
Under 30 minutes . . .
30 and under 60 minutes
60 and under 90 minutes
90 to 105 minutes . . .
Under 30 minutes . . .
30 and under 60 minutes
60 and under 90 minutes
90 to 105 minutes . . .
Street car and bus . . • Under 30 minutes . . .
30 and under 60 minutes
60 and under 90 minutes
90 to 105 minutes . . .
Walk
Under 30 minutes . . .
30 and under 60 minutes
60 and under 90 minutes
90 to 105 minutes . . .
Varying periods . . . .

4
14

15
and
un20
der miles Total
20
miles

7
1

1
4
4
1
2
2

1
4
9

1
4

1
2

3
1

3
3

1
1
2

1

5
19
10
15
9
5
3
2
6
5
1
1
4
1
2

1
1

1
1
1

1
2
1

1

3

36

5

25

3

1

H
24

13

2

12

100

* Used various modes of transportation at different times of the year requiring varying.
periods of time.

The number of car and bus rides taken by these families over the
period of the year, and the cost thereof, are shown in table XVIII. The
regular cash fare for adults on the street cars was 6 cents, or 9 tickets
for 50 cents. Bus fares were variable, ranging from 10 to 25 cents.
TABLE

XVIII.

EXPENDITURE OF FAMILIES FOR STREET CAR AND
BUS FARES
All families
Item

Other rides

Average
number of
rides

Families purchasing

Average
expenditure per
family

$

Number
of families

Average
expenditure per
family

404,4
21.7
60.4

32.10
1.26
4.04

89
8
92

S
36.07
15.76
4.39

486,5

37,40

—

—

E X P E N S E S OF SICKNESS

The cost of sickness includes the cost of physician, surgeon, oculist,
medicine, nurse, hospital, dentist, and eyeglasses. The average
cost of all of these items for the 100 families included in this study
was $64.23, the distribution by items being shown in table XIX, to
which is added also the expenditure incident to a death in one family.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

TABLE

XIX.

191

CHARACTER OF E X P E N D I T U R E S I N C I D E N T T O S I C K N E S S
AND D E A T H

Average expenditure
per family
(all families)

Item

Families having specified
expenditure

$

Total

Number

Average
expenditure
per family

$

38.17
8.99
0.40
4.80
10.74
1.13

82
99
2
7
62
12

64.23

—

—

0.50

1

•50.00

46.55
9.08
20.00
68.57
17.32
9.41

In addition to the averages shown above, it is of interest to note
that in 19 of these families serious illnesses occurred in which the cost
was over $100 during the year.
The death of a child occurred in one family and the birth of a
child in seven other families. In two of these families doctor bills
were still owing at the end of the year.
Expenditure for dental work was incurred by 62 families. This
work was probably neglected in many of the 38 other families, due
to lack of funds or ignorance of the value of dental care. The cost of
this service for 29 of these 62 families was less than $10. In one
case the dentist bills amounted to $42, for five other families they
averaged $63, and another family spent $90 for the care of teeth.
Twelve families bought eyeglasses, averaging $9.41 per family.
In eight families the cost was less than $10, in one family it was $14,
in another $15, and two families spent an average of $22.50.
Table X X shows the distribution of health expense for these
families.
T A B L E X X . — C L A S S I F I E D E X P E N D I T U R E OF 1 0 0 F A M I L I E S FOR P H Y S I C I A N
S U R G E O N , M E D I C I N E , N U R S E , H O S P I T A L , D E N T I S T , AND E Y E G L A S S E S

E x p e n d i t u r e class

Under $25 . . . .
$25 and under $50.
$50 and under $75.
$75 a n d under S100
$100 and under $125
$125 and under $150
$150 a n d under $175
$175 and under $200

Number of
families

Average expenditure
per
family

28
29
13
11
5
5
2
2

S
11.67
37.21
60.92
86.81
109.60
139.09
160.00
182.00

Expenditure class

$200
$225
$250
$275
$300

and
and
and
and
and

under
under
under
under
over

Total

$225.
$250.
$275.
$300.
. . .

AverN u m - age exber of penditure
famper
ilies
family

$

1
1

214.00
239.00

1
2

280.00
305.00

100

64.23

Unit costs. —It was not possible to get unit costs of medical services
for any considerable number of families. A few instances where this
information was available are probably fairly indicative of such
costs.

192

ANNEX I

Thus, for a considerable number of families physicians', surgeons',
and hospital charges were reported as follows: Office cases, $2, per
visit; house calls, $3 per visit; obstetrical cases, $50, $55, and $57;
goitre operation, $150; appendix operation, $150; tonsillectomy, $35;
use of operating room at hospital, $15 to $18; hospital pay ward with
two to six beds, $24.50 to $28 per week, including room and board,
general nursing, ordinary dressings and medication.
Dentist charges reported were as follows: Extraction, $1; one
crown, $6 ; two fillings at $3 each ; and one filling at $1.
As regards eyeglasses, there was one report of a $6 charge for two
lenses; one of $8.50 for two lenses; and one of $20 for a finished pair
of spectacles, including examination. Inquiry at opticians indicated
the usual charge for a pair of spectacles, with spherical or compound
lenses, was from $11.50 to $16.50.
The following list gives the prevailing unit costs at retail drug
stores of a few medicines of general use :
Calomel, Y4 grain, per dozen
Aspirin, 5 grains, per dozen
Castor oil, 2 ounces
Quinine pills, 2 grains, per dozen
Liquid prescription, 2 ounces
Liquid prescription, 4 ounces
Capsule prescription, 3 grains, per dozen . . . .

$0.10
0.19
0.16
0.20
0.65
1.00
0.65

SCHOOL EXPENSES

Most of the 100 families scheduled had some school expenses as
shown in some detail in table XXI. It was impracticable to obtain
unit costs for these items. Detroit has free public schools.
TABLE XXI.

Item

SCHOOL

EXPENSES

Average
expenditure
per family
(all lamilies)

Number

Average
expenditure
per family

2.44
1.50
2.47

16
25
74

15.26
6.01
3.34

6.41

—

—

$

Total

Families having specified
expenditure

$

E X P E N D I T U R E S FOR C L E A N I N G S U P P L I E S

Although two of the families covered made at home a large part
of the soap used for laundry purposes, household cleaning supplies
may be regarded as an unavoidable form of expenditure. The
expenditures for this purpose are shown in table XXII.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

193

TABLE X X I I . — E X P E N D I T U R E FOR CLEANING SUPPLIES

Item

Average
expenditure
per family
(all families)

Families having specified
expenditure

Number

Average
expenditure
per family

8.00
7.09
1.55

99
96
75

8.08
7.38
2.07

16.64

—

—

$

$

The number of bars of laundry soap used by the families for whom
this information was reported varied from 52 to 208 per year, the
large majority using 104 bars a year, or 2 per week. The unit cost
ranged from 3 % to 8 cents per bar according to weight and kind of
soap, and also according to whether purchases were made in large or
small quantities.
BARBER EXPENSES

Close economy was practised by several families in the case of
barber work, the children's hair cutting and at times the father's
being done at home. All families, however, reported some expenditure
for this item, the average per family being $12.37 per year.
The usual unit expenditure for the husband's hair cut was 50 cents.
Most of the husbands shaved themselves, but when done at the barber
shop the customary unit cost was 25 cents. A few wives had their
hair trimmed at barber shops, the customary reported unit cost being
50 cents. Very few wives of the families studied patronized beauty
shops.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES

With few exceptions the items listed here as miscellaneous may be
regarded as the "optional" items in the family budget. Many of
them are, of course, essential to a well-rounded budget, but no individual item can be so regarded. Thus, recreation of some kind is highly
desirable for every one, but whether this is secured by means of an
automobile, a bicycle, an annual vacation, or playground activities
is largely a matter of individual choice. Again, intellectual stimulus
is important, but whether this is obtained through books, or lectures,
or concerts, or evening schools is also largely a matter of individual
choice.
Radios and musical instruments have been included under furniture and house furnishings (p. 187), but might well be considered as being
among the optional miscellaneous items.
The expenditure per family on this group of miscellaneous items
was $175.77 per year, or 10.2 per cent, of the total budget. By far
the largest single item was for automobile purchase and upkeep
($76.78). The distribution of these miscellaneous items is shown in
detail in table XXIII. For many of the items, information regarding
quantity purchased and unit costs could not be ascertained.
13

194

ANNEX

I

TABLE X X I I I . —• E X P E N D I T U R E P E R FAMILY F O R M I S C E L L A N E O U S I T E M S
IN O N E Y E A R

Item

Accident insurance . .
Personal p r o p e r t y insurance
Church a n d other religious organizations .
Lodges, clubs, a n d societies
Charity
Gifts outside family. .
Motion pictures . . .
Plays and concerts . .
Dances
Other amusements . .
Excursions
Vacation (out of c i t y ) .
Travel (not vacation) .
Newspapers . .
Magazines a n d p e n o dicals. . . .
Books
. . . .
Postage. . . .
1

Average
* Average
3
Average
4
Average

Families purAverchasing
age expendit u r e per
Averfamily
age ex(all Numpendiber
famture per
ilies)
family

Families purAverchasing
age expenditure per
Averfamily Num- age ex(all
ber pendifamture per
ilies)
family

Item

4 $12.05

Music lessons

0.70

8

8.75

9.62

79

12.17

Tobacco
Tools
L a u n d r y work sent out

19.08
1.29
4.23

84
21
22

1.05
1.53
5.66
5.55
0.03
0.11
0.69
0.26
2.59

9
63
40
86
2
3
19
9
7

11.67
2.43
14.15
6.45
1.50
3.70
3.63
2.86
37.00

4.66
9.02
1.71
2.06
036
40.11
36.67
1.78

98
4.75
99
9.11
43
3.97
19 10.82
1 35.98
19 211.13
47 78.02
6 29.67

3.32

11

30.22

12.06

100

12.06

Toilet articles . . . .
Toilet preparations . .
Telephone
Moving
Bicycle
Automobile, c o s t . . .
Automobile, upkeep .
Garage r e n t
Servant a n d d a y w o r k
wages
Other miscellaneous
expense. . . . . .

s
1.46
* 0.20
1.63

48
7
99

3.04
2.88
1.65

$0.43

1
1

. . . . $2.61

9 $28.97
22.72
6.15
19.23

1.08

5

21.56

4.17

79

5.26

—

—

Total miscellane- 175.77
ous expense . .

n u m b e r of tickets t o motion pictures in t h e 100 families was 3 3 .
n u m b e r ol tickets t o plays and concerts in t h e 100 families was 0 . 1 .
n u m b e r of copies of magazines and periodicals in t h e 100 families was 10.6.
n u m b e r of books purchased in t h e 100 families was 0.2.

Church and other religious organizations. — Of the 100 families,
79 were church supporters, contributing an average of $12.17 during
the year. One family contributed $60, the highest by any family,
2 families $52 each, and 1 family $45.40. Spread over all 100 families
the average expenditure per family was $9.62.
Gifts outside the family. —• This item includes presents made to
relatives and others and formed an expense for 40 families, whose
average outlay was $14.15. Gifts to members of the family are counted
as ordinary family expenditures. Gifts in the form of money were
sent by several of these families to relatives in Europe. The money
expended for gifts, averaged over all the 100 families, was $5.66 per
family.
Motion pictures. •— The motion-picture expenditures were made
chiefly by the children and practically all were for afternoon performances. There was an average of 33 visits by each of the 100 families,
the average charge per ticket thus being 16.8 cents.
Newspapers. — All families took newspapers. Nine families
reported a daily only, 9 families bought a weekly only, 70 families
reported a daily and Sunday, 6 families reported a daily and 2 Sunday
papers, 1 family reported 2 dailies and 2 Sunday papers, while 5 other
families bought 1 or 2 papers in addition to the daily and Sunday issues.
The customary charges for newspapers were 3 cents for the weekday
editions and 10 cents on Sunday, for individual copies; a slight reduction was obtained on monthly subscriptions.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

195

Magazines and periodicals. •— There were 48 families in this study
which reported magazines and periodicals. The cost for these families
averaged $3.04. Public libraries will lend magazines, but it is impossible to state how much these families patronized the public
library. The average number of copies of magazines and periodicals
in the 100 families visited was 10.6 and the average cost for the 100
families was $1.46.
Books. —• Very few books were purchased by these families, the
average for the year being only one book purchased for each five
families.
Tobacco. — No expense for this item was reported by 16 families.
The cost of tobacco averaged $22.72 for the 84 families reporting itJust how much of this expense was for the husband only was not
stated. In only one family was it specified that the cost, $6.50 was
for the use of the wife. The cigarettes purchased usually cost from
12% to 15 cents per package of 20. Pipe tobacco cost from 10 to
15 cents per box of from 1% to 2 ounces.
Laundry work sent out. — The housewives in the majority of these
families did their own laundry work, but electric washing machines
were used in 49 of the homes. For the 22 families reporting laundry
expense, the average amount spent was $19.23.
Customary steam-laundry charges for selected items were: Men's
collars, 5 cents each; men's shirts, soft cuffs attached, 20 cents each;
sheets, 9 cents each, and towels, 5 cents each.
Telephone. — Only five families reported a telephone in the home.
Three families paid $31.20 telephone rent per year, one family paid
$27.80 per year, and the other family paid $15.60 for part of the year.
The cost of this utility averaged $3.97 for the 43 families reporting
this expense. Pay-station service was the principal charge entered
under this heading by 38 families.
The regular monthly rate for a residence telephone on a 4-party
line with 65 calls per month, was $2.60. The pay-station call was
5 cents.
Automobile — The automobile is becoming more and more a part of
the family equipment for recreation. Forty-seven of these working
men's families owned cars. The original purchase price was reported
separately from the upkeep of automobiles. Seventeen families purchased automobiles, new or secondhand, during 1929 and two families
purchased their cars in 1928 but completed the payments in 1929.
Upkeep on cars averaged $78.02 for the 47 families reporting this
expense.
One family of five persons living on an income of $1,694 purchased
a car costing $602. The automobile expenditure in this case (instalment payments on car and upkeep) constituted 27 per cent, of the
total expenditures. Fourteen families purchased their cars on the
instalment plan, ranging in price from $135 to $685. Five other
families bought used cars ranging in price from $25 to $235. These
cars were not purchased on the instalment plan.
Although 47 families had automobiles, only 8 used them regularly
to go to and from work while 13 other families used their cars for this
purpose only a part of the time.
Garage rent. —• When a rent contract covered both house and
garage, no attempt was made to segregate these items. Garage rent
for the six families having a separate rental contract covering this item
averaged $29.67.

196

ANNEX I

Servant hire. — Only five families reported this expense. Low incomes prohibited servant hire in these homes and helpers were hired
chiefly for the care of the children and the housework during the illness
of the wife. The amount expended for servants was relatively small
in every instance, averaging $21.56 for the five families reporting it.
HOME CONVENIENCES

The following data regarding the home conveniences enjoyed by the
100 families covered in the survey, while not presenting a very vivid
picture of the surroundings of these famijies, do portray in a way some
of the factors that enter into the standard of living:
Families having:
Automobile
Radio set
Radio loud speaker
Sewing machine:
Foot
Electric
Vacuum cleaner:
Hand
Electric
Telephone
Piano
Phonograph
Washing machine:
Hand

Number
47
36
35
75
5
2
19
5
13
45
2

Electric
49
Electrical appliances:
Iron
98
Fan
4
Toaster
6
The following data present some idea of the appearance of the
homes of these working men :
Families having:
Number
t
Screens :
Window
95
Door
96
Wall finish:
Living room:
Painted
7
White plaster
1
Papered
91
Rough plaster
1
Dining room:
Painted
11
White plaster
1
Papered
87
Rough plaster
1
Rugs:
Living room
94
Dining room
90
Pictures on wall:
Living room
83
Dining room
60

STANDARD O F LIVING O F DETROIT

EMPLOYEES

197

Families having: {cord.)
Window shades:
Number
Living room
100
Dining room
99
Window curtains:
Living room
99
Dining room
98
Window draperies:
Living room
15
Dining room
12
Heat:
Stove
56
Hot air
28
Steam
13
Hot water
3
The comparatively large number of modern conveniences shown
in the above enumerations is interesting, especially for working men of
the wage group to which these families belonged. The washing machine,
in particular, is a great labour saver and eliminates considerable drudgery, while the vacuum cleaner is another modern convenience that
not only makes housework more efficient but also provides a new
standard of sanitation. INSTALMENT BUYING
The desire of every family is steadily to improve its standard of
living, and instalment buying has developed from this desire. Advertisements are constantly urging the public to satisfy their wants
on the "easy payment plan."
The term " instalment buying" means the purchase and delivery
of an article for which the price is to be paid in fixed portions, at stated
intervals, and usually with a payment of part of the purchase price at
the time of taking possession of the goods.
Articles were being bought on the instalment plan by 59 of the 100
families included in this study. The majority of them, 35, were paying on purchases made in 1929. Eleven families were paying instalments on articles bought in 1928 and 1929, 10 on 1928 purchases only,
1 on 1927 purchases only, 1 on 1927 and 1929 purchases, and 1 family
was still paying on a living-room suite, a dining-room suite, and a
phonograph purchased in 1925.
Furniture (in either suites or separate articles) and house furnishings are the commodities most frequently purchased on the instalment
plan. The articles of furniture and house furnishings on which
instalment payments were made, by 16 families, were principally
separate pieces, such as day beds, chairs, refrigerators, dressers, rugs,
mattresses, and bed springs, but 13 families were purchasing suites of
furniture for the living room, dining room, or bedroom.
Automobiles were the next most popular article bought on instalment, 14 families having purchased them; 13 families were making
instalment payments on washing machines.
Table XXIV shows the articles being bought on the instalment
plan, divided into 11 classifications. Since 25 of these families bought
more than 1 commodity during the year, the total number of families
appearing in the table is greater than the number of families making
payments. The table also shows averages of income, expenditure,

198

ANNEX I

cost of articles, and amount paid during the year, as well as the number
of families who still owed money for such items at the close of the year
and the average amount remaining due. Unless otherwise noted, the
furniture purchased consisted of individual pieces.
Payments made prior to 1929 on articles carried over into 1929
are. not shown in the table.
TABLE XXIV.
A V E R A G E INCOME A N D E X P E N D I T U R E O F F A M I L I E S
B U Y I N G ON I N S T A L M E N T , AVERAGE COST P R I C E O F A R T I C L E A N D
AVERAGE AMOUNT PAID
Families reporting

Article
purchased

Owing a t end
o£ year

Average
NumAverage AverAverage
Num- a n n u a l
o u n t ber of Averannual
age
cost a m
ber income expendi- age
paid
price during families a m o u n t
ture
year

Item

F u r n i t u r e (separate pieces)
and house furnishings .
Automobiles
Furniture suites
Washing machines . . . .
Radios
Stoves
Sewing machines
. . . .
Musical instruments . . .
Vacuum cleaners
. . . .
Bicycle
H u s b a n d ' s suit

$
16
14
13
13
12
9
5
5
4
1
1

1,738.65
1,757.61
1,712.28
1,692.25
1,665.98
1,690.78
1,767".40
1,672.77
1,706.01
1,707.00
1,562.44

1,810.59
1,859.76
1,741.52
1,745.25
1,732.02
1,800.14
1,813.30
1,722.27
1,733.51
1,782.50
1,803.91

$

S

51.55 34.40
427.00 244.75
73.97
184.78
48.22
133.17
44.83
146.38
24.64
44.61 22.14
89.05
94.00
10.00
232.40
35.98
45.00
30.00
35.98
45.00

7
9
10
9
11
6
3
5
2

14.06
192.62
105.85
76.04
105.59
21.71
75.76
125.15
58.75
15.00

Families paging on one commodity only
Automobile
F u r n i t u r e suite '
F u r n i t u r e (separate pieces)
a n d house furnishings . .
Radio
Stove
Washing machine 2 . . . .
Musical i n s t r u m e n t s
. .
Average

S
1,850.89 419.78 263.94
1,712.73 172.86
88.36

Í
191.51
101.60

1,750.14 73.79
1,649.25 183.75
1,769.94
52.50
1,774.00 125.75
1,713.00 172.50

49.40
64.25
28.50
45.00
38.00

1,714.40 1,759.49 206.59

112.44

18.75
119.50
28.67
75.88
134.50
108.17

$
1,761.89
1,718.00
1,753.99
1,610.50
1,673.94
1,735.67
1,646.00
34

23

1
2 living-room suites of davenport a n d 2 chairs; 2 bedroom suites of bed a n d dresser;
1 bedroom suite of bed, dresser, chifforobe, and 1 c h a i r ; Ì bedroom suite of bed, dresser,
a n d chest of d r a w e r s ; 1 bedroom suite of 2 beds and chest of.drawers; a n d 1 dining-room
suite of table, buffet, a n d 2 chairs.
!
Piano.

STANDARD OF LIVING OF DETROIT EMPLOYEES

199

TABLE XXIV.
A V E R A G E INCOME AND E X P E N D I T U R E O F F A M I L I E S
B U Y I N G ON I N S T A L M E N T , A V E R A G E COST P R I C E O F A R T I C L E A N D
A V E R A G E AMOUNT P A I D (COIlt.)

Families paying on two commodities
Number of Average Average
expenfamil- income
diture
ies

Item

F u r n i t u r e suite and \
v a c u u m cleaner.

F u r n i t u r e * . . . $462.00 $88.00
1 $1,748.00 «1,833.00 1( Vacuum
cleaner .
5.00
68.50

—

Total
Sewing machine
furniture.

and

} 1

—

Total

Article b o u g h t

—
—
530.50
1 Sewing machine .
1,788.00 1,953.50 1 F u r n i t u r e . . . . 150.00
25.50
—

—

Washing machine and
radio.

}

—

Total
Radio a n d furniture

2

115.13

73.38

2

30.75

137.25
50.75

10.00
12.50

1

27.00

188.00

22.50

1

27.00

169.00
10.00

15.00
10.00

1

154.00

179.00

25.00

1

154.00

147.25
115.75

76.00
26.00

2
2

56.25
89.75

263.00

102.00

2

146.00

129.00
39.00

49.00
20.00
69.00

1

1

.

49.00

—

Total
Automobile and sewing \
machine.

1

49.00

450.00 420.00
90.00
10.00

1

1

30.00

} 1
—

Total
Washing machine a n d
furniture.

\

2

—

Total
Musical
instrument
a n d sewing machine.

1 1

—
Musical
instrument
and furniture.

} 1

540.00 430.00

1

30.00

—
—

—
—

F u r n i t u r e a n d musical |
instrument.

1

—
1,762.60 1 Vacuum cleaner .

—
I Washing machine

—

1,668.20 1,743.20 ( F u r n i t u r e

—

. . .

—

168.00

[Automobile
. .
1,884.00 1,884.00 1 Sewing machine .

1,637.65

—

—
1,690.65 (Washing machine

—

—

—

1,670.60 1,659.10
( Sewing machine .

—

—

1,752.25 1,877.25 \ F u r n i t u r e 4

. . .

—

1,649.00 1,649.00 Í Furniture • . . .
(Phonograph. . .

—

—

175.00 150.00
38.50
21.00
213.50 171.00

machine
1,716.78 1,795.78 j( FWashing
urniture. . . .

—

Total

Total

—

—

Total
Washing machine and
stove.

—

1,748.33 1,656.33

140.00

20.50
10.25

t 1

—

368.50

1

140.00

Radio and
cleaner.

—

1

2
1

}

1,737.60

93.00
10.00
25.50

1

(Washing machine
1,669.23 1,669.23 I V a c u u m cleaner .

vacuum

1 $305.00
1
63.50

52.00
21.38

2

—

V 0

< a

35.50

W a s h i n g machine and
v a c u u m cleaner.
Total

—

SCO

72.50
42.63

1,707.63 1,856.25

—

Number of
families

175.50

2

Total

Owing a t
end of year

I Furniture. . . .

.

F u r n i t u r e a n d stove

AveAverage
rage
paid
cost
during
price of current
article year

119.50
29.25

17.50
19.25

2

102.00

148.75

36.75

2

102.00

117.00
30.00

49.00
10.00

1

68.00

147.00

59.00

1

68.00

550.00 296.24
250.00
90.00

1
1

253.76
160.00

800.00 386.24

1

413.76

225.00
150.00

36.00
24.00

1
1

45.00
35.00

375.00

60.00

1

80.00

1
Living-room suite of davenport, 2 chairs, and t a b l e ; 1 bedroom suite of bed, dresser, a n d
chifforobe; a n d 1 dining-room suite of table, 6 chairs and buffet.
' 1 dining-room suite of table, 6 chairs, buffet, a n d china closet.
* 1 dining-room suite of table a n d 4 chairs; and 1 living-room suite of davenport a n d 2 chairs.

200

ANNEX I

TABLE XXIV.
AVERAGE INCOME AND EXPENDITURE OF FAMILIES
BUYING ON INSTALMENT, AVERAGE COST PRICE OF ARTICLE AND
AVERAGE AMOUNT PAID (COnt.)

Families paying on two commodities (cont.)
Number of Average
fami- income
lies

Item

Average
expenditure

Article b o u g h t

Owing a t end
Aveof year
Average
rage
paid Num«•H
cost
eoa
a 3
price of during ber of
f- o
current
article
year famiÊ.I
lies
<¡¡ CS

Radio a n d stove

. .

1

Automobile a n d furniture.

Average

—

—

. .
1,952.05 2,144.05 ( Automobile
(Furniture. . . .

1»

. . . .

$63.00
26.00

1

$13.75

128.75

89.00

1

13.75

600.00 227 00
42 00 40.00

1

2.00

$1,681.00 $1,931.00
1 Stove

—

Total

$89.00
39.75

1

—

—

—

642.00 267.00

1

2.00

19

1,729.07

1,793.82

280.47 113.37

17

113.56

Families paying on three commodities
Automobile and furniture.

} *
—

Radio, washing machine, a n d clothing.

Automobile, washing
machine, a n d radio.
Total
Average

. . . .

\

I Automobile
. .
' . . . $442.50 $121.50
$1,648.50 $1,752.00 {Furniture
1 F u r n i t u r e " . . . 112.83
53.08
25.50
59.70
—.
—
615.03 200.08

1

1,562.44

—

.—.

{Washing machine
1,803.91 (.Clothing
. . . .

—

2 $321.00
1
17.00
1
8.00
2 346.00

52.00
143.00
42.00
109.00
30.00
45.00
297.00 124.00

1
1
1
1

173.00

161.00
40.00
20.00

1
1
1

—

—

—

535.00 221.00

1

104.00
115.00
95.00
314.00

4

1,618.99

1,788.60

515.51 186.29

4

294.75

l'Automobile
. .
1,616.50 1,846.50 ( W a s h i n g machine
[Radio

} *

265.00
155.00
115.00

91.00
67.00
15.00

Family paying on four commodities
Washingmachine, sewing machine, bicycle,
and furniture.
Total.
Average

1'

(•Washing machine $107.00
67.00
$1,707.00 $1,782.05 1 Sewing machine . 35.98
17.46
(Furniture. . . .

$52.85
31 71
35.98
17.46

1
1

$34.15
20.29

227.44

138.00

1

54.44

227.44

138.00

1

54.44

$145.00 $30.00
(Radio
. . . .
| Sewing machine
. 133.00
49.00
9
U.787.40 $1,787.40 <Furniture . . .
23.00
29.50
18.00
28.00
( F u r n i t u r e '" . .
7.00
8.95
344.45 127.00
—
—

1
1
1
1
1

$115.00
67.00
6.50
10.00
1.95

. . . . .
. . . .

1

1,707.00 1,782.50

Family paying on five commodities
Radio.sewingmachine,
furniture, a n d stove.

\ »
—

1

200.45

. . . .

1

1,787.40

1,787.40

344.45 127.00

1

200.45

Grand average, 59
families . . . .

59

1,713.77

1,773.38

254.02

118.43

46

127.22

Total
Average

'7 Car returned; family unable to keep up payments. • Dining-room suite of table and 4 chairs.
" Separate pieces.
2 living-room suites of davenport and 2 chairs.
s
Separate pieces.

ANNEX II

Memorandum on the Detroit Budget Enquiry circulated to the
Collaborators oí the International Labour Office
A. — FOOD

The following table containing details regarding consumption of
foodstuffs is divided into two groups:
Group I. — The principal articles include all those arcicles on which
the average expenditure per family exceeds $5 per year. The total
expenditure on these articles represents 81 per cent, of the total
amount spent for foodstuffs. In this group certain articles in which
the quality and the price are very similar have been grouped together;
for example, the group "poultry " (No. 7 in the table) is composed in
the original table of two different articles " poultry, chicken, etc." and
" poultry, other ". In cases of this kind the quantities and the expenditure given in the table represent the total of the quantities and
expenses of the original articles. The price and the number of
calories per kilogramme are weighted averages of original data.
Group II. — "Other foodstuffs " include all the remaining articles
of minor importance representing 19 per cent, of the total expenditure
on food.
It will probably be sufficient if prices are obtained for 1930 for
the 31 articles contained in the first group. Nevertheless information
as to price of the articles in the second group would also be of great
utility for the purpose of this enquiry.
The annexed table gives the average, quantities consumed per
family, the average price per lb. and the number of calories per lb.
The number of calories will, it is hoped, be useful in the case where
substitutions are necessary; also for fixing the quality of the article.
In cases where the price of an article is liable to considerable seasonal
fluctuations, it will be necessary to give an average annual price.

202

ANNEX

II

Average
quantities
consumed
per family
lbs.
I. Principal
foodstuffs:
1. Beef, fresh, s t e a k
2.
,,
,,
roast
3.
,,
,,
stew
4 . Veal
5. P o r k , fresh
6. P o r k , salt
(a) Bacon
(b) Ham and shoulder
. . .
(c) Other
7. P o u l t r y
(al Hens
(b) Other
8. Sausage
9. Cooked m e a t other t h a n h a m
10. Fish, fresh a n d salt
(a) Fresh
(6) Salt
1 1 . Milk, fresh
12. Milk, condensed
13. B u t t e r
14. Cheese
(a) Ordinary American
. . .
(6) Other
15. B u t t e r substitutes
16. L a r d and lard substitutes . .
(a) Lard
(b)
„
substitutes
17. Eggs
18. Flour, w h e a t
19. Bread, wheat
20.
„
rye
2 1 . Cakes a n d cookies
22. Apples a n d peaches
(a) Apples
(¡>) Peaches
23. B a n a n a s
24. Oranges
25. Sugar
26. P o t a t o e s , Irish
27. Vegetables, canned
. . . .
(a) Beans, baked
. . . . .
(¡>) Peas
(c) C o r n 1
(d) Tomatoes
(c) Other

.

.

.
.

.
.

38.3
49.6
43.0
16.4
66.5
54.4
30.4
22.6
1.4
26.8
24.2
2.6
18.7
16.7
21.3
17.4
3.9
1,117.8
68.9
66.1
16.0
11.0
5.0
25.5
51.9
48.8
3.1
121.3
191.7
520.5
112.2
32.6
210.0
186.6
23.4
67.4
101.8
195.4
591.4
99.4
29.5
20.1
12.3
23.4
14.1
5.1
32.7
1,293.0
93.0 a

28. Tea
29. Coffee
30. Ice
3 1 . Luncheons and meals bought .
Total
I I . Other foodstuffs:
1. Beef, salt, corned
2.
,,
,, dried
3 . M u t t o n chops
4.
„
roast
5.
,,
stew
6. Liver
7. Soup bones
8. Other m e a t n o t canned . . .
9. Cooked m e a t , h a m
10. Canned a n d p o t t e d m e a t s
. .
1 1 . Fish canned, salmon
12. „
„
other
. . . . .
1
note 1 on next page.
13. See
Oysters
*
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d
weight
of
113.6
luncheons
14. Other sea food
15. B u t t e r m i l k
16. Cream
17. Ice cream
18. Vegetable cooking a n d t a b l e oils
19. Flour other t h a n wheaten . . •
20. Corn m e a l 1

Price
per l b .
cents
39.1
33.2
22.9
33.6
26.9
30.0
33.7
25.4
19.0
37.9
38.0
36.2
28.2
31.4
28.5
28.7
27.8
6.3
10.2
50.3
33.9
36.4
28.7
22.7
16.7
16.4
20.9
30.1
4.8
8.2
9.1
21.0
5.4
5.4
5.3
7.8
9.4
6.5
2.5
10.8
9.6
12.8
12.1
10.1
10.4
73.3
39.2
0.5
21.2

—
2.4
0.4
0.2
3.8
3.5
8.3
12.0
17.8
4.1
0.5
10.5
1.2
0.3
0.02
25.5
4.4
7.8
4.4
7.0
8.1

Average
expenditure
per family

$
14.97
16.47
9.83
5.49
17.85
16.26
10.25
5.74
0.27
10.16
9.22
0.94
5.26
5.24
6.07
4.98
1.09
69.90
7.05
33.24
5.43
4.00
1.43
5.79
8.62
7.98
0.64
36.57
9.25
42.44
10.18
6.84
11.34
10.10
1.24
5.24
9.56
12.67
14.94
10.71
2.83
2.57
1=49
2.36
1.46
3.75
12.82
6.94
19.68
450.56

23.8
60.0
34.5
35.0
25.0
23.0
12.5
21.7
61.2
31.8
28.0
28.1
43.7
80.6
4.7
30.2
34.9
23.8
9.1
6.1

0.57
0.25
0.07
1.34
0.87
1.91
1.50
3.86
2.48
0.15
2.94
0.35
0.13
0.01
1.18
1.31
2.72
1.11
0.64
0.49

a n d other meals per family.

MEMORANDUM ON THE DETROIT BUDGET ENQUIRY

Average
quantities
consumed
per family
lbs.
I I . Other foodstuffs

cents.

Average
expenditure
per family

Calories
per l b .

S

(cont.):

2 3 . Breakfast foods:
(b) Oats
(c) Corn1
(d) Other
24. Bread other t h a n of wheat or

27. Macaroni, spaghetti and noodles

31. Molasses, syrup a n d h o n e y . .

44. Canned a n d preserved peaches
45.
,,
,,
„ pineapples
46. Other fruits, canned a n d p r e 47. Jellies, preserves,

marmalade

48. Potatoes, sweet a n d y a m s . . .
49. Cabbage

53. Tomatoes
55. Corn 1

60 Turnips

67. Other dried vegetables. . . .
68. Chocolate
71. Nuts
72. Gelatin
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.

Price
per lb.

203

Chow-chow, pickles, olives etc. .
Baking powder, soda, veast e t c .
Condiments a n d extracts . . .
Soft drinks, fruit juices etc. . .
Other food

0.3
2.7

7.2
10.1

0.02
0.27

1,608
1,632

14.0
21.3
10.9
07

17.5
9.1
19 4
49.8

2.46
1.95
2.11
0.35

1,545
1,803
1,696
1,657

1.8
11.7
19.1
14.8
12.3
1.3
10.2
7.7
10.4
10.7
33.3
11.1
8.5
36.3
6.3
12.5
9.1
10.0
0.3
1.6
11.1
6.5

9.0
12.2
16.7
14.7
10.2
22.0
14.2
10.5
26.3
12.7
4.2
11.3
7.2
2.0
8.6
6.9
15.7
11.6
21.3
21.9
16.9
18.4

0.16
1.42
3.18
2.18
1.26
0.29
1.44
0.80
2.74
1.36
1.39
1.26
0.61
0.73
0.54
0.86
1.43
1.16
0.07
0.35
1.88
1.21

1,115
1,174
1,875
1,624
1,591
1,608
1,068
1,441
1,814
120
270
240
60
65
130
215
1,161
1,407
923
1,260
307
323

4.7

19.1

0.90

349

9.4
11.9
65.3
6.9
4.5
20.4
76.5
3.4
39.2
13.8
17.9
15.7
47.8
9.4
4.6
0.2
5.6
2.7
12.6
44.2
6.7
0.1
3.2
4.6
4.0
3.0
14.8
0.4
3.3
s

25.7
5.0
4.1
10.1
11.7
9.4
4.1
19.2
4.2
23.7
9.5
3.6
3.8
3.5
5.9
27.6
9.7
5.9
10.9
3.9
11.5
42.3
21.5
32.4
28.7
41.5
15.3
61.8
52.3

1,038
447
121
108
251
176
103
199
178
72
68
167
159
124
121
101
118
156
1,564
597
1,586
2,772
2,741
2,256
1,420
1,662
103
—
281

2.6

32.1

2.41
0.59
2.65
0.69
0.53
1.92
3.10
0.65
1.64
3.27
1.70
0.56
1.82
0.33
0.27
0.05
0.55
1.34
1.38
1.74
0.77
0.06
0.68
1.50
1.15
1.24
2.26
0.25
1.73
2.63
6.83
0.83
0.18
105.56

—

2
1

—
—

Total

:

—
—
345

556.12

1
It should perhaps be noted that in the American usage the expression "corn " corresponds to the English term "maize", the American "candy " to the English "sweets " ,
and "navy beans " to the English "butter beans " .
1
Quantity not reported and not significant.

204

ANNEX II
B. — HOUSING
Dwellings

rented
the^ccupLt
* » * * *
Number of families
32
68
100
Average number of rooms ' per family
4.8
4.6
4.6
Average number of persons per family . . . .
4.4
4.5
4.5
Average number of rooms equipped for heating
3.4
3.5
3.5
Bathrooms
20
52
72
Inside water-closets
26
60
86
Inside running water
—
—
97
Running hot water
•—
—
65
Average
yearly rent ' for dwellings of 4.6 rooms
$375.31
$391.47
$388.81
1
Living-rooms, bedrooms, kitchens are counted as rooms, while bathrooms, pantries
attics,
and cellars are not.
2
For houses owned by the occupant, the rental value was estimated as given here.
The average housing payments for the 32 families purchasing their home amounted to
$512.10, of which sum $136.79 have been treated as savings. Rents in Detroit include
taxes, insurance and rates.

The dwellings of the 100 families studied show a strong tendency
toward a certain "modal " type which might be described as follows:
The family occupies a separate house or a whole floor in a twofamily house"(61 cases). The house has 4 or 5 rooms (78 cases),
inside toilet, running water inside, kitchen sink, and sewer connection.
All rooms have outside exposure, and there are no dark rooms. The
house has one or more rooms per person (77 cases). The usual arrangement of a house with 4 or 5 rooms for 4 or 5 persons (parents and 2 or
3 children) consists of 2 or 3 bedrooms, a living room, or a living-dining
room, and a kitchen or a kitchen-dining room. Half of the rooms may
be heated.. The heating system consists most frequently of individual
stoves; central heating was frequent but not typical (44 cases). The
house is usually rented.
C. — FUEL AND LIGHT
Average
consumption
per family

Price

Average
expenditure
per family
$
8.59
34.98
10.41
4.83
22.69
20.43
2.90
1.61
103.20
4.7
22.15

S
Anthracite coal 1 (tons)
0.576
14.81
Bituminous coal ' (tons)
4.131
8.47
Coke* (tons)
1.305
7.94
Wood 3 (tons)
0.4
—
Gas * (1000 eft.)
28.6
0.79
s
Electricity (kwh.)
407.6
0.05
Kerosene « (Imperial gallons)
13.1
0.02
Matches and candles
—•
•—
Total
Average number of rooms per family
Average annual cost for heat and light per room
1
Only 18 families used anthracite coal.
s
Eighty-one families used bituminous coal, and 29 families used coke. Both fuels
were 3 obtained from the Ford Motor Co. at less than market prices in most cases.
The quantity of wood had to be estimated, since wood was used chiefly as kindling
wood. It also was in most cases supplied by the Ford Motor Co. at less than market prices.
Thirty-three families used wood for heating, and 2 used coal and wood for cooking.
* Used by 88 families.
5
Used by 100 families. Only one family used electricity for cooking. Bulbs are
replaced free by the electric light company.
* Nine families used only kerosene for cooking.
D. — CLOTHING

The figures as to expenditure on clothing by the 100 Detroit
families (see table VII of Annex I) are extremely detailed. It is
proposed, therefore, to limit the European comparisons to the prin-

M E M O R A N D U M ON T H E D E T R O I T B U D G E T E N Q U I R Y

205

cipal articles of clothing, as was done in the case of food. It is found
that a short list of about 10 of the principal articles of clothing for
each group (husbands', wives', and children's) is sufficient to give a
representative sample. The following tables are therefore confined
to the important items, and cover in the case of husbands and wives
about 70 per cent, of the total expenditure.
1. Husbands and wives.
Table I shows the average number of articles purchased per year,
the average expenditure per family, and the average price per article,
for each of the articles selected. Prices are required for each of these
articles.
2. Children.
In the case of children, it has been decided to select the age-group
in which the greatest number of children was found, viz. the age-group
8-12. Table 11 gives the average expenditure, the average price per
article and the average number of articles purchased per year.
I. — Clothing for Husbands and Wives
I. Principal articles
(a) Husbands' clothing :
1. F e l t b a t s
2. Caps
3. Woollen suits
4. Overcoats
5. Cotton trousers
6. Cotton shirts
7. Union suits, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots a n d shoes
10. Cotton gloves
1 1 . Ties
12. Belts
13. Overalls

Number
ol articles
per family

(6) Wives'
clothing:
1. H a t s
2. Dresses, silk or rayon
3. Dresses, cotton
4. House dresses a n d bungalow a p r o n s . .
5. Woollen coats
6. Petticoats and slips, cotton . . . .
7. Bloomers, step-ins and drawers, silk
or rayon
8. Shirts a n d vests, cotton
9. Stockings, silk or rayon
10. Shoes
11. Gloves, cotton
Total for articles included (husbands and wives)
II.

Minor

articles excluded1

Total husband's and wive's expenditure
1
For details, see Annex I, table V I I .

0.56
0.S6
0.41
0.14
1.39
4.50
2.28
14.09
2.31
9.34
1.89
0.48
0.35

1.49
1.03
1.02
3.20
0.42
1.56
1.28
1.65
4.01
1.87
0.52

Average
expenditure Average price
per family
per article
in dollars
in dollars

2.06
3.68
1.22
1.41
11.25
27.43
3.33
23.75
2.82
2.03
5.14
1.14
3.05
1.34
3.41
0.24
10.25
4.44
1.97
0.21
1.52
0.81
0.37
0.78
0.60
1.72
$46.99 = 73.9 per cent.
of total h u s b a n d s ' expenditure.
3.80
7.73
1.77
3.33
10.54
1.19

2.55
7.51
1.74
1.04
25.09
0.76

1.08
0.85
0.65
0.40
4.03
1.01
7.99
4.27
0.46
0.89
$42.57 = 71.9 per cent.
of total wives* expenditure.
$89.56 = 72.9 per cent.
of total h u s b a n d s ' and
wives' expenditure.
$ 3 3 . 2 4 = 27.1 per cent.
of total h u s b a n d s ' and
wives' expenditure.
$ 1 2 2 . 8 0 = 100.Opercent.

All of the "principal articles " are contained in the sample collection with the exception of felt hats. Item No. (a) 9 is a combination of
two articles "high shoes " and "low shoes ".

206

A N N E X 11

II. — Children's Clothing (age groups 8-12)

(1)
I. Principal
articles
(a) B o p s :
1 Caps
2 . Woollen suits
3 . Cotton trousers
4. Overcoats
5. Sweaters or lumberjacks
6. Cotton shirts
7. Union suits, cotton
8. Cotton socks
9. Boots
(6) Girls:
1. H a t s
2. Cotton dresses
3 . Silk or rayon dresses
4. Woollen coats
5. Sweaters a n d lumberjacks
6. Petticoats and slips, cotton
7. Union suits, cotton
8. Bloomers, drawers, cotton
9. Cotton stockings
10. Shoes

11. Minor

articles

excluded

Total for all children's clothing

Number
of articles
per child '
(2)
1.55
0.55
2.13
0.29
0.92
5.21
3.00
11.68
2.76
1.23
4.30
0.55
0.48
0.50
2.20
1.65
4.63
9.00
2.38

Average
expenditure Average price
per child
per article
in dollars
in dollars
(3)
(4)
1.48
5.45
2.45
1.84
2.19
3.39
2.67
3.51
6.44

0.95
9.87
1.15
6.36
2.38
0.65
0.89
0.30
2.33

Î29.42
1.90
4.60
1.92
3.96
1.00
1.10
1.65
1.67
2.79
7.10

1.55
1.07
3.49
8.34
2.00
0.50
1.00
0.36
0.31
2.99

$27.69
$57.11 = 65.0 per cent
of t o t a l expenditure.
35.0
per cent
$30.76 =
of total expenditure.
$87.87 = 100.0 per cent

1

Column N o . 2 shows t h e number of articles purchased per boy (or girl) aged 8-12.
The figures in Annex I, table I X , give t h e n u m b e r of articles purchased per 100 families
(irrespective of whether they had children of t h e age-group considered) a n d t h e n u m b e r of
articles purchased "per family purchasing " . The figure for e.g. boys' caps is arrived a t
b y dividing t h e n u m b e r of caps purchased by t h e n u m b e r of boys aged 8 t o 12, i.e. 59/38 or
1.55, and t h e expenditure for caps is correspondingly adjusted.

With the exception of No. 7 (girls), which is similar to No. 7 of
the boys' list, all the articles enumerated under I and II are contained
in the sample collection.
E. —• OTHER ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE

The original tables referring to miscellaneous expenditure are
extremely detailed. For this reason, a short list has been drawn up
of those articles for which prices may be ascertained most easily. The
average expenditure for these selected items amounts to $223.62 or
48.5 per cent, of the total for all the residual items ($461.03). The
following table gives a description of the articles and of the information required, the average number of articles, the average yearly
expenditure per family, and the average price paid in Detroit per
article during 1929. The articles excluded consist to a large extent
of "optional " expenses which vary considerably and depend on local
habits, customs and conventions, and personal tastes. It is proposed
to allow for this group of expenses by giving to the worker in each
of the towns considered the same margin of income for these optional
items as is available to the Detroit worker.

OTHER
Average n u m b e r of articles
per family
(2)

Description of article
purchased in Detroit
(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Blankets
Sheets
Pillow-cases
Cotton towels
Cotton a n d linen tablecloth
6. Table oilcloth
7. Lite insurance

3.08
1.21
0.36
0.27

0.4
1.3
$2076.0

1.54
0.52

486.5 rides

•

—

•

0.08

9V2 visits to doctor
6 "house calls ' "
10 visits t o the dentist '

2.00
3.00
1.00

104 bars of l !a u n d r y soap '
other soap
soap powder '

—

1 1 . Barber expenses .

12 hair cuts (men) '
12 „
„ (child) '
12 shaves ' . . . .

0.50
0.25
0.25

12. Moving pictures

33 tickets

0.168

13. Newspapers . . .

235 daily papers
50 Sunday papers
. . . .
100 packets of 20"
cigarettes
42 packets of 2 1 ounces

0.03
0.10
0.14
0.12

17 men's shirts *
15. L a u n d r y work sent o u t .
9 sheets'
82 internal letters
. . . .
16. Postage
34 calls from public stations
17. Telephone
I. E x p e n d i t u r e for included i t e m s .
I I . R e m a i n i n g expenditure . . . .
Total

0.20
0.09
0.02
0.05
48.5
51.5
100.0

10. Soap

14. Tobacco

1

Average cost
par article
in dollars
(4)

0.6
2.1
2.6
4.7

8. Daily t r a n s p o r t

9. Medical expenses

-

. . . .

Estimated quantities,

* Quantities n o t given.

Observat
(5)
Samples lor Nos
cluded in t h e s
tion of clothing
is a combination
of t h e origina

ANNEX I l i

How Ford's Lowest-paid Workers Live 1
By J. W.

NIXON,

Chief of the Statistical Section, International Labour Office
. . . . Thanks to the collaboration of the Twentieth Century Fund,
t h e Ford Company at Detroit, and the United States Bureau of Labour
Statistics, an enquiry into the standard of living of the Detroit
employee was conducted on the spot by agents of the Bureau, who by
house-to-house visitation obtained an account of the income and
expenditure of 100 families 2. In view of the purposes of the investigation, it was thought desirable to limit it as far as possible to homogeneous families who were, in fact, living entirely or almost entirely on
the Ford minimum wage. A "natural family " of man, wife, and two
or three children under sixteen was therefore selected, in which the
husband was the sole breadwinner. This excluded single men in lodgings; married couples without children ; married couples with children
over sixteen contributing to the family income; families with lodgers
or relatives; etc. The husband also must have been in the employ
of the company for the. whole of the year 1929. This does not mean
that the husband earned on every possible day of the year (260 days);
absences due to sickness, accident, annual vacations, general holidays,
family circumstances, and temporary unemployment account for a
loss of time. The average number of days worked, in the families
studied, however, was 250 per annum. The whole purpose of the study
was thus to determine how a certain defined type of family lived during
the year 1929 on about $35 a week.
The general results of the enquiry may be summarized in table I.
TABLE I
Dollars

Average earnings of husband . . .
Average earnings from other sources

1,694 63
17 24

Total average income
Average expenditure per family . .
Average deficit, for all families . .
Average daily earnings

1,711 87
1,719 83
7 96
6 78

1
Reprinted with permission of the editor and the author from
The Social Service Review, Vol. V, No. 1, March 1931.
2
The detailed results of this enquiry will be found in the Monthly
Labour Review, June 1930, published by the U.S. Bureau of Labour
Statistics, Washington, D.C., and in Annex I of this Report.

HOW FORD'S L0WEST-PAI1, WORKERS LIVE

209

It should be emphasized at the outset that these figures do not
relate to a representative family but to a specially selected family of
four to five persons as described above. The figures are not representative of workers' families in Detroit, still less of the families of
workers employed by the Ford Motor Company, for they cover only
families of which the head received the lowest wage scale in 1929. The
average annual earnings of Ford employees must, of course, be higher
than the foregoing figure 1. It is not possible, therefore, to base any
conclusions as to the "American standard of living" on the results
of this enquiry, though other interesting conclusions can be drawn
from it, and some comparisons with other enquiries of a somewhat
similar nature.
DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURE

The distribution of the average yearly expenditure is shown in
table II, together with the percentage spent on different groups:
TABLE II
Amount

I. Food
II. Clothing
IV. Fuel and light
V. Other expenses

. . . .
. . . .

Per cent.

556.12
210.67
388.81
103.20
461.03

32.3
12.2
22.6
6.0
26.9

$1,719.83

100.0

In other words, the four chief groups (food, clothing, housing, fuel
and light) accounted for 73.1 per cent, of the total expenditure, and
all other items 26.9 per cent. The proportion spent on food is fairly
low and indicates a relatively high standard of living. It is well
known that as income increases, the proportion spent on food decreases, and the percentage shown above is lower than that of any
recent family budget studies.
A somewhat similar enquiry was made in Detroit by the U.S.
Bureau of Labour Statistics in the years 1918-1919. On this occasion
the enquiry comprised families of one child or more, and not families
with two or three children under sixteen as in the present case;
families in which only 75 per cent, of the income came from the head
of the family were also admitted. The results were given for families
with different classes of income; for the present purpose families with
a total income between $1,500 and $1,800 are selected (108 in number,
1

In December 1929 the Ford Motor Company announced that
24,320 of their employees were affected by the decision to increase
the minimum wage to $7.00 a day. All other workers amounting to
113,643 received an increase of 40 cents a day; of these 27,410 were
increased to $7.20, 33,396 to $7.60, 22,971 to $8.00, 12,327 to $8.40,
and 17,539 to between $8.40 and $10.00.
14

210

ANNEX III

and containing on an average 4.8 persons). The families compared
in the two cases are not therefore strictly comparable. The figures are
given in table III, to which are added the results of the German family
budget inquiry of 1927-28, the only recent European inquiry. The
highest group of families, average income R.M. 5,027, is taken for
comparison.
It will be seen that the lowest expenditure on food and the highest
sum available for miscellaneous expenditure is found in the Detroit
families of 1929. If, as is now generally accepted by social investigators, the proportionate expenditure on food gives a rough indication
of the standard of living, the Detroit families have a higher standard
than the German worker.
TABLE III.

PERCENTAGE EXPENDITURE ON DIFFERENT GROUPS
Detroit investigation

Item

1929

Clothing
Rent
Furniture and furnishings .
Total
Average size of family

. .

32.3
12.2
22.6
6.0
5.1
21.8

1918-19

35.2
15.8
18.3
6.5
6.2 1
17.9 /

100
4.5

100
4.8

$1,712

$1,637

German enquiry
1927-28

41.5
14.6
14.1
2.8
23.1
100
4.9
RM. 5,027

It would be of great interest to trace in detail the changes in the
standard of living in Detroit during the last ten years, as shown by
these two budget enquiries, especially as the general level of the cost
of living was approximately the same at the two dates. Unfortunately, the results of the earlier investigation were not published in
sufficient detail to enable satisfactory comparisons to be made. Some
general deductions, however, can be drawn. It will be seen that expenditure on food and clothing has decreased, while that on rent has
increased. In respect of food, detailed information for each item was
only published in 1918-1919 for the U.S.A. as a whole and for certain
areas (e.g., the north central states). Taking the figures for the north
central states for comparison, the most striking fact is the great decrease in the consumption of beef from 201 pounds in 1918-1919 per
family per year to 134 pounds in 1929; of potatoes from 819 pounds
to 590 pounds and of flour from 300 pounds to 198. On the other hand,
the consumption of fresh milk has increased from 718 pints to 1,118
pints, of butter from 51 pounds to 66 pounds, of eggs from 77 to 121,
of wheaten bread from 392 pounds to 520 pounds. There has also
been a large increase in the consumption of fresh fruit and of canned
vegetables. In respect of housing, the standard of accommodation seems
to have slightly risen, the average number of rooms per family inDetroit
was 5.4 in 1918-1919, and 4.6 in 1929. On the other hand, the average
price per room paid by the Detroit families of incomes between

211

HOW FOBD'S LOWEST-PAID WORKERS LIVE

$1,500-1,800 was only $268 in 1918-1919, compared with $389 in 1929,
and the proportion of the income spent on rent correspondingly
increased from 18.3 per cent, to 22.6 per cent. Fuel and light show
little change, except that bituminous coal has to a considerable extent
replaced anthracite, and the consumption of electricity has increased
from 165 kilowatts to 408. The most difficult group to compare is that
of clothing. The number of articles for which comparisons can be made
is very limited, and information (as in the case of food) is not available
in 1918-1919 for Detroit. On the whole, the number of articles bought
shows a decline both for husbands, wives, and children, in the ten
years, with the exception of silk and rayon goods, which show a fourfold
increase in the case of women's stockings and a fivefold increase in the
case of their silk dresses.
The general conclusion, based on somewhat slender evidence,
seems to be that Detroit families are spending slightly less on food,
a substantial decline in the consumption of fresh meat and potatoes
being largely balanced by increased consumption of milk and butter,
fresh fruit, and canned vegetables; that the standard of housing accommodation (including fuel and lighting) has changed little, though
rents have risen; that there has been a considerable change in the
kinds of clothing worn, and a decrease in the quantities of articles
purchased. The increased diversity of tastes and the broadening of
the basis of expenditure is evident from the increased amount (small
though definite) in miscellaneous expenditures.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY EXPENDITURE
OF DETROIT FAMILIES IN 1929

The different groups of expenditure in 1929 are analysed in further
detail below.
1. Food. — This constitutes, as in all family budget studies, the
most important single item of expenditure. About one-third of the
weekly income goes in food, although as indicated above this proportion
is considerably smaller than is usually found in working-class families.
The distribution of expenditure over the principal items is shown in
table IV.
TABLE IV.

AVERAGE EXPENDITURE PER FAMILY ON FOOD
Percentage
of total

Item

Amount

Dairy products (milk, cheese, eggs, etc.) . .

157.40
124.03
64.57
69.49
21.58
19.68
99.37

28.3
22.3
11.7
12.5
3.9
3.5
17.8

$556.12

100.0

Bread, flour, and meal

.

Vegetables and fruits (dried and canned) .
Factory lunches and meals bought outside
Total

Dairy products absorbed 28 per cent, of the weekly food bill, followed by meat, fish, and poultry (22 per cent.). These two groups
alone account for one-half of the food expenditure.

212

ANNEX

III

The food value of the Ford workers' budget has been evaluated by
the Bureau of Home Economics of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
which analysed the "food content " of each article of food according
to a table of equivalents prepared by the food experts of this Bureau.
The results compared with the "standard " adopted by this Bureau
are given in table V.

T A B L E V.

A N A L Y S I S O F FOOD C O N T E N T P E R E Q U I V A L E N T A D U L T ,
MALE

Calories
Protein (grammes) .
Phosphorus (grammes)
Calcium (grammes) .

Detroit families

Standard family

3,236.5
96.9
1.58
0.987
0.016

3,000-3,500
70-101
1.38-2.75
70-1.02
0.015-0.023

The food budget thus appears to be sufficient in quantity and well
balanced as between the different constituents.
2. Clothing. — The average outlay for clothing was $210.67, or
12.2 per cent, of the total expenditure. This expenditure was distributed as follows:
Husbands' clothing
Wives' clothing
Children's clothing

$ 63.59
59.21
87.87
Total

$210.67

On an average the husbands buy a felt hat about once in two
years, a wool suit every two and one-half years, an overcoat every
seven years, and a sweater every three years. Each year the average
husband purchases 5 shirts, 2 ties, 2 union suits (cotton), 14 pairs
socks (cotton), 1 pair socks (silk or rayon), 2 pairs of shoes, 2 pairs
work gloves (leather), and 9 pairs (cotton). Wives on the other hand
buy on the average a wool coat every two and one-half years, 3 hats
every two years, 1 pair of cotton gloves every two years and a corset
and brassière every two years. Each year the average wife purchases
2 dresses, 4 pairs stockings (cotton), 4 pairs stockings (silk or rayon)
2 pairs shoes, 3 house dresses, 2 petticoats or slips, 2 pairs of bloomers,
1 nightgown, and 1 pair of slippers.
For children, owing to the fact that the distribution by sex and
age differed for each family, it is of no interest to give the average
expenditure per 100 families. Table VI, however, shows, for those
families having boys and girls within the age-groups given, the average
expenditure on clothing per child.

HOW FORD'S LOWEST-PAID W - : K E R S LIVE

TABLE VI.

213

AVERAGE EXPENDITURE ON CLOTHING PER YEAR
Age group

4-8
8-12
12-15
15-16

Boys

Girls

$18.92
31.43
43.91
57.32
68.55

$19.71
29.86
40.00
45.37
75.70

Under four years of age there is little difference between boys' and
girls' expenditure; from four to fifteen, boys seem to require more
expenditure than girls; while over fifteen, girls cost more than boys.
The average expenditure per child rises continuously with age. It is
interesting to notice that in these 100 families it costs more to clothe a
boy of fifteen than a father, and much more to clothe a girl of fifteen
than a mother (though not necessarily his or her father and mother).
3. Housing. — This item forms nearly a quarter of the total
expenditure.
Out of the 100 families, 68 occupied a rented dwelling, and 32 were
purchasing their homes. The principal characteristics of these dwellings are shown in table VII.
TABLE VII

x

Renting
dwellings

Number of families
Number of persons per family
Number of rooms per family
Number of families occupying three rooms
or less
Number of families occupying four rooms
and over
Number of dwellings containing bathrooms
Number of dwellings containing inside w. c.'s
Number of rooms equipped for heating .
Average rent per year

68
4.5
4.6

Purchasing
dwellings

32
4.4
4.8
3

63
52
60
3.5
$391.47

29
20
26
3.4
$375.31

1
The average rent of home-owning families is based on the statements furnished by
the occupiers ; the actual payments were on the average higher, amounting to $512.10;
the difference was treated as savings.

It will be seen that the housing standard is a fairly high one. A
"typical " or model home might be described as follows: The family
rents a separate house or whole floor, containing four or five plastered
rooms and bathroom, inside toilet, running water. All rooms have
outside windows. The house has at least one room per person and
consists generally of two or three bedrooms, a living-room, and a
kitchen. It has individual stoves with half of the rooms fitted for
heating. The yearly rent is about $85 per room.

214

ANNEX III

4. Fuel and Light. — The average cost of heating and lighting was
$103.20 per year, or a little over $22 per room. The average spread
over the whole 100 families was distributed as in table VIII.
TABLE VIII

Anthracite coal (tons) 0.6
Bituminous coal (tons) 4.1
Coke (tons) 1.3
Gas (1.000 cubic feet) 28.6
Electricity (kw.) 407.6
Kerosene, matches, candles,
Totaland wood . . .

$

8.59
34.98
10.41
22.69
20.43
6.10 '
$103.20

5. Other items of expenditure. — This group consists of all the
remaining expenditure varying from necessaries, such as daily transport, to "optional " expenses, such as radios. It amounted on the
average to $461 a year, or nearly 27 per cent, of the total expenditure,
distributed as in table IX.
T A B L E I X . •— D I S T R I B U T I O N OF M I S C E L L A N E O U S E X P E N D I T U R E

Furniture and house furnishings
$ 88.55
Life insurance
59.16
Sickness expenses
64.73
Street car and bus fares
37.40
Cleaning supplies and hairdressing
29.01
Education
6.41
Music lessons
2.61
Gifts outside family
5.66
Automobile, cost
40.11
Automobile upkeep and garage rent . . . .
38.45
Church, religious organizations, clubs, etc. .
10.67
Motion pictures
5.55
Newspapers and magazines
13.52
Tobacco
19.68
Laundry sent out
4.23
Total
$461.03
Toilet articles and preparations
13.68
Vacation
andfact
travel
In view
of the
that this group is the one in which 5.91
individual
needs and
also of the
Othertastes
itemshave their greatest range, and in view15.70
small number of families on which the averages are based, it is not
possible to draw any very definite conclusions from these figures. As
the families were established famihes, the expenditure on furniture
and furnishing was fairly small, about 5 per cent, of the income.
Daily transport to and from work was incurred by nearly all
families. Owing to the large area of the city, large distances had to
be covered in many cases, 37 workers living more than 10 miles from
the factory. The average distance was 8.2 miles.
Five families possessed a telephone, and forty-seven owned automobiles, but only eight used them regularly to go to and from their
work. Five families only reported expenditure for domestic service.
Thirteen families owned pianos and forty-five phonographs and thirty-

HOW FORD'S LOWEST-PAID WORKERS LIVE

215

six radio sets. Every family except two possessed an electric iron, and
half the families (49) an electric washing machine; twenty-one
possessed vacuum cleaners. The number of modern conveniences is
comparatively large considering the wage-class to which these workers
belonged, but this is perhaps partly due to the fact that in every case
the wife stayed at home and did the housework.

CONCLUSIONS

The new study of the standard of living of a small selected group
of Ford's workers' families must not be taken as representative of the
American standard of living. The group is a small homogeneous one
fulfilling certain preliminary conditions. It shows, however, a reasonable standard of comfort, and their budgets appear adequate for health
and efficiency. The problem now before the International Labour
Office is to translate this budget into European prices, having regard
to differences in climate and habits of living. This raises a number
of interesting problems that cannot be treated here but will be fully
dealt with when the final report of the International Labour Office is
available.

A N N E X IV

Further Observations on the Methods and the Validity
of the Results of the Present Enquiry 1
by H.

STAEHLE

(Research Division, International Labour Office)
together with a
" Note on t h e relation between the index-numbers of the cost
of housing and the cost of food in t h e different cities "
by R.

GUYE

(Research Division, International Labour

Office)

INTRODUCTION

The enquiry conducted by the International Labour Office which
is the subject of the present article might be described briefly as an
attempt to answer the question: How much would be spent in January 1931 by workers in certain European cities in order that they
might have a standard of living approximately equivalent to that of
a Detroit worker whose expenditure in 1929 was about 1,720 dollars ?
The answer to this question thus involved the determination
of the various incomes which would be equivalent, in the different
European towns, to an American income of specified amount. Given
this first result, it was only necessary to calculate the ratios of these
sums in order to obtain cost-of-living index numbers, for comparisons
in space and for the standard of living in question. In fact, an index
number (whether intended for comparisons in time or in space) is
precisely the ratio of the equivalent money incomes.
Nearly every country publishes at regular intervals what is
known as a cost-of-living index number, which shows the movement
from time to time in the general level of prices for the items on which
a worker spends his income. The accuracy and reliability of these
index numbers is sometimes contested. It is pointed out that they
omit certain items which ought to be included or include certain items
which need not be included; that the budgets by which the prices
are weighted are not usually representative of actual expenditure,
and so on. Nevertheless, these figures have come to be accepted as
indicating in a general way the changes in the cost from time to time
of maintaining unchanged a certain standard of living. The question
of definite changes in the standard of consumption over a period of
years is usually not taken into account. In practice a certain standard,
frequently a "pre-war standard ", is taken as the basis and an estimate
is made of what it would cost, in view of the change in prices between
1
Reprint of an article published in the International Labour Review, Vol. XXVI,
No. 3, September 1932, under the title of "An International Enquiry into Living Costs ".
Certain passages summarising the methods (which are given in detail in Chapter II of the
present report) have not been repeated here.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS

217

that basic date and the present time, for a worker to maintain the
same standard as he had in that original period.
The enquiry which the Office was asked to undertake was thus
to some extent similar to these cost-of-living enquiries undertaken
in various countries, but it also had certain fundamental differences
due to the fact that it was a place comparison and not a time comparison. Whereas in time comparisons changes in the standards
of consumption are slow and can be ignored over short periods, in
place comparisons this is not the case and it is necessary to consider
not only such natural factors as climate, but also national habits,
traditions, and customs. In the case of this enquiry the standard
of living taken as a base was that obtained by a small sample of
workers' families fulfilling certain conditions in the city of Detroit
during the year 1929. Further details as to this standard of living are
given later on.
It should be emphasised at the outset that the enquiry was thus
a limited one and related solely to the hypothetical worker referred
to above, and that the problem was to take the standard of consumption of this worker and to compute the cost of an equivalent standard
in certain European towns. x The figures obtained as a result of the
enquiry cannot necessarily be applied to other categories of workpeople and to workpeople of other income levels.
T H E NOTION OF "STANDARD OF L I V I N G "

The first thing, therefore, to make clear is the interpretation
of the term "standard of living ". For the purpose of the enquiry
this was defined as the sum of the economic satisfactions derived from
the total consumption of goods and services. What characterises the
standard of living of an individual or family is not the fact that the
individual or family consumes certain quantities of certain foodstuffs,
fuels, articles of clothing, etc., but the total satisfaction derived from
this consumption. This definition leads to two results: in the first
place, since the degree of satisfaction (or to use the economist's terms,
the total utility) cannot be measured directly, in the same way, for
instance, as bread is measured in pounds, but can at the most be
deduced for a particular person at a given moment from the choices
he makes with regard to his needs and their satisfaction, any attempt
to compare the satisfactions of different individuals must be indirect
and remain an approximation. All that can be hoped of an enquiry
of the present kind is therefore in any case only a more or less satisfactory approximation.
As no method is capable of giving a rigorous solution, it is obvious
that the choice of method must be an arbitrary one. The Office has
made its choice; it is perfectly aware that its choice is perhaps open
to strictures. But as the Office was under the necessity of providing
a solution to the problem set it, the methods it has chosen cannot be
rejected without showing that some other method of approximation
would be better suited to the matter in hand.
In the second place, it clearly follows from the above definition
that different individuals or families, especially if they live under
entirely different conditions in different countries and under different
1
The towns were: Berlin, Frankfort, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Helsinki (Helsingfors),
Paris, Marseilles, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Manchester, Cork, Warsaw, Barcelona, Istanbul.

218

ANNEX IV

«limâtes with highly varying physical conditions and traditions, may
arrive at the same standard of living or the same total satisfaction
by the consumption of quite different kinds and quantities of commodities and services. It would therefore have been of little value to
calculate only how much the goods and services consumed by the
American worker would cost in Germany, Poland, or Spain, for the
German, Polish, or Spanish worker who had the income so calculated
would have made an entirely different use of it. In other words, as far
as possible the differences in national customs, consumption habits
and price systems had to be taken into account.
This last point conceals certain reserves, however, which might
have been fatal to a correct solution. For whatever data are selected
to represent the customs or the standard of consumption in a given
country, they must always reflect the level of the standard of living.
Wherever enquiries into family budgets have been used to determine
the average family consumption for different incomes, this consumption
is found to vary in composition with the income. When it is found, for
instance, that in 1927-1928 a German worker (with an annual expenditure of 1,156.60 marks per adult) consumed nearly twice as much
margarine as butter, while a German official (with an annual expenditure of 1,917.93 marks per adult) consumed nearly twice as much
butter as margarine, this difference is clearly to be ascribed
primarily to the difference in income. But when it becomes a question
of comparing these German customs as to consumption with those
of the Detroit worker, which is to be taken as representative of the
German customs, the consumption of the German worker or of the
official ? And is it at all possible to distinguish between the effect of
custom and that of the existing standard of living ? This necessity,
on the one hand to take into account differences in habits in the
different countries, and on the other to prevent the actual standard
of living from affecting the result, was one of the most difficult problems
of the enquiry, because it could arise not only, as explained, when
selecting the data on consumption, but also and less evidently for the
price data. The prices indicated for a given town might give expression
to the standard of living of the inhabitants in so far as they referred
to goods of better or worse quality; and then again, it was not clear
how far the preference given to a " w o r s e " quality merely gave
expression to a general custom.
T H E BASIC INFORMATION

It follows from the preceding considerations that the basic information necessary for an enquiry of this nature must be of two kinds :
(1) the quantities of articles and services of all kinds normally
consumed and the price paid for each of these articles and
services by the Detroit worker;
(2) the same information for each of the European towns.
The first kind of information was supplied by the United States
Bureau of Labour Statistics, which conducted a very detailed enquiry
into family budgets of Detroit workers for the year 1929.1 The enquiry
covered 100 families and was restricted to those which met the following requirements : the family must have had no material income other
than the earnings of the husband; the husband must have earned
1
For a critical analysis of the results of this enquiry, cf. an article by the present
writer in Schmollers Jahrbuch, Vol. 54, II, 1930, pp. 1107-1134: "Die Lebenshaltung mindestbezahlter Arbeiter der Fordwerke in Detroit."

FURTHER

OBSERVATIONS

219

approximately 7 dollars a day (that is, 35 dollars for a five-day week) ;
he must have worked at least 225 days (45 weeks); the family must
consist of husband, wife, and not less than two or more than three
children under 16; it must have no boarders, lodgers, or relatives living
in the family; and the family must have occupied a separate dwelling
during the whole year.
The results of this enquiry are given in great detail in a report which
is reproduced above as Annex I. In this will be found full
information on the quantities of articles and services and the prices
paid by these families during 1929. It was not found practicable to
adhere absolutely to a 7-dollar daily rate, as it was not till December
1929 that the 7-dollar minimum was established. The average daily
earnings throughout the year averaged 6.78 dollars and the average
number of days worked was 250. The annual average expenditure of
the 100 families was 1,720 dollars for a family of 4y 2 persons (or
3.27 man-units). This figure therefore served as basis for comparison
with the European towns. 1
The information of the second kind, concerning consumption
habits in the European towns, especially as regards food and lighting
and heating, was taken as far as possible from the official publications
of the different countries in agreement with the national statistical
authorities. In spite of the resolution adopted by the International
Conference of Labour Statisticians in 1925 recommending countries
to hold post-war family budget enquiries about the year 1928, such
enquiries only exist for three out of the countries covered by the
present enquiry, namely, Germany (1927-1928), Poland (1927), and
Belgium (1928-1929).2 For France, Spain, and Turkey there appears to
be no official information on this question. For France, however,
certain statistics based on the Paris octroi statistics give the average
consumption per head in 1928-1929; for Barcelona there also exist
some statistics on per capita consumption, and for Turkey the estimated
food budget computed by the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce for its
cost-of-living index number was adopted. For Great Britain, where
the last budget enquiry dates from 1904, it has been possible to compile,
by the aid of certain unofficial investigations based on official statistics,
a food budget sufficiently representative of the post-war period. For
the other countries sufficiently recent family budgets exist, namely,
Denmark (1922), Sweden (1923), Finland (1920-1921), the Irish Free
State (1921), and the Netherlands (1923-1924). The statistical authorities of the countries covered expressed their agreement with the use
of these figures for the purpose of comparing the cost of foodstuffs,
etc., in their town with Detroit. The question how far the fact that these
budget enquiries were conducted several years ago may have
influenced the results of the comparison is dealt with in a later section
of this article.
Particulars of the prices and articles and services utilised have
been furnished in all cases by official collaborators (in the majority
1
I t might be pointed o u t here t h a t according t o the statistics ot t h e National Industrial
Conference Board the average weekly earnings (or 1929 of American workers in the industries
considered were 33.96 dollars for skilled and semi-skilled workers and 28.73 for unskilled.
This sample of 100 workers is therefore not unrepresentative of American earnings in
general during this period.
s
The results for Belgium have n o t yet been published, but the statistical authorities
of this country furnished preliminary information on food budgets of certain families in
Antwerp and on t h e a m o u n t s of gas, coal, etc., consumed for lighting a n d heating b y a
certain n u m b e r of workers' families in Eeckeren.

220

ANNEX

IV

of cases the official central statistical office) by means of special enquiries held in each town. The same authority has also furnished all the
other necessary data, such as information concerning taxation, social
insurance, etc. The Office carefully examined all these data, compared
them with other known sources of information, suggested modifications where necessary, and reached the conclusion that the resulting
information could be used with confidence.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF THE ENQUIRY

In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to compare
certain results obtained in the enquiry both between the different
towns and also with other information in so far as it exists. Comparisons are first made separately for certain groups of expenditure,
and secondly for the whole expenditure from the point of view of its
distribution among the different groups.
It should be emphasised that the results published are subject
to a large number of reservations which are fully set out in the study,
and which are again enumerated at the end of this article. It is
necessary to insist especially on the fact that comparisons between
one European town and another are not strictly justifiable 1 . The results
obtained for each European town are independent of each other. In
each case a comparison was made between the European town and
Detroit. Moreover, the original comparisons did not always cover
the same period. While the information received for Detroit concerned
the average for the year 1929, the European data covered various
periods between July 1930 and April 1931. In a period of rapid and
irregular price changes these different dates would naturally give
non-comparable results, but the Office attempted to eliminate this
element of non-comparability as far as possible by bringing all results
up to one particular date, namely, January 1931, by the application
of national cost-of-living index numbers. But this method affects
the accuracy of the figures, partly because the index numbers available
relate in some cases to the whole country and not to the particular
town covered, and partly because they are based on prices of certain
articles and services, sometimes rather different from those used for
the purpose of the comparison between the European town and Detroit.
Food
Justification of the Formula Adopted
For all the calculations to the food group, the formula recommended
by Prof. Irving Fisher and other economists has been used. 2 The
reasons why this method seemed particularly suitable deserve further
1
To make such comparisons is analogous t o "shifting t h e base " in time index numbers ;
a process which, as is shown in a n y treatise on t h e theory ot index numbers, may involve
fallacies.
2
Cf. The Making of Index Numbers, by Irving F I S H E R ; Boston, 1922. If p„ a n d p t
represent t h e prices for a series of foodstuffs in two countries (or a t two dates) a n d q„ and qt
represent t h e quantities of these foodstuffs consumed in t h e two countries (or a t t h e t w o
dates) respectively, t h e "ideal " price index formula is as follows:

Index -

100 X l / l ^ !
S Po 5o

x

^ 2 Po (il

F o r t h e interpretation of this and similar formulae, cf. in particular G. H A B E R L E R :
Der Sinn der Indexzahlen (Tübingen, 1927), and more recently J . M. K E Y N E S : A Treatise
on Money (London, 1930), Vol. I.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS

221

consideration. The next point to examine will be how the results
obtained with this method compare with the results of other possible
methods of comparison and, in particular, what value should be
attached to certain other proposals made by individual collaborators
in the enquiry and taken into account by the International Labour
Office.
The " i d e a l " formula appears specially suitable for the present
purpose on various grounds. In the first place, the result can be
presented in terms that exactly correspond to the problem. It also
takes into account existing differences in the customs of the different
countries, without, however, being unduly affected by the particular
standard of living of these countries, the date of the budget enquiries
used, and the number of commodities considered. Thirdly, the result
is independent of the choice of base. These points may be briefly
considered in turn.
•If the suffix " 0 " stands for Detroit and the suffix "1 " for Berlin,
and it is assumed that the first ratio under the square root sign of the
" ideal " formula gives the following result:
= 0.9 or 90 per cent.,
2 Po 4o

this means that the food consumption (so far as taken into account)
of the American worker is 10 per cent, cheaper in Berlin than in
Detroit, and that this American worker could live in Berlin in the same
way as in Detroit at a cost of 10 per cent. less. Or to put it in another
way, the Berlin price level (so far as taken into account in the calculation using the formula) is for him at least 10 per cent, lower than that
of Detroit, for it is extremely probable that by slight modifications in
his consumption he could obtain the same degree of satisfaction
somewhat more cheaply.
Assuming that the second ratio under the square root gives the
following result:
2 Pi </•

= 0.8 or 80 per cent.,
¿J Po

?i

this means that the consumption (so far as taken into account) of the
German worker is 25 per cent, dearer in Detroit than in Berlin, and
that this German worker would have to increase his expenses by
25 per cent, in order to live in Detroit in exactly the same way as in
Berlin. In other words, the Detroit price level is for him at most
25 per cent, higher than that of Berlin, for it is extremely probable that
by slight modifications in his consumption he could obtain the same
degree of satisfaction somewhat more cheaply.
It follows from the above that from the point of view of the
American worker prices in Berlin are at least 10 per cent, lower than
in Detroit, whereas from the point of view of the German worker
prices in Detroit are at most 25 per cent, higher than in Berlin. In
other words, 90 per cent, and 80 per cent, are the limits between which
the "true " price ratio between Berlin and Detroit must lie. Moreover,
the "true " price ratio is the ratio (if it could be determined) which
should exist between incomes in Detroit and in Berlin which are

222

ANNEX

IV

equivalent from the point of view of the degree of satisfaction obtainable by them respectively. 1
It may, of course, happen that this relation is not exactly the
same for the American as for the German worker. But this becomes
all the more improbable, the more similarity there is between customs
and tastes in the two countries. In cases in which consumption habits
appear to differ too much the possibility of using a chain of indexes
passing through countries of intermediate conditions might have been
considered. This was in fact suggested at the Fourth International
Conference of Labour Statisticians held at Geneva in 1931, but was not
accepted owing to the absence of any agreed criterion for measuring
the degree of dissimilarity among the intermediate countries.2
Effect of using Different Standards of Consumption.
Experience shows that the particular standard of living of the
families whose consumption is used for the weights (qj for calculating
by the "ideal " formula has no effect, or practically none, on the result.
The differences that may be observed in the consumption of the
families belonging to various income groups in a given country are too
small when compared with the differences in the consumption of any
families in different countries to have an important effect on the price
ratio. Table I (see p. 223) shows the results of certain calculations on
this subject.
The first group of comparisons refers to the prices in Berlin and
Frankfort on the Main on the one hand and Detroit on the other;
the German weights are based on the consumption of an average
working-class family and the consumption of the highest paid official's
family, as shown by the budget enquiry of 1927-1928. The second and
third groups are somewhat more complicated. They refer to prices
in each of two towns: the second group to prices in Warsaw and Copenhagen, the third to those in Helsinki and Stockholm. The differences
between the individual comparisons in each group depend on the
different systems of weights applied. For the first comparison of each
group the prices are weighted by the total average consumption of all
the families included in the budget enquiries in question. For the.
second and third comparisons the weights used are the consumption
of the lowest income class in one town and that of the highest income
class in the other. Finally, the last two comparisons in each group
show the results of using the consumption of the highest or the lowest
income class in both towns. In all these cases it is found that, whatever
the consumption used to represent the customs of a country, the price
ratios show only insignificant differences. It may therefore be concluded — at least for the countries or towns considered here — that,
although the differences in consumption customs of different countries
have been taken into account, the result of the calculation remains
independent of the current standards of living in these countries. The
"ideal " formula therefore satisfies an important condition for solving
the problem in question.
1

For a similar reasoning applied to time comparisons cf. H A B E B L E B : op. cit.
Cf. International Labour Review, Vol. X X I V , N o . 1, J u l y 1931, p . 1 9 : Resolution,
adopted b y t h e Conference, paragraph (15). I t m a y be noted t h a t in a recent article t h e
present writer has suggested a formula which can be used t o measure t h e degree of d i s similarity, a n d consequently of similarity, between t h e food budgets of different countries.
Cf. Archiv für Sozialivissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Vol. 67, No. 4, J u n e 1932, p p . 436-446i
" E i n Verfahren zur E r m i t t l u n g gleichwertiger E i n k o m m e n in verschiedenen L ä n d e r n . "
2

FURTHER

223

OBSERVATIONS

TABLE I . — E F F E C T O F D I F F E R E N T CONSUMPTION W E I G H T S ON T H E
R E S U L T O F T H E COMPARISON O F FOOD P R I C E S I N T W O C O U N T R I E S

umber
Group a n d N
of foodseries
stuffs
n u m b e r of
concomparison sidered

(1)

I:

(1)

Prices used

(2)

Consumption weights used

!

Result of
t h e "ideal"
formula
(prices in
base t o w n
= 100)

Base town

Other town

Base t o w n

Other t o w n

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

German workers
spending per manunit in 1927-1928:
R M . 1,156.60

74.8

German officials
spending per manunit in 1927-1928:
R M . 3,409.65

75.8

German workers
spending per m a n unit in 1927-1928:
R M . 1,156.60

83.8

German officials
spending per manunit in 1927-1928:
R.M. 3,409.65

84.9

(2)

29

1

Detroit

Berlin

Detroit workers

?»

J»

Frankfort
on the Main

(3)

(4)

55

J?

I I : (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

20

Ì7

55

III:(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

20

Stockholm

Copenhagen
?5

J)

Warsaw
J?

55
55

?»

zl.
kr.
o finn
Í
8
Copenhagen
i/o-« w
Warsaw
j . 3« «2
families
4,¿OU workers
O""
spending per< 1 , 3 0 0 • spending peri 1 , 5 5 0
man-unit in 4 9 c;n
1922 a b o u t : | ^ ^ man-unit in 1 e¡c;f)
1932 a b o u t : )
rnn

kr.

J?

55
55

Helsinki

?»

»?

79.1
79.9
78.2
77.4
80.8

F.mks.

Stockholm
11,570 Finnish
16,440
families
2 , 2 5 0 workers
4,530
, spending perl -i -\AÍ\ spending perl n o-j r\
man-unit i n \ ^ ' % f i man-unit in 1 £ ' ° î "
1922-1923
2 , 2 5 0 1920-1921
9,810
about:
11,140 1 about:
14,530

73.2
71.1
73.0
72.6
71.5

1
Prices as supplied b y t h e statistical authorities of the countries concerned. The original d a t a used are
reproduced in t h e appendices t o the respective town reports.
1
The consumption weights are derived from t h e sources given in t h e footnotes t o table I of t h e respective town reports. The lists of articles included are so established as t o include the largest possible n u m b e r
of foodstuffs appearing in b o t h budgets, taking into consideration t h e prices available.

It may be noted that without this valuable property of the formula
the problem would be insoluble, or at best soluble only by the method
of trial and error, since before the comparison could be made it would
be necessary to know the comparable income class whose consumption

•224

ANNEX IV

determines the system of weights used ; or, in other words, in order to
solve the problem the solution must be known.
Fundamentally, these explanations and calculations merely
reconfirm and use the well-known fact that in calculating index
numbers the variables (in this case the prices) have a greater effect
on the result than the weights (the quantities consumed). The same
fact also explains why, for instance, the comparison of the prices for
Antwerp with those for Detroit yields very similar results regardless
of whether the system of weights used is the food consumption of
Belgian families in 1908-1909, in 1921, or in 1928-1929. This is shown
by table I I .
TABLE I I .
E F F E C T O F U S I N G C O N S U M P T I O N W E I G H T S R E L A T I N G TO
D I F F E R E N T D A T E S U P O N T H E COMPARISON O F A N T W E R P P R I C E S
(OCTOBER 1 9 3 0 ) W I T H D E T R O I T P R I C E S ( A V E R A G E 1 9 2 9 )
Result ot "ideal " formula

Date to which
the consumption
weights relate

Number oí
articles
considered

First price
ratio

Second price
ratio

Geometric
average

1908-1909 1. .
19212 . . . .
1928-1929 3 . .

23
30
41

73.22
79.04
74.31

67.07
64.42
63.12

70.08
71.35
68.49

1
Cosí of Living in Belgian Towns, p . x i i . (Report oí a n E n q u i r y b y t h e (British)
B o a r d of Trade.) London, 1910. Cd. 5065.
' " U n e enquôte sur la n a t u r e et le coût d e l'alimentation des classes laborieuses " ,
in Revue du Travail. May 1922, p p . 693-694.
' F o o d consumption of 45 Antwerp families communicated b y t h e (Belgian) Ministry
of Industry, Labour, a n d Social Affairs.

The fact that the Office has been compelled to make use of rather
"out-of-date" family budget enquiries does not therefore affect
the reliability of the results.
Effect of varying the Number of Foodstuffs.
It may be added that table II brings out another notable quality
of the formula chosen. It appears in fact that the result, at least in
this case, is independent also of the number of commodities taken into
account. It should be noted, however, that this is true only so far as
the commodities included can in fact be shown to be consumed in the
two countries, that is to say, so far as data of the quantities consumed
are available for the two countries. The following discussion is intended
to throw more light on this point.
The International Labour Office originally asked its collaborators
for the prices of a number of so-called "principal" articles of food,
i.e. those on which the Detroit worker spent at least 5 dollars a year,
or about 1 per cent, of his total food expenditure; these were 31 in
number, representing 81 per cent, of his total food expenditure. The
principle of selection was clearly based solely on the importance of each
article in the American budget. On closer consideration of the European
food budgets it was found, however, that not all these articles could
be proved to have been consumed in the European cities; it therefore
became necessary, for lack of European consumption data, to exclude
some of these 31 articles from the comparison, so that the two branches
of the formula might relate to the same commodities. This exclusion

FURTHER

225

OBSERVATIONS

of certain "principal " commodities was found sometimes to have a
substantial effect on the first branch of the formula, whereas the
addition of even a considerable number of other commodities (for
which both American and European consumption weights were known)
did not seriously affect the result. This is clearly brought out in
table III, where the figures under (a), (b) and (c) give examples of these
three ways of calculating the first price ratio. It will be seen that while
there is a large difference between the figures under (a) and (b), there
is no substantial difference between those under (b) and (c). In other
words, it could be shown that the result of the formula is practically
constant, provided only such commodities are included in the comparison as can be shown to be generally consumed on both sides.
T A B L E I I I . — E F F E C T OF CHOICE O F ARTICLES I N C L U D E D
IN T H E COMPARISON U P O N T H E F I R S T P R I C E RATIO O F T H E
" I D E A L FORMULA "

-Values
Town

<»
A

Berlin
Copenhagen
Stockholm
Helsinki. .
Warsaw. .
Antwerp .
Cork . . .
Istanbul. .
Rotterdam
Barcelona .

30
31
31
28
30
31
31
26
28
23

A = N u m b e r of articles considered.

computed for t h e first price ratio
on t h e basis of:
(f>) those articles
among t h e "major
(c) all articles
foodstuffs " t h a t appearing in b o t h
appear in both
b u d gets
budgets
A
|
B
B
B
A

83.17
85.90
94.39
81.53
84.41
77.51
105.30
69.22
84.63
66.62

25
21
22
20
21
27
16
19
21
14

82.37
78.40
88.70
71.35
63.43
74.83
81.65
58.41
81.45
60.56

29
21
31
20
41
41
20
19
21
21

82.33
78.40
89.80
71.35
62.64
74.31
81.86
58.41
81.45
59.27

B = Value of first price ratio (Detroit = 100).

At the same time, the difficulties in the way of determining the data
used in the calculations are considerable. First, the quantities have
to be known for a series of " corresponding " articles in each of the two
towns to be compared. Next, the price for each of the articles in the
list of quantities has to be determined separately for each of these
towns. As foodstuffs are classified in widely different ways in different
countries and towns, it is obvious that the necessary associations of
data concerning quantitites inevitably imply some degree of arbitrariness. There is the same difficulty as regards finding the prices to be
attached in each town to the articles in the list of quantities, as in
many cases this means that more or less arbitrary averages have to be
calculated. The food tables given as an appendix to the report on each
town in the Office study contain numerous examples of these arbitrary
but inevitable associations. As a consequence, there is every likelihood
that the degree of comparability of the prices thus found for the two
towns will not be very high.
These associations have provoked criticisms by the various Governments invited to submit observations on the report, and notably by
the French Government.

226

ANNEX IV

In formulating these criticisms the Statistique générale de la France
first draws a distinction between two parts of the work done by the
Office, namely: (a) the process of collecting and checking the numerical
data, and (£>) the treatment of these data, of which the former is
undoubtedly the most important, and then continues:
It is certain that the figures are not comparable, though it is not
possible to estimate the magnitude of the errors resulting from this
fact. All that can be done is to raise certain queries.
For instance, as regards the comparative prices of foodstuffs in Paris
and in Detroit, why is it that for potatoes the price of 1.28 frs. per
kilo in Paris has been adopted (a purely arbitrary average calculated
by the Statistique générale de la France for an entirely different purpose)?
It seems that it would have been equally legitimate to take the price
of round white potatoes, which was only 1 fr. per kilo (25 per cent. less).
For mutton (roast), the price chosen for Paris was that of the dearest
part (leg), or 30.70 frs., while the price of shoulder was 24 frs. and of
frozen leg 14.50 frs.; are there any special reasons to justify this choice ?
The same questions could be asked for the other kinds of meat,
for butter, for cheese (the price of which is considerably higher than
in Detroit because the Gruyère type has been chosen for Paris,) etc.
The Statistique générale de la France draws the conclusion — relating
not only to the food group, but to all the work done by the Office —
that:
It is thus permissible to consider that the comparability of the
very bases of the calculations is open to serious doubt. The method
adopted for the treatment of the basic data obviously cannot eliminate
this drawback, any more than it could remove the difficulties inherent
in t h e very nature of the problem if the d a t a were in fact rigorously

comparable.

It may be admitted that in theory this reasoning is unassail-0
able. It is however based primarily on the hypothesis that the
data used for the various countries are not comparable. Now, while
it is obvious that, in view of the great diversity of the points of view
ruling the determination of the basic figures (and in particular prices)
for the different countries, it is extremely probable that the figures
are not comparable, yet we are dealing here only with a probability,
and by no means with a certainty. Further, it would be necessary to
decide exactly what is meant by "comparability ": does it mean that
the quality of each article should be so chosen as to be absolutely
identical in all the towns, or would it do to have prices referring to the
most usual qualities ? The present writer, considering the interpretation given to the formula chosen by the Office for the comparison of
food prices 1 , is rather in favour of the latter alternative, which has
also the advantage of avoiding the necessity of taking qualities that
are not very usual in certain countries into account. It may evidently
happen that the necessity of adapting prices to the data concerning
the quantities consumed, which in many cases means calculating
average prices, may result in endangering such comparability as the
prices may have. But the contrary would be equally possible. It is
to verify how far the French Government's hypothesis, on the one
hand, or the reality of the danger suggested, on the other, is the more
tenable position that table IV has been compiled.
1

See above, pp. 221-222.

TABLE IV.

Number
ol
comparison

1

v

2

3

4

COMPARISONS OF THE COST OF FOOD IN PARIS AND IN DETROIT
SETS OF DATA
Data used
Weights

Prices

Source

Date

Board of T r a d e : Consumption of 1,951 families in
30 French towns, earning
52s. l i d . per week 1

1907-1908

Board of Trade: Consumption of 1,055 families in
30 French towns, earning
32s. 4 % d . per w e e k 1

1907-1908

Regional Committee on the
Cost of Living (estimate):
Consumption of a Parisian Approxifamily of 4 persons
mately 1914
Technical
Committee
Food: Consumption
inhabitant of Paris

on
per
1928-1929

5

Ditto

1928-1929

6

Ditto

1928-1929

Source

Date

Special enquiry

Oct. 1930

Ditto

Oct. 1930

Ditto

Oct. 1930

Technical
Committee
on Food 3
Oct. 1930
Ditto
J a n . 1931
Statistique générale
la France 4

de
J a n . 1931

Cost of Living in French Towns, p. xvm (Report ol an Enquiry by the (British) Board ol Trade). London,

228

ANNEX IV

This table, comparing the prices of food in Paris (in October 1930
and January 1931) with the corresponding prices in Detroit (annual
average for 1929), gives resultswhich confirm those shown in the various
preceding tables. Further, it demonstrates that while the hypothesis
of the Statistique générale de la France is at first sight highly plausible,
it does not seem to be confirmed in this particular case.
(a) The almost complete identity of the results of Nos. 1 and 2 in
table IV indicates that for Paris also the comparison is independent of
the income of the families whose consumption provides the weights.
(b) The close similarity between the results of Nos. 1 and 2 on the
one hand and of Nos. 3 and 4 on the other is a reminder that the
comparison is not affected by the date at which the consumption was
ascertained (cf. table II above).
(c) As the weights in Nos. 1 and 2 refer to the average workingclass consumption in 30 French towns, and in the other cases to the
Paris district, the similarity of all these results indicates that the error
caused by using the Paris weights for Marseilles as well cannot be very
important.
(d) The close resemblance between the results of Nos. 1-3 on the
one hand and of No. 4 on the other shows that the comparison is hardly
affected by the number of articles considered, provided these articles
are the same in Detroit and in Paris (cf. table III above).
(e) As the weights in Nos. 1-2, 3 and 4 are derived from entirely
different sources, in which the data are classified in very varied ways,
and as they apply to a very variable number of articles considered,
the similarity of these results indicates that the arbitrary associations
of quantities and prices must in fact have compensated each other
in the cases shown here.
(f) As the prices are also derived from entirely independent
sources in Nos. 1-3, 4-5, and 6 1, the similarity of all the results obtained renders probable in this particular case what is a priori highly
improbable, namely, that the prices derived from completely different
sources are none the less "comparable " ; the alternative being that in
this particular case it is the arbitrary associations of quantities and
prices that have produced this phenomenon of stability, in spite of the
non-comparability of the basic data.
The above discussion may be summed up as follows :
(1) The "ideal " formula yields results for a comparison of prices
between two places that are practically independent of the standard
of living in these places.
(2) The results of the formula are in essence unaffected by the dates
of the systems of weights used.
(3) So far as the calculation covers only such articles as can be
shown to be used on both sides, the results display a noteworthy
constancy.
1
The slight difference between Nos. 5 and 6 (relating to the same date) indicates
that the uniformities observed in the preceding cases do not manifest themselves here
with the same force. It would however be an exaggeration to think that a difference of
4 points (less than 5 per cent.) is enough to deprive of all value a method which seems to
give complete satisfaction in all the other cases presented in this article.

FURTHER

OBSERVATIONS

229

So far, then, as these results are general — and there is reason to
believe them to be so — it will be sufficient to have an adequately
representative and not too old food budget for each country concerned
in order to obtain a reliable result, by applying the "ideal "formula to a
number of foodstuffs that can be shown to be consumed in both cases.
It should finally be observed that this formula meets the test of a
reversal of the places in question. Thus if a comparison of Berlin with
Detroit shows that prices in Berlin are 80 per cent, of those in Detroit,
a comparison of Detroit prices with those of Berlin will show that the
price level of Detroit is 125 per cent, of that of Berlin. It is obvious
that this condition should be satisfied by whatever formula is adopted,
and it was therefore impossible to accept the proposal to use the arithmetic instead of the geometric average of the two branches of the
formula because of its greater ease of calculation. •
This brief consideration of the reasons in favour of using t h e " ideal"
formula for an international comparison of prices will in itself have
shown that the results obtained by the International Labour Office
for at any rate the "food " group of the budget possess considerable
reliability.
Comparison of Results with other Enquiries
For some years the International Labour Office has been making
a periodical enquiry into the relative cost of living in certain countries.
For this purpose the retaù prices of a certain number of foodstuffs
are obtained and these are weighted by means of an "international
budget " formed by combining the figures shown in various national
budgets. ' A comparison of the results of this periodical enquiry with
those of the present enquiry is rendered more interesting by the fact
that the prices used in the two sets of calculations are obtained in quite
independent ways (except for France, where the prices used in the two
enquiries are the same). This comparison is made in table V. For the
present enquiry the price ratios for each European town were based
on the Detroit prices of 1929, and on European prices of various dates
in 1930 and 1931. In order to make the results as comparable as
possible the Office has used the national food price index numbers to
bring the figures up to January 1931. 2
The figures in columns (2) and (3) of table V show, in national
currency and in dollars, the estimated equivalent expenditures on
food at different dates brought up to January 1931 by the use of the
official cost-of-living index numbers. In column (4) these sums are
expressed as percentages of the Detroit figures. They therefore give
1
For further details and t h e composition of this budget cf. International
Labour
Reuiew, Vol. X X I I , N o . 4 , Oct. 1930, p p . 542-546.
5
An example will show the procedure. The price ratio for Berlin was found t o be
74.6 per cent. Hence the food expenditure of 556.12 dollars ( = 2,335.70 marks) in Detroit
(1929) has t h e same purchasing power as 1,742 marks (i.e. 74.6 per cent, of the Detroit
expenditure) in Berlin (November 1930). German food prices fell by 2.9 per cent, from
November 1930 to J a n u a r y 1931, according t o the German cost-of-living index number.
The corresponding expenditure for Berlin in J a n u a r y 1931, rounded to t h e nearest 5 m a r k s ,
is therefore 1,690 m a r k s . On t h e other h a n d , according t o t h e figures of the U.S. Bureau
of Labour Statistics, food prices in Detroit fell from 1929 (annual average) to December
1930 b y 15.9 per cent., which when applied t o 556.12 dollars gives an expenditure of a b o u t
468 dollars. The price ratio for Berlin a t t h e beginning of 1931 compared with Detroit a t
t h e end of 1930 is thus about 86 per cent., provided the prices of t h e articles of food included in t h e calculations had followed t h e movement indicated by the general food index
number. In actual fact this is, of course, only approximately the case, and t h e application
of t h e national indexes as described above therefore introduces some degree of uncertainty
into the calculations.

230

ANNEX IV

TABLE V.
COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED FOR FOODSTUFFS
BY THE "IDEAL " FORMULA WITH THE RELATIVE COSTS OF THE
"INTERNATIONAL B A S K E T " IN JANUARY 1 9 3 1

Town

Total food expenditure
( J a n . 1931)

(1)

December 1930.

currency

In dollars

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

100 *
86
97
81
93
99
91
76
84 *
83-89
95
54
59

100 l
93

10 cities

84
94
90 2

Copenhagen
3 cities
6 cities
Brussels
4 cities
7
„

!

national basket
(U.S.A. =100)

The d a t a
in col. (5)
refer t o :

(Detroit
= 100)

Detroit . .
$
468 ! 468 !
Berlin . . . RM. 1,690
402
Frankfort .
„
1,900
452
Copenhagen
Kr. 1,420
381
Stockholm .
„
1,620
434
Paris . . . Fr. 11,860
465
Marseilles . ., 10,885
427
Antwerp . .
., 12,785
385
Rotterdam . Fl.
977 !
3931
Manchester. £79.9-£85.6 389-417
Cork. . . .
£91.65
446
Warsaw . . Fl. 2,255
253
Barcelona . P t a s . 2,631
274
1

Index
Food cost ratio
of food ex- obtained b y

72
80
87
95
60
72

6 „

3

4
4

„
„
„

February 1931.

the relative food expenditure as between each European city and
Detroit.
Finally, column (5) gives the indexes of the cost of an "international
basket of provisions ", the base being the cost in the United States
in December 1930 = 100. l It will be seen that for the two methods
there is a noteworthy agreement, especially when it is remembered that
the index number for France in column (5) refers to February 1931 and
not, like the figures for Paris and Marseilles, to January 1931. Further,
the difference between the corresponding figures for the Netherlands
may be explained by the fact that the index number of column (4)
relates to December 1930, and that of column (5) to January 1931. The
difference for Spain is due not only to the lack of a reliable index
number, but also to divergencies between the movements of the rate
of exchange and of the cost of living.
In order to obtain an idea of the possible disturbing effect of
this use of the national index numbers, an attempt is made in table VI
to compare the original results calculated by the "ideal " formula with
those of the international basket of provisions in such a way that in
each case the prices used on both sides (i.e. the American as well as
the European) relate as far as possible to about the same date.
The result of the comparison is extremely satisfactory. Except
for Antwerp and Barcelona there appears to be almost complete
agreement between the results of the two methods although the prices
on which the figures are based do not come from the same source as
those used in the present enquiry, they do not always refer to exactly
the same date and it is only for Copenhagen that they refer to the
same area. As regards the two cases of less satisfactory agreement,
1

No figures are available for Helsinki and Istanbul.

FURTHEB

231

OBSERVATIONS

TABLE V I .
COMPARISON O F FOOD COSTS B E T W E E N D E T R O I T
( A V E R A G E 1 9 2 9 ) A N D 1 2 E U R O P E A N TOWNS (AT VARIOUS D A T E S )
CALCULATED B Y T H E " I D E A L " FORMULA A N D T H E
" I N T E R N A T I O N A L BASKET OF P R O V I S I O N S "

" Ideal " formula
Town

Detroit . .
Berlin . .
Frankfort .
Stockholm
Copenhagen
Paris . . .
Marseilles .
Antwerp .
Rotterdam
Manchester
Cork . . .
Warsaw . .
Barcelona .

Result
of comDate to which parison
the prices relate
(Detroit
=100)

Annual aver100
age 1929
Nov. 1930
74.6
Nov. 1930
83.8
October 1930
81.5

International basket of provisions

Town

Result
comDate to which of
parison
the prices relate (U.S.A.
= 100)

J u n e and Dec.
1929
100
|.
„
J a n u a r y 1931 78.5
J u l y 1930,
3
„
Jan.1931
81
July-Aug. 1930 73.8 Copenhagen July 1930
76
J a n u a r y 1931 83.6
February
76
February 1931 75.5 1 6 towns
1931
October 1930
68.4 Brussels
J a n u a r y 1931 60
Aug.-Sept. 1930 74.3
73
4 towns July 1930
J a n u a r y 1931
72.2
73
7
„
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
1931
July 1930
81.3
80
3
„
July
1930
July 1930
52.5
51
4
„
July 1930
Sept. 1930
48.5
4
„
July 1930,
64.5
Jan.1931
10 towns

it should be noted that the prices for Antwerp refer to October 1930,
while those for Brussels refer to January 1931, and for Barcelona
satisfactory results could hardly be expected for the reasons already
indicated in respect of table V.
Another conclusion to be drawn from table VI is that the results
of the much contested method of the "international basket of provisions " are in practice not so bad and "misleading " as they have
been accused (without evidence) of being. Further, the fact that the
results obtained by the two methods are in agreement although the
prices used in the two sets of calculations are a priori non-comparable
seems seriously to weaken the thesis put forward by the Statistique
Générale de la France, alluded to above (p. 226). What we have
here is therefore not merely a new verification of the theorem on the
relatively small effect of the weights used in calculating the averages.
Lastly, it may be observed that while the use of the national cost-ofliving index numbers to bring the figures up to date has a certain
disturbing effect, this is by no means so great as might be expected
from the usually very wide difference between the list of articles used
in constructing the national index numbers and the lists of foodstuffs
used in the present enquiry. For this reason the results as converted
to January 1931 may also be regarded as sufficiently accurate.
Alternative Proposals for calculating Food Expenditure
The results so far considered were calculated by the
Labour Office solely by means of the "ideal " formula.
borators of the Office agreed to its use, but two of the
question put forward alternative methods for calculating

International
AH the collaauthorities in
an equivalent

232

ANNEX IV

expenditure on food for their countries in relation to Detroit,
namely, Germany (Berlin and Frankfort on the Main) and Sweden
(Stockholm).
The German Federal Statistical Office raised the question whether
it would not be more effective to proceed from the Detroit consumption
schedule, and, instead of using the "ideal " formula, to take intoe
account German customs as to consumption by replacing some of th
articles which are of some importance in Detroit but not in Germany.
Articles of ordinary consumption in Germany would be substituted for
certain American articles, and the calculation would be effected in
such a way that there would be no change in the nutritive value as a
whole, measured in calories. The German Statistical Office gave an
example of the application of its method, which is reproduced in the
Office study as an annex to the report on Berlin and Frankfort on the
Main. Although the results of this method differ somewhat from those
calculated by the "ideal " formula, they have been accepted by the
International Labour Office as a " lower limit " and taken into account.
The German Statistical Office used for its calculation the same
29 articles as were selected by the International Labour Office for the
application of its own method. It should be remembered that for these
29 articles the quantities consumed in both America and Germany
were known. The expenditure needed for purchasing the quantities
of these 29 articles consumed in Detroit was then obtained on the basis
of the prices in Detroit, Berlin, and Frankfort, which would have been
equivalent to a calculation of the first ratio of the "ideal " formula
but for the corrections applied to the American consumption.
It is, of course, hard to determine the extent to which these corrections go too far or are inadequate, but there can be no doubt that
it would have been impossible to find comparable methods for other
countries. It is indeed extremely doubtful whether, even for Germany,
the same or similar substitutions would have been made by other
persons; it is, for instance, more or less arbitrary to replace the American consumption of beef (steak, roast, and stew) by a predominant
consumption of stew and sausage. It is at least clear that in this case
the International Labour Office could do no more than consider the
German proposal as an alternative. It might even be asked whether
it was desirable to take it into account for the final result.
The proposal of the Swedish Social Board is based on the postulate
that in calculating the costs of equivalent nutritive values account
should be taken of both quantity and quality. The method may be
described as follows: (1) the consumption of both the Detroit worker
and the Stockholm worker should be divided into two groups, the
first of which (called group A) should comprise all the important
foodstuffs that in practically every country of West European culture
form the basis of nutrition, while the second (group B) should comprise
all the remaining foodstuffs; (2) for Detroit and for Stockholm, the
average price per calorie should be determined for each of the groups A
and B ; (3) the cost of the calories consumed in Detroit should be
calculated separately for each group, A and B, at the corresponding
Stockholm price per calorie; (4) the sum of the Stockholm results
so obtained separately for groups A and B should be regarded as the
expenditure equivalent to the Detroit total expenditure.
The practical example given by the Swedish authorities results
in the following average prices per 100 calories :

FURTHER
Group

233

OBSERVATIONS

Stockholm (October 1930)
ore

Group A (10 articles)
Group B

1.736
5.297

Detroit (1929)
ore

2.169
8.101

The calories consumed in Detroit and their costs are as follows :
Group

Calories
consumed in Detroit

Group A (10 articles)
Group B

Cost
in Stockholm
kr.

Cost
in Detroit
kr.

318
1,076
1,394

397
1,646
2,043

1,831,000
2,032,000
Total

Hence the price ratio for Stockholm would be 68.2 per cent, of
the Detroit prices.
Various objections may be raised to this procedure. Above all,
the subdivision of the food budget into groups A and B is completely
arbitrary, and the use of different subdivisions may in certain circumstances produce quite different results. If, for instance, only the
first 5 articles used by the Swedish Social Board are included in group A
instead of the whole 10, the price ratio will be 67.1 per cent., and if the
other 5 articles only are taken the ratio will be 75.0 per cent. Nor is
i t c l e a r w h y , for i n s t a n c e , b u t t e r , m i l k , a n d m a r g a r i n e a r e n o t i n c l u d e d

in group A. In brief, the subdivision is quite arbitrary. Furthermore,
it is clear that this method, like that of the German Statistical Office,
could not be used for other countries without further consideration,
for in that case there must first have been an exact agreement on the
subdivision into groups A and B. Next, if another income class in
Stockholm had been used as a basis, the result would have been
distinctly different. And finally, it can be shown 1 that according to
this method the price ratio represents the relation between prices of
calories and not of foodstuffs. But what interests the consumer is not
so much the number of calories as the quantity of certain foodstuffs
that he can obtain for his income. The idea underlying the whole
method that an equal consumption of calories may without further
consideration be deemed an equivalent consumption of foodstuffs
would nowadays not be accepted even from the purely physiological
point of view. 2
At the most, therefore, the International Labour Office can be
reproached for having taken these two proposals into account in
addition to its own methods for the final result, especially as the
Swedish result differs considerably from that of the Office for the
comparison of food prices in Stockholm and Detroit.
1
Let E a and E¡> represent t h e total expenditure on groups A and B respectively in
Detroit, a n d E'a and E'a the corresponding expenditures in Stockholm; also let Ca a n d Cb
represent t h e number of calories in groups A a n d B in Detroit a n d C'a and C'ft t h e corresponding figures lor Stockholm. Then t h e Swedish method gives t h e following result:
E'fi
m*<* + C'ft X Ci>
Price ratio = 100 X
Efc
X Co
Co
or in oUier words, this ratio is t h e relation between the average prices per calorie in groups A
a n d B , weighted by t h e calorie consumption in Detroit, for Stockholm a n d for Detroit
respectively.
s
The computation of food values on a calories basis plays little p a r t in the modern
science of dietetics. Alore stress is now laid on such qustions as t h e presence of vitamins
a n d t h e calcium, phosphorus, iron, and protein content. In addition, calories make n o
allowance for individual tastes.

Íx- +

234

ANNEX

IV

The Swedish statistical authorities have not declared themselves
in agreement with these observations on their method. Their position
is that it is in fact variety and the amount of protein, vitamins, and
mineral salts they contain that determine the nutritive value of
foodstuffs; but that if calorie value and variety are taken into account,
then in all probability the other criteria determining the standard of
food consumption would also automatically be satisfied. Further, the
higher calorie value of the food budgets of the more well-to-do classes
in any given country does not necessarily imply consumption of luxury
articles; it represents a higher degree of satisfaction, an improvement
of the general well-being, and the consumption of larger quantities
of fresh and palatable foodstuffs. As a result of greater variety, the
principal foods containing mainly carbohydrates and fat are replaced
by similar foods of better quality, by foods containing more protein,
and by miscellaneous items which have a low calorie value and serve
chiefly to stimulate the appetite.
It is on this basis that the Swedish Social Board had proposed to
make a direct comparison of the cost of food in the different countries.
By compiling food budgets for different towns which satisfy both calorie
requirements and the need for variety (taking due account of physiological requirements), the Board considers it possible to compare the
cost for a similar quality of the standard.
In determining the degree of variety of the food budget, a distinction must be drawn between the principal foodstuffs, i.e. the ordinary
foodstuffs consisting mainly of hydrocarbons and fat, on the one hand,
and the remaining foodstuffs on the other. In the latter group should
be included foodstuffs which serve mainly to satisfy t h e need for protein.

This is why milk is placed in this group in the numerical example given.
The present writer merely places these supplementary explanations of the Swedish authorities on record, for he is of opinion that
the latter do not wholly repudiate the views previously expressed as
to their method. At the same time, the assertion cannot be accepted
without protest that " t h e method applied by the International Labour
Office... contains an important source of error from the fact that for
each town a considerable part of the budget is excluded from the
comparison. " It follows, in fact, from the explanations given above
that the result of the comparison of prices remains remarkably stable
if the number of articles considered is made to vary within quite wide
limits. At the same time, the Office highly appreciates the attitude of
the Social Board in "not wishing to formulate any criticism without
at the same time offering a positive contribution to the elaboration
of a new perfected method. "
Housing, Heating and Lighting
Up to the present there has been no attempt to make an international comparison of housing costs, and the methods and results of
the International Labour Office in this field are therefore of special
interest. In view of the impossibility of finding entirely satisfactory
criteria for comparing the actual dwellings* even in the same town,
the Office, as explained in the present report (pp. 17-19), requested
its collaborators to supply two sets of data. In spite of the fairly
precise definitions of the data desired, certain difficulties were met with
in collecting them. It was, for instance, not possible to obtain both
sets for all the cities. Further, the rent restriction legislation in certain

FURTHER

235

OBSERVATIONS

countries made it difficult to settle on a definite rent. Finally, in view
of the various requirements to be satisfied, the method of determining
the size of the dwelling by the number of rooms is clearly not very
satisfactory. Nevertheless, a comparison with estimates from other
sources, such as that made below, shows a surprising agreement, and
this, in view of the complete independence of the different sets of data,
is of great importance.
In calculating an equivalent expenditure on heating and lighting
less attention was paid to the relative price level than to climate and
consequent differences in habits in the individual localities. It would,
for instance, have been foolish to have assigned to the Marseilles worker
a sum corresponding to the purchasing power in respect of coal, wood,
gas, and electricity of the Detroit expenditure on these items of
100 dollars. The mean January temperature of Detroit is in fact
approximately the same as that of Helsinki. The problem is therefore
to allow in the first place for local custom, and at the same time as far
as possible to prevent the particular standard of living of the average
family selected for this purpose (depending on family income, size of '
family, number of rooms occupied, etc.) from affecting the calculation.
This, of course, was not so easy to carry out for this group of expenditure, owing to the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory data on the
consumption of these articles. It is beyond the scope of these pages
to discuss the details of the special methods used for each country.
Instead, a comparison may be made between the results so obtained, as
well as those obtained for rents, with other independent material.
The totals for rent and for heating and lighting as given in the
Office study are shown (expressed in dollars) in table VII.
TABLE VII.

E Q U I V A L E N T E X P E N D I T U R E S ON H O U S I N G AND H E A T I N G

AND LIGHTING IN JANUARY 1 9 3 1 , AS COMPUTED BY THE OFFICE
A N D COMPARED W I T H OTHER

INFORMATION

Index oí expenditure
for housing a n d
HeatIndex
heating and lighting
as computed b y t h e
ing
(Detroit
Gol. Col.
= 100)
Unilever Company
and
light- G)+Ü) (3)+ (4)
Manchester Manchester
ing
Col.(5) Col.(6)
= 54
= 59

Expenditure in dollars o n :
Housing

Town

(1)

Lower
limit

Upper
limit

(2)

(3)

Detroit !
350
Berlin
243
Frankfort
243
Copenhagen 214
Stockholm
.—
Helsinki
—
Paris
172
149
Marseilles
Antwerp
122
Rotterdam 2 157
Manchester
152
Cork
.—.
Warsaw
178
Barcelona
103
Istanbul
141

(4)

(S)

350 100 450
328
43 i 286
328
43 ¡286
322 65-71 279
402
52 i —
340
61
.—
274
69 241
235
51 200
181
30 152
201
44 201
165 89-102 241
170 101
—
.—. 68 246
54 157
—
59 200
•

—

•

(6)

(7)

(8)

450 100 100
371 64 82
371 64 82
393 62 87
454 — 101
401 — 89
343 54 76
286 44 64
211 34 47
246 45 55
267 54 59
271
60
55 —
— 35 —
44
•

—

•

•

(9)

(10)

96
96
62
93

105
105
80
101

•—

—

•

•

66
—

72
—

•

49
53
54

54
57
59

—
•—•
—

—
—
—

•

1
December 1930. ! The two figures for housing in Manchester do not correspond
e x a c t l y to t h e definition ot t h e " lower " a n d " upper ' limits.

236

ANNEX

IV

In comparing the expenditures on heating and lighting it must
be remembered that variations in the total depend not on the climate
alone of the cities in question, but also on local customs and prices.
The last column shows the results of an enquiry into rents and heating
and lighting made by the Unilever Company in January 1930.1 The
indexes were calculated by taking Manchester as 54 and 59 per cent.
(for the lower and upper limits respectively), so as to make them
comparable with the indexes in the previous columns. Although the
Unilever figures refer to the expenditure that an Englishman (and not,
as in the Office enquiry, a national of the country) must incur in order
to live in the country in question in the same way as with an annual
income of £500 in England, and cannot therefore be directly compared
with the results of the Office enquiry, it is noteworthy how close the
agreement between the two sources is. As a matter of fact, the order
of the countries both in columns (7) and (9), and in columns (8) and (10),
is practically the same, as will be seen from table VIII.
T A B L E V I I I . — O R D E R O F E Q U I V A L E N T E X P E N D I T U R E S FOR H O U S I N G A N D
H E A T I N G AND L I G H T I N G IN VARIOUS E U R O P E A N T O W N S , 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 3 1
E n q u i r y of the I.L.O.
Country

Germany
Sweden
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
1

Ex

Lower limit

Upper limit

1

3
1
2
4
5
6
7

3
41
51
6
7

Enquiry
of the
Unilever Company

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

aequo.

This table shows that with the exception of Germany, where
according to the International Labour Office enquiry rents, etc.,
appear to be relatively lower (provided the "upper limit " column is
considered, which strictly speaking is the only one comparable with
the Unilever column), the order of the "equivalent " expenditures for
the seven European countries is exactly the same. The fact that the
indexes of table VII differ substantially from those of table V (food
costs) is not surprising for various reasons:
(1) There is not the slightest reason why the relation between
the prices of foodstuffs in any two countries should be the same as that
between the costs of housing or of heating and lighting in the same
two countries. International trade cannot equalise rents in different
countries.
(2) For food, as for rents, e t c , the comparison is in each case with
Detroit, and therefore the relation between these indexes only indicates
to what extent the relation between the computed food costs and
housing costs differs from their relation at Detroit. There is no reason
to assume that this relation must be the same everywhere.
(3) In certain cases rent restriction legislation has a very marked
effect on rents.
1

For t h e details of this enquiry cf. The Economist,

8 Nov. 1930.

237

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS

It is beyond the scope of this article to enter into further details.
But as these questions have given rise to certain observations, notably
from the Polish Government, a "Note on the Relation between the
Index Numbers of the Cost of Housing and the Cost of Food in the
Different Cities ", by Mr. R. Guye (Research Division, International
Labour Office), has been added at the end of this article.
Furthermore, the results of this attempt to make an international
comparison of rents are at any rate satisfactory enough to suggest a
hope that the basis for the international comparison of costs of living
may in future be widened by the inclusion of rents.
The Distribution of Expenditure among the Different Groups
The previous pages have dealt with the comparison of results
obtained for certain groups of expenditure in the different towns.
These results are given in the form of the relation between the expenditure for each group in the European town and in Detroit, and therefore represent indexes of costs for the different groups of expenditure.
In their calculation no account has been taken of the results obtained
for the other groups. Thus the formula used for food, although it
fulfils certain conditions which make it particularly suitable for the
calculation of food index numbers, does not take any account of the
expenditure on housing or any other group. Naturally, this is not in
strict accordance with reality, for a family has to take account of all
of its other expenses in fixing the amount which it spends on food,
and vice versa. It is therefore necessary to consider how far this method
has had any influence on the final results.
The cost indexes obtained for each group were applied to the
expenditure for this group in the Detroit budget and the sum of these
different expenditures was assumed to represent the cost of an equivalent standard in the different towns. In other words, the proportions
which the expenses for the different groups represent in the Detroit
budget have been used as weights for combining the different group
indexes into one figure. If instead of using the American proportions
the proportions in each European town had been taken, a different
result might have been obtained. Experiments made to illuminate this
point are given later.
TABLE IX.
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURE AMONG
DIFFERENT GROUPS OF EXPENDITURE IN JANUARY 1931
Detroit *

Expenditure
group

Berlin
I

Food
. . .
Housing . .
Heating and
lighting .
Clothing . .
Medical expenses . .
Miscellaneous
expenses .
Insurance .
Taxation . .
1

II

Frankfort
I

II

Copenhagen! Stockholm
I

Il|

!

Paris

Helsinki

II

I

II

. 30.2 31.6 30.2 34.0 32.7 29.6 26.9 23.5 26.9 23.3 37.5 34.5
. 22.6 19.9 24.6 19.2 23.7 16.7 22.7 26.3 24.9 26.5 13.9 20.3
. 6.4 3.5 3.2 3.4 3.1 5.0 5.0 3.4 3.2 4.7 5.6 5.1
. 12.6 12.9 11.8 12.4 11.4 15.0 13.6 14.0 13.3 13.5 16.9 15.5
.

3.9

3.6

3.3

3.5

3.2

2.2

2.0

2.6

2.4

3.6

2.1

1.9

. 20.7 19.7 18.0 18.6 17.0 22.5 20.5 21.2 20.0 17.5 19.3 17.7
. 3.6 4.8 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.6 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6
4.0 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.7 5.6 5.8 7.4 1.1 1.4
.

I = Lower limit.
II = Upper limit.
Figures for 1929 budget enquiry corrected to Dec. 1930 (see table I, p. 30).

238

ANNEX IV

TABLE IX. •— PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURE AMONG
DIFFERENT GROUPS OF EXPENDITURE IN JANUARY 1 9 3 1 (cOTlt.)
Marseilles

Expenditure
group

Food
. . .
Housing . .
Heating and
lighting .
Clothing . .
Medical expenses . .
Miscellaneous
expenses .
Insurance .
Taxation
.

I

II

Antwerp
I

II

Rotterdam Manchester
I

II

I

II

Bar- IstanCork Warsaw celona bul

. 36.9 34.1 37.6 35.2 39.7 38.0 35.4 36.1 34.0 25.4 30.6 29.7
. 12.9 18.8 12.9 17.9 15.8 19.5 13.8 14.3 13.0 17.8 11.7 13.9
. 4.4 4.1 3.2 3.0 4.5 4.3 8.1 8.9 7.7 6.8 6.1 5.8
. 18.0 16.7 18.0 16.8 11.9 11.4 12.1 11.5 14.6 15.2 14.9 21.8
.

2.3 2.1

2.2

2.1

2.4

2.2

2.4

2.2

3.0

3.1

2.6

2.0

. 20.9 19.4 21.2 19.8 20.0 19.2 24.5 23.4 23.5 23.3 21.6 23.2
. 3.6 3.6 3.2 3.2 2.4 2.3 3.7 3.6 4.2 3.5 3.3 3.6
4.9 9.2
?
. 1.0 1.2 1.7 2.0 3.3 3.1
I •• Lower limit.

II =• Upper limit.

Table IX shows for the total expenditure of the worker (i.e. excluding employers' and State contributions to social insurance) its
percentage distribution between the different groups for Detroit in
December 1930 (estimated) and for each European town in January 1931.
The latter percentages are quite hypothetical, being obtained by taking
account of the results based on the Detroit budget. As a result the
figures show certain apparent anomalies, especially as regards the
group "miscellaneous expenses ". In every case the proportion is lower
for this group for the figures based on the "upper limit ". This is easily
explained by the fact that a single sum for. this item has been given
for this group in both the lower limit and the upper limit budgets, and
this sum represents, therefore, a smaller proportion in the case of the
upper limit budget. Moreover, the variation in the proportion devoted
to food should be noticed. This proportion has been taken as an index
of well-being or of standard of living both in time comparisons and in
place comparisons. As the results of the Office enquiry purport to
represent equivalent standards of living in the different towns, this
proportion might perhaps have been expected to show a considerable
degree of uniformity. In fact, however, the use of this proportion for
such a purpose is justified only in cases where families are living under
similar conditions as regards prices, customs, tastes, etc.
To demonstrate how far these distributions, although hypothetical,
may nevertheless be accepted for the income class considered, table X
has been drawn up. This table gives a comparison, for the four countries
for which recent information is available from family budget enquiries,
of the distribution of expenditure over the different groups as shown by
the Office figures and by the family budget enquiries for incomes of the
same order of magnitude. As most of the enquiries are several years
old, it has been necessary to correct the percentages shown in the
original source by allowing for the change in prices in the different
groups between the date of the enquiry and January 1931.
It will be seen that the proportion spent on food is almost the same
in the budgets calculated by the Office as in those given by family
budget enquiries. In the Netherlands, where the food proportion
calculated by the Office is higher than that in Detroit, the figure given
by the family budget enquiry is also higher, whereas in Denmark and

239

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS

TABLE X.
COMPARISON OF COMPUTED AND ACTUAL PERCENTAGE
DISTRIBUTIONS OF EXPENDITURE, IN FOUR COUNTRIES

Country and nature of data

Germany
A. I.L.O. results for Berlin:
(a) Lower limit RM. 5,135
(b) Upper limit RM. 5,605
B . Family budget results, 1927-1928 :
(a) Officials RM. 5,570
(b) Same corrected for price
changes t o J a n . 1931

Denmark
A. I.L.O. results for Copenhagen:
(a) Lower limit Kr. 4,795
(6) Upper limit Kr. 5,285
B . Family budget results, 1922:
(a) Income average Kr. 5,450
(b) Same corrected for price
changes t o J a n . 1931

Sweden
A. I.L.O'. results for Stockholm:
(a) Lower limit Kr. 5,715
(b) Upper limit Kr. 6,040
B . Family budget results, 1923:
(a) Expenditure K r . 6,430
(6) Same corrected for price
changes to J a n . 1931

Netherlands
A. I.L.O. results for R o t t e r d a m :
(a) Lower limit Fl. 2,460
(b) Upper limit Fl. 2,570
B. Family budget results for Amsterdam, 1923-1924:
(a) Expenditure Fl. 2,880
(b) Same corrected for price
changes to Dec. 1930

Food

HeatHous- ing and Cloth- Other
ex- Taxalight- ing penses
ing
tion
ing

31.6
30.2

19.9
24.6

3.5
3.2

12.9
11.8

28.1
25.9

4.0
4.3

33.7

12.5

3.8

14.1

31.2

4.7

30.6

14.4

4.1

13.4

32.8

4.7

29.6
26.9

16.7
22.7

5.0
5.0

15.0
13.6

29.5
27.1

4.2
4.7

30.1

9.8

5.9

13.1

32.9

8.2

25.1

16.2

4.2

12.4

33.6

8.5

23.5
26.9

26.3
24.9

3.4
3.2

14.0
13.3

27.2
25.9

5.6
5.8

30.0

11.6

4.1

13.3

25.8

9.6

28.3

16.3

4.0

13.9

28.2

9.3

39.7
38.0

15.8
19.5

4.5
4.3

11.9
11.4

24.8
23.7

3.3
3.1

36.0

11.1

5.1

12.7

28.1

7.0

33.6

13.7

4.8

10.8

30.1

7.0

240

ANNEX

IV

Sweden \ both the figure calculated by the Office and the figure shown
by the family budget enquiries are lower than the Detroit percentage.
In Germany, the proportion is approximately the same for all three.
On the other hand, the percentage spent on housing is higher in the
calculated budgets than in the family budgets. This is due partly to
the legal restrictions on rents, but also to the fact that a European
dwelling does not usually have as many rooms as one in Detroit;
in other words, the level of housing accommodation in these four
countries appears somewhat inferior to that observed in America.
For clothing and for heating and lighting a good approximation will
be noticed; for other expenses the proportions are generally lower in the
calculated series, but this appears natural since it is probably due to
a sort of transfer between the expenses for housing and for other
expenses. It may therefore be concluded that the distributions shown
by the Office figures agree fairly well with the distributions shown in
national family budget enquiries, although the Office calculations are
hypothetical in the sense that in their computation no account has
been taken of the results for the other groups in the budget.
An Alternative Method of compiling the Total Expenditure
In order to verify how far the use of the Detroit budget weights
may have affected the general results, an alternative method has been
applied in certain towns by using weights given by national budget
enquiries. The method of computation is shown in detail for the city
•of Berlin in table XI. Column (2) shows the proportion spent on
different groups (except taxation) in the 1927-1928 German family
budget enquiry, corrected so as to allow for the changing price level
TABLE XI.
W E I G H T I N G O F T H E R E L A T I V E COSTS O F T H E D I F F E R E N T
GROUPS AS C O M P U T E D F O R B E R L I N , ACCORDING TO T H E P R O P O R T I O N S
OF E X P E N D I T U R E SHOWN FOR T H E S E GROUPS IN T H E GERMAN B U D G E T
E N Q U I R Y O F 1 9 2 7 - 1 9 2 8 , C O R R E C T E D F O R . P R I C E C H A N G E S TO
JANUARY 1 9 3 1

E x p e n d i t u r e group

German budget
enquiry of
1927-1928 corrected for price
changes to
J i m . 1931

Col. (2)
recomputed
o n basis of
total = 100

(1)

(2)

(3)

Food
Housing . . .
Heating and
lighting . . .
Clothing . . .
Other expenses
Total

. .

Relation of
costs in Berlin Col. (3) X
to those in
Col. (4)
Detroit
= 100
in J a n . 1931
(Detroit = 100)
(4)

30.6
14.4

32.1
15.1

83-86
69-94

4.1
13.4
32.8

4.3
14.1
34.4

43
81
78

95.3

100

—

(5)

26.6-27.6
10.4-14.2
1.9
11.4
26.8
77.1-81.9

1
I t should be noticed t h a t t h e proportion for t h e tower limit is r a t h e r too low for
Sweden a n d probably somewhat too low for Germany. In these two cases t h e lower limits
.are based on special methods for food a n d are n o t strictly comparable with those for other
•countries.

241

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS

between that date and January 1931. Column (3) shows these figures
modified so as to add up to 100. Column (4) shows the price ratio
between Berlin and Detroit in January 1931 for each group. Column (5)
shows the effect of applying this price ratio to the modified weights
of column (3). The result is to give a price ratio of 77.1 (lower limit)
to 81.9 (upper limit). These two price ratios are then applied to the
Detroit expenditure 1 , taxation is added, and the final figures (RM. 5,229
and RM. 5,572) are compared in table XII with the figures given in
the Office study (RM. 5,135 and RM. 5,605).
The same method has been used for the other three countries for
which it is possible to apply this method (Denmark, Sweden, and
Holland) and the results are also shown in table XII. It will be seen
that the totals obtained by the two methods of weighting are almost
identical and the fact that the Office limited its calculations to a single
method does not appear to have had any appreciable influence on the
final result.
TABLE XII.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TOTAL FAMILY EXPENSES
CALCULATED BY THE I.L.O. USING PROPORTIONS SHOWN IN DETROIT
BUDGET AND PROPORTIONS SHOWN IN DIFFERENT NATIONAL BUDGETS

Currency
unit

Total expenses
Total expenses
obtained by
obtained by the
national weights
I.L.O. (Jan. 1931) «
Index
Index
Absolute number Absolute number
figure
(Detroit
(Detroit
figure
= 100)
= 100)

Berlin, lower limit . . . ,
,,
urjner

RM.

5,135
5,605

79
86

5,229
5,572

80
86

Copenhagen, lower limit
upper „

Kr.

4,795
5,285

83
91

4,907
5,275

85
91

Stockholm, lower limit .
,,
upper „

Kr.

5,695
6,020

98
104

5,709
6,028

99
104

Rotterdam 2 , lower limit
„
upper „

Fl.

2,460
2,570

64
67

2,559
2,629

66
68

1
!

Not including employers' social insurance contributions.
December 1930.

It might however be thought that the fact of having, in the calculations shown in tables XI and XII, used only weights derived from
incomes of the same order of magnitude as the calculated income may
mean prejudging the results. In fact, it is well known that the distribution of the family expenditure over the different items of the budget
varies with the income. But it is precisely for this reason that it is not
permissible to base the weights applied to the partial cost-of-living
index numbers on the distribution of incomes that differ perceptibly
from the level considered.
1

The calculations are as follows:
Lower limit:
R.M
77.1 % oí $1,550 or RM. 6,510
5,019
Taxation
210
Total
5,229

Upper limit:
81.9% of »1,550 or RM. 6,510
Taxation
Total

RM.
5,332
240
5,572

242

ANNEX IV

While there is thus no a priori reason for pausing over such an
objection, it is interesting to see what the effect of this procedure
would be. It is the Polish Government, notably, that has insisted on
this point in its observations about the present enquiry.
In compiling table XIII, therefore, the Office has followed exactly
the same procedure as for table XI .using for the weights the distribution of expenditure recorded in Warsaw in 1927 for family incomes
of 3,350 and 4,620 zloty respectively.
TABLE XIII. — WEIGHTING OF THE RELATIVE COSTS OF THE DIFFERENT
GROUPS AS COMPUTED FOR WARSAW, ACCORDING TO THE
PROPORTIONS OF EXPENDITURE SHOWN FOR THESE GROUPS
IN THE WARSAW BUDGET ENQUIRY OF 1 9 2 7 ,
CORRECTED FOR PRICE CHANGES TO JANUARY 1931
Warsaw budget
enquiry of 1927, corrected for price changes
to Jan. 1931
Expenditure
group

(1)

40 families
each spending about
Zl. 3,350
in 1927

Col. (2) Col. (3)
recomrecomputed on puted on
basis
of
basis
of
8 families
total
each spend- =total
= 100
100
ing about
Zl. 4,620
in 1927

1

I

(2)

(3)

|

(4)

|

(5)

Relation
of costs
in
Warsaw Col. (4)
Col. (5)
to those
in Detroit xcol. (6) Xcol. (6)
=100
in
=100
Jan. 1931
(Detroit
= 100)
| (6)
|
(7)
| (8)

.

46.1
6.5

38.0
6.4

52.2
7.4

42.2
7.1

54
51

28.2
3.8

22.8
3.6

.
.
.

6.0
11.8
17.8

6.1
13.4
26.1

6.8
13.4
20.2

6.8
14.9
29.0

68
77
72

4.6
10.3
14.5

4.6
11.5
20.9

Total. . .

88.2

90.0

100.0

100.0

—

61.4

63.4

Food
Housing
. . .
Heating and
lighting . . .
Clothing
. . .
Other expenses

The results of these calculations are somewhat surprising. Allowing
for taxation, as was done for Germany (cf. the explanations relating1
to table XI), the sums obtained are 8,944 and 9,221 zloty respectively ,
as compared with 9,340 zloty calculated by the Office — a negligible
discrepancy in view of the wide difference between the income
calculated by the Office and the two incomes the distribution of which
provided the weights. This is why the extent of the divergences
between the results obtained by the Polish and American weights
should be considered in the light of the differences between the incomes
on which the weights are based. Table XIV sums up the two calculations made by the International Labour Office, and shown in tableXIII,
and a solution proposed by the Polish authorities, who for the Polish
weights have used a still lower income than those considered by the
Office, because from the calculations of the Polish Central Office of
1
The calculations are as follows :
Lower limit:
Zl.
61.4% of »1,551, or ZI. 13,850
8,504
Taxation
440
Total 8,944

Upper limit:
63.4% of $1,551, or ZI. 13,850
Taxation
Total

Zl.
8,781
440
9,221

FURTHER

243

OBSERVATIONS

Statistics that sum seems to be more representative of the incomes of
Polish workers.
TABLE XIV.
R E L A T I O N B E T W E E N T H E SIZE OF T H E I N C O M E S U S E D
FOR C O M B I N I N G T H E P A R T I A L I N D E X N U M B E R S AS C O M P U T E D
FOR WARSAW AND T H E CORRESPONDING RESULTS
Polish income in 1927
per unit of consumption
(income used
t o determine weights)
(1)
Zl.

1,541.00
835.56
623.57

Result of
Polish
weighting
(per unit)
1

(2)
Zl.

2,820
2,735
2,620

Income per
unit calculated
by t h e I.L.O.
(American
weighting)
1
(3)
|
Zl.

j

2,855

j

Ratio of
col. (1)
t o col. (3)
X 100
(4)

54.0
29.3
21.8

R a t i o of
col. (2)
t o col. (3)
X 100
|

(5)

98.8
95.8
91.8

It follows from this table that there is a marked correlation between
the divergence of the results on the one hand and the difference
between the income calculated by the Office and the income determining the Polish weights on the other. But in order to obtain a
divergence of 8.2 per cent, between the results the latter income must
be lowered to a figure representing not more than about one-fifth
of the income calculated by the Office.
It seems, therefore, that weighting by means of European income
distributions has only a very slight effect on the results, unless there
is a deliberate departure from the income level to which this enquiry
has been strictly limited. The method chosen by the Office is therefore
justified on this last point also.

Note on the Belation between the Index Numbers of the Cost of Housing
and the Cost of Food in the Different Cities
It can be seen from the preceding article that the relations between
the index numbers of the cost of housing calculated by the International Labour Office are quite different from those between the
index numbers of the cost of food. These divergences can be explained
by two essential factors, which have been briefly alluded to in the
foregoing analysis.
The first of these is a question of fact: rent restriction legislation
has considerably affected the level of rents, independently of their,
so to speak, natural tendency to move more slowly than prices in
general.
The second factor has its origin in a question of method. In the
matter of food, the comparisons have been applied to a fairly large
number of articles, thus making it possible to use the"ideal " formula;
it has also been seen that the results obtained differed very little
whether the weights were based on a higher or lower national standard
of living. In the matter of housing, where the consumer uses only a

244

ANNEX IV

single article (a dwelling), the comparisons have been applied only to a
type of dwelling of specified size (4-5 rooms), though with some differentiation as to quality (lower limit and upper limit). This method
provides no possibility of compensation in the average of several
articles; it also makes less allowance for the consumption customs of
each country than does the method adopted for food; and the greater
the difference between the fixed standard adopted for the comparison
and the prevailing standard in the town considered, the more important
will be the latter point and the greater its effect on the index number
of the cost of housing. Thus in towns where the standard of size adopted
is definitely higher than the usual type of dwelling, the index number
— other things being equal, and solely for this reason of method —
will tend to be relatively high, since in this town the larger dwellings
will be relatively dearer (even the rent per room), either because they
are rarer, or because they belong to a higher level of comfort.
It is in order to show in broad lines the effect of these two factors
that table XV has been compiled, in so far as data were available for
the towns covered by the Office enquiry.
TABLE XV.
RELATION B E T W E E N T H E I N D E X N U M B E R S O F T H E COST
O F H O U S I N G A N D O F F O O D , ACCORDING TO T H E CALCULATIONS O F T H E
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE AND T H E NATIONAL COST-OF-LIVING
I N D E X NUMBERS AND THE PREVAILING T Y P E OF D W E L L I N G
National cost-ofliving index n u m bers (base :
N u m b e r ol rooms
pre-war = 100)
in prevailing t y p e
of dwelling in t h e
town as a whole
Index of the cost of
R e n t index in
(as given b y l a s t
housing per cent. J a n . 1931 per cent.
housing census)
of corresponding
of corresponding
index of the cost index of food prices
of food
(2)
|
(3)
W
I.L.O. index n u m bers (base:
Detroit = 100)

Town

(1)

(a)

Helsinki .
Stockholm
Copenhagen
Berlin . .
Frankfort.
Paris
. .
Marseilles .
Antwerp .
Rotterdam
Manchester
Cork . . .
Warsaw. .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

—
—
75
80
71
49
47
46
54
50
—
94

(b)

152
124
114
109
97
79
74
68
68
55
52
—

163
155
1571
991
99 !
54
72
113»
861
53

1
2
2
3
4
2
3
2
2
4-5
2 (-4)
1

(a) Ratios based on t h e index of t h e cost of housing tor t h e lower limit (dwelling of
4-5 rooms of t h e standard of comfort, etc., customary in t h e town considered).
(¡>) Ratios based on t h e index of t h e cost of housing for t h e upper limit (dwelling of
4-5 rooms of t h e same standard of comfort, etc., as t h a t of Detroit).
1
Index numbers relating t o a certain n u m b e r of towns in t h e country considered.

Column (2) shows for each town the relation between the index
numbers of the cost of housing and of the cost of food as calculated

FURTHER

OBSERVATIONS

245

by the Office with Detroit as base ( = 100) ; it may be noted that the
absolute value of these ratios has no importance here, since it is partly
the result of the relation between the costs of housing and of food in
Detroit (the base of the two index numbers which are being compared) ;
it is only their relative value that is of interest.
The figures in column (3) are similar, but denote the ratio between
the index numbers for January 1931 of rent and of food prices taken
from the official cost-of-living index numbers with a pre-war base.
These ratios may be interpreted as giving a measure (obviously only
approximate) of the effect of rent restriction legislation on the level of
rents, a ratio below 100 denoting that rents have increased less than
food prices since before the war, when there were no such restrictions.
This interpretation is evidently subject to two important reserves:
first, that in these ratios no account is taken of pre-war differences
(which presumably existed) between the level of rents and that of
food prices in the various countries; secondly, that the methods of
compiling index numbers of rents and of prices differ widely from
country to country (in particular, the proportion allowed for uncontrolled rents is not the same everywhere), and that for some countries the only index numbers available refer to a large number of
localities and not solely to the town considered.
Column (4) shows the number of rooms in the prevailing type of
dwelling in the towns considered, according to the most recent census
data available. With all due reserves as to differences in the methods
of compilation of these statistics and the rather old dates to which
they refer, the figures give an approximate idea of the difference
between the size of dwelling adopted in calculating the Office's index
numbers and the most usual type in each town; that is to say, they
give a rough measure of the amount by which the actual level of the
index number, for the reasons indicated above, has been affected by
the adoption of this standard of size.
Several interesting remarks may be made on this table.
Helsinki, Stockholm and Copenhagen have the highest figures
in columns (2) and (3). In these towns all control of rents was in fact
abolished some years ago, and in addition the prevailing type of
dwelling is definitely inferior to that adopted for the Office's comparisons. In both respects Helsinki holds an extreme position.
In Berlin and Frankfort, where rent restrictions have reduced
rents to the same level as prices, as is shown by the national index
numbers in column (3), the ratio of the cost of housing to the cost
of food (column (2)) is fairly high; this is probably due to the
fact that the type of dwelling adopted for the comparisons is also
slightly superior to the prevailing type (column (4) ) ; in Frankfort,
where the difference between the standards is less, the figure in column
(2) is lower.
In France, the rent control measures still in force have kept rents
at an artificially low level, as is shown by columns (2) and (3). In
column (3), however, the Marseilles ratio seems to indicate that control
has allowed rents to rise a little more there than in Paris, while there
is hardly any difference between the Office's index numbers in column
(2); this may be because the prevailing type of dwelling is farther
in Paris from that adopted for calculating the index numbers than it is
in Marseilles.

246

ANNEX IV

In Manchester, rents are still very largely controlled, although in
Great Britain as a whole they have risen more than food prices, as is
shown by the figure in column (3). The figures in column (2) are rather
low, no doubt largely because the type of dwelling adopted in the
Office's comparisons is approximately the same as the prevailing
type in Manchester, so that the question of method explained above
does not here come into play to raise the index number, as it does for
some of the other towns.
In Cork matters are somewhat similar. In fact, although strictly
speaking the prevailing type of dwelling consists of 2 rooms, 4-room
dwellings form a sufficiently large proportion (about one-fourth) of the
total to have a perceptible effect on the index numbers of the cost of
housing. A still high degree of control, as shown by column (3), is
therefore represented by a rather low figure in column (2).
In Warsaw, vice versa, the figure in column (2) is high while that
in column (3) is rather low, owing to the severe restrictions on rent
that are still in force. The difference is however explained by the fact
that the type of dwelling adopted by the Office is far superior to the
prevailing type (column (4)) and is also partly unaffected by the
restrictions expressed by the figure in column (3).
These few observations suggested by table XV are naturally
not absolute. They have however a genuine interest; they show, in
fact, that there is a reasonable explanation of the noticeable discrepancies between the ratios of the index numbers of the cost of
housing and of food in the different towns as calculated by the Office,
when they are subjected to a critical analysis based on facts and
starting from a different standpoint from that adopted in compiling
them. These explanations have no doubt consisted partly in merely
verifying how far the limitations theoretically imposed on the calculations are in reality of importance. But in statistics such a process
constitutes a supplementary safeguard and denotes a further step
towards possible improvements in the methods adopted.

ANNEX V
Tables of American Currency, Weights and Measures
expressed in Terms of European Units
A. — CURRENCY (JANUARY

National currency in
terms of cents

Dollar in terms of
national currency

City

Antwerp . . 1 dollar = 35.97 francs
Barcelona .
= 9.62 pesetas21
SJ
•
,
= 9.32
„
Berlin . . .
,
= 4.20 Reichsm.
Copenhagen.
,
= 3.73 kroner
Cork. . . .
,
= 49.3 pence
Frankfurt .
= 4.20 Reichsm.
Helsinki . .
= 39.68 marks
Istanbul . .
= 2.123 pounds 1
Manchester.
,
= 49.3 pence
Marseilles .
= 25.51 francs
Paris . . .
,
= 25.51 francs
Rotterdam .
,
= 2.49 florins
Stockholm .
,
= 3 . 7 3 kronor
Warsaw . .
= 8.91 zloty
1

B. —

1
1
1
1

January 1931.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
lb.
= 0.4536 kilogrammes
U.S.gallon= 3.785 litres
U.S. gallon= 0.8330 Imperial gallon
cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic metres

1931)

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

franc
peseta
„
Reichsm.
krone
penny
Reichsm.
mark
pound
penny
franc
franc
florin
krona
zloty

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

2.78 cents
10.40 , i
10.73 ,' 2
23.8
26.8
2.03 ,
23.8
2.52 ,
i
47.1
2.03 ,
3.92 ,
3.92 ,
40.2
26.8
11.22 ,

* September 1930.

(conversions used in the enquiry)
1 kilogramme =
1 litre
=

2.205 lbs.
0.2642 U.S. gallon

1 cubic metre =

35.31 cubic feet

Milk:
1 litre - 1.031 kg. or 2.273 lbs.
1 U.S. quart = 0.975 kg. or 2.149 lbs.
1 Imperial quart = 1.171 kg. or 2.581 lbs.
Cream:
1 litre = 0.719 kg. or 1.585 lbs.
1 U.S. quart = 0.680 kg. or 1.499 lbs.
1 Imperial quart = 0.817 kg. or 1.801 lbs.
Cooking oil:
1 litre = 0.900 kg. or 1.984 lbs.
1 U.S. quart = 0.851 kg. or 1.876 lbs.
1 Imperial quart = 1.022 kg. or 2.253 lbs.
Eggs:
about 17.5 eggs to the kg. or 8.8 eggs to the lb.
Oranges:
about 6.6 oranges to the kg. or 3 oranges to the lb.
Bananas:
about 6.6 bananas to the kg. or 3 bananas to the lb.
Lemons:
about 8.8 lemons to the kg. or 4 lemons to the lb.
Herrings:
about 6 herrings to the kg. or 2.7 herrings to the lb.
Fuel:
1 hectolitre anthracite coal = 80 kg. or 0.079 tons
1
„
coke
= 60 kg. or 0.059 tons
1
„
bituminous coal = 75 kg. or 0.074 tons
1 cubic metre wood
= 500 kg. or 0.492 tons