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INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

SAFETY IN COAL MINES
VOLUME I
Organisation on the National
and International Levels

GENEVA
1953

STUDIES AND E E P O E T S
New Series, No. 33

PUBLISHED B T THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE
GENEVA, SWITZERLAND

e
Published in the United Kingdom for the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE
by Staples Press Limited, London

PRINTED B T "LA TRIBUNE D E GENÈVE". GENEVA, SWITZERLAND

PREFACE
The present study is a revised and enlarged edition of the
report prepared by the International Labour Office on Safety
Provisions for Underground WorJc in Coal Mines x for submission to a Preparatory Technical Conference that "was to
have met at Geneva in October 1939 to discuss a Draft Model
Code of Safety Eegulations for Underground Work in Coal
Mines.
Owing to the war, the Conference could not be held and
the Draft Model Code remained uncompleted. However, the
Office never lost sight of the question of safety in coal mines,
which was brought to the fore again by the Coal Mines Committee of the International Labour Organisation when it met
in London in December 1945. On this occasion the Committee
passed a resolution urging the completion of the 1939 report
and the holding of a technical conference to resume consideration of the Draft Model Code. These views were reiterated at
the second session of the Committee held in April and May
1947.
The Governing Body of the International Labour Organisation endorsed the views expressed by the Coal Mines Committee, and the Tripartite Technical Conference was held at
Geneva in September 1949, when 15 coal-producing countries
were represented. After two weeks' discussion the Model
Code was adopted by the Conference and it has been distributed
for the guidance of Governments and the coal-mining industry. 2
The present volume is designed to provide, firstly, statistical
material showing the incidence and chief causes of underground
accidents in the coal mines of some of the principal coalproducing countries, and secondly, a survey of the law and
practice in matters of coal-mining safety in a selection of these
countries. Por this purpose only underground risks have been
1
Published in two volumes (Geneva, I.L.O., 1939). Vol. I : National
Legislation ; Vol. I I : Draft Kecommendations.
2

INTEBNATIONAL LABOUB OITIOE : Model Code of Safety Regulations

for

Underground Work in Coal Mines for the Guidance of Governments and of
the Coal-Mining Industry (Geneva, 1950).

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

taken into consideration, and coal has been taken to mean
bituminous coal and anthracite, to the exclusion of lignite.
Accident statistics are dealt with in Chapter I.
I n view of the very close bonds between legislation and
inspection as factors in mining safety, a separate chapter (II)
has been devoted to inspection. This covers both State inspection and, for certain countries, workmen's inspectors.
As regards practice, some account of general safety activities by Government departments, research institutions, safety
associations, etc., will be found in Chapter I I I .
The contents of Chapters I I and I I I have been furnished
or revised by the Governments concerned.
The most important safety provisions of the mining laws
and regulations of the countries concerned will be presented
in analytical form in Volume I I to be published later.
The countries dealt with in the present study are not all
the same as those covered by the 1939 study. Ko recent statistical information is available from some of the countries
included in the earlier study, and no recent mining regulations
have been received from the U.S.S.B.. This country has,
accordingly, been omitted, and its place has been taken by
the Canadian province of Alberta, which has an excellent code
of safety regulations recently brought up to date. Entirely
new American, Netherlands and French codes of regulations
have been analysed, as well as several new British regulations.
Changes in Belgian and South African legislation have not been
extensive.
Much new information has been included on accident rates,
inspection, and safety activities generally.
The text of the study is supplemented by appendices
comprising lists of laws and regulations, governmental publications and periodicals. It was found impracticable to include
a general bibliography, since this would comprise some thousands of items, and its value would hardly justify the cost of
printing it.
In order to keep the report within reasonable bounds a
great deal of valuable material has been omitted : a complete
account of the law and practice as regards safety in coal
mines in all important coal-mining countries would require
several large volumes.
Nevertheless, the safety regulations, inspection systems
and safety activities dealt with in the following pages provide

PREFACE

a clear picture of the magnitude and nature of the risks underground in coal mines and the various means employed to
guard against them.
The grouping of the contents of this volume in four main
divisions—statistics, legislation, inspection and general safety
activities—reflects the generally accepted view, which is fully
shared by the International Labour Office, that safety in coal
mining, as in other industries, cannot be successfully promoted
by legislation alone. There must be a means of securing
the enforcement of legislation—an inspectorate—and there
must be other safety activities of many kinds—scientific
research, education, training and propaganda. More, there
must be cordial co-operation between all the interests concerned—Governments, employers, workers, scientists, educators and others. The present volume sets out to show the part
that each can play in promoting the safety of the men in the
mine, and thus to provide some guidance to all those who are
directly concerned with safety in coal mines, including the
miners themselves.
The conclusions to be drawn from the present study do not
differ fundamentally from those suggested by that of 1939.
Ooal mining is still one of the most dangerous occupations in
the world ; moreover, in several countries it is not appreciably
safer than it was a dozen years ago. It is therefore no less
necessary now than it was a dozen years ago for all the countries concerned to pool their resources in knowledge and to
combine their forces in a common effort to reduce the annual
toll of several hundred thousand more or less serious accidents
in the coal mines of the world. Civilisation still depends
largely on coal ; it is unthinkable that the men who provide
it should be needlessly killed or mutilated. In the words of the
United States Bureau of Mines: " Coal is one of the most
important of all basic materials, not only in industry, but in
all phases of modern life ; without it many industries could
not function, hence the welfare of this industry as a whole
is of prime importance to the life of the entire country and,
in fact, the entire world. " 1

Safety in the Mining Industry,

I.C.7485, Apr. 1949.

CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTEK I : Accident Risks in Coal Mining

Fatal Injury Rates
Trends
War Years
Differences between Countries
Non-Fatal Injury Rates
Trends
Differences between Countries
Analysis of Accidents by Causes
Relative Risks in Coal Mining and in Manufacturing
CHAPTEK II : Administration and Inspection
General Administrative and Inspection Services
Belgium
Canada (Alberta)
France
Germany (Federal Republic)
Netherlands
Poland
Union of South. Africa
United Kingdom
United States (Federal)
Illinois
New Mexico
Pennsylvania
Workmen's Inspectors
Belgium
Canada (Alberta)
France
Netherlands
United Kingdom
CHAPTER I I I : General Safety Activities
Belgium
General Survey
Research
Training

11
11
12
12
15
16
17
17
27
29
29
29
32
34
37
45
48
52
54
57
61
63
65
67
67
69
70
75
75
77
78
78
81
82

VIH

SAFETY IN COAL MINES
Page

Canada (Alberta)
General Survey
Mine Rescue Organisation
Research
Training

83
83
85
87
87

France
General Survey
Mines Council
Permanent Committee for Scientific Research into Firedamp, Dusts
and Mining Explosives
Social Security Institutions
Research
Training
Germany (Federal Republic)
General Survey
Research
Training and Education
Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the Mining Industry .
Other Activities

88
88
94
95
95
100
102
103
103
143
146
153
155

Netherlands
General Survey
Research
Training

156
156
160
160

Poland
General Survey
Organisation and Operation of Safety Services
Work of Scientific Institutions
Development of Regulations, Advisory Rules, etc
Results Achieved

161
161
163
168
169
169

Union of South Africa
General Survey
Research
Training

171
171
175
175

United Kingdom
General Survey
Safety Organisation and Activities of the National Coal Board . .
Research
Training
Other Safety Activities

180
181
202
210
218
222

United States
223
Introduction
223
General Survey
223
United States Bureau of Mines
234
The United Mine Workers of America and the Federal Mine Safety
Code
246
Other Safety Activities
249
Pennsylvania
253

CONTENTS

IX
Page

International
256
International Labour Organisation
256
Conferences of Research Institutions
259
International Electrotechnical Commission
260
International Coal Mining Conference
260
International Conference on Wire Bopes in Mines
261
International Conference on Ground Pressure and Support of Face
Workings
261

APPENDICES
I. Note on Statistical and Other Official Annual Reports concerned with Accidents and Their Prevention in Coal Mines
262
II. List of Periodicals, Pamphlets, etc

264

IÍÍTBODUCTION

During the past few years the coal-mining industry in
several countries has undergone profound changes. Before
the industry could recover completely from the depression of
the early 1930s it had to withstand the shock and trials
of war. In some countries the restoration of peace found
the industry in a grievous condition : short of equipment,
short of men and even short of mines, for many were badly
damaged during the hostilities. Since the war there have been
radical political, social and technical changes in the coalmining industry. Mines have been nationalised, the status
of the miner has been transformed, and mechanisation has
proceeded apace. All these circumstances have had a bearing
on safety. New authorities concerned with safety have come
into being, entirely new codes of safety regulations have been
framed, a new emphasis has been placed on training, and
international co-operation has been intensified in the technical
and scientific fields.
The Belgian coal-mining industry was hard hit by the war.
Mines were damaged, miners deported and equipment and
materials difficult to obtain. Considerable efforts have been
made since the war to modernise the equipment of the mines,
and, to this end, use has been made of new types of machines
manufactured in Belgium or imported from the United Kingdom and the United States. The new machines include coal
cutters, coal ploughs, loading machines and conveyors. Locomotives are now in fairly general use : there were 410 in 1949,
most of them diesels, as against 90 in 1930. Trials are being
made with trolley locomotives ; compressed-air locomotives
are tending to disappear.
The mining regulations have undergone some revision in
recent years : those relating to explosives and shotfiring were
amended in 1939 ; and those relating to first aid and rescue,
in 1947.
Mine safety and health committees were made compulsory
in 1947.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

A Superior Health Council for Mines was set up in
1945. There have been noteworthy developments in the field
of safety education and training.
Safety in French coal mines has been seriously affected by
the war and the aftermath of war. The devastation caused
by military operations, the dispersal and deportation of skilled
personnel, the psychological effects of the occupation, and the
shortages of food and supplies all contributed to lower the
general efficiency of the mines. When liberation came, shortages
of supplies and food continued, and the shortage of skilled
personnel had to be met by employing inexperienced prisoners
of war. These various circumstances told on the accident rates
—the fatal accident rate underground was 16.3 per 3,000,000
man-shifts in 1945 as against 8.8 in 1938 ; and the rate for
permanent disablement cases, 213.0 as against 178.1.
During the occupation the mineowners strove to speed up
the transformation of mining methods, the general trend being
towards concentration. To this end endeavours were made to
reduce the number of shafts, to develop main haulage roads,
to reduce the number of loading points, to increase the length
of working faces and to improve mechanical equipment.
Measures of electrification, however, were hampered by the
regulations then in force. In spite of all the efforts made in
the interests of efficiency and safety, the mines were in a bad
way at the end of the occupation and it will be some years
before all the harm done by the war can be undone.
Immediately after the liberation, steps were taken to hasten
the modernisation and mechanisation of the mines. American
and British electrical equipment has been imported and adapted
for French use, cutting and loading operations are being
mechanised, diesel locomotives, high-capacity tubs and conveyors are being used for haulage, steel supports are being used
in increasing quantities, flame safety lamps are being replaced by electric cap lamps, winding installations are
being modernised and new shafts are being sunk.
The French Government, which took over the ownership
of the mines after the war, did not confine itself to technical
improvements, but also put in hand the entire revision of the
safety regulations, carried out schemes for developing research
and training activities, and promoted general safety activities
of an educational and propaganda character.

INTRODUCTION

All these efforts are beginning to bear fruit : the fatal
accident rate underground, which, as already mentioned,
was 16.3 in 1945, fell to 13.6 in 1946 and 12.5 in 1947, although
it rose again to 14.4 in 1948.
As regards Germany, comparatively recent information
bearing on safety in coal mining is available only for the
Federal Bepublic, and more particularly the Euhr. The present
volume makes no attempt to deal in any detail with developments since 1939 in coalfields other than the Euhr.
In July 1945 the E u h r and Aachen coalfields were placed
under the authority of the North German Coal Control, a
British body, but following upon the amalgamation of the
American and British Zones at the beginning of 1947, administration of the two coalfields was transferred to a German
body, the German Coal Mining Directorate (Deutsche Kohlenbergbau-Leitung), and the North German Coal Control was
replaced by the U.K./U.S. Coal Control Group.
Considerable progress has been made in restoring the
efficiency of the West German mines : their output in 1936
averaged over 11 million tons a month, in 1946 it was below
6 million, in 1947 about 7% million, and by the middle of
1949 had risen to over 9 million tons.
At the end of the war the mining labour force was completely disorganised by the withdrawal of the younger trained
miners and their replacement by a huge army of deportees
from occupied countries. The situation seems to have been
brought back almost to normal by the end of 1947, when
about 300,000 men were employed in the hard-coal mines
in the British Zone as compared with 310,000 in 1937.
Since 1947 the number has risen to 331,000 (October 1949).
Special efforts have been made to feed, house and train
the miners.
There have been a number of interesting technical developments in the Euhr during the past few years.
All the Euhr mines are laid out on the horizon system, and
nearly all of them are worked by advancing longwall. The
trend in recent years has been to reduce the number of faces
by increasing their length. Most of the mines are of medium
size, producing 5,000 to 6,000 tons a day, but the number of
mines is steadily being reduced by combining adjacent mines
and building a central shaft with a capacity in the neigh-

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

bourhood of 12,000 tons. A number of deep mines being opened
will have an output of between 10,000 and 15,000 tons a day.
For coal-getting almost universal use is made of pneumatic
picks.
Eoof control and support has been the subject of careful
study : steel supports, especially yielding supports, and
mechanical stowing are finding increasing favour.
Mains-operated lighting is extensively used on the coal
face, doubtless owing to the almost complete absence of
shotfiring ; it has been found to make for more efficient
production, to reduce accidents and to improve the general
health of the miners.
Other important developments at the face are the introduction of the coal plough and the cutter-loader.
For face haulage, conveyors of various kinds are almost
always employed ; and for main-road haulage, locomotives
are in general use. Most of them are trolley-locomotives, but
the tendency is to introduce diesels.
Wet drilling in stone drifts is standard practice in the
Euhr ; technical innovations include hard metal tips on
percussive drills, vibratory drill feeds, track-mounted drills
and rotary rock-tunnelling machines.
Developments in winding practice are in the direction of
the electrically driven Koepe winder ; skip winders have
proved satisfactory in both main and staple shafts, and
multi-rope winders are under consideration for great depths.
The safety regulations of the Dortmund Divisional Mining
Office remain in force, the research organisations continue to
function, and the comprehensive training system of pre-war
days is being developed.
In the Netherlands progress in safety in coal mines has
been seriously hampered by the war, and more especially by
the shortage of materials during the occupation, the employment of inexperienced labour, and various measures taken by
the occupying authorities.
Nevertheless, as will be seen from the detailed safety
regulations analysed in Volume I I , a high standard of safety
is maintained. An entirely new code of safety regulations was
issued in 1939 and this was followed by a general code of
electricity regulations in 1947. Additional regulations, instructions and model rules have been issued by the Inspector General

INTRODUCTION

of Mines on a very large number of matters affecting safety.
These regulations and instructions are supplemented by close
supervision of mining operations by the Mines Inspectorate,
by medical supervision of the miners, and by educational and
training schemes.
Poland is another of the countries that have had to reconstruct their coal-mining industry as a result of the war.
Five years of war and occupation not only interrupted
development schemes, but very considerably lowered the
standard of protection and safety in the mines. At the same
time, the immense demand for coal to meet wartime requirements of both industry and transport made necessary a large
increase in output. This increase, however, was not the result
of new or improved technical installations or of improved
working conditions. On the contrary, it was achieved under a
system of forced labour that swept aside nearly all the provisions of the labour legislation as regards, for example, hours
of work, annual leave, collective agreements, and safety.
During these five years of occupation, the technical installations of the mines deteriorated owing to excessive wear and
tear, and the mining administration violated the most elementary rules of mining, without any concern for the economic
working of the deposits, the protection of the surface or the
safety of the miners. The number of accidents during this
period is unknown because the freely recruited workers were
joined by contingents of conscripts such as prisoners of war and
inmates of labour camps, but it may be assumed that the
number was high.
How the Polish Government grappled with the tremendous
task of post-war reorganisation by modernising the mines,
recruiting and training the personnel, and reforming the entire
system of safety arrangements is briefly described in the
following pages.
The organisation of the coal-mining industry in the United
Kingdom was entirely transformed as a result of the passing
of the Coal Industry Nationalisation Act, 1946, under which
the mines were nationalised and the management of them
transferred to the National Coal Board on 1 January 1947.
One result of the transfer has been a powerful impetus towards
the rationalisation of operating methods, and this has involved

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

an intensification of mechanisation. A technical survey of
British coal-mining practice had previously been made by a
Technical Advisory Committee, known as the Eeid Committee,
which reported in 1945. Although, this Committee was not
primarily concerned with safety, many of its recommendations,
for example tbose on supports, haulage, ventilation and electricity, had a direct bearing on safety.
Safety standards today are largely based on the recommendations of the Royal Commission of 1935-1938 on Safety
in Coal Mines, supplemented by the experience of subsequent
years. Several codes of regulations have, in fact, been issued
in recent years to give effect to recommendations of the Eoyal
Commission a n d others are projected. In the future, the conditions to be made safe will for the most part be those of a highlymechanised mine, having recurring periods of intense activity,
and equipped with large roads, steel supports, electric lighting,
machinery for coal cutting, getting and loading, conveyors
and locomotive haulage.
I n this connection mention should be made of the research
work of the Ministry of Fuel and Power's Safety in Mines
Eesearch and Testing Branch (prior to 1947 the Safety in
Mines Research Board) and its surveys of safety problems in
modern mining, and the safety activities of the Mines Inspectors, which will be referred to in more detail in Chapter I I I .
A striking feature of the last few years has been the extensive training system for miners, which took final shape under
regulations issued in 1945.
Lastly, since the end of the war there has been some
reorganisation and reinforcement of the Mines Inspectorate.
Since 1938 the accident situation as regards fatal and
serious non-fatal accidents on the whole has improved substantially. Relatively minor accidents have increased in number,
but the number of these accidents appears to reflect to
some extent factors other than safety, e.g., improved terms
for compensation payments, more continuous employment, etc.
As regards safety in coal mining in the United States the
outstanding events of the past decade may be said to include
the following :
1. The enactment of federal legislation in 1941 to provide
for the inspection of coal mines and the publication of inspection reports.

INTRODUCTION

2. The framing of tentative safety standards by the
Bureau of Mines for all the coal mines in the country, for
use in conjunction with the federal inspections.
3. The Krug-Lewis agreement of 1946, providing, among
other things, for the formation of a safety committee at every
mine.
4. The adoption of a Federal Coal Mine Safety Code
in 1946.
5. The National Bituminous Coal Wage Agreement of
1947 setting up a joint safety committee for the coal-mining
industry, and adopting the Federal Coal Mine Safety Code
with which mine operators and mineworkers will comply.
These provisions were continued in subsequent agreements.
As in other coal-mining countries, the prevailing trend
during the past ten years in the United States has been towards
even more intensive rationalisation and mechanisation in the
winning, transport and preparation of coal.
The widespread adoption of more modern methods and
equipment has resulted in rapid completion of coal extraction
from limited working areas rather than slow mining by scattered groups over large areas. Supervision has been improved
because of the close grouping of crews and mechanised units.
Division of work among specialised crews gives closer observance of safe standards and practices. Introduction of machines
has also brought new problems of noise, dust, electrical
and mechanical hazards and lowered individual responsibility.
That these problems are being met is indicated by the continued lowering of the injury rates.

OHAPTEB I
ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING
Data are available showing accident risks in coal mining
for a number of countries, including most of the important
coal-mining countries. In the present chapter coal is taken
to mean anthracite and bituminous coal to the exclusion of
lignite.
A few words describing the methods of measuring the risk
of accident and the difficulties involved are desirable before
proceeding to a discussion of the relative rates. 1
The risk of accident is measured by a fraction, of which
the numerator represents the number of persons killed or
injured in accidents and the denominator represents the time
of exposure to risk, and is usually expressed as a number of
injuries 2 per 1,000 units of exposure. The exposure to risk
is best measured by the number of man-hours worked, but,
since few countries give man-hours while many give manshifts or man-years, the rates here presented have been calculated on the basis of man-years of 300 shifts each ; where these
are not available the average number of wage-earners (or
employees) employed during the year has been utilised.
So far as the definition of injuries is concerned, fatal injuries
usually include all injuries which result in death, irrespective
of the time when death occurred, whether immediately or
subsequently, up to the date of issue of the statistical report.
The definition of non-fatal injuries varies greatly from
country to country, the chief difference being in the minimum
duration of disability which must result for an injury to be
1

For a more detailed study of this subject, see INTERN AMOK AL LABOUB O F Ï I C E :
Methods of Compiling Statistics of Coal-Mining Accidents, Studies and Reports,
Series N, No. 14 (Geneva, 1929). Further details on number of eases, definitions,
etc., are given in Industrial Accident Statistics, Studies and Reports, Series N,
No. 22 (Geneva, 1938).
2
Persons killed or injured.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

taken into consideration. The countries may be divided into
two groups—those in which non-fatal injuries include onlyserious injuries, such as those entailing permanent disability
or disabilities lasting longer than 14 days ; and those in which
all non-fatal injuries are included except those involving
disability of up to one, two, three or four days only. No
comparisons are possible between countries where non-fatal
injuries include only serious injuries because of the wide differences in definition ; nor are comparisons possible between
countries of the first and second groups, because of the preponderance of accidents involving minor injuries. Even within
the second group of countries, comparability is impaired
because the criteria regarding minimum duration of disability
are not the same. 1
The countries for which rates are shown use three different
methods of calculating the time at risk. Most commonly the
time at risk is calculated as man-days worked converted into
standard man-years of 300 days each. In the second method
the average number of employees (or wage-earners) is used.
The third method, used in Canada and the United States,
consists in calculating the number of man-years of 2,400 hours
each. The reservations applying to comparisons of rates based
on these different methods are discussed in detail below.
Neither of the first two methods take account of the differences
which may exist in the number of hours worked per day. At
best, therefore, they give only an approximation to the true
risk rate of injuries in coal mines.
Minor variations exist in respect of the industrial scope
of the figures and in the types of workers covered. In certain
countries ancillary activities such as coke ovens and briquettemaking plants are included with coal mines. In most countries
the figures relate to wage-earners ; in one or two cases they
include technical employees exposed to mine risks as well as
wage-earners ; while in a few countries all employees are
included in the statistics of numbers exposed to risk.
1
An idea of the importance of the differences in minimum duration of disability
may be gained from the fact that injuries (in all industries) causing disabilities of
two, three and four days equal nearly one-third of those causing disabilities of more
than four days. This estimate is based upon the distribution of injuries of different
duration in the American Standard Accident Table (based, however, not upon coal
mine accidents but upon all industrial accidents). See Olive E. OUTWATER : " An
American Accident Table", in Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical
Association, Vol. XVII, No. 132, Dec. 1930, pp. 492-495.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING

FATAL I N J U R Y BATES

In table I fatal rates are presented for 14 countries for the
periods between 1927 and 1949, so far as data are available.
Trends
Over the period the figures afford definite evidence of
lessening risk of fatal injuries in certain countries. Thus, in
the United States the rate fell from approximately 4.5 in
1927-1929 to 2.6 in 1945-1949, a reduction of over 40 per cent.
in 20 years. 1
In New Zealand the rate in the last five-year period was
less than half that in the period 1927-1939, while J a p a n
showed a reduction of more than one-third. In the Netherlands
the rate for the period 1946-1949 was about half of
that for 1927-1929. The rates for India and South Africa
declined about 30 and 25 per cent, respectively. The United
Kingdom also experienced a decrease of 25 per cent, in the
In Canada, also, the fatal injury rate shows a substantial
drop, from about 3.0 in 1927-1939 to 2.4 in 1945-1949, a
reduction of 20 per cent.
In Czechoslovakia the rate for 1946 showed a reduction
over the figures for the previous periods and, although this
is an insufficient basis for a conclusion as regards trends, it
indicates the possibility that an improvement in the rates may
have begun. Poland had higher rates in the period 1935-1937
than in 1927-1929 ; the rates in recent years are not available.
Little or no improvement in the rates is evident in Australia,
Belgium and France, but these countries were among those
with the lowest rates in the period 1927-1929.
Post-war data are not available for Germany. A comparison with earlier periods shows that 1935-1939 had substantially lower rates, but those for the years 1940-1941 were
about the same as before 1935.
1
The rates in the United States are based on man-years of 2,100 man-hours
each up to 1944 and of 2,400 man-hours each from 1945 onwards. Prior to about
1944 the hours were those of actual work at the coal face ; but since 1944 the hours
have been measured from portal to portal, i.e., including travel time. The average
travel time is estimated at some 30 minutes per shift. Therefore, when allowance
is made for the increase in the number of man-hours from 2,100 to 2,400 per manyear for comparison with the earlier period, the rates during the last period should
be reduced by approximately 6 per cent. For purposes of comparison, therefore,
the figures for the last period should be reduced to 2.46.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

TABLE I. FATAL INJURY BATES IN COAL
(per 1,000 man-years
Australia 1

Period

1927-1929
1930-1934
1935-1939
1940-1944
1945-1949
Man-years during the
latest year shown .

Belgium

Canada

Czechoslovakia

0.97
0.79
1.11
1.25
0.93

1.20
1.18
1.11
1.52
1.12*

2.92
3.08
3.00 3
2.82
2.41

1.64
1.51
1.46
1.97
1.33*

25,000

92,000

18,000

France

1.08
0.95
0.86 s
1.28 "
1.02

Germany
(Prussia)

2.18
2.14
1.54
2.13 7

India 1

1.20
1.27
1.57
1.31
0.85 <

105,000 245,000 646,000 318,000
(1950)

I P e r 1,000 employees. 2 1945. 3 s i n c e 1935, new series. * 1946. 6 1935-1938. 6 1941-1944.
' 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 1 . « P r i o r t o 1947, British India. » P e r 1,000 wage-earners. "> 1940-1943. n 1946-1947.

War Years
In a number of countries the rates for the war years are
higher than either before or after the war. This is true for
Australia, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and France, while in the
case of Germany the rate for the years 1940-1941 was markedly
higher than in the immediately preceding period. On the
other hand, in Canada, India, Japan, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom and
the United States no markedly higher rates appeared to
characterise the war years. The general downward trend in
accident rates nevertheless appears to have been temporarily
halted in this period.
Differences between Countries
The differences between countries are noteworthy. In the
period 1927-1929 rates of 2.5 and over applied in Canada,
Japan, the Union of South Africa and the United States,
while those with low rates (1.3 or less) were Australia, Belgium,
France, India, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.
An intermediate position was occupied by Czechoslovakia,
Germany, New Zealand and Poland.
A quite different situation existed in respect of the last
five-year period covered by the table. In Canada, Japan and
the Union of South Africa the rates for 1945-1949 dropped
below 2.5 and brought them into the intermediate group.
Only in the United States was the rate above 2.5.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING

MINING IN 1 4 COUNTRIES, 1 9 2 7 - 1 9 4 9
of exposure to risk)
Japan 10 Netherlands

3.67
4.45
4.64
4.16
2.30

1.13
0.79
0.66
0.90 10
0.57 "

452,000 45,000

New
Zealand 1

1.90
1.81
1.75
1.44
0.79
6,000

Poland

2.00
1.95
2.37 12

67,000

Union of
South
Africa 1

United
Kingdom IS

United
States«

2.52
2.50
2.86
2.70
1.88

1.30
1.35
1.20
1.20
0.87

4.54
4.25
3.59
3.30
2.62

55,000

591,000 271,000

Period

1927-1929
1930-1934
1935-1939
1940-1944
1945-1949
Man-years during the
latest year shown

i 2 1935-1937. is Great Britain only. « Based on man-year of 2,100 man-hours up to 1944 ; from
1945 onwards man-year of 2,400 man-hours. Time measured from portal to portal.

These differences in rates reflect real differences in hazards
but are only an approximate measure. Some of the differences
in rates from country to country or from one period to another
are due to variations in statistical methods or definitions.
One difficulty is to obtain complete coverage of accidents
which result in fatal injury. In the case of Canada, for example,
new methods have been used since 1935 to obtain a more
complete coverage of fatal accidents. The real reduction in
rates in Canada, therefore, has been greater than that indicated.
In other words, an improvement in reporting and collecting
the data on fatal injuries has tended to mask or to minimise
the real decrease in the frequency of injury.
Another important difference in statistical methods is in
the measurement of the exposure to risk. The most satisfactory method is on the basis of man-hours worked ; this is
used in the United States. The next best is on the basis of
man-days worked ; this is used for eight countries—Belgium,
Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, the Netherlands,
Poland and the United Kingdom. The average number of
wage-earners is used in Japan ; and the average number of
employees is used in Australia, India, ifew Zealand and the
Union of South Africa. In most cases, the man-hours and
man-days worked refer primarily to wage-earners.
The chief difference between countries where rates are
based on man-days worked is in the length of the day or shift.
In the table these rates are calculated on the basis of a manyear of 300 man-days each, whereas the rates based on manhours worked are calculated on the basis of a man-year of

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

2,400 man-hours each, equal to 300 days of eight hours
(including travel time). In some countries, for example the
Netherlands, the shift or man-day is eight hours, and the
man-year would then be 2,400 man-hours. The question of
the length of the shift is an important item affecting comparisons between injury rates.
Comparisons between countries where rates are based on
man-years of 300 days each and those where rates are based
oa the number of wage-earners exposed to risk are subject to
additional qualifications. In the first place, the number of
wage-earners taken as base may not represent exactly the
average number of wage-earners employed ; it may be simply
the number employed on a particular day in the year or the
average of the numbers employed on a particular day in
each month. The average number of persons employed on
days of actual operation exceeds the number of man-years
worked because it does not take account of days when the
mines are idle. For example, in the United States, where the
average number of man-days worked per person is considerably
less than 300, the average number of wage-earners employed
greatly exceeds the number of man-years. In general, therefore, the use of the number of wage-earners employed results
in understating the injury frequency rates in comparison with
rates based on man-years. The extent of understatement
depends on the conditions in the industry (the number of
days worked during the year), as well as in the method of
calculating the average of the wage-earners employed.
Finally, where the average number of employees is used
instead of the average number of wage-earners, the rates
are further reduced because of the inclusion of salaried
employees who are not exposed to risk.
All these considerations must be borne in mind in making
comparisons between countries as to injury rates. It is
obvious that errors of as much as 20 to 30 per cent, may
easily arise from these differences. It should be possible,
however, to determine in the case of any given comparison
in which direction these differences in method will operate,
so that, after making allowances for these differences, conclusions as to relative hazards may still be drawn. Furthermore, in many cases, the differences in rates between countries
are so great t h a t it is obvious that real differences in hazard
must exist.

ACCIDENT BISKS I N COAL MINING

The differences in real hazards derive from such factors
as the mechanical equipment used, the thickness of coal
seams, the nature of the rock in which the coal seams occur,
gaseous or non-gaseous conditions in the mine, etc. Other
things being equal, these factors will continue to result in
differences in rates.
Other things are, of course, not equal ; and the principal
factors to be emphasised are the safety precautions of all
kinds which are taken to prevent or to minimise accidents
and their consequences. Thus, for example, the mines in a
given country may be predominantly of a gaseous character
subject to mine explosions and mass accidents. Fortunately,
the use of the safety lamp, rock dusting and other methods
have been developed to lessen such risks.
NON-FATAL I N J U R Y RATES

Table I I shows non-fatal rates for eight countries.
In addition to the remarks already made, in connection with
fatal injury rates, relating to methods of measuring exposure, certain other important reservations apply to non-fatal injury rates.
TABLE I I .

NON-FATAL I N J U R Y R A T E S I N COAL M I N I N G
IN EIGHT COUNTRIES, 1 9 2 7 - 1 9 4 9
1,000 man-years of exposure to

(ver
Period

Germany
(Prussia)

Japanö

Over
4 days

Over
3 days

375.3
424.4
408.13
769.84
811.0

243.0
199.8
151.0
180.2a

Canada France

risk)

Nether- Poland United
King- United
lands
dom 10 States

Minimum duratior1
of disability . .
1927-1929.
1930-1934.
1935-1939.
1940-1944.
1945-1949.

.
.
.
.
.

166.1
144.9
' 176.8
220.72

Over
2 days

Over
3 days

178.6
566.6
426.9 212.3 182.4
295.9 193.7 184.6°
231.6 424.4'
241.0 265.48

Over
3 days

Over
1 day

208.6
198.7 224.3
175.5 179.2
246.7 154.5
303.5 144.4

i The minimum duration of disability varies with the province ; in most provinces all
accidents reported. 2 1940-1941. 3 1935-1938. * 1941-1944. e p e r 1,000 wage-earners.
6 Prior to 1930 : cases involving disability of over 3 days. Beginning 1930 : all cases in
which the worker received, or expected to receive, medical care or in which incapacity
lasted or was expected to last for more than 3 days, i 1940-1943. 81946-I950. 9 19351937. 10 Great Britain only.

In the first place, comparisons between countries in regard
to non-fatal rates are subject to reservations arising from
the use of different standards for the minimum duration of
disability resulting from an injury.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

In the United States all injuries involving disability of
" more than one day " are included in the statistics ; in the
Netherlands those involving disability of " over two days " ;
in Germany, Japan, Poland and the United Kingdom, " over
three days " ; in Franee, " over four days " ; while in Canada
the exact definition varies as between provinces but in general
the coverage corresponds roughly with that in the United
States. Since the number of injuries covered increases rapidly
as the minimum duration of disability is reduced, this minimum is a most important element in the definition.
I n interpreting the trends in non-fatal rates, account
should be taken of the tendency for the rates to show an
increase as the reporting system is improved. When a system
of accident reporting is first instituted, what appear to be
minor injuries are often not reported ; only after considerable
experience is it realised that some of these injuries fall within
the definition in respect of minimum duration of disability,
and only in the course of time are these cases included in the
reports. I t was thus commonly found that over a period
of years the frequency rates for injuries involving shorttime disability were rising, owing to better reporting, while
the frequency rates for the more serious injuries were decreasing as a result of improvements in safety measures. The
rates calculated for non-fatal accidents, therefore, are subject
to the reservation that where an apparently increasing trend
is shown it may be due wholly to better reporting, and that
where a decreasing trend is shown it may be in reality much
steeper than is indicated by the figures. In fact, the true
trends in injury rates are often more clearly shown by the
fatal than by the non-fatal rates.
Trends
I n three countries, Germany, Japan and the United States,
the non-fatal rates show a definite decline over the period
covered. Rates increased in Canada, Prance, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom—in particular a sharp upward
movement took place in the war years. In France and in
the Netherlands it doubled ; this suggests that the conditions
associated with the war produced a sharp increase in accidents.
Among these conditions is to be noted the greater use of
inexperienced mineworkers, a factor which also has influenced
injury rates in the post-war period in certain countries.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING

Differences between Countries
The table shows extraordinarily high rates for France,
as compared with the other countries. In this comparison,
the rate for each of the other countries includes injuries involving shorter periods of disability than in the case of France,
and hence, in spite of the more " favourable " definition, the
non-fatal injury rates for France are definitely higher. The
increase in the rates in that country in recent years, however,
reflects an increase in the proportion of reported injuries.
During the first three periods, Japan had a much higher
rate than any other country in the table, with the exception
of France. In the case of the comparison with France, Japan's
high rate for the first period may be accounted for wholly
or in part by the difference in the minimum duration of
disability, which includes certain short-time injuries not
covered in the French statistics. Since 1935 Japan has shown
a marked change, suggesting an improvement in safety conditions.
The United Kingdom shows higher non-fatal injury rates
than the United States or Canada, in contrast to its more
favourable position in regard to fatal injury rates.
ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENTS BY CAUSES

Only underground accidents are considered here.
An analysis of the causes of accidents 1 may proceed either
by an analysis of accident rates by causes or by a distribution
of accidents according to cause. The former is the more significant, since it shows not only the relative importance of the
several causes with respect to one another but also their
absolute importance in relation to the exposure to risk. The
rates per thousand man-years for a given cause, for example,
may be equal in two countries but may appear to be relatively
less important (in causing a smaller percentage of all injuries)
in one country than in the other, owing solely to the larger
proportion of injuries due to other causes.
I n table I I I (A) data on causes of underground accidents
are presented for the year 1935 for eight countries for which
rates per thousand man-years of exposure to risk can be calculated. I t has not been possible to compile such data for
1
See INTKRNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : Methods of Compiling Statistics of
Coal-Mining Accidents, op. cit., especially Chapters IV and V, and Appendix.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

TABLE n i (A). FATAL UNDERGROUND INJURY RATES
FROM SPECIFIED CAUSES IN COAL MINES IN 1 9 3 5 FOR EIGHT COUNTRIES
(V er 1,000 man •years of exposure to risk)
Cause

Explosions of firedamp and coal dust
Falls of ground . .
Shaft accidents
Haulage . . .
Explosives . .
Electricity . .
Machinery . .
Other
. . . .
Total .

Belgium 1

0.83
0.62
0.10
0.26
0.05

Canada France

United States l
KingBitudom Anthraminous
cite
coal

o.os

0.15
0.07
0.22

— 0.12 — 0.13
0.76 0.85 0.84 1.80
0.25 10.70 lo.l3 lo.69
0.12
0.02 0.08 0.06 0.03
—
—
— 0.08
—
—
— 0.03
0.12 0.07 0.26 0.27

0.07
0.88
0.03
0.36
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.07

0.21
2.67
0.07 2
0.52
0.27
0.05
0.07
0.38

1.92

4.35

1.27

1.49

4.24 2 3.91 s

—

0.01

1.70
1.33

GerPoland
( Prus- Nether1
sia and lands
Saar)

—

0.88

—

1.82

1.30

3.03

0.17
2.36
0.03 2
0.73
0.09
0.23
0.12
0.17

i 1934. 2 Shaft accidents not included in source with underground accidents; these are here included
in the total of u n d e r g r o u n d accidents.

more recent years for all these countries. The comparability
of the data is limited, except for some clearly defined groups,
by differences in the definitions, scope and methods of classification of accident causes. The groups, as shown in the
original statistics for each country, have been brought together
in this table for the purposes of easy comparison. 1
Eight distinct groups of causes of injury are shown in the
table : explosions from coal dust or firedamp, falls of ground,
shaft accidents, transport, explosives, electricity, machinery,
and all others.
Of the groups shown, falls of ground (coal, rock) is by far
the most important, accounting for from slightly over onefourth to one-half of the fatal and from one-eighth to slightly
over one-third of the non-fatal injuries. The fatal rates for
Belgium, France, Germany (Prussia), the Netherlands and the
United Kingdom vary between 0.62 to 0.88 per thousand
man-years, but for Canada (1.33), Poland (1.80) and the United
States (2.67 anthracite and 2.36 bituminous coal) the rates
are two to four times as high.
1
Though these rates are for a single year and therefore subject to the special
influences of that year, the degree to which they are characteristic of the particular
country can be seen from tables I and II, which show rates for the years 1927-1949.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING
TABLE I I I (B). NON-FATAL UNDERGROUND I N J U R Y RATES
FROM S P E C I F I E D CAUSES I N COAL M I N E S I N 1 9 3 5
FOR SEVEN COUNTRIES
(•per 1,000 man-years

Cause

of exposure

Germany
(Prus- Nether- Poland
sia and lands
Saar)

Canada

Lignite

Minimum duration
of disability . . .
Explosions of firedamp and coal
dust . . .
Falls of ground
Shaft accidents
Haulage . .
Explosives.
Electricity.
Machinery .
Other . . .
Total . . .

Over
4 days

0.8
0.0
5 0 . 0 244.2
11.9
35.2
76.4
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.0
0.3
61.2 227.3

risk)
United States l
United
King- Anthra- Bitudom
minous
cite
coal

Over
3 days

Over
2 days

Over
3 days

0.2
57.0

108.9

0.2
38.3

0.1
1
61
90.8
1
0.4
66.2
38
2
0.4
2
0.1
8.4
4.5
74.7 202.9

118.9 ^60.0
0.3
7.1
3.6

55.1
1.2
0 6
2.3
114.1 152.0
0.1

Over
1 day

0.7
57.7
0.62
46 6
1.4
2.6
12.7
65.1

149.0 560.2 187.1 283.1 249.7 237.2 318.9 a 187.3 2

i 1934. 2 Shaft accidents not included in source with underground accidents ; these
are here included in total of underground accidents. 3 Varies in different provinces ;
in most provinces all accidents reported.

So far as non-fatal injury rates from falls of ground are
concerned—restricting the comparison to the seven countries
included in table III(B)—the rate for France, 244.2 per thousand man-years, appears extraordinarily high. This figure is
six times that of the corresponding rate for Poland, five times
that for Canada, and between two and three times the rates
for the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, in spite of the
fact that in France mining accidents causing disability up to
four days are omitted.
It is interesting to note that in the United States and in
Canada, where the general rates are very high, the non-fatal
injury rates from falls of ground are relatively low.
Transport or haulage accidents are the second most important group of underground accidents, causing from 7 to 35
per cent, of fatal and from 10 to 55 per cent, of non-fatal
injuries in the countries concerned. The fatal injury rates
were low for France and the Netherlands—only 0.12 and 0.13
respectively ; they were intermediate in Belgium and the
United Kingdom—0.26 and 0.36—and high in Poland (0.69),
Germany (Prussia, 0.70), the United States (0.52 anthracite

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

and 0.73 bituminous coal) and highest of all in Canada (0.88).
T i e non-fatal rates show much less variation, being lowest in
Canada (35.2) and highest in Germany (Prussia, 118.9). France
(76.4) also had a very high rate from this cause. The changes
in the relative positions of France and Canada in fatal and nonfatal rates seem difficult to explain, since differences in classification, if any, must affect both fatal and non-fatal rates alike.
Three other specific causes may be considered briefly.
In cases of explosions from firedamp and coal dust, Canada
had a high rate of fatal injuries (1.70) and Belgium a rate of
0.83, while in other countries the rate was negligible. The
non-fatal figure was only 0.8 in Canada but was 1.4 and 0.7
in the United States, while in other countries the non-fatal
rates were little higher than the fatal rates.
Fatal injuries due to explosives were negligible in six of
the seven countries ; in the United States, where the rates
were highest, they were 0.27 and 0.09 in anthracite and bituminous mining respectively. Non-fatal rates were highest in
the United States (2.5 anthracite), intermediate in Poland
(1.2), Canada (1.1) and the United States (bituminous coal
1.4) ; the rates were low or negligible in the other four countries.
Electricity as the cause of fatal injuries gives a rate of 0.23
in the United States (bituminous mines), 0.15 in Canada and
0.08 in Poland. In other countries the rates were negligible. In
all countries except the United States (2.7 and 2.6 for anthracite
and bituminous mines) the non-fatal rates were very low.
Much more detailed classifications of causes are available
in many countries, for example, the Netherlands, the United
Kingdom (Great Britain) and the United States. These detailed
lists must, of course, be utilised in any attempt to throw fight
upon specific causes and upon remedies.
Later figures for Canada, France, the United Kingdom and
the United States are presented in table IV (AandB) to throw
light upon the changes in the frequency rates of injuries from
these different causes.
So far as the fatal rates are concerned, not much change is
to be noted. The rates for explosions of gas and coal dust
again appear quite high for Canada as compared with other
countries shown in the table. For the United States the rates
from falls of ground are again relatively very high. Again, in
Canada and the United States haulage takes a heavier toll
than in the other countries.

ACCIDENT RISKS IN COAL MINING

TABLE

SPECIFIED

(A).

FATAL

UNDERGROUND

CAUSES I N T H E COAI

DURING A RECENT
(per 1,000 mcm-years

Explosion of gas and
coal dust
Falls of ground
Shaft accidents
Haulage . . .
Explosives . .
Electricity . .
Machinery. . .
Other
. . . .

FROM

COUNTRIES

YEAR
to

risk)

United States 2
United
Kingdom 1 Anthracite Bituminous
coal 8

1941

1946

2.29
0.94

0.09
0.67
0.12
0.25
0.02

0.05
0.63
0.02
0.31
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.05

0.30
2.24
0.10
0.72
0.18
0.04
0.06
0.30

0.57
2.03
0.02
0.78
0.09
0.11
0.11
0.18

1.12

3.93

3.88

—

0.82

—
—

0.12
0.23

—
|

0.20

4.40

Total

RATES

OF F O U R

of exposure

Canada i

Cause

INJURY

MINES

1.36

1943

i Per 1,000 man-years ot 300 man-days (man-shifts) each. 2 Per 1,000 man-years of
2,100 man-hours each, s Including lignite.

TABLE

(B).

NON-FATAL

UNDERGROUND

INJURY

RATES

PROM S P E C I F I E D CAUSES I N T H E COAL M I N E S OP P O U R C O U N T R I E S
DURING A RECENT
(per

1,000 man-years

YEAR

of exposure

risk)

Canada

France

United
Kingdom

United States

1941

1946

1943

Over 4 days

Over 3 days

Over 1 day

0.2
429.6
5.7
128.1
0.3
0.2

0.15
119.0
0.5
82.9

0.3
37.2
0.4
38.0
1.3
3.1
16.1
69.3

Minimum duration of
1

Explosion of gas and
coal dust
. . . .
Falls of ground
Shaft accidents
Haulage . . .
Explosives . .
Electricity . .
Machinery . .
Other . . . .
Total

0.7
80.89

—

51.1
0.89
0.5
0.9
123.2 a
258.1

512.31
1076.3

j
i

139.2

'
341.8

165.9

i Minimum duration varies with the province ; in most provinces all accidents reported.
2 Includes rates of 4.75 from " mining and loading coal ", 2.35 from " timbering " and
116.09 " other ".

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Non-fatal rates are shown for the same four countries.
In France the rates for 1946 were nearly double those for 1935 ;
falls of ground, haulage, and miscellaneous causes take the
chief places. The United Kingdom held second place among
these four countries, while the United States had the lowest
rates. The rates in that country were by far the lowest of any
of the four countries, except for explosives, electricity, and
machinery, for which the rates were the highest.
In general, however, the relative importance of the several
causes shows little change from the figures of the earlier
period.
It is not possible to make international comparisons of the
relative importance of individual accident causes in the main
cause groups such as falls of ground, haulage and miscellaneous.
Some indication of the chief components of these groups is
furnished by detailed figures for the United Kingdom (1946)
and the United States (1948).
As regards falls of ground, in the United Kingdom 230 out
of 277 fatal accidents occurred at the working face ; of these
189 were due t o falls of roof and 41 to falls of face or side.
Falls of roof or sides on roads accounted for a further 47.
The United States figures do not distinguish between faces
and roads -, out of a total of 554 fatal accidents, 501 are attributed to falls of roof, and 53 to falls of face or rib. Mining
accounted for 112 of the falls-of-roof cases and 13 of the fallsof-face-or-rib cases -, loading for 138 of the former and 11 of the
latter ; testing or taking down roof, for 40 of the former and
none of the latter ; setting or pulling timbers or props, for 77
of the former and one of the latter ; moving machinery for 11
of the former and one of the latter, and pressure bumps or
bursts for none of the former and 23 of the latter. In addition,
there were 26 roof-fall accidents due to cars or machines
knocking out timbers or props.
Fatal haulage accidents in the United Kingdom in 1946
numbered 136, mechanical haulage accounting for 111. The
most frequent cause of accidents was runaways (44 cases).
An analysis of 157 fatal haulage accidents in the United
States in 1948 shows the leading causes to be as follows :
struck by, run over by or squeezed between cars or motors,
38 accidents ; squeezed between car or motor and rib, timber
or roof, 29 ; runaways, 26 ; shuttle cars, 17 ; slipping, jumping
in or from cars or motors, 16 ; and derailments, 12.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING

Some data are also available from the United Kingdom
and the United States on the relationship between accident
risks and other factors such as the nature of the coal, the
configuration and thickness of the seams, the size of the mine,
the average age of miners and the pneumoconiosis risk.
In the United Kingdom the relationship between accident
frequency and the size of the mine was discussed by the Chief
Inspector of Mines in a paper presented to a conference of
the British Association held at Edinburgh in August 1951.*
This relationship is shown in table V, which gives figures for
the year 1950.
TABLE

CLASSIFIED

ASSESSMENT

OF A C C I D E N T

INCIDENCE

No. of miners

No. of pits

iso. of man-shifts

Total
accidents

Rate per
100,000
man-shifts

0- 50
50- 100
100- 250
250- 500
500- 750
750-1,000
1,000-1,500
1,500-2,000
2,000-2,500
2,500-3,000
3,000 and over

327
27
82
124
102
112
94
50
14
13
4

1,149,000
469,000
3,692,000
11,701,000
16,088,000
23,955,000
32,370,000
21,246,000
8,756,000
8,693,000
3,528,000

730
498
3,818
15,096
21,495
32,295
44,739
31,355
14,243
14,170
5,882

63.5
105.1
103.5
129.0
133.5
134.6
138.2
147.6
162.5
163.0
166.6

On this table the Chief Inspector makes the following
comments :
The rising trend of the accident rate with increase in the size of
pit, as shown in the above table, is very marked. The reasons for
this need further investigation. At first sight, it may seem that the
simple explanation for the higher rate in the bigger pits lies in their
more difficult geological conditions for, on average, the bigger pits
are deeper and work thicker seams. But against this there is the
fact that no such trend is seen in the accident rate for " falls of
ground " at the working face which one would expect to increase
with the more difficult geological conditions—in other words, in
the larger pits on this argument. Statistics show that the accident
rate from falls of roof or side at the working face almost doubles
from the smallest pits to those employing between 500 and 750 men
and that, thereafter, for pits from this size upwards, the rate remains
practically constant. As the pits employing 500 men or more account
for seven-eighths of the total manpower, it is a safe rule to say that
while the total accident rate increases steadily with the size of pit,
1
Sir Andrew BRYAN : " Accidents in Coal Mines. The Value of Eesearch ",
in The Iron and Coal Trades Review, 25 J a n . 1952, p p . 193-199.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

the face accident rate from " falls of ground " remains nearly constant.
It is likely, therefore, that factors other than " conditions " also
enter into accident probabilities.
The Chief Inspector also explores the relationship between
the pneumoconiosis rate and the accident rate in coal mines.
Table VI shows, for the year 1948, these two rates per 1,000
miners employed in the coal mines of the South-Western
Division (South Wales, etc.).
TABLE

VI.

INCIDENCE

OF P N E U M O C O N I O S I S I N T H E S O U T H -

WESTERN

DIVISION

Incidence of cases
of pneumoconiosis
per 1,000 persons
employed

No. of pits

No. of miners

No. of accidents

Rate
per 1,000
miners
employed

0-100
100-200
200-300
300-400
400-500
Above 500

77
48
28
17
6
8

43,577
32,494
19,204
10,929
4,857
6,233

9,188
7,966
5,609
3,288
1,250
1,966

211
245
292
300
257
314

Average fo

247

The reasons why the accident rate varies directly with
the pneumoconiosis rate are not determined, but it is suggested
that if the South-Western Division were free of pneumoconiosis, or the factors that cause it, the accident rate would be
substantially lower.
In the United States additional factors of accident causation have been reviewed by the United States Bureau of
Mines.1
Comparison of the risks in anthracite and bituminous
coal mines shows that falls of roof are the principal cause of
fatal and non-fatal accidents at all coal mines, but " rush
of coal, rock or gob " is a much more serious hazard in anthracite mines t h a n in bituminous coal and lignite mines because
much of the anthracite is obtained from rather steeply dipping
beds and by extracting pillars on second or third mining.
Haulage creates approximately the same hazards in all
coal mines. I n anthracite mines it is necessary to handle
1

"UNITED S T A T E S B U R E A U OF M I N E S : Safety in the Mining

Apr. 1949.

Industry,

I.C. 7485,

ACCIDENT RISKS IN COAL MINING

timber and other materials up to the working faces from the
gangways, and this results in higher injury rates than when
handling the same type of material in the flatter beds usually
present in bituminous coal and lignite mines. Similarly,
there are numerous chutes and other openings with differences
in level in anthracite mines, and consequently " falls of persons " is an important cause of injury.
The bituminous coal and lignite mines are usually much
more completely mechanised than anthracite mines and, as a
result, " machinery " is more frequently a cause of injury in
them than in anthracite mines.
A much larger amount of explosives is used in anthracite
mines than in bituminous coal and lignite mines of the same
size ; many rock tunnels are driven in anthracite mines and,
chiefly because of the steep pitches, a large part of t h e coal
is " shot from solid ", requiring larger amounts of explosives
than if the coal were cut before blasting. The more extensive
use of explosives, as well as the greater difficulty in using
them, is reflected in the injury rates due to explosives, which
are several times higher in anthracite mines than in bituminous
coal and lignite mines.
Anthracite mines are usually gassy, but the dust is not
considered to be explosive ; although gas ignitions occur
relatively frequently, the resultant explosion is not propagated
by coal dust, as in bituminous mines, and the loss of life is
lower.
The thickness of the seam does not appear to be of any
great significance in accident causation. Statistics compiled
for 1948 1 show that the fatality rate in underground bituminous mines per million man-hours was 1.66 for seams up
to 2 feet thick, 1.47 for seams 2-3 feet thick, 1.15 for 3-4 feet,
1.33 for 4-5 feet, 1.24 for 5-6 feet, 1.11 for 6-7 feet, 0.64 for
7-8 feet, 0.73 for 8-9 feet and 1.05 for seams over 9 feet thick.
Injury rates varied between 44.27 and 64.55 for all seams
over 2 feet thick ; for seams not over 2 feet thick the figure
was 53.81.
Accident rates per million man-hours in the various sizegroups of mines are shown in table V I I for underground
bituminous mines and underground anthracite mines in 1948.
1

UNITED STATES BUBEATT or MINES : Injury Experience in Coal Mining, 1948,

Bulletin 509, 1952.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

TABLE VII. RATES OF ACCIDENTS ACCORDING TO THE SIZE
OP THE MINE
(million man-hours)
Bituminous mines
No. of men employed

1 24
25-49
50-99
100 199
200 299
300-399
400-499
500 and over . . .
Average . . .

Anthracite mines

Fatal

Non-fatal

Fatal

Non-fatal

1.91
1.35
1.19
1.16
1.00
1.22
1.29
0.95
1.19

50.49
62.96
67.86
65.74
62.68
65.87
59.46
44.72
58.35

1.30
0.97
1.01
1.38
0.90
1.24
0.70
0.82
0.93

61.20
87.86
63.25
85.88
87.27
82.46
77.31
79.48
79.90

One reason why larger mines have better safety records
than small mines may well be that they are better able to
supervise workers and working places and instruct workers ;
they also receive the benefits of more frequent State and
federal inspections. Further, the larger mines are as a rule
better financed, and are thus able to furnish better and safer
equipment and working conditions than most small mines,
many of which have only one opening, have no control of air
flow, have primitive timbering, lack modern equipment and
follow unsafe procedures, and hence, are inherently dangerous.
Table V I I I indicates the age distribution of workers in
anthracite and bituminous coal mines in 1944, the latest year
for which figures are available. 1
The percentage distribution of injuries b y age group in
the bituminous mines in the same year was as follows :
under 25, 7.4; 25-39, 3 7 . 3 ; 40-49, 24.4; 50 and over, 30.9.
The corresponding distribution of underground accidents
was as follows : under 25, 6.9 ; 25-39, 37.3 ; 40-49, 24.8 ; 50
and over, 31.0.
The anthracite industry, with only 3.5 per cent, of its
employees under 25 years of age and with 41.5 per cent. 50 or
more years old, is likely to be in serious difficulty in the not
far distant future in regard to manpower, unless means are
found to reverse the present trend. The bituminous-coal
1

UNITED STATES BUKEAU OF MINES : Age and Experience of the Injured as

Factors in Bituminous-Coal Mine Accident Prevention Work, H.S.S., No. 377.

ACCIDENT BISKS IN COAL MINING

TABLE VIII.

D I S T R I B U T I O N OF M I N E R S B Y A G E G R O U P S , 1 9 4 4
Percentage
Age

Anthracite
mines

Bituminous
mines

Under 25 . . . .
25 to 39
40 to 49
50 and over . . .
Total . . .

3.5
33.4
21.6
41.5
100.0

10.5
36.6
23.1
29.8
100.0

industry, with 10.5 per cent, of its employees under 25 years
of age and 39.8 per cent. 50 or more years old, is in much the
same position. Employment statistics for the entire coal
industry reveal that approximately 63 per cent, of the
employees are over 40 years old.
In work as strenuous and hazardous as mining, employment of older men in many occupations may result in increased
occurrence of accidents, even though the more experienced
worker should be able to protect himself better than younger
and less experienced workers in many activities. The time
required to train a new man in modern mining practices is
considerable, and at present younger men are disinclined to
devote the time and undertake the hard and rather dirty
work necessary to become safe and competent mine employees.
The percentage distribution of underground accidents in
bituminous mines in 1944 by length of experience was : less
than one year, 6.9; less than 5 years, 21.3; 5-10 years, 12.3;
10-15 years, 14.0 ; 15-20 years, 12.0 ; 20 years or longer, 40.4.
RELATIVE

BISKS

IN COAL MINING AND IN

MANUFACTURING

Table I X gives for seven countries data on the rates of
accidents during a recent year in coal mines and in manufacturing. The rates of fatal injury in coal mining as compared
with rates of fatal injury in manufacturing range from four
and a half times as high in Belgium and the Netherlands to seven
times in India and Japan and eighteen times in the United States.
In interpreting these figures, reservations arising from
lack of complete comparability and from the fact t h a t the

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

data relate to one year only must be borne in mind. Nevertheless, it is clear that coal mining is subject to a much higher
degree of hazard than manufacturing industry.
TABLE IX.

RELATIVE FATAL INJURY RATES IN COAL MINING
AND MANUFACTURING
(Fatal injuries for 1,000 man-years)
Fatal injury rates

Country

Year
Coal mining

Netherlands
United Kingdom 4 . .
United States
. . . .

1945
1949
1949
1950
1948
1950
1949

1.12
0.75
1.80
0.57
0.90
0.82
2.19

Manufacturing

0.24
0.11
0.27
0.12
0.16 s
0.07
0.12

1
a
8
Pep 1,000 employees.
Per 1,000 wage-earners.
Including public works, posts and
telegraphs, State forestry and clearing of virgin land. * Great Britain only.

OHAPTEE II
ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION
The present chapter is in two parts.
The principal object of the first part is to furnish information on the statutory powers and duties of State mine inspectorates so far as concerns the prevention of accidents. For
this purpose nine countries have been selected from among
those possessing well-developed inspection systems.
For some of these countries it has been possible to give
particulars of the organisation of the mines inspectorate,
and the qualifications required of inspectors.
The powers and duties of inspectors are here only depicted
in broad outline. In most coal-mining countries the action to
be taken by inspectors in various specific circumstances is
governed by very numerous provisions scattered over the
mining safety regulations, and these individual cases will
be dealt with in Volume I I on legislation.
In the second part some account is given of the workmen's
inspector systems in force in five countries. I n Belgium and
France, workmen's inspectors are a statutory institution and
have a semi-official status, while in Canada (Alberta) and the
United Kingdom, although they have some statutory rights,
they are a purely voluntary institution independent of the
State inspectorate.
General Administrative and Inspection Services
BELGIUM

The collection of general regulations on mines, called Pólice
des mines, constitutes the statutory basis of the safety of mine
workers, in particular the coal miners, and of accident prevention measures. In conjunction with the organic provisions
governing the mining inspectorate (corpa des ingénieurs des
mines) the mining regulations contain various provisions
which, as far as safety is concerned, are outlined below.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Normal

Working

The enforcement of the general regulations is verified by
the mines inspectors (ingénieurs des mines) with the help of
the -workmen's examiners (délégués ouvriers à Vinspection des
mines). This verification takes place in the course of inspections of underground workings, the frequency of the inspections
being in proportion to the size and relative dangerousness of
the mines. After each visit the inspector enters in a register
any observations which he thinks ought to be made concerning
the situation and state of the workings, and if necessary any
advice which he thinks fit to give.
Similarly, the workmen's examiners keep at each mine
special registers in which they note the dates and times of their
inspections, the routes taken and any essential circumstances
noticed. As soon as possible the inspectors and workmen's
examiners submit to their immediate chief, the chief inspector
of the mining district (ingénieur en chef, directeur de Varrondissement minier), detailed reports of their findings, stressing any
special circumstances, and if necessary putting forward proposals for improving the safety of the workings. Their findings
and suggestions are examined by the chief inspector of the
mining district, who takes appropriate action ; if necessary he
communicates with the mineowners and offers criticism or
advice.
This represents the normal procedure of supervision ; the
procedure in t h e event of a dangerous situation or an accident
is dealt with below.
Non-imminent

Banger

If a non-imminent danger is detected, the chief inspector
of the mining district reports to the governor of the province
and proposes suitable measures for removing it. These measures must be carried out by the mine on the instructions of
the Permanent Committee (Deputation permanente) of the
province and under the supervision of the Mines Administration
(Administration des mines).
Imminent

Danger

In the case of imminent danger the chief inspector, at his
discretion and under his responsibility, gives the necessary

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

instructions to ensure removal of the danger. The execution
of these instructions is secured through the governor of the
province or the commissioner of the districts concerned (commissaire d'arrondissement).
One or the other takes all
necessary steps for the immediate execution of the instructions
and for this purpose may use the police and the gendarmerie.
Accidents
Every accident involving at least one day's incapacity for
work must be reported within three days to the chief inspector
of the mining district. Every serious accident must, however,
be immediately reported for the purpose of an enquiry, which
is immediately undertaken by the mines inspector assisted by
the workmen's examiner.
A serious accident is defined as an accident that has led
or is likely to lead to loss of life or permanent incapacity,
either total or partial, or a dangerous occurrence likely to
imperil the safety of the workings, or the mine, or surface
property (ignition of firedamp, sudden outburst of firedamp,
inrush of water, breakage of a rope, overwinding, failure of
cage guides, cage jamming in the shaft, puncturing of an
electric cable, etc.).
Every enquiry into such accidents includes a technical
examination, in the course of which measures for preventing
a recurrence or altering dangerous conditions are taken into
consideration and studied. These measures are notified to
the mineowner directly by the chief inspector of the mining
district. Subsequently a copy of the records of each serious
accident is transmitted to the competent Minister through the
General Mines Inspectorate, which adds its observations on
the measures proposed. If necessary the Minister has the
proposed measures supplemented.
Appeals
In every case in which a mineowner is required to carry out
certain measures, whether in the course of ordinary supervision or after an accident or on the occurrence of danger
(whether imminent or not), he may appeal to the competent
Minister.
To assist him in dealing with mining regulations, the
Minister can call upon the Commission for the Amendment of

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Mining Regulations (Commission de révision des règlements
miniers) composed of high officials of the Mines Administration, representatives of the mineowners and representatives of
the mineworkers ; and also the National Institute of Mines, a
technical institution under the authority of the Mines Administration, which specialises in researches and technical
enquiries into mine risks.
CANADA (ALBERTA)

The organisation, powers and duties of the mines inspectorate are laid down in the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1945.
The Act empowers the Lieutenant-Governor in Council to
appoint a person who is the holder of a first-class certificate of
competency to be the chief inspector of mines and prescribes
his duties ; appoint any persons who hold first-class certificates
of competency as district inspectors of mines, define the district within which any such person is to act and prescribe
his duties ; appoint any person who is the holder of a first-class
certificate of competency as deputy chief inspector, a deputy
district inspector, or as an assistant to the chief inspector or
to a district inspector, define the district within which he is
to act, and prescribe his duties ; and appoint one or more
inspectors of the electrical equipment of mines and prescribe
the qualifications and duties of any such inspector.
The Minister may at any time appoint a mining engineer
or any other duly qualified person to make a special investigation of any mining operations so far as they relate to the safety
of life and property in any mine.
The inspector must visit every mine in his district as often
as his duties permit and the exigencies of the case require.
In addition to any other powers or duties with which he
may be invested, an inspector has power—
(a) to require the production of any report book, document,
instrument, lamp or any other thing whatsoever that he
considers necessary for conducting his inspection and xc dilation of any mine and, if the item requested is not pro-uu'. d,
the inspector may take whatever means may be necossa y to
obtain possession of it ;
(b) to make such examination and enquiry as is necessary to
ascertain whether the provisions of the Act are complied with ;

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

(c) to enter, inspect and examine any mine or any part of
the mine at all times by day or night ;
(d) to examine and make enquiry respecting the condition of any mine or any part of a mine ; the ventilation of
any mine ; the generation, transformation, distribution or
uses of electrical energy in or about any mine ; the disposition
of water from any mine or mine wash-house or other
mine building; and any matter or thing connected with or
relating to the safety of the persons employed in or about
any mine ;
(e) to exercise such powers as are necessary to carry out
his duties under the Act.
If an inspector finds that any mine or part of a mine is
endangered, he may order remedial measures to be taken and
the men to be withdrawn from the mine or part of the mine
concerned, but the owner, agent, or manager may appeal to
the chief inspector against the inspector's orders concerning
remedial measures, and if agreement is not reached the matter
must be settled by arbitration.
The Minister may direct an inspector to hold a formal
investigation of any accident in any mine or any matter
connected with the working of any mine.
The inspection staff comprises the chief inspector, an
assistant chief inspector, eight district inspectors, one electrical
inspector and four clerical assistants.
Monthly inspections cover the following matters : shafts ;
slopes and tunnels ; underground roadways ; mine outlets ;
methods of work ; ventilation ; gases ; inflammable dusts ;
electricity in all its forms ; steam and compressed air equipment ; hoisting and haulage apparatus ; coal-cutting and
loading machinery ; care and use of explosives ; shotfiring ;
roof and side control of working places and roadways ; timbering and mine supports generally ; health conditions and such
matters as äff ct underground workmen; duties assigned to
certificated officials and workmen ; and inspection of surface
equipment and r lat d matters.
In addition to making these monthly inspections, inspectors
act as presiding examiners at examinations held under the
Act, enquire into the causes of all fatal and serious accidents,
attend inquests and court cases, and deal with other matters
incidental to their duties.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

FRANCE

Organisation
In France there is no special body of mines inspectors ; the
inspection is undertaken by Government engineers.
The
inspection authorities are the Minister of Industry and Commerce, and under him the Director of Mines, assisted by the
General Mines Council consisting of superintending engineers
(ingénieurs généraux) and representatives of the Administration.
The country is divided into six divisions (divisions), each
under a superintending engineer. Each division is divided
into districts (arrondissements), of which there are 14, placed
under chief engineers (ingénieurs en chef), and subdistricts
(sous-arrondissements), of which there are 30, placed under
engineers (ingénieurs ordinaires). Each subdistrict is again
subdivided into areas (subdivisions) under engineers or assis
tant engineers (ingénieurs adjoints) belonging to the State
Public Works Service (Travaux publics de Vffiat).
A Decree of 27 March 1950 fixes the establishment of the
Corps of Mining Engineers at 21 general engineers, 40 chief
engineers, 66 engineers and a number of student engineers to
be determined each year by the Ministry of Industry and
Commerce.
Powers of Inspectors
The powers of the inspectors (i.e., the Government mining
engineers) (ingénieurs des mines) are defined by §§47 and 50 1
of the Mines Act of 21 April 1810, as subsequently amended,
the Decree of 3 January 1813 1 and the Decree of 14 January
1909.1
In his own Department the Prefect has full power to issue
regulations ( § 4 of the Decree of 14 January 1909). His orders
(arrêtés) are executory once they are approved by the Minister
of Industry and Commerce after consulting the General Mines
Council. As a rule such orders apply generally throughout
the Department, but sometimes may be issued for a single
mine. In this case the mineowner must be heard and may
submit his observations.
The Government mining engineers are only empowered
to make proposals and exercise supervision.
1

Part IV, Chapter II, Division 1, " General Safety Rules ".

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

The Minister of Industry and Commerce has power to issue
regulations in specific cases, that is, cases provided for in
a law or a Decree (§§ 15 and 16 of the Decree of 1813) ; he
is also empowered to authorise types of mining appliance
(Decree of 4 May 1951).
The Head of the State, that is the President of the Bepublic,
is empowered to issue regulations applying throughout the
country. The Administration, that is the Prefect, the Minister,
or the Head of the State, as the case may be, is empowered to
prescribe all measures necessary for safety and hygiene in
mines. These measures are prescribed in consequence either
of accidents or of inspections by the engineers. The operator
must obey the orders of the Administration ; if he does not, he
is liable to be prohibited from working the mine ( § 8 of the
Act of 27 April 1838) x or to prosecution ( § 10 of the Act of
21 April 1810 and §§ 319 and 320 of the Penal Code).
To ensure hygiene and safety in mines more satisfactorily
than through the regulations of the Prefects, general regulations have been issued for the whole of the country. The most
important are the Decree of 4 May 1951 issuing general regulations for the operation of fuel mines, and the Decree of
20 January 1914 issuing general regulations for other mines.
These regulations are binding on all mines and all mine operators. They do not, however, conflict with the legislative powers
of the Prefect ; for example, at Ales in the Gard Department,
where there are some very gassy mines, a committee on
outbursts of firedamp has been set up by a prefectoral order.
Although the inspectors (engineers) have no power to
issue regulations, they have the power of giving orders (injunctions) to the operators ; if their orders are not obeyed, they
report to the Prefect, or in certain cases to the Minister.
Functions of Inspectors
The Government mining engineers carry out statutory
inspections of the mines. They may also carry out inspection
whenever they think fit ; in practice, the actual number of
inspections largely exceeds the statutory number.
1
This section reads as follows : " Every shaft, road or other working open in
contravention of mining laws or regulations may also be prohibited in the form
laid down in the preceding section without prejudice to the application of section 93
and the following sections of the Act of 21 April 1810 ". The form referred to is
a prefectoral order. §§ 93 ff. of the Act of 1810 deal with offences and penalties.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The engineers are notified immediately of the occurrence
of an accident, and the scene of the accident must not be
disturbed.
The engineers' reports are forwarded to the
Ministry of Industry and Commerce through the Prefect.
Attached to them are the reports of the workmen's inspectors
who are also consulted. If necessary, an order is given to the
operator, who must then comply with its terms. In the event
of an accident that involves prosecution, copies of the reports
are forwarded to the Public Prosecutor.
If the accident
is serious, or if it is of special technical interest, it is
notified to all the superintending engineers of all the mining
districts.
I t should be added that, in the case of a serious accident,
the rescue operations are directed by the Government mining
engineers, and the local mining authorities (Service des mines)
assume direction of the operation of the mine.
If only administrative measures are called for, the papers
concerning the accident are transmitted to the Prefect, who
forwards them to the Mines Department. This Department, if
it thinks it necessary, informs the Mines Council, which studies
the causes of the accident and considers the advisability of
amending the mining regulations or issuing orders with a view
to preventing recurrences.
During the year 1948 inspectors made 1,250 regular underground inspections in French mines of all kinds, and 480 visits
for the purpose of enquiries into accidents, as well as 1,036
regular surface inspections and 107 visits for enquiries into
surface accidents. As a result of the regular inspections 85
written observations were sent to mine operators. Among the
matters most frequently dealt with in these observations were
absence of registers and plans ; absence of working rules for
various matters ; discordances between underground electrical
installations and the plans ; poor condition of electrical installations ; insufficiency or poor quality of supports ; lack of
packing ; faulty secondary ventilation ; excessive methane
content of the air ; and faulty haulage equipment and operations. A further 75 written observations were sent to mine
operators as the results of enquiries into accidents.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

GERMANY (FEDERAL REPUBLIC)

The Mining

Authorities

The fundamental provisions concerning supervision and
inspection of mines are set out in the Prussian General Mines
Act (G.M.A.) of 24 June 1865, as amended b y the Act of 25
April 1950, for the amendment of mining statutory regulations
in Ïfordrhein-Westfalen.
Under § 196 of the G.M.A., mines, preparation plant, byproducts and processing plants and the related ancillary undertakings, power plant and salt workings are subject to the
supervision of the mining authorities. This supervision applies
among other things to the safety of the workings and the
safety and health of the workers. Until the end of the war the
principal official agency for the furtherance of safety in coal
mines was the mining safety office ( Grubensicherheitsamt)
in the Eeich Ministry of Economic Affairs. Directly under
the authority of this office were the divisional mining offices,
and below these were the district offices.
In Nordrhein-Westfalen the Minister for Economic Affairs
and Transport is the highest authority in all matters of mining
and also the chief administrative authority.
He directs
supervision over the whole field of mining. In the Federal
Ministry of Economic Affairs there is a mining department
which has no supervisory powers over the mining authorities
but is a federal institution for all matters affecting mining safety,
economics and finance and also coal transport and distribution.
The divisional mining offices x are the supervisory and
appeal authorities in regard to the district mining offices ;
the surveyors are also under their authority. The divisional
offices are responsible for the examination and licensing of
the surveyors and for the supervision of the training of candidates for government mining posts (§190).
The district inspection offices constitute for their particular
mining district the subordinate authorities in all matters for
which the mining authorities are responsible and which are
not explicitly reserved to the divisional mining office. They
exercise supervision over mines under the provisions of the
G.M.A. and, with regard to the plants and undertakings placed
under their authority, have the same powers and duties as the
1
In the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany there are divisional
mining offices at Dortmund, Bonn, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Bad-Ems, Munich, Wiesbaden and Friedrichshall-Kochendorf.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

factory inspectors (ArbeitsaufSichtsbeamte)
(¡J189). 1 Most
directors of district inspection offices are assisted by
subordinate staff and by district inspectors of mines and
superintending district inspectors of mines, whose principal
duties consist in enquiring into and ascertaining the actual
conditions, especially the safety conditions, in the mines,
participating in accident enquiries, etc.
Following upon a number of serious accidents that occurred
in 1925 in the Westphalian coalfield, the Minister of Trade
issued an Order requiring the appointment of mine examiners
(Grubenhontrolleure)
from among hewers with practical
experience, with a view to making more effective use of the
experience of t h e workers in the field of safety. Mine examiners were abolished in 1933 but restored by an Order of the
Occupational Authorities dated 22 October 1946. The status
and the duties of the mine examiners, who are employees of
the mining authorities, are laid down in service instructions
issued in identical terms by the Dortmund Divisional Mining
Office on 23 July 1947, and by the Bonn office on
31 October 1947.
According to these instructions the examiners should
reinforce the district mining offices in all activities in the interests of safety. They are directly attached to the chief of
the district mining office and must comply with his instructions.
Under § 6 of the service instructions, the examiners must
inform the chief of the district mining office of the views and
wishes of the personnel in matters of safety, and also inform
the personnel of measures taken by the mining authorities
and the mine management in this field.
In the course of their duties the examiners inspect the
mine as instructed by the chief of the district mining office or,
subject to the agreement of the office, on their own initiative.
They must report their findings to the district office, more
especially as regards any breaches of official regulations, and
must also pass on to the office any complaints or requests
1
Under § 134 (b) of the Federal Industrial Code, factory inspectors are empowered to visit the undertakings under their jurisdiction at any time, and they are
also invested with all the powers of the local police authorities. Under § 120 (d)
of the same Code, the competent local police authorities (and hence also the factory
inspectors or the district mining inspection officials) can, by way of orders, prescribe
for any given plant the carrying out of such measures as may seem necessary and,
having regard to the nature of the plant, practicable, for the application of the
principles concerning protection of the life and health of the workers contained in
§ 120 (a) to (c).

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

made to them. However, they are not empowered to issue
orders (Anordnungen) within the meaning of G.M.A. § 199.
As a general rule, mine examiners must inspect the mine once
a day and satisfy themselves that the mine officials and workers
comply with the mining regulations and other safety rules.
In addition to their purely legislative and administrative
activities, the mining authorities undertook or promoted
safety work in the ordinary sense of the term. This work
included the direction or conduct of research, experiment,
etc., in matters such as mine supports, silicosis, safety education and propaganda.
Under an Order of the Prussian Minister for Trade and Industry of 18 January 1922-3 July 1926 there were set up, in the
Prussian Ministry of Trade and the Prussian divisional mining
offices, mining safety committees composed of representatives
of the mining authorities, employers and workers and also
members of the Prussian Landtag.
These committees were
dissolved by an Order of the Prussian Minister for Economic
Affairs and Labour dated 25 July 1933. In their place a
Mining Safety Committee for ÏTordrhein-Westfalen was established by a decision of the State Diet (Landtag).
The Committee consists of seven voting members of the Diet and seven
advisory members (two representatives of the miners' trade
union, two representatives of the coal mines administration
and three representatives of the mining authorities).
Under the Standing Orders of the Mining Safety Committee,
dated 6 November 1950, the Committee has the right to
inspect all mining undertakings at its will (after previous
agreement with the mining authorities) and to attend practical experiments for the prevention of mine explosions and
for combating the risks of coal and stone dust. All statutory
provisions concerning mining and all orders of a general character, together with special authorisations relating to the
ventilation of fiery mines, must be brought to the notice
of the members of the Committee. In the event of a major
disaster (an accident in which more than three persons are
killed or trapped underground) the Committee must be immediately summoned.
Legislation
The fundamental requirements for safety in coal mining
are laid down in the General Mines Act. Further safety
4

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

provisions are contained in the mining regulations (Bergpolizeiverordnungen) and orders (Anordnungen) of the divisional mining offices, as well as in the decisions or instructions (Verfügungen)
and orders (Erlasse) of the district
offices, and more especially in the decisions concerning the
approval of mining equipment. Under certain provisions of
the regulations of the mining authorities or of the conditions
for the approval of equipment, the mine manager must issue
service instructions (Dienstanweisungen) on a model approved
by the mining authorities for occupations entailing special
responsibility, for example, stone-dust man, airman, shotfirer
and winding-engine man. Service instructions approved by
the district mining office are handed to the persons concerned.
Under the second ordinance for the application of the
Power Act of 31 August 1937, the regulations of the Association of German Electrical Engineers (V.D.E.) are deemed to
be approved rules for electrical engineering in accordance
with which electric power plant and consuming appliances
must be installed and maintained.
Further, reference may be made to the standards which,
after being declared binding by the Minister for Industry
and Transport of Nordrhein-Westfalen, govern not only the
construction of mining equipment but also the calculation
of installation parts such as headgear and safety devices.
'Regulations.
The divisional mining offices are empowered to issue
regulations 1 and may do so either for the whole of the administrative division or for parts of it. Promulgation of such
orders is effected by means of the official gazettes of the
(local) governments in whose territories the orders are to be
enforced. Duly promulgated mining regulations have the
force of law ; they contain general rules of law valid for all
future cases to which they are relevant. The regulations
of the Dortmund divisional office govern the ÏTordrhein-Westfalen hard-coal district and the regulations of the Bonn office
govern the Aachen hard-coal district.
The most important regulations of the Dortmund office
are the general regulations of 1 May 1935 and the regulations
1
Under § 25 of the Prussian Police Administration Act of 1 June 1931 the
Minister of Economic Affairs and Transport of Nordrhein-Westfalen may also
issue such regulations.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

for man-winding of 21 July 1927-23 December 1936. The
Dortmund office has also issued a number of model instructions for various occupations, such as stone-dust man, airman,
lamp foreman, shotfirer and winding-engine man. The most
important regulations of the Bonn office are the general regulations for hard-coal mines of 1 October 1934, the regulations
for man-winding of 14 July 1927-23 December 1936 and the
regulations of 19 April 1950 for the protection of health
against dust.
Orders.
When danger in any mine threatens life, limb or property
the divisional mining office must take suitable administrative
measures 1 by way of direction or decision (Beschluss) after
consulting the mineowner or his representative (6.M.A.
§ 198). In an emergency the district mining office must
immediately (without previously consulting the mineowner)
take the necessary administrative measures to remove the
danger and at the same time notify the divisional mining office.
The latter must, by way of decision, confirm or quash the
administrative measures taken, but before doing so must
consult the mineowner or his representative (§199).
Notification of the administrative measures taken under
§§198 and 199 is made to the mineowner or his representative
by handing him the text of the decision. Notification to the
manager and the mine officials is made by the district mine
office, or on its orders, by means of an entry in a register which
must be kept in every mine for this purpose. In so far as notification to the workers is necessary, this is made by order of
the district mining office by reading out the decision and
posting it up at the mine (§200).
The administrative measures taken under § 199 b y the
district mining office must be immediately carried out ; execution is not stayed by an appeal. If the administrative
measures required by the divisional mining office or the
district mining office are not carried out in the specified
time by the mineowner, they are carried out by the district
mining office at the mineowner's cost (§§201 and 202).
1
These measures are those concerned with a specific case which they settle
by order or prohibition.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Instructions.
Instructions are issued to individuals in specific cases for
the carrying out of existing regulations.
Under regulations of the Ííordrhein-Westf alen Government,
dated 25 June 1951, appeals against administrative measures
taken by the district mining offices lie to the divisional mining
office. Against decisions of the divisional mining offices,
under § 44 (2) of Ordinance No. 165 of the Military Government, dated 15 September 1948, appeals lie to the State
Administrative Tribunal, from which the case can be taken
to the Supreme Administrative Tribunal on appeal. Against
other administrative measures of the divisional mining offices
appeal lies to the Minister of Economic Affairs and Transport.
Supervision

of Mine

Management

The General Mines Act lays down that the operator may
only work the mine in accordance with an operation plan
giving particulars of the plant to be installed and the operations
to be carried on at the mine within a specified period. The
drawing up of such a plan, on the contents and period of
validity of which there are no detailed statutory provisions,
serves not only the interests of the operator and his personnel
but also the interests of the mining authorities, whom it enables
to form a general idea of the development of the operations.
Under § 67 of the Act the plan must be submitted to the
mining authorities, who examine it under the general supervisory powers conferred on them by § 196 of the Act. If the
divisional mining office raises no objection within the two
weeks following the submission of the plan, the operator
is entitled to carry it out. If an objection is raised by the
mining office and agreement on it cannot be reached with the
operator, the office may specify the alterations that it requires
in a decision (Beschluss) against which the owner may appeal
in accordance with the statutory provisions in force.
The fact t h a t there are no objections on the part of the
mining office does not give an operator an unconditional right
to work the mine in accordance with the plan because, if
subsequently the mining authorities consider other measures
are necessary, these measures must be taken into account,

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

even if the approved operation plan is thereby rendered
unworkable.
The above requirements apply also to subsequent alterations in the operation plan. If owing to unforeseen circumstances immediate alterations in a plan are necessary, the
mineowner must so notify the mining authorities without
delay. Further, the mining authorities may require the submission of special operation plans for particular operations
or periods, and also require joint working plans from a number
of mineowners.
In the case of installations, plant or material requiring
special supervision, e.g., man-winding equipment, mine sidings,
explosives and igniters, the mining regulations make the
right of use dependent upon the issue of a specific authorisation
from the mining office.
Further, under § 72 of the General Mines Act the mineowner must have a mine plan made by an authorised surveyor
and kept up to date at regular intervals (in the Ruhr every
quarter). A copy of the plan must be transmitted to the
mining authorities for their use.
Under §§73 ff. the mine may only be worked under
the direction, supervision and responsibility of persons
whose competence for the purpose has been recognised by the
mining authorities. These persons are bound to accompany
the mining authorities during their inspections and to give
them all necessary information. The works council must also
take part in the inspections.
Mine Safety

Organisation

Safety Officials.
Observance of the regulations issued for accident prevention
purposes is a duty which is expressly laid on every supervisory
official in the mine. In all mines, however, full-time safety
officials (Sicherheitsbeauftragte) are appointed in addition
to the supervisory officials to supervise the enforcement of
all rules laid down for the prevention of accidents and for the
protection of the personnel. They are also responsible for the
examination of all safety devices in the mine. They must be
immediately summoned on the occasion of all serious, fatal
or otherwise noteworthy accidents, both on the surface and
underground, to inspect the scene of the accident. They must

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

also take part in the accident investigations conducted by the
mining authorities.
The safety officials are also responsible for all correspondence
on the subject of accident prevention. Further, they supervise
the first-aid installations both on the surface and underground.
Lastly, they must continuously carry on safety education and
propaganda among the personnel of the mine.
WorTcs Council.
The works council (Betriebsrat) is an important link in the
organisation of accident prevention. It contributes to the
execution and improvement of protective measures and
consults with the mining authorities and the mine management
on all measures for the promotion of safety.
The composition and the duties of works councils are
defined by the Works Councils Act, adopted by the Control
Council on 10 April 1946 (So. 22). Article V, Section 1 (b) of
the Act assigns to the works council, among other duties, the
conclusion of agreements with the employer concerning the
issue of working rules in the interests of the protection of labour
and the prevention of accidents. In December 1946 the
Mining Industry Association came to an agreement with
the mine managements of the West German coal-mining
industry regarding certain principles prescribed by the Works
Councils Act. With respect to Article V, Section 1 (b) of the
Act, these principles lay down t h a t the works council must
supervise the carrying out of the safety and health regulations
and transmit the suggestions, proposals and complaints of the
workers to the management. In addition, the works council
supports the special protective measures taken by the management for workers who are in need of special care.
The
council is entitled to send a member to accident investigations
undertaken by the mining authorities. In accordance with the
principles adopted under Article V, Section 1 (c) of the Act,
the management must inform the works council of applications
to the mining authorities in so far as concerns the authorisation
of work notified in connection with the operating plan, or the
issue by the mining authorities of approval certificates of
special importance from the standpoint of the safety and health
of the workers. The principles also lay down that all supervisors' districts (Steigerreviere) and all departments on the
surface must be regularly inspected by members of the Council.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

Investigation

of Accidents

The manager or his representative must immediately
inform the district mining office, if necessary by telephone,
when either on the surface or underground an accident has
occurred that has resulted in the death or serious injury of one
or more persons (G.M.A. § 204). A serious injury for this
purpose is an injury that will presumably result in more than
eight weeks' incapacity for work.
Further, the mineowner under § § 1552 and 1553 of the
Eeich Insurance Code must inform the Mining Industry
Mutual Accident Insurance Association (Bergbau-Berufsgenossenschaft) and the district mining office of every accident in
which any person employed in the undertaking is killed or is
so seriously injured that he dies or is wholly or partly incapacitated for more than three days.
In so far as an investigation under G.M.A. § 204 concerning
fatal and serious accidents is not undertaken, the mining
authorities, under § 1559 of the Eeich Insurance Code, investigate accidents when so required by the insurance association
or the victim.
Under G.M.A. § 205 the district mining office must take the
necessary measures for rescuing the injured or circumscribing
the danger. The mineowner must provide the material and the
men required for the execution of these measures. The owners
of neighbouring mines are also required to assist.
As already mentioned, a member of the works council must
participate in accident investigations. For this purpose the
chairman of the council must be notified in good time by the
management. If a report is drawn up on the investigation,
the members of the council who took part in the investigation
must be given an opportunity of expressing their views on it.
The injured person or his legal heirs and the accident and
sickness insurance authorities may also take part in the
investigation.
NETHERLANDS

The Mines Administration is under the authority of the
Ministry of Economic Affairs. The Administration is responsible for supervising the enforcement of the provisions of the
Mines Eegulations of 1939, and also of those laws, decrees

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

and concessions of concern to the Administration in so far as
this responsibility has not been explicitly conferred on other
bodies.
In particular, the Mines Administration watches over safety
in mining and sinking operations and protects the minerals
worked, and the health and the safety of the persons employed
in underground mines, in surface works and in sinking operations. In this connection, the Mines Administration concerns
itself with the organisation of mining operations and coalgetting and the maintenance of plans and registers ; travel
and transport on the surface ; access to the underground
workings ; shaft equipment and winding operations ; underground transport and travel ; protection against water ; lighting, ventilation, temperature and purification of the atmosphere ; sanitary arrangements, baths, cloakrooms and canteens ; drinking water ; the prevention of fires, explosions,
and accidents due to machines, machine parts, power plant,
electrical apparatus and conductors, and falls of persons or
objects ; the transport, storage and use of explosives ; and
measures to be taken in the case of an accident or of danger.
As regards the conditions of work of underground and surface personnel, the administration is concerned with the work
of young persons and women ; hours of work ; the times of
beginning and ending shifts ; rest periods ; and weekly rest
and public holidays.
Breaches of the regulations, rules and provisions of concessions are punishable by imprisonment up to six months or a
fine of 300 florins.
Under the orders of the Minister, supervision of coal mines,
lignite mines, oil wells, underground quarries and sinking
operations is exercised by a number of officials comprising the
Inspector-General of Mines, inspectors of mines, mine surveyors and technical officials of the mine administration.
These officials are appointed, suspended and dismissed by the
Crown. The Minister may empower other officials of the
Mines Administration to exercise supervision over certain parts
of the mining industry or certain operations. The Minister
may appoint advisors to the Inspector-General of Mines.
The Inspector-General, under the orders of the Minister, is
responsible for the general direction of the Mines Administration. His functions are defined by an Act of 1810, the Boyal
Decrees under this Act, and Acts of Concession.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

The Minister and the Inspector-General of Mines are responsible for framing regulations and granting exemptions and
authorisations, usually subject to certain conditions. An
appeal from the regulations, exemptions and authorisations
and the conditions attaching to them lies to the Minister
and to the Board of Appeals attached to the Mines Administration.
The Inspector-General may be assisted by six inspectors of
mines (three mining engineers, one mechanical engineer, one
chemical engineer and one electrical engineer), an electrical
adviser, three principal technical officials, two surveyors,
eleven technical officials, and one official especially concerned
with hours of work.
The inspectors, surveyors, technical officials and other
officials carry out the orders of the Inspector-General. Their
mutual relationship is determined by instructions. These
officials may not accept any other public duty or responsibility
without the authorisation of the Crown, and may neither
directly nor indirectly take part in any mining undertaking
in the Netherlands. They may not accept any foreign responsibilities without the authorisation of the Minister.
The officials are responsible for discovering breaches of the
provisions of the Mines Begulations of 1939 and of the Act of
1810.
Officials who are responsible for supervising the operation
of mines or of investigating acts prohibited by law, and similarly other officials who are attached to these officials by the
Crown or by the Minister, have access to the underground
workings of the mines and to all surface works and installations
ancillary to a mine, and further are empowered to demand for
the purpose of access to the underground workings the use of
the man-winding plant.
All persons are obliged to furnish the officials and advisers,
if necessary on the spot, with the information and indications
that they desire so far as matters relating to the enforcement
of the mines regulations are concerned. Mine managers are
bound to take measures that these officials consider necessary
for the purpose of investigating accidents, but, at the request
of the mine management, orders given by officials under the
authority of the Inspector-General of Mines must be immediately confirmed, altered or cancelled by him.
Officials must observe secrecy concerning the facts with

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

which they become acquainted in places to which they have
access in so far as these facts do not constitute breaches of the
provisions of t h e mines regulations, or the mine management
or the master sinker does not relieve them from the obligation
of secrecy. Advisers are also bound to secrecy.

POLAND

Organisation of the Mining

Authorities

Under an Order issued by the Minister of Labour and
Social Assistance and the Minister of Trade and Industry on
24 February 1928 l, the factory inspection authorities, which
are placed under the Minister of Social Assistance, exercise
supervision over hygiene and social protection of the workers
in industrial plant, other than iron and steel works, subject
to the mining regulations, while the supervision of safety is
exercised by the mining authorities, which are placed under
the Minister of Industry and Commerce. They are now under
the Minister of Mines and Power.
The organisation, powers and duties of the mining authorities are laid down in the Polish Mining Code of 29 November
1930.2 The relevant passages are summarised below.
The mining authorities are the district mining offices, the
divisional mining offices, and the Minister of Mines and Power.
Their duties are to administer the mining legislation, to supervise the enforcement of their own regulations and to exercise
economic protection over the mining industry ( § 188).
The district mining offices are authorities of first instance
in all matters for which the mining authorities are competent
and which are not explicitly reserved to the divisional mining
offices or the Minister of Mines and Power ( § 190).
The divisional mining offices are authorities of first instance
for matters explicitly assigned to them, and appeal authorities
for matters for which the district offices are authorities of first
instance. The divisional mining offices exercise supervision
over the district mining offices (§191).
The Minister of Mines and Power is the sole instance for
all matters explicitly assigned to him by the relevant laws
1
2

Polnische Gesetze und Verordnungen, 1928, p. 619.
Ibid., 1931, p. 98.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

and regulations, and the appeal authority for all matters for
which the divisional mining offices are the authority of first
instance, except certain matters specified in the Mining Code,
in respect of which an appeal lies to the Mines Commission.
The Minister of Mines and Power exercises supervision over
the mining authorities throughout the country ( § 192).
The organisation of the divisional mining offices is fixed
by the Council of Ministers. The Minister of Mines and Power
issues instructions to the district and divisional mining offices
( § 193).
The Exercise of Supervision by the Mining Authorities
over the Technical Safety of Mines
The supervision of the mining authorities over the technical
safety of State, communal and private mines relates, inter alia,
to : protection of the mine buildings and ancillary plant as
well as the buildings of the neighbouring mines ; the technical
safety of the work ; the safety of the life and health of third
parties in or about the mine ; and protection of the surface
in the interests of public safety and health, public traffic, etc.
(§196).
Direct supervision over the technical operations of the
mine, and strict compliance with the mine regulations concerning these operations, are matters for the district mining offices.
These offices must have the mines in their district inspected
as frequently as possible by their inspectors ( § 197).
The district office must notify the mineowner and the
manager of any irregularities or offences against the regulations, and also of any imminent danger threatening the mine,
and if necessary must take suitable measures ( § 198).
When a district mining office is notified of an imminent
danger or of an accident it must immediately send an official
to the spot to direct the rescue operations or investigate the
accident (§199).
If the district mining office considers that the rescue and
precautionary measures taken by the manager in connection
with the danger or accident are insufficient or unsuitable, it
must itself make the necessary arrangements in agreement
with the manager, and in urgent cases without waiting for
his agreement.
If an obvious and unavoidable risk arises, the district

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

mining office must immediately order the cessation of the
work concerned. An appeal against the order of the district
mining office does not effect a stay of execution ( § 200).

Powers of the Mining Authorities as regards Accident
Prevention and the General Safety of Miners
The technical operation of the mine must be so carried
on that the safety and health of persons and the public interest
are not imperilled. The safety of the technical operations
requires, in particular, observance and enforcement of the
regulations and orders of the mining authorities in the matters
for which they are competent (see § 196) ( § 143).
The technical operation of a mine may only be carried on
under a plan of operations previously approved by the district
mining office and covering a period of two years ( § 144).
When the district mining office is of opinion that a plan of
operations submitted to it for approval is, either in whole
or in part, incompatible with the relevant regulations, and in
particular the requirements of § 143, it must within a month
summon the mineowner to discuss the matter with special
reference to the necessary alterations.
If agreement is reached the plan, amended if necessary,
is approved, but, if not, the plan or a part of it is rejected
and the mineowner informed of the reasons. If the mineowner
receives no summons from the district mining office within
a month he may take it that the plan of operations is approved
(§145).
The provisions of § § 144 and 145 also apply to any change
subsequently desired in an approved plan of operations. In
exceptional cases, by reason of unforeseen circumstances,
the manager may modify the plan of operations without
waiting for the approval of the district mining office ; but in
this case he must immediately inform the office, which either
approves or rejects the modifications. If the modifications
are rejected the mineowner must follow the originally approved
plan (§146).
The divisional mining office is empowered to issue decisions,
for the whole division or for part of it, relating to the regulation and safe management of mines. The office may, if there
are serious reasons for so doing, exempt individual mine-

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

owners, at their request, from various regulations, either in
whole or in part, and either permanently or for a limited
period, and, if necessary, specify other requirements.
The Minister of Mines and Power is empowered to reserve
to himself the power of issuing regulations governing the safe
operation of mines, and also possesses powers of exemption
similar to those of the divisional mining offices ( § 147).
The Minister of Mines and Power issues regulations concerning the acquisition and storage of explosives for mining
purposes ( § 148).
The erection, transformation and use of buildings for
technical purposes in or about a mine, as well as of the ancillary
and processing plant, and the erection, maintenance and
alteration of technical installations (especially boilers, engines,
and electrical equipment), are subject to regulations issued
by the Minister of Mines and Power. Such buildings and
installations are also subject to the technical provisions of
other relevant legislation (§149).
If the technical operation of a mine is not carried on in
conformity with the relevant regulations, the district mining
office must close either the whole workings or those that are
carried on irregularly ( § 150).
The manager must immediately inform the district mining
office as well as the local authorities as soon as any of the
dangers envisaged in § 143 is noticed in the mine, or any
fatal or serious accident has occurred, or is likely to occur
(§151).
The mineowner and his employees are bound to obey
without delay all orders issued by the district mining office
for the removal of an imminent danger or, in the case of an
accident, for the rescue of those endangered and the circumscription of the danger (§152).
If the manager does not obey the orders of the mining
authorities as required in § 152 the district mining office has
them carried out ( § 153).
Mines

Commission

For certain cases provided for in the present code an
appeal against decisions of the district and divisional mining
offices lies to the Mines Commission set up by the Ministry
of Mines and Power (§206).

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The Commission consists of a chairman, one or more
vice-chairmen and the necessary number of voting members
and assessors.
The chairman and vice-chairmen are appointed by the
President of t h e Bepublic, on the proposal of the Minister of
Mines and Power, and must possess high legal qualifications.
The chairman and vice-chairmen have judicial powers.
The voting members are appointed for three years by the
Minister of Mines and Power, after consulting the chairman
of the Commission, from among the higher permanent officials
of the district and divisional mining offices and the Ministry
of Mines and Power.
The assessors are also appointed by the Minister of Mines
and Power, after consulting the chairman of the Commission,
from two sets of candidates nominated respectively by the
Chambers of Industry and Commerce, and by communal
associations designated by the Minister ( § 208).
As a rule decisions are taken by a committee consisting
of the chairman or vice-chairman of the Commission, two
voting members and two assessors ( § 209).

UNION OF SOUTH APEICA

Under the Mines and Works Act, 1911, the supervision
of all mines, works and machinery is exercised by the Government Mining Engineer and, subject to his directions, by inspectors of mines, inspectors of machinery, inspectors of explosives
and other officers duly appointed by the Governor-General
for the purpose ( § 3).
Any inspector of mines, machinery or explosives may
try any breach of a regulation or of approved mine rules,
unless the death of any person has been caused by the breach.
Any inspector acting under this provision may, on finding
a person guilty of a breach of a regulation or rule, impose a
fine not exceeding £5.
At every trial the inspector must take down the evidence
in writing, record his finding and sentence and transmit
the same to the district magistrate, to whom an appeal
lies (§10).
Whenever any accident causing death or grievous bodily
harm to any person occurs at a mine, an inspector must hold

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

an enquiry into the cause. An inspector may also hold an
enquiry whenever he considers it necessary.
An inspector or any other Government officer deputed by
the Government Mining Engineer may hold an enquiry
whenever he has reason to believe that any regulations or
special rules made under the Mines and Works Act have been
contravened, or whenever in the opinion of the Government
Mining Engineer it is for any other reason expedient to hold
an enquiry concerning occurrences at any mine.
The evidence at every such enquiry must be taken down
by the said officer and transmitted by him with his report to
the Government Mining Engineer and, in the case of an
accident causing loss of life or serious injury, to the AttorneyGeneral of the province.
Upon consideration of such evidence and report the Government Mining Engineer may order a further enquiry to be
held by another inspector (§11).
Any inspector of mines, machinery or explosives may enter
any mine and inspect or examine the mine or any part of it,
or any machinery in the mine, at any hour of the day or night,
provided he does not impede or obstruct the working of the
mine.
Whenever any such inspector finds in any mine t h a t any
thing or practice is dangerous or defective or that the absence
of any thing or practice is calculated to cause bodily injury
or to be injurious to the health of any person, and there is no
statutory regulation or rule in the matter, he may give such
written orders to the manager as he may deem expedient.
An appeal against such orders lies to the Government Mining
Engineer (§13).
The policy of the Government is to recruit inspectors who
are highly qualified and experienced in the mining branches
of the engineering profession. Consequently inspectors are
recruited not directly from the universities but from the
mining industry itself.
When appointed, assistant inspectors are posted to one of
the inspection districts or to one of the more specialised
branches of the Government Mining Engineer's Division,
where they are guided and trained in the duties and functions
of the Mines Department by the senior inspectors. They are
not able to move up to higher posts until they have passed a
departmental promotion examination.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The Mining Engineer's Division includes the Government
Mechanical Laboratory, a Silicosis Eesearch Section and a
mine survey staff. There are 14 inspection districts. The
Division, to which the inspectorate is attached, deals with and
supervises all forms of mining, and there are no inspectors who
are solely responsible for coal mining.
UNITED KINGDOM

The inspectorate is under the direction of the Chief
Inspector of Mines. I t is organised in seven divisions, each
under a divisional inspector.
The principal provisions of the Coal Mines Act relating
to inspection are summarised below.
Inspectors are appointed by the Secretary of State (§ 97).
Inspectors are empowered—
(a) to make such examination and enquiry as may be
necessary to ascertain whether the provisions of the Coal Mines
Act are complied with in any mine ;
(b) to enter, inspect and examine any mine at all reasonable times by day and night, but not so as to impede or to
obstruct the working of the mine ;
(c) to examine and to enquire into the condition of any
mine, the ventilation, the sufficiency of the mine regulations
and all matters relating to the safety of the persons employed
in or about the mine or any contiguous mine ;
(a) to exercise such other powers as may be necessary
for carrying the Act into effect.
The owner of every mine and his agents and employees
must furnish an inspector with the necessary means for entry,
inspection, examination, enquiry and the exercise of his powers
under the Act (§ 98).
If in any respect not provided against by any express
provision of the Act or by any regulation an inspector finds
any thing or circumstance in any mine that is dangerous
or defective he may notify the owner, agent or manager of
the mine and require remedial measures to be taken. If such
measures cannot be taken he may require the men to be withdrawn from the mine or the part concerned. If his orders
are not complied with at once, he must report to the Secretary
of State.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

If the owner, agent or manager objects to the inspector's
order, he may state his objections within seven days to t h e
Secretary of State, and the matter is thereupon determined
in the manner provided by the Act ( § 99).
The Chief Inspector and every divisional inspector must
make an annual report on his activities to t h e Secretary of
State ( § 100).
In the course of the last few years the inspection divisions
have been rearranged, the principal change being the amalgamation of the Cardiff and Forest of Dean Division and the Swansea
Division to form the South-Western Division. All the divisions
have been divided into districts, each in charge of a district
inspector, with the divisional inspector exercising general
supervision over the districts in his division.
In 1949 the inspection staff comprised the Chief Inspector,
two Deputy Chief Inspectors and a large number of principal,
senior and ordinary inspectors, many of whom were specialists.
There were seven divisional inspectors, 23 senior district
inspectors, 40 district inspectors, 59 inspectors and two subinspectors. The specialists included ten electrical inspectors,
three inspectors of mechanical engineering, ten training
inspectors, four inspectors for special development duties and
seven inspectors of horses. Several of these posts were vacant
at the end of the year, and it proved very difficult t o get
candidates of an adequately high calibre a t the salaries offered.
The medical service comprised a principal medical inspector,
a deputy principal medical inspector and six medical inspectors.
TABLE X.

Year

1947
1948
1949

INSPECTIONS "UNDER COAL MINES ACT,

1911

No. of mines
at work

No. of
persons
employed
underground

No. of
underground
inspections

Average
No. of
inspections
per mine

Mines
completely
inspected

1,768
1,718
1,704

551,791
567,200
563,600

22,735
21,418
21,893

12.9
12.5
12.8

1,167
953
998

Table X gives t h e number of mines at work under the
Coal Mines Act, 1911 (i.e. mines of coal, stratified iron stone,
and shale and fire-clay), the number of persons employed
and the number of inspections made a t these mines for the
years 1947, 1948 and 1949.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

With reference to this table it should be observed that
about half the mines are small ones, employing fewer than
30 persons, and do not require frequent inspection. The
average numbers of inspections at the larger mines are thus
higher than those indicated in the table.
In addition to their official duties, inspectors have been
active in assisting the safety movement in various ways ; in
particular they have written papers and given lectures on
numerous occasions on technical subjects and safe practices.
By the end of 1946 nearly all assistant inspectors of mines
had attended one of the refresher courses inaugurated in 1942.
These courses, however, did not entirely meet the recommendations made by the Eoyal Commission in 1938, nor the
changing circumstances in the industry. A small committee
was therefore appointed to draw up a scheme for the initial
training of newly-appointed inspectors and to consider what
further measures were desirable to keep all inspectors abreast
of current developments affecting the general performance of
their duties. For new recruits the committee recommended
a scheme of initial training extending over six months on the
following lines : (a) a short initial residential course for one
week at headquarters to give the new inspector a proper
understanding of his duties and responsibilities and of the
organisation and work of the Ministry in general and of the
Health, Safety and Training Division in particular, and to
bring him into immediate personal contact with the heads
of the service ; (b) a five-month course of training in the field,
under the direction of a divisional inspector, during which
the new recruit would receive progressive training in all
branches of the normal work of an inspector in the field ;
and (c) a follow-up residential course of two weeks' duration
at a suitable centre in the provinces, and preferably at a
university, to review and consolidate the knowledge acquired
in the field, the course to include lectures, discussions, demonstrations and visits to places of special interest. The committee
further recommended that the follow-up course should be
combined in part with a refresher course for the purpose of
keeping the more experienced inspector abreast of new developments. In this way the experienced inspectors would play an
important part in the training of the new recruits by fostering
and developing discussions on a wide range of topics directly
relating to the work of the inspectorate.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

The recommendations of the committee were accepted and
in the autumn of 1947, when five new inspectors were
appointed, a start was made with the scheme—the first attempt
in the inspectorate to provide a systematic training on entry.
UOTTED STATES
Federal

A federal system of coal-mine inspection was provided for
by an Act approved on 7 May 1941, which empowers the
Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Bureau of Mines,
to " make or cause to be made annual or necessary inspections
and investigations in coal mines the products of which regularly
enter commerce or the operations of which substantially affect
commerce ".
The purpose of such inspections and investigations is to
obtain information relating to health and safety conditions,
the causes of accidents involving bodily injury or loss of life
and the causes of occupational diseases originating in the mines.
These inspections and investigations may be made at any
time at the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior ; and
the Secretary, acting through the Bureau of Mines, or any
duly authorised representative of the Bureau, is entitled to
admission to any coal mine covered by the Act.
Every owner, lessee, agent, manager, superintendent or
other person having control or supervision of any such coal
mine must furnish to the Secretary of the Interior, acting
through the Bureau of Mines, or to any duly authorised representative of the Bureau, upon request, complete and correct
information concerning accidents involving bodily injury or
loss of life during the calendar year in which the request is
made, or the preceding calendar year.
Further, the Secretary of the Interior is empowered, inter
alia—
(a) to report annually to Congress the information obtained
by him under the Act, together with such findings and comments thereon and such recommendations for legislative action
as he may deem proper ;
(b) to compile, analyse and publish the information
obtained by him under the Act, together with such findings
concerning the causes of unhealthy or unsafe conditions,
accidents, or occupational diseases in coal mines, and such

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

recommendations for the prevention or amelioration of unhealthy or unsafe conditions, accidents or occupational diseases
in coal mines as he may deem proper ; and
(c) to prepare and disseminate reports, studies, statistics
and other educational material pertaining to the protection
or advancement of health or safety in coal mines and to the
prevention or relief of accidents or occupational diseases in
coal mines.
The Bureau of Mines is entrusted with the administration
of the Act, and for this purpose may co-operate with other
services in the Department of the Interior. All the federal
services concerned must co-operate with the official mine
inspection or safety agencies of the States and Territories.
The Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Bureau
of Mines, may establish an advisory committee composed of
not more than six members, who are to be representatives of
coal-mine owners and of coal-mine workers, in equal numbers.
The purpose of the committee is to exercise consultative
functions in connection with the administration of the Act.
The Secretary may also appoint inspectors from among
persons who have at least five years' practical experience in
the mining of coal and are qualified under civil service requirements as having the training or experience of a practical
mining engineer in the essentials necessary for competent coalmine inspection.
The Act of 1941 was substantially amended by an Act
approved on 16 July 1952.
The amending Act requires the Director of the Bureau of
Mines (1) to have each mine inspected at least annually, (2)
to have special inspections made to ascertain whether certain
safety regulations are being violated or in connection with
orders to close mines or parts of mines in cases of imminent
danger, and (3) to have any other inspections made that he
deems necessary for the proper administration of the Act.
If an inspector " finds danger that a mine explosion, mine
fire, mine inundation or man-trip or man-hoist accident will
occur . . . immediately or before the imminence of the
danger can be eliminated ", he must find the extent of the area
of the mine throughout which the danger exists. He must
then immediately make an order requiring the mine operator
to have all persons, except certain specified persons, withdrawn
from the area.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

If an inspector finds that the safety regulations in the Act
are being violated and that a danger of the Mnds referred to
above exists but is not imminent, he must determine " a
reasonable period of time within which such violation should
be totally abated ". The period may be extended from time
to time following special inspections. If when violations have
not been totally abated the time limit cannot be extended, the
inspector must require the operator to withdraw persons from
the area affected, as in the case of imminent danger.
The Act creates a Federal Coal Mine Safety Board of Beview
composed of three members appointed by the President with
the advice and consent of the Senate. The Board's function
is to determine applications for annulment or revision of
orders made by inspectors closing dangerous mines or parts of
mines.
The procedure governing appeals against orders is regulated
in detail, and the Act also regulates the relations between the
Federal Inspectorate and the mines' inspectorates of the States.
The Bureau of Mines administers the Act through a GoalMines Inspection Branch in the Health and Safety Division.
In the fiscal year ending 30 June 1951 the Coal-Mines
Inspection Branch of the Health and Safety Division of the
U.S. Bureau of Mines was allotted over two and a half million
dollars, which provided for the employment of 250 coal-mine
inspectors, 22 mining engineers, five mining electrical engineers,
five mining explosives engineers, and administrative and
clerical staffs. For inspection purposes the country is divided
into nine districts.
On appointment, new inspectors are trained at the Central
Experimental Station of the Bureau of Mines at Pittsburgh, Pa.
The training course comprises Safety Code requirements, technical mine safety subjects, mine rescue, first aid, inspection
procedures and safety organisation.
Approximately 8,383 coal mines were operated more or
less regularly during the fiscal year 1950-1951 and of these,
7,385 were underground mines and 998 strip mines. Of the
2,102 underground mines employing 25 or more men, 1,944
were inspected ; of the 5,283 underground mines employing
fewer than 25 men, 3,853 were inspected ; and of the 998 strip
mines, 563 were inspected. The average time required to
inspect a mine and prepare the inspection report was slightly
over three days.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The inspection of a mine may take from two days to a few
weeks, depending on its size. The inspectors are required to
visit every working place underground, all entrances to
abandoned workings, airways, manways and all other places
where men are required to work and travel, in addition to
making a careful inspection of the surface plant. Tests are
made and air samples are collected to determine the quality
and quantity of the air at faces of working places, the returns
from each split, and the main returns from the mine. Adequate
dust samples are also collected. Observations are made
respecting timbering, blasting, ventilation, electricity, machinery, draining, haulage and protection from flres and other
disasters.
Immediately following the completion of an inspection the
inspector confers with the company officials and informs them
of his observations and recommendations. Similar conferences
are also held with members of miners' safety committees,
where such committees exist. As soon as the inspection of a
mine is completed the inspector posts a preliminary report at
a place accessible both to the mine employees and to the mine
operator. This preliminary report summarises safety conditions and calls attention to serious hazards that require immediate attention.
Later the inspector prepares a final report that is virtually
a safety engineering report on the mine; it is made public by
the Bureau of Mines, which communicates copies to the operating company, t h e national office of the United Mine Workers
of America, the district office of the union and any other union
concerned, and to the mine inspection authorities of the State
in question.
Co-operation is maintained between federal and State
inspectors.
In addition t o carrying out routine inspections, the inspection staff has made studies and field surveys relating to haulage, ventilation, explosives, electricity, dust, etc. ; conducted
classes in electricity, first aid and rescue ; investigated mine
fires, explosions, and health and welfare ; attended safety
meetings, given lectures, talks and demonstrations ; taken
part in rescue and recovery work ; and advised on State
mining regulations.
A coal-mine haulage safety section was set up in the Coal
Mines Inspection Branch in December 1950. Its work has

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

included an analysis of haulage accidents in bituminous mines ;
the preparation of safety films ; a job safety training course for
haulage employees, and technical papers on haulage safety ;
the organisation of training classes ; and collaboration with
the American Standards Association in the revision of haulage
standards. The existing coal-mining safety courses were
supplemented by courses on haulage and roof falls.
The first ten years of federal coal-mine inspection were
reviewed by the Secretary of the Interior in August 1951.
During that period there was a general improvement both in
safety conditions and in accident rates : the fatality rate per
million man-hours dropped from 1.44 in 1942 to 0.90 in 1950,
the lowest in the history of American coal mining. Since 1941,
nearly 42,000 regular inspections of coal mines have been made,
and of these nearly 9,000 were made in the fiscal year ending
30 June 1951. That much still remains to be done to make
the mines safe is evident from the fact that 49 per cent, of the
inspection reports in this year indicated dangers of a serious
nature, and an average of 19 unsafe conditions was reported
for each mine visited.
Illinois

Under an Act of 6 June 1911, mine inspectors are appointed
after examination by the State Mining Board. Each applicant
for a certificate of competency as State inspector of mines
must produce satisfactory evidence that he is a citizen of the
State of Illinois, is at least 30 years of age, has had ten years'
practical mining experience of which at least two years in
Illinois, and that he is a man of good repute and temperate
habits. He must possess a first-class mine manager's certificate and pass an examination as to his practical and technological knowledge of mine appliances, the proper development
and operation of coal mines, mine gases, ventilation, first aid,
mine rescue, the geology of the Illinois coal measures, and the
State coal mining laws (§ 2 (b)).
Upon a petition signed by not less than three coal operators
or ten coal miners to the effect that any State inspector neglects
his duty or is incompetent or guilty of specified offences, the
State Mining Board must investigate the complaint, and if it
is justified dismiss the inspector (§ 3 (h)).
The State is divided into 22 inspection districts ( § 4).

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The Mining Board appoints one inspector for each inspection district and two additional inspectors for the State as a
whole. STo person who has any pecuniary interest in any coal
mine in Illinois is eligible for appointment as State inspector
(§5faj).
Upon the written request of a State inspector, for any
county in his district a county inspector of mines must be
appointed by the competent local authorities to assist and
work under the direction of the State inspector.
ïfo person is eligible for appointment as county inspector
unless he holds a State certificate of competency as mine
manager. The State inspector may authorise any county
inspector in his district to perform the duties and exercise the
powers of a State inspector in his own county in the absence
of a State inspector (§ 5 (b)).
State inspectors must devote their whole time and attention to the duties of their office. They must make a personal
examination at least once every month or oftener, if necessary,
of each mine in their district in which ten or more men are
employed. The Mining Board may also require State inspectors to examine personally any or all other mines in any other
district. Every mine in the State must be examined at least
once every 30 days by a State mine inspector (§5 (e)).
The State inspector's duties as regards inspections are —
when undertaking regular inspection, to measure the
amount of air passing in the last cross-cut in each pair of
entries ;
to investigate the condition of the ventilation of one room
for each entry in pillar and room mines and in the last room
of each division in longwall mines ;
to measure the amount of air passing at the inlet and
outlet of the mines ;
to compare all such air measurements with the last report
of the mine examiner and the mine manager ;
to observe that the legal code of signals between the
engineer and the top man and bottom man is established and
conspicuously posted for the information of all employees.
He must also require every necessary precaution to be taken
to ensure the health and safety of the workmen employed in
the mines and require every provision and requirement of all
the mining laws of the State to be obeyed.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

State inspectors must make written reports of their inspections to the Mining Board and must take prompt action for
the enforcement of the penalties provided for the violation of
the mining laws (§5 (f)).
State inspectors may enter, examine and inspect any coal
mine, including its machinery, at all reasonable times by day
or by night, but so as not to unreasonably obstruct or hinder
the working of the mine. Mine operators must furnish all
necessary facilities for the inspector's examinations and
inspections (§5 (g)).
If an operator obstructs an inspector, the inspector has
recourse to the local courts (§ 5 (h)).
The inspector must post in some conspicuous place at the
top of each mine inspected by him a plain statement showing
what in his judgment is necessary for the better protection of
the lives and health of persons employed in the mine ; and he
must also post a notice at the landing used by the men stating
what number of men are allowed to ride in the cage together
and the speed at which men may be wound (§5 (i)).
Inspectors must prepare for the State Mining Board annual
reports on their activities, together with any recommendations
for mining legislation that they may consider necessary
(§5fZj).
Inspectors' annual reports must be published in the annual
coal report of the State of Illinois (§ 5 (m)).
New Mexico

The appointment and functions of inspectors are governed
by an Act of 16 March 1933.
Inspectors are appointed after an examination by an examining board consisting of the State engineer, the Governor,
and the President of the School of Mines (§ 11).
The inspector may appoint two deputies with the same
qualifications as those required for inspectors.
Candidates for inspection posts must be citizens of the
United States, at least 30 years of age, resident in New Mexico
for the year preceding appointment, and have had at least
five years' experience in the working of coal mines in New
Mexico and at least ten years' practical experience in the
working of mines in the United States. In particular they
must also have a practical knowledge of mining engineering,
mine timbering, different systems of working and ventilating

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

mines, the nature and properties of noxious and poisonous
mine gases and the methods of dispelling them and guarding
against explosions or fire, methods of fire control, the storage
and use of explosives, accident prevention, and all other details
of mine operations. Inspectors may not be interested financially or otherwise in any mine or mining company in Hew
Mexico (§13).
The inspector's duties are defined as follows :
(a) He must make a careful and thorough inspection of
every mine operated in the State as often as he may think
necessary, but at least once a year.
(b) He must proceed without delay to any mine when he
learns of any explosion or other catastrophe by which the
lives of men are jeopardised or in which fatalities have occurred,
and render such aid as he can in the rescue of persons in the
mine and in the protection of rescuers from danger.
(c) He must give written notice to the owner, operator or
manager of any mine in which he finds improper construction
or finds that the mine is not furnished with reasonable and
proper machinery and appliances for the safety of miners, or
that the mine is unsafe in any particular ; and he must require
the necessary measures for the safety of the miners to be taken
within a stated period.
(d) He must inspect the adequacy and safety of all hoisting
apparatus in mines and may demand a test of safety catches
or clutches every three months, or whenever he may believe
the hoisting apparatus to be defective.
(e) He must arrange a uniform system of mine bell signals
and notify it to every mine operator in the State.
(f) He must make an annual report to the Governor
surveying general mining conditions in the State ( § 14).
The inspector is empowered to inspect any mine, its working and machinery, at all reasonable times and in such manner
as not to impede or obstruct the workings of the mine. He
may require some person of practical experience and responsibility representing the operator to accompany him on visits
of inspection, and also require the owner, operator or manager
to furnish him a t all times with the necessary means for his
inspections, examinations and enquiries ( § 15).
The inspector must make a report on his inspection and
supply the operator with a copy at his request ( § 16).

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

When any mine or portion of a mine or any mining equipment is considered by the inspector to be in so dangerous a
condition as to jeopardise life or health, he must a t once
direct the management of the mine to remove the dangerous
condition or safeguard the equipment forthwith ; if necessary
he may order all men to be withdrawn from dangerous places
or from the entire mine ( § 20).
The inspector's report, in addition to being handed to the
owner, must also be posted up in a conspicuous place outside
the mine office (§21).
Mine operators must comply with all orders and written
notices issued by the State mine inspector in accordance
with the provisions of the Act ( § 22).
Whenever any fatal mining accident occurs, the inspector
must proceed as soon as possible to the scene of the accident,
render such assistance as he may deem necessary, and investigate the causes of and responsibility for the accident ( § 23).
The operator must provide him with facilities for this
investigation and the inspector may require the district court
to compel the attendance of witnesses ( § 24).
Pennsylyania

The Mine Inspectors' Examining Board consists of the
Secretary of Mines, two mining engineers, who must have had
at least five years' experience in the bituminous mines of
Pennsylvania, and three other members, who must have passed
examinations qualifying them to act as inspectors or mine
foremen in gassy mines, and have had at least five years' practical experience in the bituminous mines of Pennsylvania.
The Secretary of Mines is Chairman of the Board.
Inspectors must be citizens of Pennsylvania, of temperate
habits, good repute, personal integrity, in good physical
condition, and between 30 and 50 years of age. They must
have a comprehensive knowledge of the different systems of
working coal seams and must have at least ten years' practical
experience in bituminous mines, including five years in Pennsylvanian mines. They must give evidence of such theoretical
and practical knowledge and general intelligence respecting
mines and mining and the working and ventilation of mines
as will satisfy the Board of their capacity and fitness for the
duties of inspectors.

SAPETY IN COAL MINES

Inspectors must devote the whole of their time to the
duties of their office. They must thoroughly examine every
mine in their district as often as possible but at least once
every four months, giving special attention to all mines
generating explosive gas and to other mines where unusual
dangers may be suspected to exist. They must see that all
the statutory provisions are strictly observed, especially
those requiring the air current to be carried to the working
faces. They must keep in their office a record of all examinations of mines, showing the condition in which they are found,
especially with reference to ventilation and drainage, the
number of persons employed underground, the extent to
wMch the law is obeyed, and the progress made in improvements. Inspectors must also keep a record of all serious
accidents, showing the nature and causes and the number of
deaths resulting.
After the final examination of any mine, the inspector
must make out a report on its condition and post this report
in the office at the mine or in some other conspicuous place,
where it must remain for one year open to examination by
the mine employees.
If an inspector discovers any room, entry, airway, or other
working places being driven in advance of the air current
contrary to statutory requirements, he must order the workmen in such places to cease work at once until the law is
complied with.
An inspector may at all times enter any mine in his district,
or any in any other district when directed to do so by the
Secretary of the Department of Mines, to make examinations
or obtain information. On discovering or being informed
of any breach of the law he must institute proceedings against
the offenders.
If any mine, or portion of a mine, is considered by the inspector to be in so dangerous a condition as to jeopardise life and
health, he must at once notify the Secretary of the Department of Mines, who must immediately direct two or more
other inspectors to accompany the inspector in question to
the mine. The inspectors must make full investigation and,
if they agree t h a t there is immediate danger, they must direct
the superintendent of the mine to remove the danger forthwith. If the superintendent fails to do so, the inspectors
may take legal proceedings.

ADMTNISTBATION AND INSPECTION

Nevertheless, in emergencies, an inspector may withdraw
all persons from dangerous places without observing this
procedure.
Inspectors must submit to the Secretary of the Department
of Mines monthly reports on all mining accidents in their
district and inspections carried out. They must also submit
an annual report of a general character (Act of 9 June 1911,
Art. XIX).
The inspector must exercise sound discretion in the performance of his statutory duties and, if the operator, superintendent, mine foreman or other person employed in or about
any mine is dissatisfied with any decision that the inspector
has given in the discharge of his duties, it is the duty of that
person to appeal to the Secretary of the Department of Mines.
The Secretary of the Department of Mines must at once direct
one or more other inspectors to accompany the inspector
concerned to make further examination into the matter in
dispute. If the other inspectors agree with the decision of the
inspector concerned, their decision is final unless the dissatisfied
person appeals within seven days to the local Court of Quarter
Sessions ( § 1) (Act of 9 June 1911, Art. XX).
The responsibility for the health and safety of the mineworkers depends not completely but to a large extent on the
mine inspectors. They are assigned districts in which they
have full jurisdiction under the law. The mines comprising
an average district will produce, in the course of a year, about
four million tons of coal. In 1949, 54 mine inspectors were
employed by the State of Pennsylvania.
Workmen's Inspectors
BELGIUM

Under an Act of 16 August 1927, workmen's inspectors
must be appointed for the inspection of coal mines in accordance with the following provisions :
The duties of these inspectors are—
(a) to inspect, from the standpoint of the workers' health
and safety, the underground workings of coal mines and the
surface plant directly connected with the operation of the
mines ;
(b) to assist in the reporting and investigation of accidents ;

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

(c) to report to the Mines Administration any breaches of
labour legislation for the enforcement of which the mines
inspectors are responsible.
The workmen's inspectors are under the direction and
supervision of t h e mines inspectors and must comply with the
instructions of these inspectors.
In case of necessity or emergency, workmen's inspectors
must indicate t o the mine management the measures which
they consider should be taken without delay ; they must at
once report their action to the Chief Inspector of Mines, who
must thereupon examine the measures proposed and supervise
their execution if they are approved (§1).
The number, extent and boundaries of the areas within
which the workmen's inspectors perform their duties will be
fixed by Eoyal Order ( § 2).
Workmen's inspectors are entitled to examine the plans
of the seams being worked and the lists of workers. Mineowners must give them every facility for visiting the workings.
Inspectors may demand a guide for their visits to the underground workings. They must comply with the provisions of
the regulations for ensuring order and safety in the workings
(§3).
The Ministry of Industry and Labour is empowered at all
times to authorise the entry into a mine of special inspectors
appointed to enquire into matters of safety or hygiene ( § 7).
Each inspector must make at least 18 visits a month to
the underground workings in his area. After each visit the
inspector must enter a report in a special register at the disposal
of both the management and the workers. The management
and the workers are entitled to enter their observations in the
same register opposite those of the workmen's inspectors. This
inspector must immediately forward a copy of the entries in
the register to the competent mines inspector ( § 8).
Workmen's inspectors must be of Belgian nationality, not
less than 30 and not more than 48 years of age at the time of
appointment, and have been employed for more than ten years
in a branch or branches of underground mining work requiring
apprenticeship, either in the area in question or in neighbouring
areas ( § 9).
For workers or supervisors who hold a certificate of competency from an approved school the minimum age for appointment is reduced to 25 years ( § 10).

ADMTNISTBATION AND INSPECTION

CANADA (ALBERTA)

The appointment, powers and duties of workmen's inspectors are dealt with in § 139 of the Coal Mines Eegulation Act,
1945.
The Act provides that the workmen employed in any mine
may at their own cost appoint, to inspect the mine, any two
persons who are resident in the province and are not mining
engineers, who are or have been practical working miners,
and have not had less than five years' experience of underground work and hold a miner's certificate. Persons so
appointed must be allowed at least once in every month to go
to every part of the mine and to inspect the shafts, roads,
levels, workings, airways, ventilating apparatus, old workings
and machinery. Further, where a reportable accident has
occurred in a mine, the inspectors must be allowed to go to
the scene of the accident and make such inspection as may be
necessary for ascertaining the cause, subject, however, to the
other provisions of the Act relating to the scene of accidents.
In the event of serious or fatal accidents or in emergencies,
the inspectors may enter the mine as soon as they have presented themselves at the bank and an official is available to
accompany them.
Every facility must be afforded by the owner, agent and
manager and all persons in the mine for the purpose of the
inspection. Except in the case of inspections for the purpose
of ascertaining the cause of an accident, a report on the inspection must be entered in a register and a copy sent to the
district inspector.
The persons making the inspection must be accompanied
by a certificated official of the mine.
In any mine where more than 30 men are employed underground and the workmen fail to appoint two of their number
as inspectors, the Chief Inspector may select two duly qualified
persons to act as workmen's inspectors.
Whenever so required by the owner, agent or manager,
the workmen employed in the mine must appoint an inspection
committee to inspect the shafts, roads, levels, workings, airways, ventilating apparatus, old workings, and machinery,
the cost of such inspection to be borne by the owner.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

FRANCE

Workmen's inspectors for safety in mines must be appointed
to inspect underground workings of mines or quarries for the
purpose of examining the safety and health conditions of the
workers employed in them and, in the event of an accident,
the conditions in which the accident occurred (Labour Code,
Book I I , Part I I I , Chapter IV, §120).
The workmen's inspectors and deputy inspectors exercise
their functions in an underground area, the boundaries of
which are fixed by an order of the Prefect, issued under the
authority of the Minister of Labour on the basis of a report
from the inspectors of mines, after the mineowner has been
heard and the workers concerned and also the trade unions,
if any, to which they belong have been called upon by means
of a public notice to submit their observations.
The order referred to cannot be made until at least a
fortnight after the persons concerned have been asked to
submit their observations ( § 121).
Every system of shafts, roads and workplaces under the
authority of one and the same operator and requiring not more
than six days for a detailed inspection constitutes a single
area.
Other undertakings must be divided into two, three or more
areas according as inspection requires up to 12, 18, etc., days.
On the advice of the Chief Inspector of Mines, the Prefect's order mentioned in § 121 may allow exemptions from
the provisions of the above two paragraphs if their enforcement would entail the creation of areas containing more than
1,500 workers.
The same order fixes the boundaries of the various areas
into which are divided, if appropriate, all the neighbouring
shafts, roads and workplaces belonging to one and the same
operator on the territory of a single commune or of a number
of adjacent communes.
A group of small neighbouring workings, even if belonging
to different operators on the territory of a single commune
or of a number of neighbouring communes may be grouped
together to form a single area if a thorough inspection of the
shafts, roads and workplaces of the whole group can be made
in not more t h a n six days and the total number of workers
employed underground in the whole group does not exceed
500 (§122).

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

The Prefect may, at any time, in consequence of a change
in the workings, alter the number and boundaries of the
areas after following the procedure mentioned in §121 (§123).
To the Prefect's order must be annexed a plan showing
the boundaries of each area and the boundaries of the communes in whose territory it is situated. This plan must be
furnished in triplicate at the request of the Prefect and in
conformity with his indications.
The Prefect's order must be notified within a week to the
operator to whom must be communicated, at the same time,
one of the plans annexed to the said order.
A true copy of the Prefect's order with one of the plans
annexed remains at the office of the mayor of the commune
selected in the order from among those in which are situated
the areas whose boundaries it defines ; it must be kept there
at the disposal of all parties concerned ( § 124).
Under this same procedure the Prefect may exempt
from the provisions requiring the appointment of workmen's
inspectors any mining concession or group of adjacent mining
concessions or any group of underground workings operated
by the same person and employing less than 25 workers
underground (§125).
Duties of Workmen's

Inspectors

The inspector must inspect all shafts, roads and workplaces in his area twice a month. He must also inspect
equipment used for the conveyance and transport of the
workers, the wash-basins or shower-baths available for the
underground workers, the depots of rescue apparatus at the
mines and, in fuel mines, the lamp room ( § 126).
In addition to these regular visits of inspection the inspector may make additional visits in parts of his area where
he has reason to fear that the safety or the health of the workers
is imperilled (§127).
He must also immediately inspect the scene of any accident
that has resulted in the death of or serious injuries to one or
more workers or is liable to imperil the safety of the workers.
The accident must be notified forthwith to the inspector
by the operator ( § 127). If the workmen's inspector considers that work in the workplace or district that he has just
visited is a source of imminent danger from the point of view
6

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

of safety or health, he must at once give notice of this to the
operator or his representative on the spot, who must verify
or have verified the conditions reported by the workmen's
inspector in t h e presence of the latter, and is responsible for
taking all suitable measures.
The workmen's inspector must inform the inspectors of
mines without delay of the notice which has thus been given,
in order to enable them to take action if necessary, and must
make a corresponding entry immediately in the register provided for in § 130 ( § 127 A).
Every year the workmen's inspector must send to the
inspector of mines a report giving his views on the measures
to be taken as regards the safety of the miners and also his
suggestions of a strictly professional character with a view to the
development of production. This report must be communicated
to the operator, who must make known within a month the
action that he intends to take on the observations of the workmen's inspector.
The inspector of mines must mention this in his annual
report ( § 1 2 7 B ) .
In his visits of inspection the workmen's inspector must
comply with all the provisions of the regulations for ensuring
order, safety and health in the workings ( § 128).
The workmen's inspector may carry out his regular or
additional inspections at any hour of the day or night.
At the request of any inspector arriving at a landing,
the operator or his representative must provide him without
delay with the means of descending or ascending after the completion of the operations actually in progress.
In exceptional circumstances, the operator or his representative may be released from this obligation if he considers
that reasons of safety prevent the immediate conveyance
of the inspector. I n this case he must enter in the register
provided for in § 130 the reasons for postponing the conveyance of the inspector.
The inspector must not abuse his rights in this connection
so as to hamper the normal working of the mine.
Between t h e moment when the inspector announces his
intention of descending and the moment when the person
appointed by the operator to accompany him has been placed
at his disposal at the landing, not more than 40 minutes may
elapse in the night shift and not more than 20 in the other shifts.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

If the inspector arrives at the regulation times for the
lowering of the workers, the operator must have all necessary
steps taken to ensure that the assignment of the person
appointed to accompany him does not delay his inspection,
and this without the inspector having to notify him in advance.
The workmen's inspector may likewise require the operator
to place at his disposal the measuring apparatus specified
in a list to be issued by the Minister in charge of mines (§ 128 A).
The deputy inspector may only replace the inspector if
the latter is unable to act for some good cause, and after the
latter has so notified the operator and the deputy inspector
(§129).
The inspector's findings in the course of each of his inspections must, the same day or at latest the next day, be entered
by him in a special register supplied by the operator and kept
permanently at the pithead, available to the workers.
The inspector must enter in the register the times of
beginning and ending his inspection as well as the route taken.
The operator may enter his observations in the same
register opposite those of the inspector.
Copies of these entries must be forwarded immediately
by their respective authors to the Prefect, who must communicate them to the inspector of mines (§ 130).
In the course of their visits of inspection, the inspectors
of mines must countersign the register for each area. Whenever they consider it desirable, they must have the workmen's
inspector for the area accompany them in their inspections.
The local mining authorities must take the necessary steps
to enable every workmen's inspector to accompany an inspector
of mines in his inspections at least once every three months
in the case of areas containing over 500 workers, and at least
once a year in the case of areas containing not more than 500
workers (§131).
When an inspector of mines or an assistant inspector in
the course of an enquiry has been accompanied by a workmen's
inspector, the conclusions reached by the inspector of mines
or assistant inspector in the course of the inspection as regards
facts mentioned by the workmen's inspector in his report must
be entered in the workmen's inspector's register (§132).
Mining companies must place at the disposal of the workmen's inspectors the register of the daily advancement of the
workings in each mining area, and also plans and registers

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

having a bearing on safety and health, in the conditions to be
laid down by orders issued by the Minister in charge of mines
(§133).
Elections
The regulations governing the election of workmen's inspectors are set out in §§ 134 to 152.
Special

Provisions

Any workmen's inspector or deputy workmen's inspector
who, as a result of a sentence, becomes ineligible, may be
suspended for not more than three months by an order of the
Prefect, issued after enquiry, on the reasoned recommendation
of the inspector of mines and after hearing the workmen's
inspector. An order of the Prefect may also suspend an
inspector for serious negligence or abuse in the performance
of his duties, if the inspector of mines so requests, and subject
to the disciplinary procedure laid down in the regulations.
Inspectors and deputy inspectors who are dismissed cannot
be re-elected before three years have elapsed ( § 153).
A titular or substitute workmen's inspector employed in
his own area or in a neighbouring area within the jurisdiction
of the same operator may not be dismissed, on account of
reduced activities of the mine, until after the dismissal of all
the workers in the occupational group to which he belongs
( § 153 A).
When elected, workmen's inspectors and deputy workmen's inspectors must attend courses of instruction organised
by local mining authorities in the conditions to be laid down
by orders issued by the Minister in charge of mines (§ 153 B).
In December of each year the Prefect, on the recommendation of the inspectors of mines, after hearing the operator
and the workmen's inspector, must, under the authority of
the Minister of Labour, fix the maximum number of days
that the workmen's inspector must devote to his regular
inspections and the remuneration per day for the following
year and for each area. He must also fix the minimum monthly
allowance for areas comprising more than 250 workers ( § 155).
A new code of regulations respecting workmen's inspectors
and providing in particular for the appointment of workmen's
inspectors on the surface is being drafted by the Ministry of
Labour and the Ministry of Trade and Industry.

ADMINISTRATION AND INSPECTION

NETHERLANDS

Provisions concerning workmen's inspectors are contained
in the Mines Eegulations of 1939.
For the supervision of the enforcement of the mining
regulations in the underground workings at least five workmen's inspectors must be appointed. The inspectors are
nominated by the Mining Industry Council on the joint proposal of the recognised unions of mineworkers, and are employed under a collective agreement for not more than five
years (§228).
Persons nominated as workmen's inspectors must be Dutch
subjects who are at least 30 years of age and have been
employed as independent hewers in mines underground during
the preceding ten years, and during at least four of these
in the Netherlands mines. They must be able to read, write
and reckon. Neither the workmen's inspector nor anyone
in his household may have an inn or a shop or carry on any
other trade.
A workmen's inspector must resign when he reaches 60
years of age.
Workmen's inspectors are empowered to carry on regular
inspections of the underground workings as regards the health,
safety and work of the workers, and investigate accidents
occurring underground.
In the performance of their duties they must comply with
the regulations of the Inspector-General of Mines ( § 230).
The workmen's inspectors investigate underground accidents that have resulted in the death of any person or disablement likely to exceed six weeks. They notify the InspectorGeneral of all inspections that they intend to carry out in
mines. They enter their observations in a register and, if
appropriate, make proposals for improvement and discuss
them with the mine management.
UNITED KINGDOM

Under Section 16 of the Coal Mines Act, 1911, the workmen
employed in a mine may, to inspect the mine and at their
own cost, appoint two of their number or any two persons,
not being mining engineers, who are or who have been practical working miners, and have had not less than five years'
experience of underground work. These persons must be

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

allowed at least once a month, accompanied if the owner,
agent or manager thinks fit, by himself or one or more officials
of the mine, to go to every part of the mine, and to inspect
the shafts, roads, levels, workings, airways, ventilating apparatus, old workings and machinery. Where a reportable accident has occurred they must be allowed to go, together with
any persons acting as legal adviser to the workmen, or with
a mining or electrical engineer selected by the workmen,
accompanied as above, to the scene of the accident and to
make an inspection with a view to ascertaining the cause.
This inspection, however, is subject to the provisions requiring
the scene of an accident to be left undisturbed.
Every facility must be afforded by the owner, agent and
manager and all persons in the mine for the purpose of the
inspection and, except where the inspection is for the purpose
of ascertaining the cause of an accident, the persons appointed
must make a full and accurate report on the inspection in a
special register for the purpose. The owner, agent or manager
must immediately have a copy of the report sent to the divisional inspector.
Workmen's examiners made 4,921 inspections at 531 mines
in 1947, 3,713 inspections at 419 mines in 1948 and 4,312
inspections at 482 mines in 1949. In addition, inspections
at a considerable proportion of the mines were made by
full-time examiners of the district safety boards, and in most
cases a copy of the report on these inspections was forwarded
to the divisional inspector concerned. Where the reports on
these inspections revealed defects they were followed up by
the staff of the inspectorate until they were remedied. These
inspections on behalf of the workmen serve a useful purpose,
and it is evident that the standard of inspection (particularly
by the whole-time examiners) is improving as the men who
undertake them become more experienced in the work.
Frequently, especially when investigating accidents, the workmen's examiners accompanied the inspector of mines.

CHAPTEE I I I
GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES
All the countries considered in this study have supplemented regulations and inspection by other safety activities,
such as scientific research, training, education and propaganda.
These activities are for the most part carried on by official
bodies, but private institutions also play their part, especially
in countries where the coal mines have not been nationalised.
Some account of the various safety activities carried on in
different countries is given in the present chapter.
Safety activities for the benefit of the coal-mining industry
as a whole do not exhaust the possibilities of raising the standard of safety in the industry, for much can be done in the
individual mines. Many mines have their own safety scheme
and have found it a means of substantially improving their
safety record. Such a scheme may include a safety committee,
a safety engineer, bonuses, propaganda, education or training,
or a combination of these items. Many examples of mine safety
organisations have been described in the technical literature,
Occupational Safety and Health, formerly the Industrial Safety
Survey, and the Office report of 1939 on Safety Provisions for
Underground Work in Coal Mines. Mine safety organisations,
and especially safety committees, are now well established
institutions of proven worth, and it is not considered necessary
to describe their activities in detail again in the present volume.
The treatment of the eight countries included in the
present chapter is not uniform. Some countries are federal,
others are not ; in some countries the coal mines are nationalised, in others not ; matters that are covered by the mining
regulations, e.g., mine rescue organisation in some countries,
are provided for otherwise in other countries ; and, lastly, the
nature of the information available varies from country to
country. However, it has been possible to achieve some
degree of uniformity and for most of the countries a general
survey and sections on research and training have been
provided.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The progress of international co-operation in the field of
safety in coal mines is described in a brief conclusion.
BELGIUM
GENERAL SURVEY

During the last few years some notable measures have been
taken in the interests of safety and health in coal mining.
These include—
(1) the creation of the Mining Health Institute (Institut
d'hygiène des mines) in 1944 ;
(2) the creation of the Superior Health Council for Mines
(Conseil supérieur d'hygiène des mines) (Decree of December
1945);
(3) the compulsory use in dusty places of devices capable
of allaying or suppressing coal and stone dust (Decree of
6 December 1945) ;
(4) the compulsory establishment of mine safety services
and safety and health committees in all mines (Decree of
25 September 1947) ;
(5) the revision and expansion of the provisions relating
to first aid, rescue, medical examination and hygiene installations (Decree of 25 September 1947).
Mention should also be made of the Act of 13 August 1947
for the creation of the National Colliery Council (Conseil
national des charbonnages) and the National Institute for the
Coal Industry (Institut national de Vindustrie charbonnière),
which have some concern with safety and health.
Progress has also been realised in various other matters
affecting safety.
Supports and Roof Control
Thanks to researches undertaken in various countries, and
more especially in England, thanks also to the formerly unsuspected possibilities of metal supports, it is now often possible
to predict the action of the ground and to conduct mining
operations in such a manner as to reduce this action to a
minimum or even to take advantage of it for coal-getting
purposes. There is thus good reason to hope for a substantial
reduction in the near future in the risk of falls of ground,
which for so long has wrongly been looked upon as unavoidable.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : BELGIUM

In 1949 about 39 km of face was supported by metal
props, including about 28 km with telescoping props. About
10.8 km of face was supported by metal bars, including 680
metres supported by jointed bars. Of about 2,000 k m of
roads, 1,340 were supported by metal sets, 287 by timber and
32 by combinations of metal and timber.
Pneumatic stowing was used in respect of about half a
million tons of coal, or 1.9 per cent, of the total production.
Coal-getting
In 1949, of a total production of 27,800,000 tons, pneumatic picks accounted for 26,800,000, coal-cutting machines alone
for 19,000 and combinations of coal-cutting machines and pneumatic picks for 980,000. There were 194 coal-cutting machines
in 1927 but only eight in 1945, since when the figure has risen—
to 28 in 1947 and 48 in 1949. There were about 21,000 pneumatic picks in 1927, 25,000 in 1945, 28,000 in 1947 and 29,750
in 1949. About 1,635 metric tons of explosives were used of
which 1,170 tons were safety sheathed explosives, 261.5
safety unsheathed explosives and 204 non-safety explosives.
Saulage
The mechanisation of haulage operations underground has
made very extensive progress. By the end of 1949, the total
length of face conveyors had risen to 73.5 km and these
conveyors carried 62.5 per cent, of all coal mined. On the
roads 86.2 per cent, of the transport was mechanised, locomotives accounting for 50.4 per cent., rope and chain haulages
(454.5 km) for 27.2 per cent, and conveyors (117 km) for
8.6 per cent. Of 410 locomotives, 344 were diesels, 49 electric,
12 compressed air and five petrol.
Lighting
The recent introduction of electric cap lamps has provided
Belgian miners with a source of light that sheds many times
as much light on the workplace as the best flame lamps. The
advent of sodium-vapour and fluorescent lamps promises
substantial progress in the near future in mains lighting by
fixed or semi-fixed lamps. As a result of the improvements
in lighting, nystagmus has practically disappeared and the risk
of falls of ground has diminished, since cracks and other
dangerous irregularities in the ground can more easily be seen.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The number of portable lamps in use rose from 117,400 in
1938 to 151,050 in 1949, and of these 129,250 were electric.
In 1949, there were also 15,411 fixed or semi-fixed lamps in
use, of which 14,353 were electric and 1,058 electro-pneumatic.
The length of permanently lighted roads was well over 100 km.
Ventilation
The power of fan motors increases steadily from year to
year; in 1949, it amounted to 44,000 kW (31,400 at the
surface and 12,600 underground), and the average amount of
fresh air supplied to workers at the most heavily manned
workplaces reached at least 20-30 litres a second. One of the
consequences of improved ventilation has been the elimination
of ankylostomiasis.
Bust
Since the Liberation, the main effort towards improving
conditions in the mines has been directed against dust. The
dust problem is being attacked simultaneously by the Superior
Health Council for Mines, the Mining Health Institute (Institut d'hygiène des mines) and the National Institute of Mines
(Institut national des mines). The joint efforts of these institutions have not failed to win their reward : by simple means
at a reasonable cost it is now possible to reduce the quantity
of very fine dust in suspension in the air by about 70 per cent.
The means in question include water infusion, spraying before
coal-getting, wet drilling in rock and the use of dust collectors.
Filter masks are also used.
At the end of 1949 the anti-dust equipment in use included
763 sprays, 147 water infusers and 204 dust collectors. About
5,800 pneumatic picks were protected by water or other means
and 477 wet hammer drills were in use. Over 30,000 dust
masks were provided for the workers.
The situation at the beginning of 1952 was as follows in
respect of the 56 coal mines for which information was available.
For driving cross-measure drifts 43 mines used wet drilling,
either entirely or partly, 34 collected drilling dust dry, 43
watered the rock brought down, 32 did shotfiring at the end
of the shift and 53 used filter masks.
For work at the coal face, 13 mines used water infusion,
31 watered or sprayed conveyor gates, 14 sprayed other
places, 11 watered the face, seven used wet cutting, 20 had

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : BELGIUM

wet pneumatic picks, 25 had pneumatic picks with controlled
exhaust and 52 used filter masks.
At dropping points in the haulage system, three mines
used dry collectors, 40 used watering or spraying and six
watered the tubs.
On haulage roads, 21 mines used hygroscopic salts and 23
used water.
Wet drilling continues to progress at the expense of dry
drilling with dust collection, and there is a tendency for less
reliance to be placed on masks. Some mines are giving
themselves better chances of success by lateral injection
of water from the drilling bit rather than axial injection
from pneumatic picks. It is regretted that shotfiring between
shifts is not more popular. Experiments have shown the
advantages of reversing the air current at the moment of
shotfiring in roads ventilated by plenum piping. Improvements in dust suppression have been achieved by adding
wetting agents to the water. Increasingly satisfactory results
have been obtained with pneumatic picks fitted with atomisers
and used in combination with water infusion.
An enquiry has been made among mines on the reasons
for not employing anti-dust measures. Of 56 mines questioned, 23 gave their reasons. Most of them stated that the
working places were not dusty or were damp. Two mentioned
the hostility of the personnel, and three lack of water.
Temperature and

Humidity

The increasing depth of the workings, which reaches
1,350 m (about 4,500 feet) in some mines, and their increasing
distance from the shafts make work at the faces very disagreeable and hinder the wetting of coal for dust-suppression purposes. Air-cooling experiments have been carried out and have
given satisfactory results in a mine in the Campine. Arrangements are being made to carry out similar experiments in a
deep mine in the Borinage.
RESEARCH

In Belgium the National Institute of Mines is the official
research institution for the promotion of safety in coal mines.
The organisation and duties of this institution are defined
in a Royal Order of 18 December 1929 (subsequently amended).

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

These duties include the promotion of improvements in the
conditions of work and safety in the mines, and the Institute
is empowered to undertake or promote all tests, analyses and
researches or studies of direct or indirect use to the mining
industry. The Institute has a testing gallery at Pâturages.
The research work of the Institute is chiefly concerned
with explosives and shotfiring, electrical equipment, mine
lighting, and precautions against explosions of firedamp
and coal dust. Among matters studied since the war are
methods of sheathing explosives, stonedusting, the characteristics of various types of detonator, gases given off by
explosives, faulty practices in shotfiring, shotfiring in rock,
cardox, the mechanism of the combustion of methane, flameproof electrical equipment, fluorescent lighting, the safety
of electric cap lamps, and dust masks.
The Institute also conducts safety propaganda by means
of demonstrations, notices, leaflets, etc.
The testing of mine ropes is undertaken by the Association
of Belgian Manufacturers (Association des industriels de Belgique).
The Mining Health Institute (Institut d'hygiène des mines)
was founded in 1944 by the Federation of Coalowners' Associations to study all matters relating to health in mines. I t
could not function properly until after the Liberation.
The Institute comprises a medical section and a technical
section and also functions as a centre of information. It is
assisted by a medical and a technical committee.
The medical section undertakes medical examinations
of miners and researches into medical problems, in particular silicosis.
The technical section has studied various means of suppressing and measuring dust. It has designed a dust counter
and a water meter, compared rotary and percussive methods
of drilling in rock, and investigated various ways of applying
water to work in coal. The section has also studied various
matters affecting the climate of deep mines.
TRAINING

A number of mining companies have established training
schools. The Federation of Belgian Coalowners' Associations
has set up a research committee to consider the organisation

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : CANADA (ALBERTA)

of practical courses for newly recruited foreign workers, as
well as young Belgians wishing to take up mining.
The training courses are given at training faces and in
apprenticeship schools.
In the apprenticeship schools practical and theoretical
instruction is given. The theoretical courses are so planned
that all the workers attending them, whether foreign or Belgian, can rapidly become familiar with the essentials of coal
mining. The practical part of the training is given in workshops at the surface which faithfully reproduce conditions
underground.
A good example of these schools is that of the Hornu and
Wasmes Company at Wasmes, which includes a model mine,
a timbering room, a machine and tool shop and a lecture hall.
Persons unsuited for underground work are systematically
eliminated by an entrance medical examination. The training
syllabus includes (a) a course of general instruction ; (b) a
course of technical instruction covering all the different
activities in the mine ; (c) specialised job training and (d)
psychological training which, at the end of the courses, is given
to the most promising of the trainees, likely eventually to
become supervisors.
For the training of supervisory staff there are 24 vocational
schools subsidised by the public authorities. Training in
these schools lasts from one to three years and leads to the
award of an overman's or examiner's certificate.
CANADA (ALBERTA)
GENERAL SURVEY

The safety activities of the mines inspectorate are supplemented by those of the Workmen's Compensation Board.
A safety inspector appointed by the Board visits each mining
area to give lectures on safety and discuss safety problems
with officials and workmen. The lectures are illustrated by
cinematograph films.
Each month the Board sends to each operator a statement
of the accidents reported, together with comparative figures
for the last five years, thus enabling the operator to see his
accident record at a glance. The Board also distributes each
month a number of safety posters.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The merit-rating system is used by the Board for workmen's compensation purposes. Under this system, premiums
may be raised by not more than 33 1 / 3 per cent, or reduced by
any amount up to 15 per cent. This system is considered to
be an encouragement to operators to make their mines safe.
At some of the larger mines in the province a safety inspector
is employed by the operating company ; he also acts as firstaid man.
For one coal-mining district an annual draw is held and
cash prizes are given to workers who have not lost any time
during the year on account of accidents. Prizes are also given
to the coal-mining companies with the best accident records.
Similarly, rewards are made to underground and surface
foremen with the best records. The workers have shown
considerable interest in these arrangements, and as a result
there has been a substantial decrease in the number of accidents. Other coal-mining districts are contemplating making
similar arrangements.
In addition to these district competitions, there are annual
Dominion and provincial competitions. A trophy presented
by the Mines Safety Appliances Company of Canada Ltd. in
remembrance of the founder of the company, John T. Ryan,
is awarded annually by the Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy to t h e mine with the best accident record in each
province, and another trophy is presented to the mine with
the best record in the whole Dominion. An Alberta mine
won the Dominion trophy in 1947.
One of the biggest safety problems in recent years has
been how to induce workers to wear protective clothing and
equipment, such as hard hats and safety boots, and to protect
the eyes. However, considerable success has been achieved ;
whereas there was no such equipment in use in 1935, at least
80 per cent, of the underground workers were wearing hard hats
and safety boots in 1949. Some difficulty has been experienced
with goggles owing to the fogging of the lenses, but users are
being encouraged to wear goggles only while engaged on work
liable to cause eye injuries.
Up to 1947, miners in open-light mines were allowed to
fire their own shots by fuses, but this practice resulted in
numerous accidents and it is now compulsory for all shots to
be fired electrically by a certificated examiner after he has
seen that the charge is properly placed and the place made

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : CANADA (ALBEBTA)

safe. Further, examiners are now required to make at least
two inspections of every place of employment during each
shift. As a result of this reinforcement of supervision, mine
operators have had to engage a number of additional examiners.
At each mine a pit committee is appointed and financed
by the workers to make monthly inspections as required under
Section 139 of the Coal Mines ^Regulation Act. These inspections, together with the monthly inspections made by the
provincial inspectors, tend to keep all officials and workmen
alert in matters of safety.
MINE

EESCTJE

ORGANISATION

Since 1918 the Workmen's Compensation Board has been
charged with organisation in matters of mine rescue within the
province, with the training of mine rescue personnel, and with
the specification, provision and maintenance of mine rescue
apparatus and equipment.
The Mines Division of the Province of Alberta is responsible for supervision of all mining operations within the province. When an emergency arises the mine rescue facilities
are therefore placed at the service of the Mines Division, and
close liaison in this regard is maintained between the departments at all times.
The present organisation of mine rescue is entrusted to
a qualified general superintendent, who is appointed by the
Board and is responsible for all mine rescue activity in the
province ; his headquarters are in Calgary, which is more or
less the centre of coal-mining activity in the province.
Permanent and fully equipped mine rescue stations are
maintained at Drumheller, Lethbridge, Blairmore and Edmonton, each station in the charge of a qualified resident superintendent who is available on immediate call continuously.
To extend the facilities of the permanent stations, substations
are maintained under part-time supervision at Cadomin,
Canmore, ISTordegg, Mountain Park, Luscar and Mercoal.
The part-time resident superintendents in the latter cases are
men employed in close proximity to the substation and are
immediately available for any local emergency.
The permanent and substations above noted are strategically located in the coal-mining areas of the province and are
so situated as to be within easy reach of any operating mine and

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

in direct telephonic and telegraphic communication with local
mines as well as all other permanent stations and substations.
In any emergency the station or substation concerned is
required to notify immediately the general superintendent,
who will proceed to the scene of activity and, at the same
time, arrange for any further assistance deemed necessary
from the nearest station.
Stations are housed in suitable buildings, either owned
outright by the Board, by the mining company on whose
property the station may be located, or rented when necessary.
Permanent stations are under the constant supervision of
a resident superintendent who maintains under his control
three mine rescue teams. Each team is composed of five
certified mine rescue men as required by the Board. These
men have become qualified by training courses organised by
mine rescue superintendents in their respective districts, and
have passed an examination prescribed by the Board.
The teams are required to practise regularly each month,
spending not less than two hours, fully equipped, in rehearsal
of entering a dangerous atmosphere, and under conditions
closely resembling working conditions which may be expected
during actual rescue work. The members of all the teams are
employed by local mines in the station district and by special
arrangement with their employers may be called from their
respective occupations in cases of emergency.
Men chosen for training in mine rescue work are those who
intend to make coal mining and its related activities their
life work, and are usually adding to their knowledge of coal
mining with the purpose of eventually becoming qualified
mining engineers.
Under the Coal Mines Eegulation Act of the province all
persons desiring to consider examinations leading to the
certificate of proficiency under the Coal Mines Eegulation Act
must hold a mine rescue certificate (proof of mine rescue training) as well as a first-aid certificate (proof of first-aid training),
before being allowed to submit themselves for examination.
This feature is conducive to making young able-bodied and
intelligent men interested in mine rescue work and becoming
potential members of regular mine rescue teams.
At all stations first-aid instruction courses are available
to all interested, and the resident superintendent, who is
required to be a qualified first-aid instructor, devotes a con-

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : CANADA (ALBERTA)

siderable part of his time to this activity, besides keeping
all mine rescue team members well trained in the latest firstaid technique.
RESEARCH

Alberta has no mining experimental station but close
touch is maintained with the British and United States stations.
The province profits from their work and accepts their approval
plates on mining equipment.
Some mining research is carried on by the Research Council
of Alberta, which for this purpose keeps in touch with the
Federal Research Bureau of Ottawa and the other coal-mining
provinces of Canada—British Columbia and ÎTova Scotia.
Recourse is also had to the University of Alberta.
The Research Council undertakes work such as analysis
of coal, coal dust, mine air and diesel exhaust gases and, in
conjunction with the University, tests materials, examines
and tests electrical equipment for the mines, and investigates
industrial diseases affecting miners.
TRAINING

On-the-job training is practised in the Alberta mines.
This system has proved highly successful. I t enables young
men to be trained and to reach the working face much quicker
than any other system, which is a great advantage in view
of the prevailing shortage of mineworkers.
Applicants for work in mines must be 17 years of age and
furnish a medical certificate of fitness. When accepted for
underground work they are instructed in mining procedure
and then assigned to any work except mining at a working face.
At the age of 18 they may apply to the district mine inspector
for a permit enabling them to work at the face under the
supervision of a person holding a miner's certificate. If the
inspector considers that an applicant is physically and mentally
fit for such work and has sufficient knowledge of the mining
regulations he may issue a permit. The applicant may then
work at the face under supervision until he is 20, when he
may present himself to the Miners' Examining Board to be
examined for a permanent miner's certificate.
The manager of a mine may apply to the Director of
Mines for permission to establish a training place or places
7

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

in the mine. On receipt of an application the Director of Mines
delegates a district inspector to examine the proposed site of
the training place as to roof condition, ventilation, method of
working, shotflring and all other matters affecting the safety
of the trainees. If the application is accepted a panel of not
more than ten rooms is laid off and each room is manned by
a holder of a miner's certificate and one trainee working under
his supervision. The panel is supervised by a mine examiner
who devotes his whole time to instructing the trainees. The
promotion of the trainees depends largely on their ability
to profit by the instruction given, but when they reach the age
of 20 they should be well qualified to take the examination
set by the Miners' Examining Board.
The competency of the higher officials who are responsible
for the safety of the miners and the general efficiency of
the workings is ensured by a system of examination and
certification.
This covers managers, surveyors, electricians and examiners ; it is conducive to a high level of
intelligent supervision in the mines and this in turn
creates a safety consciousness in the minds of all mine
personnel.
FRANCE
GENERAL SURVEY

The bodies most directly concerned with safety in coal
mining in France are the Mines Council (Conseil général des
mines), the Mines Department (Administration des mines),
to which the Mines Inspectorate (Inspection des mines) is
attached, and the National Coal Board (Charbonnages de
France). Standards for electrical equipment are laid down by
the Electrical Engineering Federation (Union technique de
V électricité).
The Charbonnages de France has made great efforts to
improve the safety of mine workings and to raise the standard
of mining equipment. I t has taken over the research work
formerly carried on by the Mineowners' Association, and has
undertaken safety education, training and propaganda among
the personnel of the industry.
Its task has been a heavy one. For the various reasons
mentioned in the introduction the mines were in a poor condition when Liberation came, and the miners were suffering from

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

shortage of food and other necessities as well as from the
mental effects of the Occupation.
In 1946 the situation began to improve : a large proportion
of the mines were restored to working order and the shortage
of supplies gradually became less acute.
By 1948 the physical condition of the personnel had
improved as a result of the suppression of most of the restrictions applying to foodstuffs. On the other hand, the employment of large numbers of foreign workers had an adverse effect
on safety, since they had to be trained hurriedly and their
training proved inadequate for underground work, more
especially as regards the enforcement of safety rules. Discipline
among them often left much to be desired, and many appeared
to think that instructions and rules were hindrances to work
rather than a guarantee of safety.
The ratio of foreign to French workers has, however, been
declining steadily. In 1946 there were about 128,000 foreigners
out of a total of 354,000 ; in 1948 about 90,000 out of a total
of 321,000 ; and in 1950, 67,000 out of a total of 287,000. By
the end of 1947 all the prisoners of war had left the coal mines.
The concentration of faces has been speeded up, more
especially since the end of the war. The fact that coal is
extracted from a few faces instead of from widely dispersed
places makes it possible to reduce both the manpower required
for coal-getting and the manpower required for maintenance
and transport. Further, since the labour force is more concentrated, supervision and safety can be more easily ensured.
Goal-getting and Loading
The mechanisation and electrification of coal-getting are
expected to reduce some kinds of risk but to introduce others.
It will not be possible to pronounce definite judgment on this
point until the processes are complete. I t is hoped to reduce
the number of accidents at the face as a result of the reduction
in the number of face workers required.
The principal types of coal-getting and loading equipment
in use at the end of 1951 were :
(1) Air legs and carriages designed to support percussion
drills. These appliances improve the worker's safety and
comfort by making it unnecessary for him to hold his drill.
Further the carriages enable the worker to mind several

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

drills and to keep away from the face (better protection against
falls of ground and from the source of dust).
At the end of 1951 the French coal mines possessed about
4,000 air legs, or about a quarter of the number of lightweight and medium-weight percussion drills. There were also
70 drill carriages in use and their number is increasing by
about ten a year.
(2) Loading machines, which make it possible to get rid
almost completely of the material brought down by shotfiring
in the roads. They thus constitute a powerful aid to safety
since it is the machine and not the workman that is at the face
after the shots have been fired. The number of these loading
machines rose from a mere handful in 1938 to about 300 in
1949 and over 500 at the end of 1951.
(3) Coal-cutting machines, which have also replaced a considerable number of workmen in coal-getting operations. These
increased in number from 350, including a number of small
percussion machines, in 1938, to about 600 (300 longwall, 100
shortwall and 200 percussion machines) at the end of 1951.
(4) Planers, which enable coal-getting and loading to be
carried on simultaneously and therefore require only a very
small number of men at the face. At the end of 1951, there
were about 30 of these machines in use.
Supports and Roof Control
Greater use has been made of steel props, which have proved
very satisfactory in mines worked by caving. This development, which was hampered by a shortage of steel during the
first two or three years after the war, is now proceeding steadily.
A new type of equipment is being tested on a considerable
scale, namely, jointed metal bars which provide cantilever
support at the working face, thus protecting the coal-getters
even where the props are some distance from the face. Tests
have also been made of roof bolting.
Metal supports reduce both the risks of falls of ground and
the considerable risks inherent in the removal of these falls.
Further, the telescoping supports now in use enable satisfactory clearances to be maintained for a very long time in the
roads.
Caving systems are also being extended, and they considerably reduce the pressure on the roof at the face and con-

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

sequently the risk of falls of ground in face workings. Moreover,
caving is now generally carried on with the help of metal
props, which in addition to their other advantages are much
less dangerous to shift than timber supports.
Hydraulic, pneumatic or other stowing machines have made
it possible to reduce considerably the number of workers
required for stowing operations and have thus reduced the
risk of accidents during these operations. While hydraulic
stowing does not appear to be developing, pneumatic stowing
is steadily becoming more general, more especially in horizontal workings.
Haulage
As regards haulage, hand haulage has almost disappeared
except for very small distances ; horse haulage has also almost
entirely disappeared ; and compressed-air winches and rope
and chain haulages are disappearing. The new means of
transport are locomotives for long distances and conveyors
for shorter distances. As a result, the number of inclines and
staple pits is diminishing and loading operations are being
concentrated on the main levels. Locomotives and conveyors
make it possible to transport large quantities of coal with the
help of a single engineman and they thus decrease the risks of
accidents. However, it must be admitted that conveyor
haulage appears to introduce a new fire risk, but it should be
almost completely eliminated by the automatic devices for
stopping the belt when it seizes on the driving drum.
Winding
For a good number of years shafts have been so equipped
with speed regulators, speed governors, safety catches, overwind preventers, etc., that the accident risk has already been
considerably reduced ; nevertheless, a new device appears to
afford even greater safety in man-winding, and that is the
amplidyne. It is a fact that accidents have almost all been
due to a failure of the engineman. The amplidyne makes it
possible for winding to be made completely automatic, the
engineman having nothing more to do than to see that all is
in order and to act in the exceptional event of a breakdown
of this electrical device.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Explosives and Shotfiring
I n Lorraine shotfiring tests have been carried out with
Cardox. The Study and Besearch Centre of Charbonnages de
France has devised extra-safe explosives for shotfiring in the
coal. These explosives, which have a high salt content and
allow the use of delay-action detonators, have been tested in
most of the coalfields with satisfactory results.
The use of delay-action detonators has made it possible
to fire in a single round all the shots necessary for excavating
the entire cross-section of a road. I n a road-driving cycle,
therefore, there is only one phase in which the workers enter
the workplace after shotfiring.
Thanks to the new regulations (of 1951) coal-getting by
explosives has a chance to develop ; since permitted explosives
offer additional safety from firedamp, this method of coalgetting considerably reduces the proportion of accidents due
to the use of pneumatic picks.
Lastly, it may be mentioned that coal is now holed almost
exclusively by light high-speed rotary drills. The combination of lightness and speed considerably reduces the risk of
accidents during drilling.
Lighting
During the war the Germans removed a large number of
lamps and only a part of them was recovered. During the
immediate post-war period the poor quality of many materials,
including welding materials, made it difficult to maintain
flame safety lamps in good order. Improvements in lighting
have been made by installing fixed lamps and extending the
use of compressed-air-operated electric lamps at the face.
Substitution of portable electric lamps for flame lamps
was resumed in 1946 ; by the end of 1948 over 164,000 electric
hand lamps and over 40,000 cap lamps were in service. Twenty
lamp rooms were organised for self-service. Intensive lighting
of loading areas, large working faces and similar places was
provided by 3,800 electro-pneumatic lamps and 160 semifixed electric lamps. In addition, there were 16,000 fixed
electric lamps supplied by mains and a few gaseous discharge
lamps for the lighting of shaft landings, main haulage roads
and other important places.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

By the end of 1951 the number of cap lamps had risen to
80,000 and the number of mains-supplied lamps to about
20,000. Thanks to these two innovations the miner can see
the condition of his workplace much better, and thus a considerable number of accidents are avoided.
Ventilation
The concentration of working faces has favourably influenced ventilation by reducing the number of circuits.
Coal Bust
A serious coal-dust explosion in 1948 again proved the
worth of stone-dust barriers, stone dusting and staggered
doors. At the end of the year there were 1,949 stone-dust
barriers in the French coal mines and 1,361 stone-dusted mine
districts. Of a total length of 2,047,633 m of road classified as dusty, 1,146,743 were neutralised by stone-dusting and
over 200,000 by watering, the remainder being self-neutralising. During the year 182,408 m of water piping were
installed, bringing the total up to 565,663 and in addition
885,377 m of road were whitewashed.
Silicosis
A special committee set up to study the prevention and
suppression of dust has been engaged in the drawing up of a
programme of measures against dusts with a silicosis risk.
Trials have been made in the mines with water infusion, wet
drilling, wet cutting, dust collecting, watering and spraying,
wetting agents and consolidating agents such as calcium
chloride, and dust masks.
Mine Rescue
The rescue stations have been restored to their pre-war
conditions, the rescue brigades reconstituted, the equipment
completed and the drills continued. At the end of the year
1948 there were 14 central rescue stations and 183 other rescue
stations in operation.
*

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The mines are not yet as safe as they were in 1938, but
much of the damage resulting from the war has been made good.
By modernising the mines, rewriting the code of safety regulations, developing research and training and conducting safety
campaigns, the French Government has put into execution a
powerful programme of safety activities that will, it is confidently expected, result not only in the restoration of the
pre-war situation but in a substantial improvement in it.
M I N E S COUNCIL

The Mines Council (Conseil général des mines) was established in 1810. I t s composition and activities are now governed
by a Decree of 3 June 1949.
I t consists of (1) the Minister of Industry and Trade, who
is the chairman ; (2) the inspectors-general of mines ; and (3)
the chairmen of the managing boards of State industrial
undertakings or industrial undertakings in which the State is
represented, and the Director of the Eesearch Centre of the
National Coal Board, provided that these persons belong to
the Corps des mines and have the rank of inspector-general.
The Council must be consulted on various matters, including
applications for mining concessions, and for permission to
operate mines.
The Council also gives its opinion on any matter submitted
to it by the Minister of Industry and Trade and the Minister
of Labour and Social Security. I t may submit proposals to
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce concerning mines and
quarries, fuel oils, etc.
With particular regard to safety and health in mines the
Council is permanently engaged in the study of accidents and
their prevention, the revision of the operating regulations,
the granting of permits and exemptions, and the drafting of
circulars supplementing regulations, etc.
The Council has a technical section which is specially
concerned with safety questions ; it is assisted by four expert
committees.
One of the Council's principal tasks since the war has been
the revision of the general operating regulations for coal mines.
In this task the Council made constant use of the Model Code
of Safety Regulations for Underground Work in Coal Mines,
prepared by the International Labour Office.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

PERMANENT COMMITTEE FOR SCIENTIFIC EESEARCH
FIREDAMP, DUSTS AND MINING EXPLOSIVES

95
INTO

The Permanent Committee for Scientific Eesearch into
Firedamp, Dusts and Mining Explosives (Commission permanente des recherches scientifiques sur le grisou, les poussières et
les explosifs employés dans les mines) consisting of a number
of ex officio members and 18 members appointed by Ministerial
Order, is an advisory body dealing with all matters affecting
safety in fiery mines, but more especially the prevention of
explosions. On these matters it advises the Minister responsible for mines.
SOCIAL SECURITY

INSTITUTIONS

The Act of 30 October 1946 concerning prevention and
compensation of industrial accidents and occupational diseases
is applicable to coal mines. The provisions relating to accident
prevention are contained in Part I I of the Act.
This Part is linked to Ordinance No. 45-2250 of 4 October
1945 relating to the organisation of social security. Under
§10 of the Ordinance the duties of the regional social security
institutions include the promotion and co-ordination of activities for the prevention of industrial accidents and occupational diseases ; and under § 14 the national social security
institution is entrusted with the management of a fund for
the prevention of such accidents and diseases.
The Act of 30 October 1946 provides that the functions
of the national and regional social security institutions as
defined by the Ordinance shall be integrated into the prevention
policy framed by the Minister of Labour and Social Security,
after consultation, if appropriate, with the competent Minister
(§8).
Section 11 of the Ordinance of 4 October 1945 established
technical committees attached to the managing boards of the
regional social security institutions. There is to be a technical
committee for each industrial branch or group, and the committees are to be composed of representatives of workers'
organisations and of employers' organisations in equal numbers.
The Act of 30 October 1946 empowers the managing boards
of the regional social security institutions to delegate all or
part of their powers in respect of the prevention of industrial

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

accidents and occupational diseases to these committees. If
the managing board does not so delegate its powers it must
consult the committees on all questions of prevention ( § 9).
The regional institutions will collect and group all necessary
information for the compilation of statistics of industrial
accidents and occupational diseases, with due regard to their
causes, circumstances, frequency and severity. These statistics
will be centralised by the national social security institution
and communicated annually to the Minister of Labour and
Social Security. The regional institutions will also study all
problems of prevention disclosed by the information in their
possession, and the results of their studies will be communicated
to the national social security institution, the divisional
labour inspector and, on their request, the safety committees
(§10).
The regional institutions may undertake any enquiries
that they consider useful in connection with safety and hygiene.
These enquiries will be carried out by consulting engineers
(ingénieurs-conseils)
and safety inspectors (contrôleurs de
sécurité) approved by the regional institutions ( § 11).
A regional institution may require any employer to take
any preventive measures that are justified, without prejudice
to his right of appeal to the divisional inspector, who decides
within two weeks. The institution may also request the
intervention of the Labour Inspectorate with a view to
ensuring the application of measures provided for in labour
regulations. Further, a regional institution may invite all
employers within its area who are engaged in the same activities
to comply with certain prevention requirements, but these
requirements must be approved by the divisional labour
inspector, or, if he refuses, by the Minister of Labour and
Social Security. The regional institution may increase insurance
premiums in respect of employers who do not comply with its
directives in respect of prevention ( § 13).
A regional institution may make financial provision for—
(a) rewarding workers, foremen and heads of undertakings
who particularly distinguish themselves by their activities in
the interests of prevention ;
(o) granting certain advances and subsidies ;
(c) establishing or developing, with the authorisation
of the national social security institution, institutions and

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

services having as their object the improvement of preventive
methods within the region ( § 14).
Advances may he made to undertakings with a view to
the carrying out of transformations designed to improve the
protection of workers and reducing insurance premiums.
Eepayments are to be effected by upward adjustment of premiums for so long as may be necessary ( § 15).
Agreements may also be entered into between the regional
institution and undertakings for the financial participation
of the institution in protective and preventive measures. This
participation will take the form of repayable advances, subsidies or advances, convertible in whole or in part according to
the results achieved into subsidies ( § 16).
The industrial accident and disease prevention fund provided for in the Ordinance of 4 October 1945 is intended
to contribute to the prevention of accidents and diseases in
the following ways :
(1) by the establishment or development of institutions
or organisations for prevention and research ;
(2) by the grant of subsidies or loans for prevention and
research purposes to national institutions, organisations,
etc., and to regional social security institutions ;
(3) by the establishment of services, institutions, organisations, etc., concerned with research, education, propaganda and
documentation in matters of industrial safety and health and
the subsidising of such bodies ;
(4) by the establishment of services, institutions or organisations charged with the supervision of prevention or furnishing the assistance of consulting engineers in the field of
industrial safety and health ( § 18).
The managing board of the fund will be assisted by national
technical committees representing occupations or groups of
occupations (§19). The committees will centralise and study
the statistics relating to their branches of production and will
give directives to the regional technical committees.
On the initiative of these committees the national social
security institution may, by order of the Minister of Labour
and Social Security, cancel preventive measures decided upon
by a regional institution or extend measures decided upon
by a regional institution to the whole country.

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The national technical committees will study the risks of
the occupations with which they are concerned and the means
of eliminating these risks, and for this purpose will be assisted
by consulting engineers ( § 20).
The prevention fund will also provide means for using all
suitable resources of publicity and propaganda for informing
industry and the population in general of prevention methods
and, in particular, of influencing the workers through their
trade unions, and of influencing safety committees. I t will
also promote safety education in co-operation with the
Ministries concerned. The national organisations of young
workers (organisations nationales de jeunesse ouvrières) will be
invited to co-operate in educational activities ( § 21).
A Decree containing regulations for the enforcement of the
Act was promulgated on 31 December 1946. Among other
things it provides for the creation of a central technical committee to co-ordinate the activities of the various national
technical committees, requires regional social security institutions to consult regional technical committees on new measures
of accident prevention and on accident insurance premiums,
and requires regional technical committees to study all statistics relating to occupational risks within their branches of
activity.
The workers in mines and assimilated undertakings have
enjoyed a special régime of social security since 1894 (Act of
29 June) ; this Act was reorganised by a Decree of 27 November
1946, measures for the enforcement of which were laid down
in a Decree of 22 October 1947.
Under § 85 of the Decree of 27 November 1946 persons
affiliated to the mining social security scheme receive the
benefits deriving from the general legislation on industrial
accidents and occupational diseases (Act of 30 October 1946,
Decree of 31 December 1946) subject to the special provisions
of the said Decree.
These special provisions relate more particularly to the
prevention of industrial accidents and occupational diseases
under a system substantially differing from that provided for
in Title I I of the Act of 30 October 1946 and Title I I I of the
Decree of 31 December 1946 governing the general scheme for
non-mineral industries. For example, in the place of the
regional institutions of the general scheme there are regional
unions of mining aid societies ( § 23 of the Decree of 27 ifovem-

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : PRANCE

ber 1946) ; in the place of the regional technical committees,
there is the governing body of the regional union of mining
aid societies to which a technical committee is attached ( § 28
of the Decree of 27 November 1946 and §§166, 167 and 168
of the Decree of 22 October 1947) ; in the place of the national
technical committees there is the governing body of the
national autonomous social security institution for the mining
industry, which has a committee of management for the
compensation and guarantee funds for industrial accidents
and occupational diseases, the competence of which committee
extends to prevention ( § 33 of the Decree of 27 November
1946 and §§164, 165 and 169 of the Decree of 22 October
1947). Publicity in favour of safety is provided for in § 164
of the Decree of 22 October 1947.
The first task of the years 1948 and 1949 was to set up
these various bodies. Since they have begun to function, their
principal activities in the field of occupational safety and
health have been the following :
(1) a campaign against occupational silicosis : (a) encouragement of the study of dusts and means of preventing their
formation ; (b) systematic diagnosis of the disease ; (c)
subsidies to rehabilitation centres for curable silicotics ;
(2) the determination of the principal causes of occupational accidents in mines and the study of effective means of
preventing them in collaboration with the mining administration and the mine operators ;
(3) the creation and equipment of first-aid stations, supplemented by the organisation of periodic meetings of the
medical advisers of the mining social security scheme, under
the authority of the medical adviser of the national autonomous
institution ;
(4) the collection of blood for the preparation of the dry
plasma required for the first-aid treatment of burns ;
(5) the constitution of local, regional and national dry
plasma banks ;
(6) the grant of subsidies to centres for the preparation
of plasma ; and
(7) the study of a system of rebates on contributions with
a view to encouraging the accident prevention activities of
the mining undertakings.

100

SAFETY IN COAL MINES
RESEARCH

For many years research in the interests of safety in coal
mining was undertaken by the Montluçon experimental station
of the Central Committee of French Coalowners (Comité central
des houillères de France). With the nationalisation of the mines
the station was taken over by the Charbonnages de France
which in 1947 set up a research centre (Centre d'études et recherches). The centre is under the direction of Mr. E. Audibert
assisted by a research committee (Comité d'études et recherches),
consisting of six members of the Charbonnages de France, the
vice-chairman of the General Mines Council, the Director of
Mines, one Chief Inspector of Mines and one representative of
the National Centre for Scientific Research (Centre national de
la recherche scientifique).
Under the old régime, the Montluçon station carried
on research work relating to matters such as the mechanism
of the combustion of methane, permitted explosives,
ground pressures and supports, ventilation and electrical
equipment.
The new Centre's proposals included the building of new
laboratories, the setting up of pilot plants for various industrial
processes and an increase in the research staff. However, the
plans could only materialise slowly, and for the first two or
three years safety researches were mainly confined to firedamp
and permitted explosives.
As regards permitted explosives, the researches have
followed three directions :
(1) incorporation of an inhibitor in the explosive itself ;
(2) concentration of the inhibitor in a sheath enclosing
the explosive, combined with a reduction of the power of the
explosive by the inclusion in it of a small quantity of the
inhibitor ;
(3) reduction of the density of the explosive so as to facilitate its decomposition in the shothole, and reduce the risk
of the projection of fumes into a fiery atmosphere before they
are completely decomposed.
Very light explosives have been made in the laboratory
and it now seems certain that complete safety against coal dust
and almost complete safety against firedamp can be attained
when firing from mortars, while maintaining a coefficient of
practical utilisation of at least 50.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : FRANCE

101

Trials have been carried out with explosives containing a
small amount of aluminium. An explosive containing 12 per
cent, penthrite, 35.5 per cent, ammonium nitrate, 2 per cent.
aluminium, 3.5 per cent, wood flour and 47 per cent, sodium
chloride was found satisfactory.
Delay-action detonators have been studied more especially
as regards the risk of a faulty sequence of detonators in the
same round.
Some work has also been done on dusts—measurements
of inflammable dusts and the use of wetting methods for dust
suppression. Improvements have been effected in dustsampling apparatus.
As regards firedamp, the researches related to detectors,
detection by flame lamps, measurement of pressures in the
combustion of methane, and ignition of methane by a blast of
compressed air.
A ventilation section was established at Verneuil on
1 October 1950. It is equipped for measuring air quantities
and velocities and for analysing gases. The construction of
two underground galleries was undertaken for the study of
ventilation problems.
Photometric studies have been made of cap lamps, projectors, incandescent lamps and other items of lighting equipment. Argon and krypton bulbs have been investigated as to
flux, coefficient of efficiency and duration.
A biological laboratory was installed in 1950 for histology,
radiology and analyses of air, blood and exhaled breath.
The routine work of examining and testing electric and
pneumatic equipment has continued and some methane indicators and carbon monoxide detectors have been manufactured.
In addition to undertaking experimental work, the Centre
provides a documentary service, comprising the publication
of studies, information bulletins and abstracts, the furnishing
of ordinary or microfilm copies of documents and the making of
translations.
The Centre keeps in touch with the coal-mining industry by
means of periodical visits to the coalfields and the formation
of technical committees for all important researches, each
committee including representatives of the principal coalfields
and administrations concerned.
Lectures are regularly given to engineers from the different
coalfields.

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Another of the Centre's duties is to examine applications
for the approval of electrical equipment and to exercise surveillance over flameproof equipment in use.
The first group of the new buildings of the Centre at Verneuil
were completed in 1950, and on 21 October of that year they
were officially opened. At the end of the year the Centre
employed 51 engineers and assimilated grades and 183 other
persons, a total of 234, of whom 199 lived at Verneuil.
TRAINING

The Charbonnages de France administers a special training
fund which is financed by compulsory contributions from
collieries, calculated on the basis of the net tonnage extracted.
Apprenticeship, usually lasting three years, is compulsory
for all young people entering the industry, and apprenticeship
centres have been set up in every coalfield. After satisfactorily
passing a test a t the end of their apprenticeship, the apprentices receive a proficiency certificate.
In addition, training courses for supervisors have been
instituted for a number of trainees selected among the holders
of the proficiency certificate.
The programmes of the apprenticeship courses are fixed,
and their application supervised, by the operators and the
trade union delegates acting jointly.
Accelerated training courses of four weeks' duration are
given to underground workers at the mines, in which a number
of training districts have been formed. I n all the training
programmes a very large part is allotted to safety.
The Act of 17 May 1946, which nationalised the coal mines,
entrusts the Charbonnages de France with the task of developing
vocational training and in co-ordinating it with apprenticeship, of which it is a continuation. The Charbonnages de
France have set up a central service for this purpose which
keeps in touch with the training centres in the coalfields.
There are 59 of these centres ; they are generally equipped
with lecture halls, workshops, headgear, machines, tools and
a training face. At the centres training courses are given for
supervisors and electricians, as well as refresher courses for
working miners.
Constant attention is also devoted to the training of
managerial staff. Engineers in charge of apprenticeship centres

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103

for vocational training themselves periodically take courses
in educational and psychological training.
The Charbonnages de France use the school for managerial
staff at Bergoide (Haute-Loire) for training instructors for all
the apprenticeship centres. The school is a resident establishment, in which trainees spend 25 days.
Mining engineers have for many years received their technical education at the mining colleges at Paris, St. Etienne
and Nancy. There are also training schools for managerial
staff at Douai and Ales. Eecently, increasing use has been
made of demonstrations for purposes such as showing dust
explosions or methods of measuring firedamp.
The training schemes which were on a rather small scale
before the war, covered about 20,000 apprentices by the end
of 1951.
The aim of technical and safety training is not merely to
teach working rules, but also to make young workers realise
the necessity and the importance of these rules both for the
individual and for all his workmates. Further, by developing
the qualities of initiative and coolness and habits of discipline
and authority (by means of physical education and the assignment of supervisory duties, for example), attention and
behaviour at work are improved. The development of supervisory schools and finishing courses for supervisors is particularly important since the supervisor plays a leading part in
the promotion of safety.
The accelerated training of newly engaged men is having
a considerable effect on the accident figures ; statistics have
shown that it is these men who used to have the highest peroentage of accidents.
GERMANY (FEDERAL REPUBLIC)
GENERAL

SURVEY

For the purposes of this survey it has not been possible to
review progress generally from the safety and health standpoints in the coal mines of the Federal Eepublic since 1939.
In the place of such a review the Federal Government has
furnished a series of memoranda on matters of particular
interest from these standpoints in the various phases of coalmine operation such as roof support, haulage, ventilation,
8

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dust prevention and suppression, and lighting, and also on
first-aid and rescue organisation. These memoranda are
reproduced below.
Light-Metal Face Supports in Steep and Semi-Steep Seams
Light-metal face supports were first tried out in steep and
semi-steep seams in 1949. The experiments proved the suitability of the light-metal props and caps manufactured by the
Ewald Wiemann engineering works at Bochum. The weight of
light-metal props approximates to that of wooden props. The
props are easy to put in and take out. TJp to the present
they have been used mainly in thin and medium seams, the
maximum thickness being 1.80 m. The number of faces of
steep and semi-steep faces equipped with light-metal props
and bars is, however, fairly small as yet. In 1951 only 3 to 4
per cent, of the total output from these faces came from faces
supported by light-metal props and wood bars, or by lightmetal props and bars.
The special requirements that light-metal supports in steep
and semi-steep seams must satisfy are :
(1) sufficient initial stability of the prop ;
(2) sufficient bearing capacity of the prop ;
(3) security against collapse of parts of the supports ;
(4) rough surface of the prop to protect the coal-getters
against the risk of slipping.
In order to make light-metal props in steep and semi-steep
seams sufficiently secure as soon as they have been set, the
yield load is calculated at between 2 and 3 tons. If the prop
is set directly in the floor, its base is shaped like a blunt
corne or, if timber lagging is used, is bowl-shaped. The head
of the prop is likewise adapted to the shape of the bars used,
being bowl-shaped when timber lagging is used, or ball-shaped
with a holding lug in the case of light-metal bars with a special
cross-section which holds the head of the prop and prevents it
from falling out. Occasionally, in semi-steep seams, the
ordinary prop heads are used in the same way as for steel and
light-metal bars in flat seams.
The bearing capacity of light-metal supports is adapted to
the ground pressure at faces of steep and semi-steep seams.
Light-metal props in semi-steep seams are designed for a

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105

normal load of about 25 tons and a breaking load of 40 tons,
and those in steep seams for a normal load of about 10 tons
and a breaking load of 20 tons. Experience so far has shown
that these props are strong enough.
The light-metal props used both in steep and semi-steep
seams consist of a tubular outer prop (prop base) and of an
inner prop composed of two half tubes. The prop lock is
constructed differently for steep and for semi-steep seams. In
the case of props used in steep seams the upper end of the
outer prop is shaped as a lock, and the frictional action of the
lock is obtained through a horizontal or, if a yielding wedge
is desired, through a tilted sliding wedge. For semi-steep
seams a locking arrangement with a horizontal cross-piece in
the outer frame of the lock and a tilted wedge working as a
yielding wedge is used in order to obtain greater friction.
The specially designed couplable light-metal bar for steep
seams has so far been little used. The increased danger to
face workers in semi-steep and steep seams with light-metal
supports, due to the slipperiness of the props, is to a great
extent overcome by roughening the surface of the props by
means of longitudinal grooves.
The use of light-metal supports at the faces of steep and
semi-steep seams makes it possible to reduce the very special
timbering requirements of these seams and to reduce timbering
costs correspondingly. The physical demands made upon the
face workers are about the same with timber and light-metal
supports, since there is no substantial difference in the weight
of the props. Since, however, in nearly all seams the waste
is packed, light-metal supports have the disadvantage, from
the safety point of view, that they must be withdrawn on the
packing side, so that the roof rests only on the packing which,
to begin with, has no, or very little, bearing capacity. The
additional support for the roof behind the pack face, afforded,
in the case of timber supports, by the wood prop left in the
packing, is therefore missing. Unless the light-metal supports
are replaced by timber supports on the packing side, lightmetal props should only be used under a good roof.
The conditions laid down, in connection with the plan of
operations, for the use of light-metal supports in steep and
semi-steep seams have been so far determined according to
the circumstances of each particular case ; there is not yet
sufficient experience to justify the framing of general directives.

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Trolley-Locomotive

Haulage

In the Buhr, main-road haulage is done at present by some
2,730 locomotives, of which 47 per cent, are of the trolley type.
From both an operational and an economic point of view
trolley locomotives are superior to other types, but their use
is limited by certain safety considerations, which introduce
complications in many places.
Their main disadvantages are :
(1) possibility of firedamp being ignited by a spark ;
(2) danger of fire from arcs and creep currents ;
(3) danger to human life from contact with the bare trolley
wire ;
(4) interference with shotfiring by stray currents.
Ignition of firedamp is caused primarily by the sparks
between the current collector and the trolley wire. Methods
by which these sparks can be avoided cannot be applied for
technical reasons. Trolley locomotives can, therefore, be used
only in roads in which there is no likelihood of firedamp
occurring, i.e., those in the intake ventilation.
The air velocity in trolley-locomotive roads must be at
least 1 m/sec. so as to sweep away any accumulations of firedamp. Further, the moment a firedamp content of more than
0.3 per cent, is reached, locomotive haulage must be stopped.
Any potholes in the road roof must be tightly packed, and the
roof and the sides to the height of the trolley wire must be
tightly lagged. Wherever the road encounters seams and
geological irregularities the supports must be specially strengthened. The wire may be laid only up to a distance of 50 m
from the last ventilation shaft to the upper level. Finally,
there must be no trolley haulage within the area affected by
the face workings.
A number of deflagrations of firedamp in recent years have
led, in the Buhr, to a uniform definition of the area affected
by the face workings, which is dangerous on account of emissions of firedamp, and which had previously been very variously
defined. I n t h e light of recent experience with the emission
of firedamp, a safety area has been fixed for trolley-haulage
roads of gassy mines in the Buhr, in which coal-getting is
prohibited while the trolley locomotives are working.

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This safety area is bounded by—
(1) a horizontal ceiling 50 m above the trolley-haulage road ;
(2) a horizontal floor 200 m below the trolley-haulage road ;
(3) two side surfaces, sloped 70° from the horizontal and not
less than 65 m from the trolley-haulage road ;
(4) a front surface sloped 70° from the horizontal, and not less
than 65 m from the end of the trolley wire.
Where coal-getting was done in the safety area previous to
the installation of the trolley haulage, such haulage may not
operate until the expiry of four months after the cessation of
coal-getting in the safety zone above the haulage road and six
months in the safety area below it.
Owing to the wide variations in the geological, seam and
firedamp conditions in the Ruhr, it is impossible, without
departing from the general principles governing the demarcation of safety zones, to define precisely the area affected by a
face-working in each individual case.
This is why safety zones and time limits for the operation
of trolley locomotives have been uniformly defined, and in
such a way that in most cases they will provide a sufficient
margin of protection against any considerable emission of
firedamp.
Danger of fire exists because coal dust or parts of road
timbering might be set alight by a protracted arc.
Further, faulty insulation of the trolley-wire suspension,
allowing current to run down into the rails, may give rise to
considerable creep current by which any easily inflammable
substance might be set alight, even though far away from the
faulty insulation. This danger can be avoided by properly
dimensioned and well installed trolley wires, suitably chosen
feed points, and properly fitted automatic circuit breakers.
To prevent fires due to arcs and sparks, the trolley-wire
system must be so installed that, should a short circuit occur
at any point between the wire and the rail, it will be cleared
at once by circuit breakers. In extensive trolley systems this
makes it necessary to have several feed points from which the
trolley wire can be disconnected by circuit breakers.
Wiring on the locomotives must also be protected from short
circuits by equipping them with quick-acting circuit breakers ;
fuses are not allowed as protection against short circuit in
this case.

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The locomotive wiring need not be protected against overloading if wire of a certain diameter is used and if the motors
are not overloaded when they reach their racing limit.
Air-foam extinguishers, of not less than 10-litre content,
must be carried on locomotives so that any fire breaking out
in the haulage road or on the locomotive can be rapidly and
effectively dealt with. Since, for operational reasons, air-foam
is not particularly suitable for fighting fire on the electrical
parts of the locomotive, a carbon-dioxide-snow or a dry
extinguisher should also be carried.
The fact t h a t the personnel can easily touch the bare
trolley wire constitutes a particularly serious danger. The
regulation minimum distance between the wire and the rail of
1.80 m means t h a t the full working voltage, which throughout
the Buhr is 220-250 volts, is within reach of anyone passing
or travelling under it.
The probability of a fatal result from contact with the wire
is so great because the rails act as the earthed pole and the
men in the road are in constant electrical connection with it
through the rails and a damp floor (tubs, pipes, etc.). Consequently, contact with the other pole in the wire sends
the current through the human body with, in many cases,
and particularly when resistance is weak (damp skin), fatal
results.
As a great proportion of the accidents due to contact with
the wire happened during man-riding, roofed passenger cars
have now been made compulsory wherever in the marshalling
and passenger stations the distance of the wire from the top
of the car is less than 1.20 m. The use of these cars renders
the equipment previously used to make the wire dead in these
stations unnecessary.
In order to clear the line of voltage quickly in case of
danger, either on the locomotive or in the roads, there must
be devices which, by overcurrent release (short-circuiting
devices) or by actuating road switches, make the line dead.
To lessen t h e risk of contact the wire must be hung on
porcelain or equivalent insulators and must be at least 400 mm
from any metal construction, piping and cables. The suspension or span wires must be insulated against the trolley wire.
There must be an insulated shoe at the end of the wire so that
if the locomotive overruns the terminus neither the supports
nor the ground will become live.

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So that the current can be switched off quickly by hand, there
must be a section isolating switch every 1,000 m and at all
junctions with branches longer than 100 m. The sections must
be so isolated that they cannot be bridged over by the current
collector of the locomotive.
Special safety precautions against accidental contact must
also be taken on the locomotive. I t must be possible to lower
and fasten the current collector from the driver's seat without
danger. All live parts of the collector, with the exception
of the bow must be so protected that no harm would result
even from accidental contact with them.
Stray currents are also a danger. Especially when the
rail bonding is bad, currents run through the ground to
other conductors such as pipes, cable armatures, etc., and
give rise to stray currents which might set off bridge
detonators owing to their slight resistance and so cause
shotfiring accidents.
By careful maintenance of the rail ends, which should be
welded wherever possible, and by frequent cross bonding of
the rails, stray currents can be kept so low that they present
no danger to detonators so long as these are not used in the
trolley road itself.
All fire, contact and stray-current risks could be avoided
if the usual type of current supply over one wire with the rail
as return were abandoned in favour of the system in use with
trolley buses, i.e., two insulated trolley wires each connected
to one pole of the source of current. Each locomotive would
thus have two separate current collectors fitted with contact
shoes instead of the usual bow. Dangerous creep and stray
currents cannot arise with this double-wire system, because
the second pole is insulated, and continuous copper wire is used
in the place of the steel rails with their bad bonding.
A risk of electrocution occurs only if a man comes into
contact with both wires simultaneously, which is highly improbable even by accident, if the wires are hung a considerable
distance apart. Simultaneous contact with the two wires
through tools carried on the shoulder would only cause a short
circuit and would not endanger the man's life.
Hitherto the adoption of the double-wire system has been
hindered by the difficulty of collecting current when the locomotive passes junctions and crossings, but this can be overcome by the use of the latest type of trolley-wire junction and

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

sliding-shoe current collector. Trials of various types have
been made in some of the Euhr mines and some are still
proceeding.
Recent Developments in Main Shaft

Signalling

Parallel with the improvement and increase of capacity of
winding equipment which have been achieved in recent years,
shaft electric signalling installations, which have supplanted
mechanical signalling in nearly all the main shafts of the Euhr,
have been further improved.
The electric signalling installations give acoustic signals
with gongs or buzzers and also horns as the signal receivers,
and with push-buttons or pull-switches as the signal desp a t c h e s . These are supplemented by optical signals with
illuminated signs. The signals are sent from the levels to the
bank and from there to the winding engine. The loss of time
thus entailed is avoided in most of the main man- and materialwinding shafts in the Euhr by the recently adopted " ready "
signalling equipment (Fertigsignalanlage).
With this the
signal can be given from each landing independently of the
others. The signals sound or appear in the winding-engine
room only when the signal is given from the last shaft landing.
When winding is frequently necessary from the intermediate
levels, so-called single-cage working is adopted, by which
signals can go directly from these levels to the winding-engine
room, by-passing the bank. The signalling equipment also
allows questioning signals to be sent from the bank to the
landings to ensure a clear understanding with the landings.
To serve their various purposes, modern signalling installations in main shafts are equipped with—
a single-stroke installation for special signalling in the case of
solitary passengers and material winding ;
an emergency signalling installation ;
a " ready " signalling installation (Fertigsignalanlage)
for
normal material winding and regular man-winding ;
a hand-operated pull-rope signal (Schachthammer) used when
work is going on in the shaft ;
an arrangement for switching over signalling systems for using
the ground level (Rasenhängebank) instead of the usual
shaft top (Hängebank) or for going over to single-cage
working ;

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GEBMANY (FED. BEP.)

Ill

a level-blocking device for blocking all signals from levels not
in use ;
a man-winding signal acknowledgement system for announcing
man winding and automatic switching over of the signalling
system for regular man-winding ;
an insulation controller for watching over the insulation conditions, with automatic switching off of the installation ;
a recording equipment for registering the times of the different
signals and the application and release of the brake, together with variations in winding speed throughout the wind;
a winding-engine locking device to prevent untimely departures of the cages from the landings ;
a current supply for the above-mentioned signalling installations ;
a telephone installation for oral communication between the
landings and the winding-engine room.
The signalling equipment is operated almost exclusively
by direct current. Alternating current is less suitable because
it does not always ensure that the single-stroke instruments
will give a clear signal and also because, owing to the parallel
connection required for the current, the signals may easily be
mutilated if there is any break of contact. Direct-current
installations are fed from accumulator batteries or dry rectifiers, in most cases, in buffer connection.
To avoid fault currents, the batteries or dry rectifiers may
not be connected galvanically with the three-phase current
system from which they are fed. These sources of current
may only be used to supply the signalling installation and may
not be connected to any other current-consuming apparatus.
The single-stroke instruments are connected in series so that
no mutilation of the signals is possible as a result of failure
of contact. The signalling device of the instrument is equipped
with a retarder so that signals cannot be given too rapidly
and any omission of a signal is prevented.
I n shafts with two winding installations, the signals from
the landings to the bank must also appear optically at the
bank. These light signals are so connected through relays
that they are extinguished automatically when the operating
signal is transmitted, when the brake lever is taken off or when
the " questioning " button (Rüchjracetaste) is pressed.
The emergency signal installation is so arranged t h a t the
signal is given directly to the winding-engine room. I t is given

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

by a horn because of the penetrating sound and, to prevent
any possibility of misunderstanding, horn signals are exclusively
reserved for emergency use within the range of the shaftsignalling installation.
To prevent operating signals from being given with emergency signalling appliances, relays with protracted action are
inserted in the emergency circuit, which keep the horn live for
at least five seconds if any emergency button is pressed.
The hand-operated pull-rope signal is a contact device which
can be worked from any depth by a pull-rope hanging in the
shaft down to the sump. Counterweights or springs balance
the weight of the rope. So that this signal cannot be used
mistakenly from the landings, it must be fitted so that the
rope is out of reach of the landings.
Signals from this device go directly to the winding-engine
room. By switching on the shaft button all other signalling
appliances that can send an operating signal to the winding
engineman are switched off.
The signal switching arrangements enable signals to be given
to the ground level, which is frequently used for material
winding, instead of to the usual top landing. In addition,
they make single-cage working possible in such a way that the
operating signals from the landings can go directly to the
winding-engine room, by-passing the top landing. Since, with
the traction-sheave drive almost universally in use in the
Buhr, material- and man-winding can only be done from
intermediate landings by single-compartment working, the
entry of any persons into the counterweight cage at the bank
or at pit-bottom must be prevented in this system of working.
For this purpose there are luminous panels directly over the
shaft-doors which warn against entering the cage.
The level blocking device is to prevent simultaneous signalling
from different landings where there are several landings. The
level is blocked by a hand-operated level switch or by level
switchgear driven from the depth-indicator shaft which,
according to the position of the cages, only connects the
landings at which the cages are standing. Particularly where
there is man-winding with traction-sheave and non-adjustable drum winding, the use of the hand-operated level
switch can lead to misunderstandings, and hence its installation is not permissible where there is more than one
intermediate level.

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The " ready " signal installation allows of quick signalling
since its signalling devices can be operated independently one
of the other. The saving in time which this installation makes
possible is particularly noticeable when, at the bank or the
landings, cages are being loaded simultaneously from auxiliary
platforms or pits (Keller).
The signalling devices of this installation are connected up
in series. They are either automatically kept switched on by
electro-magnetic means or they excite self-switching relays,
all of which are made dead and put out of action by an
extinguishing contact on the brake lever, which acts when
the brake is taken off, i.e., whenever winding begins.
The " ready " signal is given in the winding-engine room
acoustically by a buzzer and also optically by a light signal.
Should a " ready " signal be given or continued after the start
of winding or a ready-signal relay does not drop out, the emergency signal must be given. If all " ready " signalling devices
have not been operated and for any reason an emergency
signal is given, the winding engine may be started prematurely.
It is therefore essential that all " ready " signalling devices
should be out of action when the emergency circuit is switched
on.
The man-winding signal acknowledgement system is used
for automatically switching the whole installation over from
material- to man-winding procedure. I t consists of a manwinding announcement switch on the bank which operates a
buzzer in the winding-engine room and switches off the " ready"
signals and the " material-winding " light signals. Thereupon
the winding engineman closes an acknowledgement switch
which cuts out the buzzer and illuminates a " man-winding "
panel at all landings. This switch is interlocked, mechanically
or electrically, with the switch-over device of the speed
controller, the switches of the man-winding " ready " signalling
installation and the locking device on the winding machine,
so that by the one switching operation the entire installation
is switched over to man-winding procedure. If auxiliary
platforms are used for man-winding, then the platform
signalling devices, which are by-passed in normal working,
are set ready for operation.
The winding-engine locking device serves as a reliable means
of preventing accidents due to untimely entering or leaving
the cage, premature departure of the cage or incorrect or

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

wrongly-timed signals. Nearly all main shafts in the Euhr
which are used for man-winding have been equipped with this
device within the last few years. I t works so that an electromagnetic device locks the brake lever of the winding engine
in the " on " position so long as a shaft gate remains open.
In order not to hinder material-winding, the locking device
is so arranged that it works only in the case of man-winding.
There are lights on all shaft gates which indicate that the brake
lever is locked and that the cage may be entered without
danger. So t h a t the onsetters and persons travelling alone can
protect themselves against untimely departure of the cage, at
all landings there are locking switches by which the locking
device can be operated.
Illuminated panels in the winding-engine room continuously indicate whether the brake lever is free or locked. The
device is so wired that, should a shaft gate be opened when
the brake is not on, the emergency signal is given automatically. Contacts actuated by mechanical devices on the gates
serve to lock the brake-lever magnets. Becently, for this
purpose, a magnetic switch has been devised by which a permanent magnet on the gate operates the switch. This system
allows of the fitting of the locking device on older shaft gates,
to which it would be difficult to fit mechanical contacts.
The recording equipment which registers, in synchronisation
with the changing speeds of the winding engine, the various
signals in the single-stroke and " ready " signal circuits, the
release and application of the brake and the opening and
closing of the various switches, has proved useful in investigations into the causes of accidents and delays in winding, and
in recording irregularities in signalling.
The rapid succession of signals makes heavy demands on
the recording system. The signal scribers which are in the
form of time scribers, have up to 12 small marker relays which
guide the scriber resting on the measuring strip according as
the current is switched on or off. The ink scribers used formerly have been replaced lately by an inkless system which
gives a more exact record and requires less attention.
The insulation controller keeps a continuous watch over the
insulation conditions such as is necessary to ensure constant
and reliable transmission of signals ; when insulation falls
below a given value it automatically indicates this and switches
off the signalling installation.

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The permissible insulation value depends on the minimum
actuating current of the most delicate appliances. With the
relays in use today it is fixed at about 250 ohms/volt. Since, if
the voltage drops, the various appliances do not work reliably,
a voltage controller is also incorporated in the insulation controller, and it switches off the signalling equipment if the
rated voltage drops 10 per cent.
The faultless working of a number of electromagnetic
appliances connected in series (single-stroke instruments,
relays, a " ready " signalling device with holding coil) can
only be ensured when they have identical sensitivity to both
increase and decrease of current, and are mutually adjusted in
both electrical and mechanical respects. Accordingly, appliances of this kind which are connected to a common circuit
must all be of the same type of construction.
The signalling installation is based on the principle that
operating signals are given only acoustically. Optical signals
with illuminated signs are used only to indicate the state of
operations and, in a few cases, also to supplement the acoustic
signals. Indication of the state of operations serves, for
instance, to show material- or man-winding, the levels which
are switched in, the shaft pull-rope signal, the auxiliary platforms which are ready for operation and the switching on of
locking devices.
For the telephone installation, only local battery appliances
with magneto call are used, as only with these appliances can
calls be made at any time from any landing. Further, only
with these appliances can all interference with the other
signalling installations be avoided with certainty.
Main-shaft signalling installations with the abovementioned equipment have proved operationally safe over a
number of years.
The interdependent wiring system has rendered them
so fool-proof that accidents due to faulty operation have been
made almost impossible.
Shotfiring in the Driving of Roads with tyhe Use of
Blast Walls and Mist Zones
The erection of blast walls has not yet been made compulsory because experience of their efficiency must first be
accumulated. Were they constructed, they would facilitate

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shotfiring, particularly with regard to the use of shotfiring
method No. 1 (high explosives for rock with short-delay
detonators) and method No. 2 (permitted explosives of class 1
and short-delay detonators) even in the case of workings with
an increased gas risk. 1
Method No. 1, however, may only be used in pure rock
working even though shotfiring is done behind a blast wall.
Should coal occur, even only in thin bands, method No. 1
cannot be further used in the Dortmund Mining Division. The
Divisional Office persists in this requirement to prevent any
watering down of the term " pure rock ", and hecause Dr. Beyling
has found that even small quantities of coal dust cause an
explosion with the use of high explosives for rock.
Even when shotfiring behind a blast wall, the creation of
a mist zone, for quickly laying the explosives' fumes and
binding the fine dusts raised by the firing, is compulsory.
This mist zone should be, as a rule, 25 to 35 m long, and within
it an adequate quantity of water should be atomised. In
addition to these precautions, the erection of main rock-dust
barriers behind the blast wall is required, so as to arrest any
incipient explosion.
In the Euhr mines, when there is an increased gas risk, the
conditions under which firing method No. 1 (short-delay
detonators and rock explosives) may be used, generally in
pure rock workings, and firing method No. 2 (short-delay
detonators and permitted explosives) in rock workings with
adjacent coal, in adjacent rock, in waste rock and in the coal,
are as follows :
1

An increased gas risk is deemed to exist :
(a) when approaching recognised gas carriers and penetrating them (up to three
lifts behind them) ;
( b) when approaching old workings or coal islands (particularly in the vicinity
of boundaries) ;
(c) in workings in which the total release of gas at the face and in roads up to
30 m behind it is so high that accumulations of firedamp can only be avoided
by special measures (additional movable air ducts, etc.) ;
(d) in workings where the air has a firedamp content of more than 0.5 % ;
(e) in workings with no through ventilation when they lie within the area affected
by a face working. This area is, in this case, to be limited as follows :
(i) by a horizontal ceiling, 200 m vertically above the upper edge of the face .
(ii) by side surfaces, inclined 60° from the horizontal, and not less than 50 m
from the edges of the face ;
(iii) by a floor surface, parallel to that of the face at a vertical distance of 50 m
below it.

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Construction of a Blast Wall.

1. The working place must be sealed off from the rest of
the workings by a blast wall, consisting of a wall or a concreteblock stopping arched towards the working place, at least 1 m
thick, and well fitted in the solid rock. Any bricks used must
have a strength of at least 150 kg/cm 2 . The passage for the
haulage must only be single track, and it must be possible to
close it by an iron door fixed on the unprotected side, at least
20 mm thick or reinforced by welded ribs and closed by screws
or lever clamps. When this door is closed its outer edge must
press against the blast wall, and to make this possible the
haulage track must have a removable length.
2. I t must be possible to block the ventilation duct
running through the blast wall by an iron damper, at least
20 mm thick on the unprotected side, t h a t can be operated
from the protected side. It must not be operated by a rope
led through the wall. A lockable flap must be let into the
sheet-iron wall of the duct on the protected side of the blast
wall so that when the wall door is closed the section of the
road in front of the wall can be ventilated. Furthermore, by
means of a nozzle which can be closed and a pipe which projects
into the duct, it must be possible to take air samples when the
flap is closed.
3. There must be a breather pipe that can be closed by
a valve on the protected side of the wall, and any passage for
the gutter must be piped and also provided with a stop valve
on the unprotected side. The other openings, e.g., for pipes for
compressed air and water under pressure, must likewise have
stop valves fitted on the protected side not more than 50 m
from the wall. All openings in the wall, even, for example, those
for the shotfiring leads, must be as tightly packed as possible.
4. The distance of the blast wall from the working place
must be at least 50 m and must not exceed 500 m.
5. In every firing place in front of the blast wall there
must be posted and kept up to date a durable scale section of
the strata to be penetrated, showing the thicknesses.
It should be noted that when drilling or cutting approaches
to coal or old workings, rock explosives are to be taken out
of use at once. Any further lifts before reaching the coal or
old workings, as also the first lift after their complete penetration, must only be taken down by firing method 2¡To. 2.

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118
II.

Stone-Bust Barriers and Stone

Busting.

1. The working place, as a preparatory or development
working, is to be isolated on the protected side of the blast
wall from the other workings by main barriers. Furthermore,
a light barrier, of 100 kg stone dust per square metre road
cross-section (movable barrier) must be constructed between
the blast wall and the working place at a distance of not less
than 75 m but not more than 150 m from the working place.
The minimum distance may only fall short of the prescribed
75 m when the distance between the blast wall and the working place is less.
2. Particular importance attaches to stone dusting when
there is coal dust present.
III.

Ventilation and Mist Projectors.

1. The working piace must be continuously supplied with
at least 60 m 3 /min. of fresh air. Ventilation must be by an
exhaust air duct of at least 500 mm diameter and a movable
blower pipe of a minimum length of 15 m.
2. To lay the stone dust—and if need be the coal dust—
raised at the face by the shotfiring and to disperse the explosives' fumes, several mist projectors must be installed at an
appropriate distance from the face over a road length of at
least 25 m. They must be operated by water alone or by
water and compressed air together, and produce a mist of
sufficient density to make objects difficult to distinguish at
1.5 m.
3. Several mist projectors working in the direction of the
flow of air and operated by water and compressed air must be
set in the exhaust air duct at an appropriate distance from the
face. Also, at a somewhat greater distance from the face,
there must be several similar projectors but operated by water
only.
IV.

Shotfiring.

1. Where approach to coal or an old working is likely, a
borehole at least 1 m longer than the thickness of the lift must be
kept in the face. The borehole must be so drilled that it penetrates
as many strata as possible. The use of shotfiring method ]STo. 1
is not permissible when coal or old workings are being bored
into or approached. Eock explosives are to be removed from

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119

the working place immediately. Further lifts before reaching
the coal or the old working, as also the first lift after their
complete penetration, must only be taken down by firing
method No. 2.
2. The pattern for shotfiring is to be determined, according to local conditions, by the foreman shotfirer. Each lift
should be brought down with a single round, but the number
of simultaneous shots may not exceed 50. Should a greater
number of simultaneous shots appear necessary, an 80-shot
exploder must be used, for which, however, special permission
must be obtained from the Divisional Mining Office in accordance with the regulations regarding mine shotfiring equipment.
3. The length of the lift may not exceed 3 m.
4. Shotfiring must cease at once if the air samples provided for under V 2 or other means, e.g., the inspections
under V 1, show a CH 4 content of 1 or more per cent. I t
may only be resumed by the order of the manager. The same
applies when, as a result of striking blowers or penetrating
geological disturbances, an increased emission of firedamp may
be expected.
5. , Shotfiring may only be done by shotfirers who have
successfully taken the shotfiring course of the Westphalian
Mining Industry Association and are specially registered for
shotfiring with a blast wall by the Mining Office.
6. Tiring may take place only from the protected side of
the blast wall and only after everyone has withdrawn behind
the wall and all the openings through it have been closed.
The ventilation of the face by the blower pipe must be stopped
and the mist projectors turned on before firing. When closing
the wall, the ventilation duct must be closed last and then the
ventilation flap opened.
7. Not until all the measures laid down in IV 6 have been
carried out may the firing lead be connected to the exploder
and the shots fired.
8. After firing, the shotfirer must make certain that no
ignition of coal and no explosion has taken place, by taking
and examining air samples from the air duct, first with the
flap closed and then with the damper only partly opened.
9. If, after firing, the air tests laid down in IV 8 afford
no evidence of an explosion or fire and there is no other sign
of such, then normal ventilation should be resumed by opening
9

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

the air-duct damper fully, opening the breather pipe and then
the wall door. When the prescribed waiting period has expired
the shotfirer must examine the working place and, if he finds
nothing wrong, release the place for the resumption of work.
10. Should there be any sign of an explosion or fire after
firing, the nearest available supervisor and the manager must
be informed at once. The wall must remain closed until the
competent supervisor or the manager gives further directions.
V.

Supervision

Ventilation.

1. At the beginning of each shift the shift overman must
examine the heading from the face to 10 m back, by means of
a safety lamp with a salt stick, for accumulations of firedamp.
Particular watch must be kept for potholes in the roof and
cracks caused by neighbouring workings.
2. At the working place, fortnightly air samples are to
be taken ; they must be chemically analysed for firedamp, and
the result entered in the ventilation register and reported to
the Mining Office without delay.
VI.

Supervision.

1. Shotfiring must be specially supervised by the foreman
shotfirer (Schiesssteiger), whose sole duty must be supervision
of the handling of explosives and shotfiring.
2. Before the commencement of shotfiring, the foreman
shotfirer has t o give those charged with the drilling of the
shotholes and the firing of the shots detailed instructions in
accordance with the provisions of the firing permit. He may
only allow firing to take place without his supervision if he
has satisfied himself that it will be carried out satisfactorily
in every way, and that the ventilation foreman (Wettersteiger)
has assured him that the proper instructions have been given
to the shotfirer s under VI 3.
3. The ventilation foreman is responsible for the correct
and adequate instruction of the shotfirers in the taking of air
samples and their investigation for carbon monoxide content,
as prescribed under IV 8.
4. The foreman shotfirer and the ventilation foreman are
together responsible for the proper preparation of the blast
wall for shotfiring, in accordance with the terms of the firing
permit, and the distance from the firing point as laid

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121

down under I 4. Besponsibility for the maintenance of
the arrangements made and the keeping up to date of the
section provided for under I 5, lies with the shift overman.
VII.

Miscellaneous.

1. The Divisional Mining Office is to be informed in
writing of any explosions or fires or other irregularities resulting
from, or connected with, shotfiring, unless an immediate report
has to be made to the Office.
2. The shotfiring permit comes into force only when the
Divisional Mining Office has approved the first blast wall and
the arrangements connected therewith and has raised no
objection.

I t may be pointed out that so far such blast walls have
been constructed almost exclusively in cross-cuts and main
roads in the seam. Altogether, 31 blast walls have been
constructed, as follows :
in main roads
11
in district cross-cuts
17
in face cross-cuts
2
to seal off a raise
1
~31
The Dortmund Division has no special experience of the
effectiveness of blast walls. So far there have been no explosions behind these walls.
The construction of mist zones without the simultaneous
construction of a blast wall has already been undertaken to a
considerable extent in the Dortmund Division, and is prescribed
almost everywhere for the driving of cross-cuts and main roads
and the sinking of drop pits. I t has been found that a rapid
laying of the explosives' fumes and a binding of up to 80 per
cent, of the fine dust liberated by shotfiring have been achieved
by the construction of mist zones. And in addition to this,
tests at the experimental mine Tremonia have shown that
the construction of mist zones affords advantages from the
safety point of view.
The question whether, and to what extent, the erection of
mist zones is practical in face and seam workings is being

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

investigated at the moment. No considerable relaxations of
the general regulations concerning shotfiring and the construction of mist zones have been allowed.
Downward

Ventilation

In principle, ventilation should not be downwards except
in downcast main shafts or a few other exceptional cases. Thus
the air current must be led through an enclosed space down to
the lowest point of the mine workings, and then rise in a number
of separate unconnected branch currents until it arrives by
way of an upper level as return air at the upcast shaft.
Hitherto the usual arguments for this ascensional ventilation have been as follows :
1. Firedamp, which is one of the main factors to be
considered in ventilation, has a lower specific gravity than air
and therefore tends to rise in it. Ascensional ventilation is
adapted to this tendency of firedamp and consequently the
likelihood of dangerous accumulations of this gas is lessened.
2. By being warmed the mine air is given an upward
impulse which, it is thought, can be best utilised when warming
occurs in the ascending parts of the airway.
3. With downward ventilation there is the fear that, in
case of a fan breakdown or a mine fire, the ventilation may be
reversed.
4. With present winding methods, downward ventilation
may make it necessary in some circumstances to connect the
main fan with the winding shaft. The air locks necessary for
this, however, axe always a hindrance to winding.
Eecently these arguments for upward ventilation have been
partially countered or contested. In particular, it is said that
downward ventilation is better for very deep mines and at
high temperatures. This, however, has not yet been proved
conclusively. Consequently we can only review the main arguments here without deciding for one side or the other.
In the first place, the flow of air in the mine workings—
apart from slow movements in the fissures and clefts—is turbulent. Consequently with downward ventilation any rising
methane would quickly mix with the air. As a subsequent
separation is impossible, the latest opinion is that the danger
of firedamp accumulations is probably no greater with downward ventilation than with upward.

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123

In the second place, as will be shown later, the air is probably warmed more with downward ventilation, and as the
air reaches its highest temperature at the lowest point in the
mine, i.e., on reaching the upcast shaft, its upward impulse,
as has been maintained recently, is correspondingly greater,
The contradiction between this and the opinion mentioned
above with regard to the dependence of the upward impulse
on the ventilation appears to arise from an uncertainty as to
certain physical laws.
The two arguments quoted under 3 and 4 for upward ventilation have so far not been settled or closely examined.
The greatest advantages of downward ventilation are seen
in its effect on the mine climate and the dust conditions.
The fresh air reaches the face area over the upper, i.e.,
cooler, levels and therefore enters the face at a low temperature; further, the cross-section of the upper levels may be
smaller, and consequently the air velocity is increased and
heat absorption diminished.
As the whole transmission of heat between the downcast
and upcast shafts is contrary to the direction of airflow, the
air will probably absorb a maximum amount of heat and carry
it away. In so doing it does not reach its highest temperature
until after it has left the face. The transmission of heat in the
lower levels can also be increased by the greater cross-section
needed for haulage. Thus, it may well be unnecessary for
some time to cool newly driven levels by a special air current
before they are put into operation, in spite of the higher ground
temperature. They are cooled, in fact, by the normal air
current without adverse effects on the workings above.
The unwelcome transmission of heat from the material
being conveyed to the air would probably diminish with downward ventilation as a result of the lower relative velocity—air
and haulage follow the same direction—besides which the face
workers only have to put up with the relatively small amount
of heat which the material conveyed has already transmitted
to the air further up the face.
Against these presumed advantages of downward ventilation for the mine climate is the disadvantage that the atmospheric conditions in face workings in the lower level are
usually expected to be unfavourable. ÏTot only haulage, but
also preparation and development work, have to be done in
the highest temperature and greatest humidity in the mine,

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

which not only impedes production, but also increases corrosion of haulage installations, etc. These conditions can be
mitigated, however, by a special fresh air supply.
I t may be presumed that the effect of downward ventilation on dust conditions would be similar to that on the mine
climate. As the intake air does not anywhere reach the haulage system, and in particular does not sweep the loading
points, it can arrive at the face almost free of dust. I t may
also be presumed that, owing to the air current and the haulage
being in the same direction, less dust, in so far as it is due to
haulage, develops at the face and at the ends of the haulage
roads.
Then, too, it may also be presumed that ignitions of firedamp at the face are less likely to cause explosions of the coal
dust, for generally ignitions of firedamp are propagated in
the fresh air current. But, as explained above, there will be
very little or no coal dust present in this case.
While with downward ventilation the face workers are less
handicapped and less exposed to risk on account of dust, those
in the haulage roads and the gate roads would be exposed to
greater risk. Special measures would probably have to be
taken for their protection, and greater attention paid to
removal of deposits of coal dust in the haulage roads.
Theories as to the effects of a change from upward
to downward ventilation must be examined in all their
aspects, for only then can the respective advantages and
disadvantages be properly weighed. For instance, before
the adoption of downward ventilation it would have to be
decided whether greater use than hitherto could be made of
electrical equipment in the return air current ; otherwise it
would be necessary to convert many haulage drives from electricity to compressed air.
I t is imperative that these problems should be solved soon,
since, with the present tendency towards greater depths, every
possibility for the improvement of the atmospheric conditions
must be seized.
Eecently downward ventilation was authorised at a face
with a 15° dip in a mine in the Aachen district. Experience so far shows that the atmospheric conditions at this
face have been very considerably improved as compared with
those under upward ventilation.

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Precautions against Mine Fires
Prevention of Mine

Fires.

The fact that, in the year 1950, 42 large mine fires were
reported in the Ruhr is evidence of the great importance
attaching to measures for preventing and fighting mine fires.
A very great majority of fires originate in the spontaneous
combustion of the coal left in the waste and in the neighbourhood of faults. The overriding principle is therefore as
complete as possible extraction of the coal and avoidance
wherever possible of the formation of islands and tongues of
coal during coal-getting. I n view of the increased risk of
spontaneous combustion in thick semi-steep and steep seams,
particular care should be taken here to observe this principle.
In cases where complete extraction of the coal is not possible
stray air currents must be prevented in all circumstances from
making their way through the packing. As a rule this is
achieved by erecting below the upper gate road but wherever
possible above the lower gate road, a tight barrier of sand or
other finely granulated material, which must be continually
extended, inspected and if necessary repaired. For this purpose stone dust such as is used on stone-dust barriers has
proved to be the best. In steep seams remaining coal can be
effectively sealed from the air by hydraulic stowing of finely
granulated material.
It is important for the avoidance of seam fires caused by
spontaneous combustion of the coal that after termination of
coal-getting the robbing of timber should be begun as soon as
possible and carried out with the greatest despatch. Owing to
the enforced reduction of the ventilation during the robbing
and caving of the face workings there is always a risk of spontaneous combustion. Finally, after robbing, the roads should
be tightly packed or pneumatically stowed over a sufficient
length with finely granulated material and sealed off with a
tight stopping of masonry or wood logs and clay. The seal
can only be made really tight if the space between the stopping
and the packing is filled by forcing in a mixture of stone dust
and cement in the form of mud.
In cases in which spontaneous combustion of the coal must
be reckoned with, more and more mine managements are
investigating the carbon monoxide content of the return air
by taking air samples or by using carbon monoxide detectors.

126

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

This applies specially to the robbing of face workings and gate
roads and also to cases in which large masses of coal fall, since
this coal exposes particularly large surfaces to the action of
the oxygen in the air, and for this reason may easily ignite.
A not inconsiderable number of fires are always occurring
on rubber-belt conveyors. Very special attention is devoted
to the elimination of this risk by the coal-mine managements
and the mining authorities. In the Ruhr so many rubber-belt
conveyors are used for transporting the coal and sometimes
also for transporting dead rock that their complete replacement
by other means of transport such as articulated steel belts,
fire-retardant rubber belts or Hörstermann belts is not possible
or at least only possible over a long period. Fire-retardant
belts that have lately come on to the market and to whose
improvement efforts are constantly being directed enjoy
increasing popularity. Lately the Hörstermann belt has also
found acceptance ; it was first installed in the Sachsen mine in
Heessen near Hamm in Westphalia and then in a number of
other mines and always with very good results from the economic and safety standpoints. This experience has been
comprehensively discussed by Mandvert in the mining journal
Glückauf.1 I t is a suspended belt which is a combination of
a rubber belt and a link chain. The belt carries the material
while the chain, which runs under the centre of the belt and
is equipped with bearing plates and high-friction facing, supports the belt and carries it along by friction. Thus the driving
unit does not move the belt but the chain, by means of a chain
wheel. Since the belt is not under tension or at least not
under any tension to speak of, the Hörstermann belt is exempt
from the greatest risk of an outbreak of fire at the driving unit.
For the installation and operation of ordinary rubber-belt
conveyors, the mining authorities have issued special regulations. They lay down requirements concerning adequate road
cross-section, the anchorage of the belts, adequate possibilities
of supervision and constant supervision and cleaning. To
prevent the outbreak of fire on rubber-belt conveyors by
sudden inadvertent seizing and stopping of the belt while the
drive is still running, the driving unit must wherever possible
be provided with automatic stopping devices (belt-operated
trips) or automatic extinguishing equipment (sprinklers).
1

1952, No. 3/4, p p . 62-65.

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127

For the prevention of mine fires due to other causes—
staple pit transport, other forms of transport, electricity,
work with flame cutters, welding appliances and blow lamps,
flammable liquids, lubricants and cleaning materials—there
are mining regulations, but they have no particularly noteworthy features.
Measures against the Propagation of Mine

Fires.

The measures here in question are chiefly concerned with
the fireproof construction of certain places in the mine and the
provision of fireproof zones. For example, staple pits, brake
and rope-pulley chambers with their fittings, all machine rooms,
locomotive sheds, workshops and similar rooms must be built
of incombustible material. In long main roads and crossmeasure drifts, fireproof zones at least 75 m in length must
be installed for the protection of the various mine districts
against fire.
Of interest in this connection are the results of experiments
on the combustibility of salt-encrusted timbering which have
been carried out at the experimental mine Tremonia at Dortmund. While the salt method of binding coal dust was being
tried out the question arose whether by giving the timbering
a crust of salt the combustibility of the timber might not be
reduced and even fireproof zones created. At first, pit props
1.25 m in length and 14 cm in diameter were encrusted with
salt to a thickness of 7 mm and exposed to the radiant heat of
an incandescent brazier. At 500° C. the salt crust split off
in places after one minute ; the prop immediately caught fire
at the exposed places. At temperatures of about 350° C. the
salt crust lasted for seven minutes and then split off, but considerably more slowly. For testing in operational conditions
ten salt-encrusted timber sets with salt-encrusted timber
lagging were set alight in the fire galleries of the experimental
mine by the burning of six untreated sets with timber lagging.
Continuous temperature measurement showed that in the neighbourhood of the original fire in the untreated timber the
temperature rose to over 900° C , while in the neighbourhood
of the salt-encrusted timber it did not exceed 600° C. Further
observation of the fire showed that the salt-encrusted timbering
burst into flame much more slowly than the untreated timbering. Thus, the salt crust on timber supports delays their

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

ignition and lowers the temperature of the fire. However, if
the original fire is very violent, the fire-retardant effect of the
salt crust is greatly reduced.
Preparatory Measures for Fighting Mine Fires
In order to be able to fight mine fires quickly and successfully once they have broken out, the necessary material and
appliances for extinguishing and sealing off fires are kept in
sufficient quantity and readily accessible. Further, thorough
technical arrangements have been made to make effective
fire fighting possible. What has repeatedly been found important and indeed indispensable is the equipment of the mine
workings with water mains which, at as frequent intervals as
possible, must have standardised connections for compressedair piping. The cross-section of the piping must be so large
that at any time and at any point of the water-piping network,
a quantity of water equal to at least 400 litres per minute at
a pressure of at least 1.5 ats. gauge can be drawn off. Among
the essential requirements for mine-fire fighting are the maintenance in readiness of sufficient quantities of stone dust for
smothering mine fires, kept in suitable containers at as many
places as possible in the mine but especially in the conveyor
roads, and the provision and proper distribution of large numbers of portable fire extinguishers over the whole mine, and
more especially in places with a special fire risk and places
with electrical installations.
On every main haulage level there is a fire station in the
vicinity of the main shaft. In this are kept sufficient quantities
of the necessary equipment for fire fighting—tools, broaching
devices for water mains, hoses, lances, couplings, demolition
hooks and mine fire extinguishers. Usually there are also
smaller fire stations in the different districts of the mine. As
a rule in the fire stations or in their vicinity there are also fire
trucks with the necessary equipment for fire fighting.
I n this account it has only been possible to mention the
most important measures which in the light of the latest
knowledge and experience are essential for fire protection
underground in the hard-coal mines of the Euhr. For supervision over all fire protection measures and equipment and
also for the training of the fire brigades that are formed in

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129

every active mine district, all the Euhr mines have appointed
supervisors (fire foremen) who are specially responsible for
this type of work and are trained in courses given at the
central rescue station at Essen.
Coal Winning at Longwall Faces in Conjunction
with Water Infusion
Dust formation in face workings has assumed such proportions in recent years as a result of progressive concentration
and mechanisation, that impairment of safety, injuries to
health and lowered productivity have been the inevitable
results. Por these reasons it has been necessary to take
measures either to prevent or reduce the liberation of dust, or
to suppress dust that had already been liberated.
After the efforts made to fight dust in haulage through
careful handling and wetting of coal, and in stowing through
wetting the stowing material, had already proved partly
successful, a first attempt was made in the Aachen district
in 1949 to reduce the liberation of dust by infusing t h e coal
face with water at the time of coal-getting. This water infusion method has been known of for several decades and much
has been written about it. 1 There is no need, therefore, to go
into greater detail here.
After the first trials with water infusion in the hard-coal
mines of the Aachen district had proved successful, an attempt
was made to apply it on the largest possible scale. Lack of
equipment, however, particularly of the necessary piping,
proved a difficulty.
In June 1952, 23 of the 115 coal faces in the Aachen district
were using water infusion. At the same time 3,740 m of
infusion piping were installed for 15,000 m of coal face.
When considering these figures, it should be borne in
mind that a large number of faces do not permit of infusion.
At more than 20 small faces in steep seams, for instance,
infusion had to be rejected because of the danger of t h e coal
bursting out. At several other faces it was prohibited because
of its injurious effect on the adjacent rocks or was impracticable owing to geological disturbances. Lastly, at a number
1
Cf. PEITZSCHE in Glückauf, 1948, p. 443 ; ROLSHOVEN-HEITMANN in
1949, p . 179 ; THOMAE in Bergbau-Rundschau,
1951, p . 107.

Glückauf,

130

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

of faces infusion is superfluous, since there is adequate natural
moisture to prevent the liberation of dust.
When water infusion was introduced in the Aachen district
the Silicosis Besearch Institute of the Mining Industry Mutual
Accident Insurance Association made a number of measurements with a view to assessing the effectiveness of this process
in the fight against dust.
At various working places, and as far as possible under
identical conditions, the coarse and fine dust content of the
atmosphere before and after infusion of the coal face was
determined by means of tyndallometer measurements, and
konimeter samples for the purpose of ascertaining the mineralogical composition of the dust were taken. The most important results of these investigations are set out in table X
below ; only t h e tests made near the top of the coal face
TABLE X. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OP
O p e r a t i n g conditions

Before
Method of
getting

Method of
stowing

Air
velocity
m /min.

Total
dust
content
mg/m"

Pneumatic
pick

SoHd
packing

34.0

301.0

0.60
1.10-1.30

80
190

»»
»

»
Pneumatic
stowing

15.0
100.0

104.0
225.0

1.00

220

Coal
planer

45.0

111.3

Mine

Seam

Dip
0

Thickness
m

Gouley

Fürth

1.10

Anna I

Ley
D

65
8-10

5-8

Length
oí face
m

104.0
Maria-H

12-23

1.60-1.65

110

75-90

1.20-1.60

E
E
E
E
E

0121.6
8-35
8-30
28
20-75

1.75
1.68
1.63
1.95

150
150
178
183

E
E

35
38-45

1.72
1.65-1.85

185
140

Pneumatic
pick
»

95
1Í

Dummy
drift
SoHd
packing
Dummy
drift

28.0

285.0

25.0

355.0

36.0

247.0

255.0
36.9

247.0
480.0
425.5
90.3

80.0
24.8

139.4
167.3

Ï»

Solid
packing
Caving
Solid
packing

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. BEP.)

131

are taken into account, since they most readily lead to
conclusions.
The first seven columns of the table give information on
general operating conditions. On the right, there are shown
in two groups, the air velocity, the operations in progress and
the dust figures at the moment of measuring, before and after
infusion.
The " total dust " content (mg/m 3 ) of the atmosphere is
taken for determining the nuisance value of dust for miners.
The risk of silicosis is determined according to the quantity
of fine dust (mg/m 3 ) and stone dust, or even better on the
basis of the risk indices worked out by the Silicosis Eesearch
Institute.
The " risk index " is the product of the " konimeter sample
figure " and the volume of fine dust, divided by ten. The
GERMANY : I N V E S T I G A T I O N R E S U L T S
Alter infusion

infusion
Total
dust
content
mg/m'

Fine
dust
mg/m*

Rock
dust

32.7

89.4

46.4

»»

15.0
51.0

25.0
83.7

Planer
ascending
Planer
descending
Getting

37.0

Fine
dust
mg/m»

Rock
dust

Risk
index

Operations
in
progress

Air
velocity
m/min.

165.5

21.0

210.0

Getting

65.0
132.5

19.5
19.0

74.0
146.0

70.2

14.5

66.7

62.8

22.5

92.4

102.0

22.5

147.0

239.0

13.0

196.0

184.5

28.0

247.5

185.2
350.0
264.3
68.6

10.0
18.0
26.0
14.0

126.0
385.0
388.0
52.9

98.5
117.0

14.0
13.0

94.6
102.0

Getting and
stowing

Getting
Getting and
timbering
Getting
Getting and
timbering

Risk
index

Operations
in
progress

49.0

Getting

18.7
54.8

17
14

18.0
47.0

53.4

41.3

51.7

50.6

39.4

51.2

25.0

45.9

34.9

23.7

30.0

67.3

50.0

26.0

23.0

116.0

89.3

148.0

Getting and
stowing

215.0
36.9

145.0
139.6
163.6
51.7

110.0
105.2
96.4
40.9

14
17
18
13

93.5
113.5
108.0
25.7

Getting

80.0
77.0

54.9
108.0

37.5
75.0

17
14

40.9
63.0

Planer
ascending
Planer
descending
Getting

132

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

konimeter sample figure is the sum of the percentage contents
of the various minerals contained in the dust as found by
analysing the konimeter samples, multiplied by the appropriate
" mineral factors " corresponding to the degree of silicosis
risk. In the opinion of the Silicosis Research Institute dust
conditions where the risk indices are under 50 should be aimed
at. Where the risk indices range between 50 and 100, anti-dust
measures are desirable, and are absolutely essential if the
indices exceed 100.
The results of the investigations set out in the table show
that, at all faces where it was tried out, water infusion resulted
in a considerable improvement in the dust conditions. By
reducing the total dust in the air current from an average of
234.5 mg/m 3 to an average of 92.4 mg/m 3 , or by approximately
60 per cent., the dust nuisance for miners and the danger of
coal-dust explosions were decreased. At the same time there
was a substantial decrease in the risk of silicosis. Whereas the
risk index stood at an average of 166 before the introduction
of infusion, afterwards it fell to only 61, or 37 per cent. Moreover, befOTe its introduction, at nine out of the 14 faces investigated, the risk index was over 100 and at the rest it was over
50 ; afterwards it was over 100 at only three of the faces and
less than 50 at five others.
Water infusion of the coal face as a method of fighting dust
has, therefore, proved successful. Nonetheless, it would be
wrong to limit the attempts to reduce the dust content of the
atmosphere to this method alone. For, despite the improvements achieved, the amount of dust and the risk indices
remained so high at various faces, even after infusion, that
further measures were desirable or necessary. Water infusion
of the coal face does eliminate an important source of dust,
but only one among many.
I n haulage the fragmentation of coal can also cause the
liberation of dust. Careful handling of the coal helps here.
Dust is also frequently released during stowing or caving. I t
is therefore necessary to thoroughly wet the stowing material,
several times if need be, irrespective of whether material from
external sources or from dummy drifts is used. The caving
system should only be used in seams where the roof strata fall
in quickly and completely fill the waste. If the roof strata
remain in place this causes an increased amount of dust to be
released owing to the grinding of the rock.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. REP.)

133

It is also important that there should be an air velocity
at the coal face such as will carry away airborne dust as
quickly as possible, but will not stir up deposited dust. The
optimum air velocity is between 0.8 and 1.3 m/sec.
Only by exhausting all the possibilities will the liberation
of dust at the face be sufficiently reduced for it to cease to be
a threat to safety, health and productivity in coal mines.
Face Lighting
Although the mining police regulations only require portable
mine lamps to be carried underground, shaft landings, haulage
roads, loading places, etc., have for some time been equipped
with supplementary fixed electric lamps. In the last few
years, too, special heavy-current lighting has been used at
faces. The decisive factors here are the spread of mechanisation and electrification, and the need for greater safety.
Good visibility at the face, such as is afforded by heavycurrent lamps, is a very important factor in the prevention of
the numerous accidents due to falls of ground and coal. On
the other hand, with the exclusive use of miners' lamps the
roof and supports cannot be properly watched, more especially
because the lamps, on account of their awkwardness, often
cannot be placed so as to throw a good light on the working
place. Furthermore, in fully mechanised face workings, the
lamps are inadequate for supervision of the working of the coal
planer.
With heavy-current lighting also, by switching off for short
periods, it is possible to give signals that are visible simultaneously along the face. Such a signalling system is absolutely
essential on mechanised faces, but even on hand-worked faces
it is valuable for both operational and safety reasons.
The electrification of haulage at faces and in gate roads
has been a powerful factor in the introduction of heavy-current
face lighting, because special cables or other equipment for
current supply are thereby rendered unnecessary. The face
lighting is connected up to the existing leads of the electric
motors. As these are usually constructed for pressures of
500 volts upwards, while the lamps take only 110 or 220 volts,
a suitable transformer is inserted in the circuit as well as a
circuit breaker.

134

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The lamps are fed by an ordinary cab-tire cable connected
up in parallel.
The lamps are generally of the ordinary flameproof suspension type, with a consumption of 40 to 60 watts. They
are placed at intervals of 4 to 6 m along the supports
and also, with movable conveyors, hung on special arms
attached to the conveyor. Eecently, in some mines the lamps
have been installed upright. In this case, however, special
safety measures are necessary, and have recently been made
compulsory, on account of the danger of damage to the protective hood by falling objects or by overheating.
For signalling, switches are inserted in the lead at intervals
along the whole face. They are so connected up that when
they are actuated they switch off all lamps, including those
between the switch and the transformer. This can be done by
not connecting one of the two lighting cable cores directly to
the transformer, but by connecting the lead end to a third
core coming from the transformer and in which the switch is
set (Griimmer wiring system).
Occasionally it is necessary or seems desirable to install
heavy-current lighting in face workings in which there is no
other current supply. To connect this up with the heavycurrent system of the mine would involve disproportionately
high costs. These can be largely avoided, however, by the
use of compressed-air turbo-generators of flameproof construction and designed for the pressures and loads required for face
lighting. The actual face lighting in this case can be installed
in the same way as if current were taken from the mains.
The Contribution of the Griimmer Wiring System to
Electrical Safety at the Coal Face
The object of the Griimmer safety system is to switch off
the current from lighting installations at the face, which are
particularly liable to mechanical damage, whenever a fault
occurs. With previous safety devices it was only possible to
protect the wiring against short circuit and to indicate any
earth fault which might occur. The particular danger with
face lighting is t h a t by a pull due to a fall of ground or a lamp
being caught b y mechanical haulage, the lead may be torn
down, and with it the safety wire, and the necessary protection
against contact destroyed. The Griimmer system is specially
designed to control the safety wire.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. REP.)

135

The Griimmer system is a differential protection, operating
whenever the balance of a differential relay is upset, as is
the case, for example, when the safety wire breaks. When this
happens the installation is at once switched off. I t is likewise
switched off if a contact is made between the outer wire and
the safety wire. The system operates when the insulation
resistance is about 5,000 ohms. On the other hand, if by any
cause an outer wire is exposed and comes into contact with
an earthed part, the current is not switched off as would be the
case with other protective wiring systems such as, for example,
those used with coal-cutting machines. To secure a disconnection in this case a different type of wiring would be necessary,
and consequently ordinary cab-tire cable could not be used.
Although the Griimmer system does not clear all possible
faults, e.g., a simple earth, nevertheless it achieves a considerable increase in the safety of face lighting.
The Griimmer system has been adopted for face lighting in
some of the Buhr mines. There were difficulties at first, due
particularly to faulty rectifiers, but lately there have been no
disturbances that would indicate a failure of the protection
system. The chief reason why the Griimmer system has not
been adopted in all mines is that with it defects are comparatively difficult to locate unless they are obviously due to a fall
of ground or some other mechanical damage. To locate a
defect the electrician has to take a reserve plug in which the
rectifier is housed, and go from socket to socket and test wire
by wire to see whether the system is working. This means,
of course, that a second man must remain at the switchgear to switch on again each time until the faulty wire has
been found. Eecently, one mine has tried replacing the
second man by a relay which switches on the faulty wiring at
equal intervals. The localising of the fault is thus considerably
simplified, but it means a constant switching on of the current
to a defective part, which is undesirable from the safety point
of view. As face lighting is used not only for lighting but also
for signalling, especially with armoured conveyors, a failure
of the lighting means practically a cessation of haulage, so that
the defect must be made good as quickly as possible. As the
location of a defect in this way takes a considerable time,
where a face is thin and long, a large proportion of the mines
have rejected this somewhat delicate safety device for operational reasons.
10

136

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

First Aid
The arrangements for first aid can only achieve the desired
result when at every mine in all the overmen's sections and in
every shift a sufficient number of well-trained first-aid men
are available. In order to achieve this object it must be
a principle that underground as many miners as possible
are made familiar with first aid, and that officials, shotfirers, charge hands, haulage foremen and others can participate in the training. The wider the circle is drawn the
more certain it will be that whenever an accident occurs,
even at remote places underground, the injured man will
have the benefit of effective first aid by prompt application
of the means available.
As far as possible only men who volunteer are chosen for
first-aid work, for otherwise intensive co-operation in the
courses is not to be expected. Apart from resuscitation, the
first-aid men are required to know how to apply dressings,
stop arterial bleeding and put splints on fractures.
The dressings, etc., with which first-aid men are provided
are kept in boxes that must be available in every overman's
section at easily accessible places. Further, in many mines
portable first-aid boxes are in use and sometimes they are
taken from the surface to the face and returned after the shift
and, if necessary, refilled. In mines with steep seams first-aid
haversacks taken underground by selected men have proved
useful. They have the advantage that in serious accidents all
materials for first aid can be brought to the scene of the accident without loss of time.
The contents of the containers comprise roll bandages,
triangular bandages, gauze dressings and cellulose for packing
splints, and also binders, adhesive plaster, finger stalls, a
blanket and splints.
The first care of injured men on the surface is the most
important task of the nurses, who have medical training in
first aid and must be available at every mine in such numbers
that one of them can be immediately reached in every shift.
Their post is t h e mine first-aid station on the surface.
The nurse is notified as quickly as possible of any accident
occurring underground ; it is particularly important in serious
cases of asphyxia that he should go underground promptly
himself so as to take part in resuscitation and, in case of need,

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. REP.)

137

give a lobelin injection. I n the more serious cases he first
notifies a doctor so as to assure himself of his help.
Once the injured man has reached the surface he should
not be transported any further before the nurse has seen him
and ascertained whether the first aid administered underground
is appropriate and sufficient for the further transport to the
doctor. However, it is particularly important that the nurse
should not alter the dressings applied by the first-aid men if
they are found sufficient, for every removal of the dressings
carries grave risk of reinfecting the wound. Seeing to the
further transport of the injured is also among the nurse's
duties. The means of transport should, whenever possible,
be on the spot when the injured man reaches the surface.
Another important duty of the nurse is keeping the first-aid
register, in which every injury, with full particulars, must be
properly entered. These entries can be of the greatest importance for the injured man himself in the event of subsequent
claims.
The mine first-aid station, which every mine has, must
satisfy the most exacting requirements as to cleanliness, air
and light. I t is usually at ground level so that the ambulance
can drive up to the door. The equipment of the station naturally varies according to the means available. I t is indispensable to have piping for hot and cold water supplying large
washbasins, a table accessible from all sides and a cupboard
for dressings, etc. The principal articles kept in the station
are Kramer splints, ordinary splints, rubber-tyred stretchers,
blankets, scissors of various sizes, some forceps and a clinical
thermometer. As to dressings, it is most important to have a
large supply of sterilised packages of bandages and also gauze
dressings, cotton-wool pads, triangular bandages, ligatures,
rubber adhesive plaster and finger stalls. Tincture of iodine is
kept for the first-aid treatment of wounds, and a valuable
help in resuscitation is lobelin in ampoules with the appropriate syringe.
Of quite outstanding importance and frequently decisive
for the future of the injured man, and even for saving his life,
is suitable and quick transport to the hospital. Underground
this is usually extraordinarily difficult owing to the unfavourable conditions. If the injured man cannot walk, it is advisable
to lay him on a stretcher ; stretchers must be available in
sufficient number and suitably distributed over the whole

138

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

mine. As a result of many years' co-operation between industrial doctors and mining men, some general principles have
developed as to the ways and means of transporting injured
men underground and as to the most suitable form of the
means of transport :
1. The stretcher must be brought to the injured man at
the scene of the accident and not the reverse.
2. The dressings applied by way of first aid at the scene
of the accident and the preparation of the injured man for
transport must be complete and final, so that they do not need
to be supplemented or changed on the surface, and transport
can be effected without transfer and without injuring him.
3. The injured man must be so fastened to the stretcher
that the whole body, and thus the injured parts, remains
immobilised as far as possible during transport, even when the
way leads over places where the stretcher must be slanted or
stood upright.
For these reasons it is best and simplest to lay the injured
man and transport him on a rigid stretcher. This requirement
is met in the Khineland-Westphalia coalfield by the standard
stretcher, recommended by the Bochum District Administration of the Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the
Mining Industry, which is entirely made of sheet metal. I t is
in the form of a basket and is fitted with runners and retractable handles. I t makes it possible to transport the injured
man stretched on his back in any position of the conveyance
without jolting, bumping or slipping. The loaded stretcher is
carried by workmates to the main shaft, unless a carriage with
spring suspension for the stretcher is available. Transport on
tubs for coal or dead rock should in no case be allowed owing
to the painful jolting involved.
An auxiliary stretcher for carrying injured men in particularly low mine workings is a so-called drag board, on which
the injured man is tied and which ensures safe transport even
in the most unfavourable conditions. The board can be lifted
on to the standard stretcher. I t is universally considered
necessary to make fastenings available for firmly securing the
injured man, especially in the case of transport under difficult
conditions.
Further transport of the injured man from the surface to
the hospital is usually effected in a well-sprung ambulance.
Since transferring the man must be avoided, the dimensions

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. BEP.)

139

of the basket stretcher correspond with those of the standard
motor ambulance. An escort of trained first-aid men is usually
provided, and they can administer any help that may be
needed during the journey.
Mine Rescue Organisation
The purpose of mine rescue organisation is to save life and
preserve property after explosions and mine fires and other
occurrences in which irrespirable gases are liberated.
Every separate mine has a rescue brigade accustomed to
the use of respiratory appliances for protection against gas.
The rescue brigade consists of a captain (under-manager, chief
overman, ventilation foreman, foreman shotfirer, or experienced sectional overman), two or more party leaders (overmen), at least eight rescue men (overmen and experienced
miners) and one apparatus attendant. The strength of the
brigade is determined by the size of the mine. A rescue party
consists of one leader and four men.
The rescue brigade only recruits miners who are between 21
and 40 years of age, have worked at least three years underground, are physically and mentally suitable, have received
theoretical and practical training and have successfully passed
a test. Eecruitment is voluntary.
The training of the rescue men is undertaken by the captain
or his deputy at the mine itself. Captains, party leaders and
apparatus attendants are trained at the central rescue station
in Essen.
Members of the rescue brigades, including the captain and
the party leaders, must at least once a quarter carry out drills
for an unbroken period of two hours with self-contained apparatus. Of the four annual drills, three must be carried out in
smoke and one underground. I n addition, every member is
required to carry out hose drills.
Unless for reasons of health (medical examination every
three years) or other reasons a member of the brigade becomes
unfit for service in it earlier, rescue men retire at the age of 45
and captains and party leaders at the age of 50.
All apparatus and equipment for mine rescue operations is
accessibly stored in a special depot reserved for this purpose.
The brigade is provided with a room for drills in smoke
and high temperatures. So that the drills can be properly

140

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

watched, the room must be provided with lighting, ventilation
and signalling appliances.
The functions and duties of all members of the rescue
brigade are set out in service instructions. I t should be particularly observed that in serious emergencies the captain is
solely responsible for carrying out the orders given to the
rescue brigade by the director of rescue operations. This
arrangement ensures the clear demarcation of functions which
is indispensable for the conduct of rescue operations. I t should
also be observed that places filled with irrespirable gases may
only be entered by an entire party (leader and four men), and
that as soon as they go into action a service station with
respiratory and resuscitation appliances must be installed as
near as possible to the place and manned with trained rescuers.
Some Euhr mining companies maintain professional rescue
brigades, which can bring several parties into action at any
time without delay. They are equipped with large quantities
of respiratory and resuscitation equipment and with all the
necessary accessories. Men and equipment are conveyed to
the mine needing them on motor vehicles that are always
ready to start.
All the mineowners in the Buhr have combined to maintain
in Essen a central rescue station which regulates and supervises the mine rescue organisation of the district. For this
purpose, in agreement with the Dortmund divisional mining
office, they have issued the necessary instructions, and, in
particular, principles for the training and drilling of rescue
brigades, service instructions for the members of rescue brigades and apparatus attendants, principles for the preparation
of rescue operations and a plan (mine rescue plan) for cooperation between the mines in rescue operations.
Further, the central rescue station exercises control over
the apparatus and equipment for rescue operations in the
mine, trains the captains, party leaders and apparatus attendants, and advises and supports the mines in all matters of
mine rescue. Finally, it is responsible for the investigation,
testing and assessing of new types of apparatus and equipment
for mine rescue purposes, for research work for the development of new apparatus and for the further development of
the measuring and testing instruments of the laboratory,
which is the centre for the investigation of appliances and
equipment usually employed in mine rescue operations.

GENERAI, SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. REP.)

141

As a central body for all circles in the Federai Bepublic
interested in mine rescue questions, there is the German
Committee for Mine Eescue Operations, which was founded
as the Prussian Committee for Mine Eescue Operations in 1921,
and acquired its present title and wider scope in 1936. I t is
at present being reorganised in order to adapt it to the changed
circumstances of the times. I t includes representatives
of the central rescue stations (at present Essen, Aachen,
Clausthal-Zellerfeld and Munich), the mining authorities and
the Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the Mining
Industry. According to the Statute now in force, its functions
are to centralise experience in the field of mine rescue, to give
advice in all matters of mine rescue, to decide on the suitability of respiratory appliances and other rescue equipment
for German mining and to issue the necessary directives in
this matter, and to represent German mine rescue interests
abroad.
The regular equipment of the rescue brigades for action
underground consists chiefly of self-contained oxygen-breathing
apparatus (closed-circuit apparatus for two hours' use) and,
for special purposes, air-supply masks (hose masks). The socalled small appliances, i.e., closed-circuit appliances for about
one hour's use, may not be used underground ; they are intended for protection against gas at coking plants and by-product
plants. Filter appliances (carbon-monoxide filters) may only
be used in exceptional cases underground, and only with the
approval of the mining authorities or, in emergencies, the
central rescue station. They are only usable underground
where the atmosphere around the wearer contains a sufficient
quantity of oxygen and the quantity of toxic gases does not
exceed the absorption capacity of the filter.
Eecently, a long-service appliance has been developed
which, because the supply of oxygen is automatically controlled
by the lungs and because also of the larger supply of oxygen
resulting from higher pressure (from 150 to 200 ats. gauge),
has a longer period of use (up to 12 hours at rest). I t is primarily intended for long travel and for other cases in which
a reserve of time appears desirable.
The fact before which even the mine rescue brigades are
powerless, since they naturally come into action at a relatively
late moment, namely, that in explosions and mine fires it
often happens that miners lose their lives by encountering

142

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

toxic fumes and gases containing carbon monoxide, has led
to the creation of an escape apparatus for mining which
every man employed underground has immediately available
in an emergency. By very arduous co-operation between the
Drägerwerk, Lübeck, the Auergesellschaft, Berlin, the central
rescue station at Essen and the technical committee for mine
rescue of the German Coal Administration, two types of carbonmonoxide filter self-rescuers were developed which now satisfy
all mining requirements : protection against carbon monoxide,
smoke and dust ; low resistance to breathing ; almost immediate readiness for use ; comfortable wear ; handy shape ; and
resistance to heavy mechanical stresses. Both Dräger and
Auer types consist of a filter piece which cleanses the inspired
air from dust, dries it and renders it harmless by oxydisation of
the toxic carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. The appliances in their present form give the miner a guarantee that
even in very toxic gases he can travel safely for up to two hours
and reach the fresh air stream.
The requirement that the miner must have the appliance
at all times within easy reach is met either by every man
employed underground taking the self-rescuer, as he does his
lamp before going down, and carrying it to his workplace at
the face and giving it back after returning to the surface, or
by storing t h e appliances in drums (eight to 16 to a drum)
at the workplaces underground. Both methods have their
advantages and disadvantages. I t would appear that the
latter method is adopted in mines with particularly thin and
disturbed seams, that is to say, mostly in mines in which
seams less than 1 m thick are worked. To these must he
added mines t h a t could only build a storeroom on the surface
at excessive cost. Recently, some mines have planned to
store the appliances in the lamp room and issue them with
the lamps. One large mine that has issued the appliances on
the surface to the men individually for nearly two years
reports that t h e chief objection to this method is unfounded :
the self-rescuers are most carefully handled and not only by
experienced miners but also by the young ones ; an insignificant proportion (about 1 per cent, a year) are damaged and
rendered unusable. At the present time, 12 mines in the Ruhr
are fully equipped and others will follow gradually.
The
Aachen coalfield will also accelerate the supply of selfrescuers to all the mines.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : GERMANY (FED. REP.)

143

For the purposes of scientific research into the causes and
prevention of accidents, the Federal Republic, the North BhineWestphalia State and the Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the Mining Industry are associated in a company
called Versuchs grubengesellschaft GmbH (Experimental Mine
Company) which owns the experimental mine Tremonia in
Dortmund. The experimental work carried out in this mine
relates mainly to the prevention of firedamp and coal-dust
explosions, but the mine also investigates means of fighting
fires and preventing winding and haulage accidents and matters
connected with rescue operations. The company has issued
reports on its investigations concerning flames and sparks in
shotfiring, frictional coefficients of Koepe pulleys, the safety
of permitted explosives in a fiery atmosphere under working
conditions, dynamic stresses in winding ropes, traction sheaves
with a high frictional coefficient, the mechanism of firedamp
and coal-dust explosions, safety catches for cages, and mine
irres.
The Insurance Association jointly with the Westphalian
Mining Industry Association (Westfälische BerggewerTcsschaftskasse ) maintains an experimental station at DortmundDerne. 1 The station is chiefly used for t h e development of
measures for the prevention of firedamp and coal-dust explosions, but serves also for the testing of explosives, electrical
equipment, safety lamps, etc. The results of the experiments
are brought to the notice of mine managements and firms
manufacturing mining supplies.
In addition to the experimental station, the Westphalian
Mining Industry Association has established a rope-testing
station and various research institutions, namely, a surveying
and geophysical division, an underground division, a chemical
laboratory, a geological division with a museum, a hydraulic
institute, a ventilation institute, and a mechanical and electrical laboratory. The Association also has a library and a
mining musem in Bochum.
The principal institutions engaged in research on dust and
the possibilities of combating them in mining are the Silicosis
1
This station was described in Industrial
Oct.-Dec. 1930, p. 93.

Safety

Survey,

Vol. VI, No. 4,

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SAFETY I N COAL MINES

Eesearch Institute of the Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the Mining Industry (Silikose-Forschungsinstitut der
Bergbau-Berufsgenossenschaft)
at Bochum, and the Dust
Research Institute of the Federation of Industrial Mutual
Accident Insurance Associations (Staubforschungs-Institut des
Hauptverbandes der gewerblichen Berufsgenossenschaften
e.V.)
at Bonn.
The programme of the Silicosis Eesearch Institute comprises—
(1) mineralogical and pétrographie research on rocks drilled
and cut through in mining operations ;
(2) technical and medical research on the effects of the
above-mentioned rocks and their components in dust form on
the human body and especially on the lungs ;
(3) the testing and assessment of anti-dust measures and
appliances in mining ; and
(4) furnishing adrice to the mining authorities, mining
undertakings and manufacturers of equipment on the development, authorisation and use of anti-dust equipment.
The programme of the Dust Research Institute of the
Federation of Industrial Mutual Accident Insurance Associations is similar, but the Institute's scope of activity extends
to all industries and is not confined to mining.
Eesearch into pneumoconiosis, and especially silicosis
occurring in mining, is among the functions of the State Institute for Pneumoconiosis Eesearch and Industrial Hygiene
(Staatsinstitut für Staublungenforschung und Gewerbehygiene)
in the Westphalian State University at Münster. Its researches
lie in the medical rather than in the technical field ; for many
years it has carried on extensive experimentation with animals,
and from time to time has organised meetings for exchange
of experience among the various research and investigation
organisations. The Euhr Hygiene Institute (Hygienisches
Institut des Ruhrgebiets) at Gelsenkirchen has also been called
upon to assist in the solution of particular problems in the
field of dust research.
The results of researches carried on by the Silicosis Eesearch
Institute at Bochum are published in a series of papers entitled
Beiträge zur Silikose-Forschung and appearing at irregular
intervals. The Dust Research Institute at Bonn publishes the
results of its researches in a similar series of papers entitled
Staub published by the Association of German Engineers in

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145

"Düsseldorf, The scientists of the State Institute for Pneumoconiosis Research and Industrial Hygiene and of the Euhr
Hygiene Institute have published papers in the medical press.
Special mention may be made of the report of the pneumoconiosis meeting of the State Institute in November 1949
published in the series Wissenschaftliche Forschungsberichte.1
Supervision and the further development of the techniques,
appliances and measures for combating dust in mines is a task
imposed on the mining authorities, and especially the divisional
mining offices, by the General Mines Act. Among these
measures particular mention should be made of the following :
(1) wet drilling ;
(2) exhausting drilling dust at the mouth or on the floor
of the bore hole, with dry or wet methods of allaying dust ;
(3) collection of drilling dust at the mouth of the bore
hole, with dry or wet methods of allaying dust ;
(4) infusion of the face at the working place ;
(5) use of water or compressed-air and water jets for
allaying dust, especially during shotfiring, haulage and packing;
(6) use of salt for consolidating dust on road floors and
sides ;
(7) use of coal-getting equipment, and especially hammer
drills and coal-cutting machines, equipped with watering
appliances for allaying dust ;
(8) use of dust masks ;
(9) experimentation with ultrasonic appliances for flocculating dust ; and
(10) experimentation with protective dusts and aerosol
inhalers for the prevention of silicosis.
The utility and the efficiency of these measures are verified
by dust measurements. A particularly suitable dust-measuring instrument for mining, and one that is easy to handle and
permits sufficiently accurate quantitative and qualitative measurement of dust concentrations in the air of all mine workings,
has recently been developed as a tyndalloscope by the Ernst
Leitz optical works at Wetzlar from specifications furnished
by the Silicosis Besearch Institute at Bochum. The instrument is to be employed in all underground workings of coal
mines.
1

Published b y Dietrich. Steinkopff, Darmstadt, 1950.

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

From the dust-measurement research carried on in the
German mining industry, it has so far not been possible, in
spite of all efforts, to determine perfectly satisfactory permissible concentrations, such as are necessary for a reliable
numerical criterion of the silicosis risk of dust-laden air. As
bases for such a criterion, use is at present made of " risk
indices " and " indices numbers ", which are calculated from
the results of dust measurements and konimeter tests by
the procedure devised by Landwehr and from the "Atlas of
Characteristics of German Eocks and Useful Minerals with a
Silicosis Eisk ",1
The investigation of permissible concentrations and the
testing of dust-measuring instruments in the underground
workings of mines carried on by the above-mentioned research
institutes, which have been in existence for a considerable
time and have many years' extensive experience at their
disposal, have more recently become a function of the Working
Party for Dust Measurements and Permissible Concentrations
of the German Coal Mining Administration.
For some time, active researches have been carried on with
a view to applying underground and during working hours the
inhalation of chalk dust, a technique which had formerly been
applied on a voluntary basis on the surface in metal mining.
A suitable atomiser has been manufactured and a number of
these instruments will shortly be used in certain underground
districts of metal mines. I t is intended for this purpose to
introduce synthetic gypsum dust with a particle size below
10 microns into the air stream as floating dust.
TRAINING AND EDUCATION

Miners and Supervisory Staff
After the first world war, technical developments created
anintense demand for the systematic training of miners. This
demand found expression in an Order issued by the Prussian
Minister for Trade and Industry in 1919 appointing an employment committee to make proposals for the introduction of
compulsory training in mining. This was the first step along
1
Atlas zur Charakteristik der Silikosegefährlichkeit von Steinen und nutzbaren
Mineralien deutscher Lagerstätten (Essen, W. Girardet, 1947).

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a path that led to the formation of training parties and training
workshops in a number of mining undertakings, and later to
a uniform system of education and training.
Training.
In its present form, the training of new entrants into the
mining industry in the Euhr comprises branches for mining
apprentices, young miners, coal-getters (Hauer), adults entering from other industries, and supervisory staff. In addition,
there are special training schemes for particular occupations,
such as electrician, machine coal-cutting man, shotfirer, airman
and locomotive driver.
Practical training is carried on at the mine, and the mineowner has to provide the necessary installations for the purpose.
These form a part of the undertaking within the meaning of
G.M.A. §73 and must therefore be under the supervision and
direction of persons who are recognised by the mining authorities as competent for the purpose. Por every mining undertaking a full-time director of training must be appointed and
must possess certain specified qualifications. Government
supervision over the entire training system is exercised through
the mining authorities.
The training of candidates for the occupation of coal-getter
is of two kinds—for apprentices and for young miners, respectively.
Training of mining apprentices. The training of mining
apprentices was instituted in 1938 by an Order of the Eeich
and Prussian Minister of Economic Affairs concerning the
vocational training of young entrants into the mining industry,
and was carried on under training agreements. Of fundamental
importance were the recognition of the apprenticeship occupation " miner " (Knappe) under an Order of the Eeich Minister
of Economic Affairs dated 10 September 1940, and the drawing
up of a training plan and examination requirements for this
occupation. The training of mining apprentices is carried on
at the present time on the basis of a written contract between
the mineowner and the apprentice or his legal representative.
The contract must be approved by the Labour Office. Under
an Order of the Dortmund Divisional Mining Office of 17 November 1945, which also applies to the Aachen district, contracts of apprenticeship may only be concluded with young
persons who are likely to make successful trainees.

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The period of apprenticeship for apprentice miners is three
consecutive years. The duties for which they must be trained
are specified in an Order of the Eeich Minister for Economic
Affairs dated 10 September 1940, in which due account is
taken of matters of safety.
The training falls into two parts : training on the surface
and training underground.
Training on the surface lasts from nine months to two
years, according to the age at which the apprentice was
admitted, and comprises both practical and theoretical instruction. The practical instruction alternates between the apprentices' workshop and various parts of the surface installations
of the mine. For training purposes parties of four or five
apprentices are formed under the supervision of a chargeman
hewer (Meisterhauer), an arrangement that has been found
indispensable for good training.
Training underground is a continuation of training on the
surface. It, too, consists of practical and theoretical instruction and lasts at least one year. Vocational training proper
begins in a special training district underground. The formation
of these districts is governed by principles for the installation
of training districts underground issued with an Order of
23 June 1942, and the districts were made a general requirement by the Dortmund Order of 17 November 1945. The
apprentices are also instructed from time to time in training
groups which work in the production districts of the mine
under the supervision of chargemen hewers. As a rule, trainees
go down into the mine after they have reached 16 years of
age, since the general regulations of the Bonn and Dortmund
Divisional Mining Offices prohibit the employment of younger
persons underground. However, in order to acquaint persons
gradually with conditions underground, those over 15 years
of age are taken underground at regular intervals.
Hand in hand with practical training goes instruction in
the mining trade school (Bergberufsschule). Under § 9 of the
Eeich Act on Compulsory Education dated 6 July 1938, apprentices are required to attend occupational schools until the end
of their apprenticeship if the necessary facilities are available.
These facilities as regards the Ruhr are provided by the mining
trade schools which are almost exclusively situated at the
mines, and in which instruction is given on one day a week
in so-called instruction shifts of six hours. In addition, the

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mining apprentices are given two hours 1 physical training a
week, having regard to the special physical demands that
mining makes.
At the end of his apprenticeship, the apprentice must pass
the examination for miners (KnappenprüfungJ which is carried
out at the mine in which the apprentice has been trained and
in the presence of a representative of the mining authorities
and of an examining board. For the future it is intended that
examinations shall be conducted by an examining board
appointed by the mining authorities and quite independent
of the mine.
Training of young miners. By young miners here is meant
young persons who are not considered for training as apprentices either because of their low standard of education or
because they do not wish to enter into a contract of apprenticeship. Under § 9 of the Reich Act on Compulsory Education, these persons also are required to attend the mining trade
school and, after initial employment on the surface, are assigned
to underground work when they are 16 years of age.
Training of coal-getters. On 22 December 1925 the Dortmund Divisional Mining Office, and on 16 January 1926 the
Bonn Divisional Mining Office, issued mining regulations for
the occupation of coal-getter (Hauer) in hard-coal mines and,
in these regulations, identical requirements are laid down
concerning conditions governing the employment of miners as
coal-getters. Such employment depends on passing a coalgetters' examination and the award of a coal-getter's certificate.
The Dortmund general regulations for hard-coal mines of
1 May 1935, and the Bonn regulations of 1 October 1934, lay
down general principles for the systematic training of coalgetters. Further, an Order of the Dortmund Divisional Office
dated 15 December 1936 lays down general principles for the
training of miners and ensures the standardisation of training.
A further Order of the Eeich Minister of Economic Affairs
dated 9 January 1942 lays down principles for the training of
coal-getters.
The training, which follows on the period of apprenticeship,
is incorporated in productive work. It consists of practical

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

and theoretical instruction and its purpose is to make the
trainees familiar with all kinds of mining work. The practical
training is carried on by regularly changing trainees' jobs.
Places of work are fixed by the manager in consultation with
the director of training. Constant supervision by an experienced training coal-getter (Ausbildungshauer) or a chargeman
coal-getter (Meisterhauer) is essential. The prescribed minimum period of theoretical instruction is 24 hours, but additional
instruction is usually given through the entire period of training.
At the end of the training period comes the coal-getters'
examination (Hauerprüfung),
candidates for which must be
at least 21 years old and have worked at least three years
underground, of which the last year must have been worked
as an apprentice coal-getter. The examination is conducted
by a board composed of the director of training, the mine
manager, a member of the works council and the representative of the Mining Office. Members of the management and
also the coal-getters with whom the apprentice last worked
may be present at the examination. The examination covers
both practical work and theoretical knowledge. Successful
candidates are awarded a coal-getter's certificate.
Retraining of adult workers from other industries.
The
retraining of workers (aged 18 to 40) entering the mining
industry from other industries is governed by the regulations
of the Bonn Divisional Mining Office dated 3 August 1948 and
of the Dortmund Divisional Mining Office dated 27 May 1949.
The regulations apply to all persons employed by the mine
who have not previously been employed underground or who
are returning to the mining industry after losing their occupational skill. The trainees are employed after spending one
month as haulage hand and the following three months at a
training face under the supervision of coal-getter instructors
(Anlernhauer), the first two months being paid at time rates
and the last at piece rates. A 16-hour course of theoretical
instruction is prescribed. Particulars of the training are
recorded in a card index, and certificates are issued to the
trainees on completion of their course. Thereafter, for one
year the trainees may only be employed at places that are not
particularly dangerous and in the company of a sufficient
number of experienced coal-getters.

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Supervisory staff. To be trained as supervisors, miners
who are at least 17 years old and have accomplished two
years' work underground attend the mining preparatory school
(Bergvorschule). The courses at this school, which are carried
on in conjunction with ordinary work, last for two years, and
in addition to giving a good general education make the students acquainted with the provisions of the mining regulations.
Students who have successfully passed through the mining
preparatory school are eligible for admission to the mining
school (Bergschule).
Technical instruction in the mining
school is given on three days a week, when the students are
released from their ordinary work but paid. Courses last from
two to two-and-a-half years (in the case of machine foremen,
three years). Successful students, according to the courses
that they have taken, qualify as mine supervisory officials
(Grubensteiger), machine foremen on the surface or underground, electricians, preparation foremen, etc. The schoolleaving certificate, like the diploma of the mining department
of a technical high school or of a mining college, entitles the
holder to be recognised by the mining authorities as a supervisory officiai within the meaning of G.M.A. § 73. Further,
coal-getters who are at least 35 years of age and have been
employed in their occupation at least ten years underground
may, without attending a technical school, but after attending
a special course, be recognised as under-foremen (Fahrhauer)
by the mining authorities and so become supervisory officials.
One year's attendance at the upper class of a mining
school entitles a supervisory official to be appointed as undermanager (FaJirsteiger) or manager (Betriebsfiihrer).
From among supervisors (Steiger) who have a good working
record the mining authorities select their district inspectors
of mines (Bergrevierinspelctoren) for purposes of technical
inspection.
Education.
In the Buhr, mining education is in the hands of the
Westphalian Mining Industry Association, to which all mines
in the district are affiliated, and whose functions include the
administration of the mining schools and mining trade schools.
Their activities are supervised by the Dortmund Divisional
Mining Office in its capacity as a supervisory educational
authority.
il

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Attendance at the mining trade schools is compulsory for
young workers, but attendance at the mining schools is voluntary. As already indicated, the mining schools serve for the
training of supervisory officials.
Attendance at all these schools is free and the teaching
equipment, as well as practically all the students' equipment,
involves no cost for the students.
The trade schools and the technical schools (Fachschulen) of
the Buhr district on the right bank of the Ehine are maintained
by the Westphalian Mining Industry Association. In 1951 the
Association was responsible for 95 trade schools, 28 mining
preparatory schools, and three mining schools in Bochum,
Essen and Hamborn, respectively. Supervision over these
schools is exercised by the Dortmund Divisional Mining Office.
The Mining Association on the left bank of the Ehine administers, also under the supervision of the Dortmund Divisional
Office, the mining school and the mining preparatory school in
Moers as well as the mining trade school in this district.
The Mining Association of the Aachen district administers the mining school at Aachen and the four mining
preparatory schools of the district. The five mining trade
schools of the district are works schools (Werlcsschulen).
All
these schools are supervised by the Bonn Divisional Mining
Office in its capacity as supervisory educational authority.
Entrants with Academic Training
Managerial positions in mining are generally filled by
persons with academic training. A condition for admission to
mining studies is the accomplishment of one year's practical
training which, under the instructions of the Eeich and
Prussian Minister of Economic Affairs of 28 March 1934/
17 March 1936, must be under the supervision of the mining
authorities. I n this matter the Dortmund Divisional Mining
Office issued training regulations on 17 April 1934, and the
Bonn Office on 5 May 1949. During their training, the mining
trainees are in the relationship of both employee and trainee
to the mine to which they are assigned, and as a rule must
accomplish at least five working shifts and one training shift
a week. High-school studies, which can be accomplished
at the mining department of the Aachen Technical High
School, the Clausthal Mining Academy and Berlin Technical
University, and also for limited periods at other universities,

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153

take up eight terms and conclude with an examination for a
mining engineer's diploma. Holders of this diploma may,
after further study a t their high schools, become Doctors of
Engineering.
The German Coal Mining Administration (Deutsche Kohlenbergbau-Leitung) has also established an institute for continuation courses which provides for the further training of
young engineers over a period of two years.
MUTUAL ACCIDENT INSURANCE ASSOCIATION
POR THE M I N I N G INDUSTRY

The Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the Mining
Industry, with headquarters at Bochum, which was set up as
the insurance carrier for the industry, has, under § 848 of the
Federal Insurance Code, to concern itself, in addition to the
mining authorities, with the prevention of accidents and with
the promotion of effective first-aid for injuries. But, owing
to the extensive regulation of mining safety through State
supervision, § 848 (a) of the Federal Insurance Code has
withdrawn from the Association the responsibility which rests
on other carriers of statutory accident insurance—the industrial mutual accident insurance associations—to issue safety
regulations and to supervise the application of these regulations
in industrial undertakings.
The Association acts in the following two directions to
supplement official measures :
(a) it promotes self-supervision in the undertakings by
supporting measures taken in them towards strengthening
the sense of responsibility of the mineworkers and the supervisors ; and
(b) it maintains institutions for research into the risks
peculiar to mining and the most effective means of eliminating
them, or participates in such institutions.
Material on safety measures is regularly published in the
information bulletin of the Association, Der Kompass, or by
means of special publications, leaflets or circulars.
The Association is divided into four regional administrations, at Bonn, Bochum, Clausthal-Zellerfeld and Munich.
Attached to each regional administration is a technical division,
which is responsible for dealings with all member undertakings
in its area in matters of accident prevention and first-aid.
The hard-coal mining industry is almost entirely concentrated

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in the areas of the Bochum administration, which corresponds
roughly with the Dortmund division, and of the Bonn administration, which comprises the Bonn division.
The technical divisions of the regional administrations are
staffed by officials qualified for the higher technical State
mining posts. Former industrial officials with a mining education and mining technicians promoted from the ranks are
also employed. Among the institutions of the technical divisions, special mention should be made of the Bochum testing
station for winding-engine men, which, on the basis of agreements with the divisional mining offices, tests all candidates
for this particularly responsible grade by psychotechnical
means as to their suitability.
In the activities of the technical divisions, by far the largest
place is taken by education in safe working methods. The
mining officials and miners are indoctrinated by means of
lectures, safety films and safety posters. Since about 1926,
the mining undertakings, on the suggestion of the Mutual
Accident Insurance Association, have, as intermediaries
between the Association and the mines, increasingly employed
full-time technical officials as safety officers. They are trained
in the course of regular meetings with the staffs of the technical
divisions. On the occasion of these meetings, there is also an
exchange of experience between the safety officials of the
various mining companies. The duties of the technical divisions also include promotion of the use of personal protective
equipment, such as hard hats, safety boots and hand leathers.
The divisions play a leading part in designing, developing and
testing such equipment.
Further, since 1929, when the second Occupational Disease
Order came into force, the regional administrations have
appointed persons drawn from the ranks of the workers to
instruct miners in the proper application of technical methods
for combating dust. These persons, known as field officers
of the Mutual Accident Insurance Association, visit the mines
daily in order to give instruction on the spot. They must also
keep a look out for defects in anti-dust measures. The removal
of defects is a matter for the technical division in collaboration
with the mine managements and, if appropriate, with the
mining authorities.
The technical divisions of the regional administrations also
have equipment for measuring dust in the mines, and with

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155

this Lhey test the efficiency of technical measures for combating
dust and find dust-free working places for miners who are
already slightly silicotic.
The technical divisions compile accident-cause statistics,
analyses of which provide material for accident prevention
work.
Lastly, regional administrations of the Mutual Accident
Insurance Association make the necessary medical examinations of the underground personnel of all hard-coal mines in
virtue of the mining regulations for the prevention of pneumoconiosis. For this purpose they either have their own examination centres or use the examination centres of the miners'
unions, works' clinics or hospitals. The Association arranges
and supervises any necessary changes of employment for the
purpose of preventing further injury by dust.
OTHER, ACTIVITIES

In addition to the matters of regulation, supervision,
research and training already considered, there are certain
other activities of safety interest in the Euhr that are deserving
of mention.
A number of institutions have been set up by the mines to
deal with particular aspects of mining safety. The Association
for the Supervision of Power Plant in the Euhr Mines (Verein
zur Überwachung der Kraftwirtschaft der Ruhr zechen) inspects all
steam-boiler installations and all electrical plant, both on the
surface and underground, in so far as concerns safety. The
Fire Protection Association of the Bhineland-Westphalian
Mines (Feuerschadenverband rheinisch-westfälischer Zechen), a
mutual insurance association, is concerned with Are prevention
in the mine.
I t may be mentioned that such material of interest from
the safety standpoint is to be found in the Zeitschrift für das
Berg-, Hütten- und Salinenwesen, published until 1943 by the
Eeich and Prussian Ministry of Economic Affairs.
Safety questions are dealt with in a popular manner in the
periodical, Grubensicherheit, which is published jointly by the
mining authorities and the Mutual Accident Insurance Association for the mining industry. Finally, questions of mining
safety and accident prevention are dealt with in the mining
journals, Glückauf and Bergbau-Rundschau, and also occasionally in the technical journal, Die Berufsgenossenschaft.

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

NETHERLANDS
GENERAL SURVEY

In the Netherlands there are only twelve coal mines, and
these are all large and modern. Eight are privately owned
and four belong to the State. They are all covered by the
statutory safety regulations and all are within the jurisdiction
of the State Inspectorate. All mines have their own safety
departments. The entire code of safety regulations has recently
been rewritten. The Netherlands was one of the first coalmining countries to introduce systematic training for entrants
into the industry. Some interesting features of recent practice
are mentioned below.
Various measures have been taken to reduce the dangers
of dust. Eesort has been had to wet drilling, drilling with
exhaustion of the dust, and the use of water sprays on rock
that has been mined and in wastes that are being packed.
The work of stone dusting has been lightened by the use of
various types of stone-dusting machines. All miners are
carefully examined by the medical service before being allowed
to work underground. Since November 1949 every miner and
every surface worker who is exposed to dust inhalation has
undergone an annual X-ray examination. Shotfiring with time
detonators is allowed.
Careful watch is kept over measures for the reduction of
coal dust, such as the proper driving of airways, the spraying
of water, the elimination of unnecessary drops in level in
mechanical transport and infusion of water in the coal.
Petrol locomotives are prohibited underground. Special
tubs have been introduced for the conveyance of persons and,
where conditions are suitable, express trains are run. Emergency signals can be transmitted to the driver from any tub.
Increasing use is being made of track-mounted cycles ;
they have proved particularly useful for inspection and for
communication with remote preparatory workings.
When opening up new levels care is taken to establish communication with the upcast shaft as rapidly as possible.
Detailed regulations have been issued concerning power-driven
auxiliary fans.
The illuminating power of portable electric lamps has been
increased.

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All signalling appliances for man-winding are provided
with automatic blocking devices.
Eescue drills are held regularly, and once a year there is
an alarm drill in each mine.
Staple pits have been built between underground levels to
keep men out of the cages of the main shaft during working
hours.
Measures for fighting fires and dust suppression include the
provision underground of water mains and of compressed-air
mains that can be used as water mains in the event of a fire.
Safety Service of the State Mines
The State mines comprise four coal mines and three
chemical works, together with railways and port installations.
All these undertakings are under the direction of a works
engineer, who, like the chief of the Safety Service, is directly
responsible to the management.
The chief of the Safety Service, who is equal in rank to
the works engineer, is present at discussions between the
management and the engineers and is acquainted with current
problems and plans. This arrangement makes it possible to
consider the requirements of safety in all operations that are
contemplated. Although the Safety Service has no executive
power, it can always make its views heard. As a rule there is
no need for it to insist since its views are practically always
accepted. If this should not be the case, however, the Service
can appeal to the management. This is more than a legal
right because the entire management is safety-minded.
The State mines employ 17,277 workers and 784 officials
underground, and 14,714 workers with 3,070 officials on the
surface (including 4,778 workers and 832 officials in the
chemical works), making a total of 31,991 workers and 3,854
officials. Por the maintenance of safety underground a senior
supervisor is appointed in each mine to make daily inspections
and give instruction. There are also two senior supervisors
in general service who visit all the mines. They are specially
concerned with the supervision of shotfiring and with the
efficiency of rescue brigades and the use of filter masks and
breathing apparatus. There is also a supervisor specially
concerned with measures against dust and the prevention of
silicosis. Over these officials is a works inspector. The Safety

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Service underground also includes a mining engineer, who
exercises day-to-day supervision and is especially concerned
with ventilation and scientific research.
For the daily inspection and supervision of the surface
works there are three senior supervisors and a safety inspector.
Eecently, a chief chemical engineer and a senior supervisor
were appointed to deal with chemical problems. Finally, there
are two safety officials in the technical departments who take
charge of propaganda. There are no workers' committees,
for they have not been found satisfactory.
The Safety Service has its own administration, comprising
one chief and four technical administrative officials, a draughtsman, a photographer and clerical staff.
The technicians spend their time in those parts of the
undertaking for which they are responsible. In the first place,
they investigate accidents. All accidents are recorded in the
first-aid room and, if disablement lasts for three days or more,
a form is filled up by the sectional supervisor and used by the
safety supervisor for making his enquiries and recommendations. In addition to investigating accidents, the safety supervisors exercise regular supervision over the enforcement
of regulations and instructions, study working methods,
follow new developments, and concern themselves with all
other matters bearing on safety.
Particular attention is paid to personal protective equipment. In order to persuade the workers to use the protective
equipment provided, propaganda of all kinds is carried on,
and the supervisory staff also exercises all its influence. Since
1939, the wearing of safety boots has been compulsory for
underground workers.
The Safety Service does not itself inflict any punishment
or blame, for that might lower its prestige ; moreover, it could
scarcely function as a judicial body. Every week discussions
are held with inspecting officials, when results are discussed
and plans made. These meetings provide much material
that can be used for the purposes of regulations, instructions,
communications, posters and other propaganda. The minutes
of the meetings have also proved useful, for it has been found
that proposals meet with less opposition if they are first made
known through the minutes of the meetings.
The accident reports furnished by the first-aid station are
used to compile various kinds of statistics. These statistics

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : NETHEBLANDS

159

arc used to compare the various parts of an undertaking,
similar parts of different undertakings, and the experience of
the same part of an undertaking at different times. Accidents
are also classified by type and by cause. Statistics are a useful
means of convincing managers and others where the fault lies.
Safety data are incorporated in instructions written in
popular style and illustrated by photographs for each separate
occupation. Formerly, a set of rules was worked out for
each occupation, but these did not prove attractive and now
they are only used for courses of instruction. As a rule the
instructions are first issued in a provisional form and, after
all criticisms have been taken into account, are issued for
general use.
Further, leaflets in which all kinds of noteworthy matters
are discussed are distributed periodically, talks are given now
and again over the radio, and articles are published in the
technical press.
The Safety Service is also concerned with the prevention of disasters such as explosions of firedamp and coal
dust, carbon monoxide poisoning, mine fires, and inrushes
of water, and also, of course, with the commonest causes
of accidents, such as falls of coal and ground and the haulage
installations.
Particular attention is paid to the ventilation. Under the
regulations, three cubic metres of air per minute per man
must be supplied underground, but the actual quantity supplied is as much as 15 cubic metres. This ventilation is not so
much for breathing purposes as for diluting firedamp, and in
the deeper mines for lowering the temperature. In the Hendrik
mine the air supply amounts to 20,000 cubic metres a minute
and it removes over 100 metres a minute of firedamp from
the mine. In each of the State mines there is a special ventilation service.
After 13 men lost their lives in a fire at the Hendrik mine
caused by the slipping of a conveyor belt, the Safety Service
issued special rules for the elimination of fire risks on
conveyors. Special watchmen have been appointed, fire
extinguishing equipment installed, and the personnel given
regular instruction. Further, the ventilation has been arranged
in parallel currents free from mutual disturbance, so that a
fire in one air current cannot spread to another. Not more
than 100 men are employed in one current.

160

SAFETY IN COAL MINES
RESEARCH

Purely scientific research in the interests of mining safety
is not carried on on a large scale in the Netherlands, but the
State mines investigate concrete technical problems arising
out of mining operations. Among the matters recently investigated are static electricity on conveyors, sparking from
various sources, flameproofness of small electrical appliances,
paraffin lamps, conveyor belt fires, and ventilation conditions
in the event of a breakdown of the main fan.
TRAINING

I t is considered in the Netherlands that coal mining is an
occupation in which safety largely depends on the men themselves, and it is therefore important to develop the miner's
character so t h a t he will work well and to a large extent be
his own safety supervisor.
The training of miners is extraordinarily difficult. If they
are taught various methods of working the question always
arises which particular method is the right one for the place
in which they are actually working. In the past little attention was paid to training, but on the whole the miners are
proficient. One of the good things to the credit of the Netherlands mines is that before many others they saw the necessity
of good occupational training. This training is directed as
much towards the formation of character as towards the
achievement of technical skill.
Systematic arrangements for the training of young workers
have been in force since 1929. A three-year course is provided
in the training schools to cover boys between the ages of 15
and 18. The organisation of training would be facilitated if
all the boys began it at the same age, but boys of various
ages decide to become miners and accordingly the period of
training varies with the age of the trainee. For those of 15
years of age, three years training is given, for those of 16
years of age two years, and for those of 17 years of age one
year.
The new trainees are put in charge of a group leader and
work singly until a group of 24 can be formed. This is divided
into four sections of six boys each under a section leader.
During the first year the trainees do not have any direct

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : POLAND

161

connection with the mines. Li the second year they spend
part of their time in the model mine, and in the third year they
divide their time between underground work and surface
work, both in the model mine and in operating mines, where
special instruction sections have been installed.
The curriculum of the three-year course includes physical
training, general education, and the theory and practice of
coal mining.
When they begin working at the face, young miners are
formed into groups of four, each under the supervision of a
hewer. After three months or more, according to their proficiency, they are allowed to work independently but they do
not receive full pay as hewers until they are 23 years old
and have passed an examination as to their practical knowledge in technical and safety matters, such as testing for gas,
ventilation and the safety regulations. The best among them
are encouraged to take courses enabling them to become
supervisors or safety inspectors.
The results of this training system have been extremely
satisfactory.

POLAND
GENERAL SURVEY

As soon as the mines were recovered by the Polish administration, efforts were concentrated on improving the safety of
the workers and restoring normal conditions, as regards both
the system of operation and the technical installations. The
mines were nationalised in 1945, and this made it possible to
draw up a uniform plan for the investment of capital, purchase
of supplies, conditions of employment and safety of the workers.
At the same time, a special office was established to reorganise
the safety and rescue services.
In July 1945, a few months after the departure of the
occupying forces from Silesia, a detailed survey of all the
mines was undertaken from the standpoint of safe and efficient
operation. This survey was carried out under the direction
of distinguished experts, and the results were verified on the
spot in the mines themselves. I t furnished very valuable
information on the most pressing needs of the mining industry
by revealing shortages of managerial staff, technical super-

162

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

visory staff, machines and equipment, supplies and housing,
as well as deficiencies in transport.
In September 1945, the Coal Office at Katowice published
instructions concerning safety in coal mines, which embodied
uniform principles as regards safety, protection and health
for all the mines ; these were followed in the same month by
model rules for mine safety committees.
Since the war the results that have been achieved, little by
little, in the coal-mining industry may be summarised as
follows :
(1) the formation of safety committees ;
(2) the formation of safety services ;
(3) the organisation of schemes for educating and training
safety personnel (posters, loudspeakers for broadcasting talks,
safety pamphlets and booklets, charts of all kinds, etc.) ;
(4) the organisation of special courses for the thorough
training of supervisory staff, in particular as regards the proper
performance of work of special importance from the safety
standpoint, such as shotfiring and measures against coal dust,
mine fires and firedamp ;
(5) the establishment of a scientific research institute for
the coal-mining industry to deal not only with the technical
problems of production but also with safety problems, such
as the composition of explosives, analysis of mine dust, vocational guidance and occupational diseases ;
(6) the organisation in all the larger mines of an extensive
system of social services, including canteens for mothers and
children, preventoria, etc. ;
(7) the establishment of a health service with its own
doctors in all mines.
I t is the mining authorities who are responsible for supervising conditions of employment in the mines in so far as
concerns safety. The protection of labour in its social aspects
(hours of work, health, annual leave, wages, work of women,
etc.) is a matter for the labour inspectorate. The mining
authorities are now attached to the Ministry of Mines and
Power instead of to the former Ministry of Industry and Trade,
but the main body of the legislation applying to the operation
and supervision of mines has not been altered.
I t should be noted that, under §§ 123 and 124 of the Mining
Code, the technical operation of mines must be placed under

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : POLAND

163

the direction, control and responsibility oí persons who, in
the opinion of the regional mining authorities, possess the
necessary qualifications.

ORGANISATION AND OPERATION OF SAFETY SERVICES

Organisation in the Mines
Every mine and every large ancillary undertaking is obliged
to appoint a technician who is a specialist in safety questions
from among the higher technical staff familiar with the technical problems of the mine, and in particular the problems of
safe mining operation.
In the larger mines these safety officials give all their time
to safety work ; in the smaller mines they may perform other
work as well, provided that it does not interfere with their
responsibility as safety director.
The duties of the safety official are as follows :
(1) to supervise the enforcement of safety rules ;
(2) to examine on the spot in the different districts the
safety conditions generally, the mechanical installations,
machines, tools and any special operations that are being
carried on ;
(3) to give talks to the different working parties on safety
questions and furnish all necessary explanations and details ;
(4) to investigate the causes of accidents occurring in the
mine ;
(5) to draw up detailed reports on the causes of accidents
and communicate them to the social insurance institution,
the mining authorities, the labour inspectorate, the miners'
union, etc. ;
(6) to draw up monthly statistical returns and reports
on safety in the mine ;
(7) to act as secretary of the Mine Safety Committee and
to report on safety matters at meetings of the Committee ;
(8) to collaborate with the mine doctor in the organisation
of first aid ;
(9) to co-operate with the works council and also with
the mining authorities, the labour inspectorate, the social
insurance institution, etc.

164

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The organisation of these safety services in the mines
was completed during 1946. Since then, safety officials have
been appointed not only in the mines but also in the ancillary
undertakings of the mining industry.
Organisation in the Mining

Federations

The various mines and ancillary undertakings are grouped
for administrative purposes in regional federations of the
coal-mining industry. Safety and rescue sections have been
established in these federations for the purpose of watching
over safety conditions in the mines and undertakings and
supervising the activities of the safety officials. These sections
are in the charge of qualified directors, usually mining engineers
with long experience, and are under the immediate authority
of the technical director of the federation.
The duties of these sections are as follows :
(1) to prepare monthly statistical returns of the accidents
occurring in the mines belonging to the federation ;
(2) to investigate the causes of accidents and to ascertain
the technical and organisational shortcomings of the mine
concerned ;
(3) to inspect the mines and examine the state of the
mechanical installations, machines and tools, and also working
methods ;
(4) to attend meetings of the safety committees and to
follow the activities of the committees ;
(5) to confer and consult with the safety officials of the
various mines concerning the best methods of preventing
accidents ;
(6) to collaborate with the central federation of the coalmining industry in the drafting of orders, instructions, reports,
etc., bearing on mining safety ;
(7) to co-operate with the mining authorities, the labour
inspectorate, the various sections of the miners' union, etc. ;
(8) to make proposals concerning awards to be made to
persons who have been specially meritorious from the safety
standpoint ;
(9) to watch over the rescue arrangements (oxygen appliances, first-aid posts, rescue operations, and detection of fires) ;
and

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : POLAND

165

(10) to collaborate with the federation's medical staff
concerning the organisation and maintenance of first-aid
arrangements, and also concerning health conditions.
Organisation in the Central

Administrations

Every important industry is managed by a central administration. The central administration of the coal-mining industry
co-ordinates, supervises and assumes the economic direction
of the undertakings under the authority of the Minister of
Mines and Power. For this purpose, undertakings include the
federations of the coal-mining industry, in which are grouped
the individual mines, the ancillary undertakings and associated
manufacturing undertakings : hard-coal mines, lignite mines,
coke ovens, briquette factories and a whole series of other
ancillary factories and services.
In 1945 the central administration of the coal-mining
industry established a department of safety and rescue.
This department, which exercises general supervision over
the safety of the coal-mining industry, is placed directly under
the authority of the central technical directorate.
The duties of the department are as follows :
(1) to keep statistics of the accidents occurring in all the
mines, showing the type, number and causes of the accidents ;
(2) to analyse the main causes of accidents and to study
methods of prevention ;
(3) to draw up general regulations and instructions and
also rules for difficult or dangerous work ;
(4) to watch over and supervise the activities of the
safety services of the federations and the individual mines ;
(5) to collaborate with the mining administrations, the
labour inspectorate, etc. ;
(6) to co-operate with the social services, the educational
authorities, the services dealing with rationalisation and
investment, technical services, etc., in all matters bearing on
safety and health ;
(7) to undertake safety and health propaganda in the form
of lectures, technical advice, films, etc. ; and
(8) to improve equipment and appliances from the safety
standpoint.

166

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The organisation of safety and health services on a large
scale in the different industries was only made possible by the
nationalisation of the more important undertakings, and, as
a consequence, the adoption of a uniform policy in dealing
with technical problems of an economic or social character.
These services have contributed greatly to the improvement
of working conditions in the mines.
Organisation in the Trade Unions
Independently of the activities undertaken by the central
administrations of different industries in the field of industrial
safety and health, the matters mentioned above have constituted, and still constitute, one of the most important tasks of
the trade unions.
Owing to the particularly difficult conditions of employment in the coal-mining industry in 1947 and 1948, the miners'
union organised courses for training the most prominent and
active of its members in industrial safety and health. In these
courses, which were of a high order, all the members of the
union who took part in them received sufficient training to
enable them to understand and interest themselves in working
conditions in the mine in so far as concerns safety and health.
This achievement was greatly facilitated by selecting as instructors specialist workers who, in addition to long experience,
had some knowledge of social questions and organising ability.
The organisation of the safety services in the trade unions
is on the following lines :
(1) For each industry covered by the union, there is an
industrial safety and health section in the headquarters administration. The task of this section is to watch over conditions
of employment in the industry concerned as regards safety
and health. If the union considers that the conditions of
employment are not satisfactory, it makes representations to
the central administration of the industry, or it may otherwise
do what it considers necessary to procure an investigation of
these conditions, and to have causes of complaint removed.
The safety and. health section attached to the headquarters
administration of the union supervises, instructs and stimulates the local branches of the union in safety matters. I t also
collaborates with the higher mining authorities, the regional
labour inspection authorities, the social insurance authorities

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : POLAND

167

and the central administration of the coal-mining industry in
these matters.
(2) In the local branches of the union there are directors
of safety and health whose function it is to watch over and
supervise safety conditions in the undertakings coming within
their competence and, in particular, to supervise in these
undertakings the activities of the union stewards and to watch
over safety and health conditions in individual undertakings.
(3) In individual undertakings, union safety and health
stewards may be appointed in numbers proportionate to the
size of the undertaking and the magnitude of the risks. These
stewards may devote all their time to safety matters or, if the
undertaking is a small one, concern themselves with other
matters to the extent authorised by the works council. The
coal mines, being both large and important undertakings, all
have full-time safety and health stewards.
Operation of the Safety Services
All officials concerned with industrial safety and hygiene
have a well-defined sphere of activity and closely collaborate
with one another so as to reach agreement in matters of policy.
(1) At the undertaking level, the responsible body is the
safety committee, consisting of the mine manager, representatives of the various technical services, and representatives
of the works council. The committee meets once a month
and whenever a serious accident occurs. The committee's
functions are :
(a) to consider the accidents that have occurred during the
past month ;
(b) to determine the causes of the accidents and means of
preventing recurrences ;
(c) to discuss all arrangements and alterations in the undertaking likely to increase safety.
Committee meetings are attended by safety and health
stewards, the director of the safety department of the coalmining federation, a representative of the safety and health
section of the miners' union, and a representative of the competent mining authority. Thus, the safety committee brings
together at the undertaking level all the officials and bodies
concerned with safety.
12

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

168

(2) At the level of the coal-mining federation on the one
hand and the safety section of the miners' union on the other,
regular conferences are held which are attended by all the
safety officials of the mining federation concerned, as well as
by representatives of the central federation of the industry,
the labour inspectorate, the regional mining authorities, the
technical directorate of the federation and the miners' union.
At these conferences discussions are held on safety and health
matters of interest to the entire federation.
(3) At the level of the central administration of the coalmining industry, there are monthly conferences of the directors of all the safety sections of the regional federations ; these
conferences are also attended by representatives of the higher
mining authorities, the regional labour inspectorate, the
Institute of Natural Fuel, the headquarters administration of
the miners' union, and very often by representatives of the
Ministry of Mines and Power and the Ministry of Labour.
The conferences discuss matters such as mining disasters,
broad questions of safety, supplies of mining and safety equipment, shortcomings having a bearing on safety, remedial
measures, etc. As a rule, the agenda is fixed beforehand.
(4) In its capacity as a co-ordinating body, the central
safety committee of the coal-mining industry passes on to
the supreme mining authorities all suggestions originating in
the various institutions concerned with the industry. This
committee consists of delegates of the various Ministries and
public authorities concerned, the miners' union and various
institutions.
The arrangements described above have proved satisfactory. I n the first place, the work is divided among the management of the industry and the supervisory staff, a distinction
being drawn between the functions of technical management
and those of t h e works council ; secondly, safety is made the
duty and the concern of every person employed ; and thirdly,
there are no conflicts of jurisdiction.
W O R K

SCIENTIFIC

INSTITUTIONS

Problems relating to improvements in mining technique
are studied by the Institute of Natural Fuel, the Mining
Academy and the central administration of the coal-mining
industry.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : POLAND

169

The Institute of Natural Jb'uel studies mining problems both
in connection with improvements in working methods
(machines, tools, output, quality, etc.) and in connection with
accident prevention. The Institute has a special division for
explosives and mine dusts. There is also a division for industrial medicine and psychology, which is concerned with the
drawing up of psychological and physiological standards for
particular occupations in the coal-mining industry, the organisation of vocational guidance, the prevention of occupational
diseases, the organisation of first aid and, more generally, the
health of the workers and the hygienic condition of their
environment.
DEVELOPMENT OF BEGULATIONS, ADVISORY EITLES, ETC.

Since the war, the central mining authorities have issued
a whole series of detailed mining safety regulations dealing
with such matters as ventilation, lamp rooms, precautions
against rock bursts and falls of ground, explosives and shotfiring. They have also undertaken investigations on a large
scale with a view to a complete overhaul of the safety regulations. The various matters on which regulations are to be
drawn up have been divided among committees of specialists,
and some of these committees have already completed their
task.
In addition, a very large number of technical papers have
been published on a variety of subjects closely bearing on
safety, e.g., underground fires, the design and operation of
electrical installations, and the reconstruction of mines.
Lastly, a series of popular pamphlets under the general
title Mining Library has been published for the lower supervisory officials and the miners. These deal, inter alia, with
falls of ground, shafts, transport, harmful gases, shotfiring,
rock drilling, mine fires, ventilation, underground water and
the lubrication of steam turbines.
EESITLTS ACHIEVED

The smooth and harmonious co-operation of all the institutions described above has given very definite results. In spite
of the many and serious difficulties arising out of an enemy
occupation lasting five years, and the inhuman treatment

170

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

meted out by the occupying power to Polish workers and
intellectuals, in spite of all the effects of war on Polish industry
and of all the shortages of equipment and supplies, aggravated
by the need for increasing production, there has been a constant
improvement in safety and health conditions in the mines.
A comparison between accident figures for pre-war and
post-war years is furnished by the following table.
TABLE XI. POLAND : ACCIDENT KATES IN RELATION TO OUTPUT
AND NUMBERS EMPLOYED, 1 9 4 6 - 1 9 4 8
Average
1928-1937

1946

1947

1948

Output in tons . . .
Persons employed
. .
Accidents x :

34,255,848
92,335

47,288,004
192,116

59,130,337
208,293

70,261,992
224,042

Very serious . . .

162
717
2,304
11,999

430
931
5,525
20,081

434
222
1,861
26,398

303
191
1,597
28,997

15,182

26,967

28,915

31,088

SUght
Total . . .
Accident rates per
100,000 tons:
Very serious . . .
Serious
SUght

0.47
2.09
6.72
35.02

0.90
1.96
11.68
42.46

0.73
0.37
3.14
45.55

0.43
0.27
2.26
41.18

l Fatal accidents are accidents followed by death within seven days ; very serious
accidents are accidents involving medical treatment for more than 13 weeks ; serious
accidents are accidents involving medical treatment for between four and 13 weeks ; and
slight accidents are accidents involving medical treatment for between three days and four
weeks. Accidents involving three days' absence from work or less are not included in
the figures.

Attention should be drawn to the considerable decrease
in the numbers of very serious and serious accidents ; this
must not be wholly attributed to the educational and propaganda activities of the central administration of the coalmining industry, for it is largely due to the sound organisation
and efficiency of the medical and first-aid services. The distribution of accidents by causes is much the same as it was before
the war, the principal cause, then as now, being falls of ground
and coal. A large number of accidents are also caused by
handling of coal ; these can only be avoided by the exercise
of care by the workers. Accidents due to machines and tools
account for less than a third of the total, and this testifies to

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNION OF SOUTH AFBIOA 1 7 1

the great efforts that have been made to keep the technical
equipment of the mines in good condition.
The nationalisation of the mines has made it possible to
consider a whole body of questions concerning the rational
exploitation of the coal deposits and the modernisation of
methods and equipment and, further, to draw up a general
plan for the protection of the workers, involving the provision
of housing, the creation of social institutions, the provision
of holidays and sports, and the development of cultural
institutions and public education.
These activities were begun shortly after a period of terrible
destruction and enemy occupation. At every turn there were
immense difficulties to be overcome and shortages to be made
good. Some difficulties and shortages still remain, but every
year sees an improvement in the organisation, equipment and
operation of the mines. The combined efforts of all the institutions involved are making the miner's work more productive,
easier, healthier and safer.
UNION OF SOUTH ATBICA
GENERAL SURVEY

The coal mines of the Union are not deep and the seams
are flat ; consequently coal mining has not been faced with
technical problems of outstanding difficulty or interest. Recent
investigations, however, indicate that the dusts in coal mines
are dangerous to health, and steps have been taken on the lines
of those well known in the South African gold-mining industry
to reduce concentrations of dust in the atmosphere of coal
mines.
Safety activities are carried on by the Mines Department
and the Transvaal Chamber of Mines. The official duties of the
inspectors of mines are mainly concerned with the promotion
of safety and the prevention of unsafe practices, and in the
performance of their duties they enjoy the co-operation of the
mining industry. The Prevention of Accidents Committee of
the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, with which the Department
collaborates, engages in safety training, education and propaganda, and also promotes technical improvements. I t has,
however, developed most of its activities in the gold mines.
The accompanying table shows the trends in accident
figures since 1939. The rising tendency which began in 1941,

172

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

became very marked from 1943 onwards. The principal reason
for the faster rate of increase lies in the stricter supervision
instituted in 1943 to ensure compliance with the Union regulations concerning the reporting of accidents. Contributory
factors included the great difficulties encountered in the maintenance and replacement of plant that was wearing out, a
steady rise in the demand for coal, and shortage of railway
tracks, which led to periods of intensive effort being interspersed with periods of slackness.
There has been a steady decline in the accident totals
since the peak year of 1946, and in 1950 the fatal accident
rate was lower than at any time since 1939.
TABLE XII. TRENDS IN ACCIDENT BATES IN SOUTH AFRICAN
COAL MINES
Average
number of
persons
employed
(in service
during year)

1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

34,731
37,322
38,847
41,474
43,071
48,910
51,489
51,631
51,184
49,865
52,457
54,827

Accident rate
per 1,000
persons in
service

1,110
1,055
1,165
1,402
1,687
2,311
3,146
3,160
3,032
2,801
3,033
2,891

31.96
28.27
29.99
33.80
39.17
47.25
61.10
61.20
59.24
56.17
57.82
52.73

Death rate
per 1,000
persons in
service

79
65
84
95
170
166
116
93
94
93
86
91

2.27
1.74
2.16
2.29
3.95
3.39
2.25
1.80
1.84
1.87
1.64
1.66

During the past two decades, South African collieries
have been mechanised only to the extent that coal-cutting and
drilling are done by modern electrical machines, but since
the war some of the new mines have installed mechanical
loaders, shuttle cars, locomotives, etc., on the American plan.
The class of accidents which is most frequent in the South
African collieries is that due to trucks and tramways. Owing
to the fact t h a t most of the tonnage is handled underground
in small trucks, usually under one ton in capacity, by means of
handtramming to endless rope haulages, a very large number
of these trucks are constantly in motion in the underground

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNION

OF SOUTH AFRICA 1 7 3

roadways ; thus, there are many collisions and many derailments, as well as other types of accidents such as those due to
spragging of truck wheels, which cause minor injuries.
Better illumination, audible warning devices, better tracks
and better-kept trucks, guards on sprags, etc., have reduced
these accidents slightly, but the personal element plays a very
large part, as all the trammers are non-Europeans and they
form the greatest proportion of the underground labour complement. Fortunately, the injuries are not often fatal.
Fatalities are due chiefly to falls of ground from the roof
or sides of the workings. All the collieries are less than 1,000
feet in depth, some being no more than 40 feet below surface.
Mining is almost entirely by the bord and pillar method
of working and the roof is generally good. These good conditions, however, lead to false security at times and unfortunately the falls, although local and small, result in very serious
injuries when persons are involved. The application of systematic timber support is enforced whenever it appears to the
Inspector of Mines that the matter cannot be left to the
discretion of the miner.
Accidents due to explosions of gas are rare, although, when
they have occurred, considerable loss of life has been experienced. Ventilation in the collieries is almost always provided
by means of large capacity fans situated on the surface at the
heads of special ventilation shafts. This, combined with the
fact that South African coal dusts are not highly explosive
and that removal of coal dust and application of stone dust or
water are insisted on by the Mines Department, has undoubtedly
kept the casualties due to explosions of gas at a minimum.
The Mines Department is fortunate in that the relations
between it and the managers, other officials and the workmen
and their unions are good ; thus a very large degree of co-operation exists between all classes in their efforts to prevent
accidents of all kinds.
The Prevention of Accidents Committee of the Transvaal
Chamber of Mines, in active collaboration with the Eand
Mutual Assurance Company and the Department of Mines,
has for many years sponsored constantly expanding safety
propaganda on the gold mines of the Witwatersrand. Only
within the past ten years or so, however, have the first two
bodies extended their activities to the coal mines. Since its

174

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

inception in 1911, just after the Union was formed, the Department of Mines has been operating on safety propaganda in the
form of verbal advice, written instructions, and punishment
of offenders who break the rules.
The Prevention of Accidents Committee and Rand Mutual
Assurance Company promote prize schemes for those mines
which have low or reduced accident and death rates, and ambulance competitions for both Europeans and non-Europeans, and
supply posters with suitable slogans for display at shaft heads
and underground and films for display in the compounds.
Experiments with illuminated signs representing how
accidents can happen and giving direct instructions to the
worker for his safety are being carried out.
The labour force in South African mines is organised with
European miners in control of gangs of up to some 40 aboriginal
non-Europeans. The great majority of these non-Europeans
can neither read nor write even their own dialects, much less
understand the language of the European. All safety propaganda, therefore, must be put over by methods best calculated
to impress the non-European mind.
The safety propaganda, films, posters, illuminated signs,
ambulance and first-aid competitions, as sponsored by the
bodies referred to, have undoubtedly paid handsome dividends,
as the accident and death rates on all mines, including coal
mines, compare in South Africa more than favourably with
those for mines in other parts of the world.
The recently formed South African Bureau of Standards
undertakes, among its other activities, the initial investigation
and testing of flameproofness of electrical machinery and
apparatus for use in coal mines. The Department of Mines has
a permanent subcommittee which completes the investigation
and approves or rejects the machine or apparatus according
as it is up to standard or not.
Certain of the larger collieries employ safety officers, not
committees, for the purpose of promoting the safety and
well-being of the workers in the mine. Normally they have the
status of a mine overseer and are responsible directly to the
manager. Suggestions from workmen and officials are encouraged and welcomed, whether they are economic or in the
interests of safety. Suitable bonuses are paid for those suggestions which are adopted.

GENERAL

SAFETY

ACTIVITIES :

TTNION

SOUTH

AFHICA

175

EESEAECH

Research in matters affecting safety and health in mines is
carried on by the Government Mining Engineer's Division of
the Mines Department and by the Transvaal Chamber of Mines
Research Laboratories.
The Silicosis Research Committee attached to the Government Mining Engineer's Division investigates all matters
affecting the health of persons working at mines. Its functions
include the conduct of investigations and research into methods
of preventing the production of dust in mines, of rarefying
dust in mines and of removing dust from mines, and also
methods of counteracting and removing any other cause or
contributory cause of silicosis.
Matters that have formed the subject of research by
the Committee in recent years include dust produced in truck
repair shops and ventilation pipe reconditioning shops, dust
produced by scrapers, dust problems arising out of the mechanisation of mining, dust produced by rock drills, watercontrolled air valves for rock drills, controlled use of water in
underground workings with special reference to heat and
humidity, drilling with tungsten-carbide bits, dust caused by
mechanical loaders, the elimination of nitrous fumes from air
exhausted from development ends after blasting, and the area
of fronthead air release ports on large rock drills.
The Transvaal Chamber of Mines has a Timber Research
Laboratory and a Ventilation Problems Sub-Committee. The
subjects studied by the Laboratory include timber preservation
and fireproofing. The Ventilation Sub-Committee deals with
dust and heat problems as well as ventilation generally.
Individual work has been done by the special colliery
inspector, employed by the Department of Mines, on explosibility of South African coal dusts and the crushing strength of
South African coal left as safety pillars in mines. He carries
out routine investigations of samples submitted by district
inspectors, thereby enabling them to take definite and positive
action for the prevention of explosions, etc.
TRAINING

About 95 per cent, of the labour force employed in the
coal mines are Natives and, with the exception of a negligible
minority, they are migratory. The tasks performed by the

176

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Natives do not require a training system equivalent to apprenticeship to skilled trades, but a Native working for the first
time in a colliery serves a probationary period of up to two
months. This period has been introduced not so much for
training purposes as to enable the novice to become accustomed
by easy stages to the physical effort demanded by the tasks
to be performed.
Arrangements for the training of skilled workers are more
elaborate. They originated in the gold-mining industry, but
have been developed to cover all branches of mining, including
coal mining.
In the earlier days of gold mining the majority of the
skilled miners came from overseas. After the South African
war, however, this supply, to a great extent, ceased and some
difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary skilled
labour supply. This ultimately led to the establishment by the
Government of a training school for practical miners at the
Wolhuter Gold Mine in 1911. The school was conducted and
financed solely by the Union Government until 1916, in which
year it was reorganised and placed under the joint control of
the Transvaal Chamber of Mines and the Government, the
Government Mining Engineer being chairman of the board of
directors. Since that date branch schools have been established
to meet the growing requirements of the mining industry and
these now function at 13 mines on the Witwatersrand.
The scholars are under the general supervision of a superintendent and each school is in charge of a principal. These
officers carry out the functions of a local committee for each
school in consultation with the manager of the mine in which
the school is situated. The principals are selected from men
with long mining experience and organising ability and who
are in possession of at least the Mine Overseer's Certificate.
The instructors for the schools are selected and appointed by
the superintendent with the sanction of the board of directors.
Some of the conditions under which apprentices are
admitted to the schools are—
(1) Applicants for admission must have passed the sixth
standard and be between the ages of 19 and 23 years. In special
cases, persons over 23 years of age may be admitted.
(2) Applicants selected for the schools must be of firstclass physique.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNION

OF SOUTH AFRICA 1 7 7

(3) Indentures require to be entered into on behalf of the
apprentice binding him to work underground for a period
of 624 shifts, or two and a half years, whichever is the less,
in consideration of his training and the wages agreed to be
paid, on the understanding that the apprentice shall not work
or apply for work on any mine until he has completed the
period of his apprenticeship.
The course consists of mining practice, and classes dealing
with the theoretical side of the work are also held. I n the
mines on which schools have been established sections are set
aside where most of the work is done by advanced pupils
under the supervision and guidance of experienced instructors.
Apprentices receive pay from the day they begin work.
Training

Scheme

The scheme of training which has been devised and elaborated over a period of years has proved to be successful in
providing the type of skilled labour required for the underground workings of the mining industry. When an apprentice
starts his training he is first conducted through a full-scale
model of a section of a mine built on the surface, and reproducing a typical underground working place, where he learns
of the dangers that may confront him and how he should
conduct himself when he actually proceeds underground.
During this stage an opportunity is also taken to explain to
him the usual mining terms. After a few days he proceeds
underground and is required to work in a small place called
the " nursery ". Here, under the direct supervision of a school
instructor he is taught various mine operations, shovelling,
tramming, erecting underground supports, operation of a
rock drill and generally to become familiar with underground
conditions. He is then transferred to a working stope in the
school's section of the mine where he gains experience under
actual working conditions and under supervision. After a
period of about eight months, and provided his record and
progress have been satisfactory, he is recommended and
examined for his provisional blasting certificate and, if he
obtains this, he spends the next three or four months as an
assistant supervisor in a stope or reclamation area, under an
instructor, being gradually allowed to assume responsibility

178

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

for a small working place, and later being promoted to supervisor. During the last month or so of the period of training,
which lasts from 18 to 20 months, he may, provided he has
proved his ability, be seconded to the mining company to
replace absentee miners, experience which is regarded as very
valuable as it develops a sense of self-reliance and provides
an opportunity of directing Native labour, which is one of the
essentials of a competent miner apart from his ability to
perform all branches of the work.
Technical Classes
In addition to the practical courses, classes in mining are
held regularly and attendance at these is obligatory on the
part of all mining apprentices. While the lectures deal with the
theoretical aspects of mining, they are designed to meet the
special requirements of the apprentices, particular attention
being given to dust prevention and measures taken to eliminate
the dangers of mining and the promotion of health and safety.
Apprentices who are qualified educationally are encouraged
to attend the classes conducted by the Witwatersrand Technical College, and many who started their mining careers as
apprentices at the Government miners' training schools are
now occupying prominent positions in the mining industry of
the Band.
On the satisfactory completion of his training, an apprentice has to present himself for examination and, if successful,
he is granted the school's leaving certificate. He then experiences no difficulty in securing employment in the mines.
Training of Winding-Engine

Drivers

The original and main object of the Government miners'
training schools was to provide purely for the training of practical miners, b u t in 1937 the training of winding-engine drivers
was also undertaken. These learners are not attached to any
particular branch of the school, as their training moves from
one mine to another in order to take advantage of the different
types of winding machinery on which they have to carry out
their training.
Men to be trained under the scheme are chosen by a selection committee consisting of officials nominated by the Trans-

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNION

SOUTH AFRICA 1 7 9

vaal Chamber of Mines. 'The full course of training is for a
period of eight months, divided as follows :
(a) one month in a boiler house under the instruction
of a competent boiler attendant ;
(b) four months driving a double-tram reversible winch
which is fitted with a depth indicator ;
(c) three months on the footplate of a winding engine
under the instruction of a certified winding-engine driver.
During the (a) and (b) periods of training, the learners
are required to attend at suitable centres as directed by an
inspector of training appointed for that purpose. During part
(c) of the course, learners are given special tuition by coaches
regarding the parts of winding engines and their functions
and the requirements of the relevant mining regulations.
Candidates for training must be between the ages of 21
and 40.
Issue of Certificates of Competency
Under the Mines and Works Act, 1911, and the regulations
framed thereunder, certain functions, duties and responsibilities
in mines and works or relating to machinery can only be
entrusted to or assumed by persons holding appropriate certificates of competency. These are for : mine manager, mine
overseer, mine surveyor, assayer, mechanical or electrical
engineer, locomotive engine driver, winding-engine driver,
engine driver, boiler attendant, blaster and lampman.
The examinations for these certificates are conducted by
commissions of examiners appointed by the Government
Mining Engineer, who is empowered to make rules for the
conduct of the examination by each such commission.
Before a miner is permitted to obtain a blasting certificate,
without which he cannot take charge of a section in a colliery,
he is required to have had at least 600 shifts of underground
experience, acceptable to the relative commission of examiners,
who also require him to pass an examination at which, among
other things, he must demonstrate his practical ability to
handle a safety lamp and detect various percentages of inflammable gas by this means, as well as his ability to handle blasting
materials.
When he has obtained his blasting certificate he is deemed
to be capable of assuming responsibility for the control of a
section and the safety of all persons in that section.

180

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

This may be considered to be the period in which a miner
receives his safety training, but it must be appreciated that the
whole of the official attitude on mines in the Union of South
Africa, from the owners downwards, is " safety first " and the
mine officials continue to stress the safety aspect throughout
the miner's working life.
The Education Department of the Government of South
Africa subsidises technical colleges in various centres, at which
a very wide range of subjects is taught. These colleges provide,
inter alia, a three-year course in coal-mining practice styled the
National Technical Certificates in Coal Mining I, I I and III.
The object of the course is to prepare the prospective coalmining official to obtain his mine overseer's and mine manager's
certificates of competency, which are a prerequisite to the
appointment of officials to these senior posts on mines.
In addition, in the appropriate centres, short courses are
held regularly to teach miners the use of the flame safety lamp
and the dangers of gas and coal dust, for the purpose of ensuring a proper appreciation of the dangers which may be encountered in their work.
Educational institutions such as the universities and
technical colleges afford technical training in mining
engineering but do not treat the subject from the safety aspect,
although at the university students are required to obtain a
certificate in first aid.

UNITED KINGDOM

Safety activities for the benefit of the British coal-mining
industry are extensive. They are carried on principally by
the Mines Department, the Mines Inspectorate, the National
Coal Board and the Safety in Mines Besearch Establishment
(formerly the Safety in Mines Research Board).
In the last few years the Mines Department has rewritten
several sets of safety regulations and issued new ones. The
matters covered include explosives and shotfiring, cardox
and hydrox, supports, locomotive haulage, ventilation, lighting,
certificates of competency, training and medical examinations.
The Department has also issued numerous safety pamphlets
and promoted safety education and propaganda generally.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED KINGDOM

181

Similarly, the mines inspectors, in addition to performing
their official duties, have done much educational work in the
interests of safety by addressing meetings, reading papers
at technical institutions, publishing articles in the technical
press, etc.
The National Coal Board has built up its own safety
organisation, which has been very active in many fields.
The Safety in Mines Eesearch Establishment, now attached
to the Ministry of Fuel and Power, continues its research and
educational work, except as regards roof control, which
subject has been taken over by the National Coal Board.
A considerable number of standards for flameproof electrical equipment in coal mines have been drawn up by the
British Standards Institution.

GBNEBAL SURVEY

A general review of progress in safety in coal mines since
1938 and of outstanding problems is provided by the reports
of the Chief Inspector of Mines for the years 1939 to 1950.
In 1939, 782 persons were killed underground in coal
mines, 2,877 were seriously injured and 120,366 disabled for
more than three days. The corresponding rates per 100,000
man-shifts were 0.50, 1.85 and 77.50. In 1950, 447 persons
were killed, 1,818 seriously injured and 213,126 disabled for more
than three days, the respective rates being 0.34,1.39 and 163.98.
The figures for serious accidents are included in those for
disablement exceeding three days. Since 1938 the frequency
of fatal and serious accidents has declined substantially and
the increase in the slighter accidents is thought to be due in
part to factors not directly concerned with safety, such as the
incidence of income tax, higher compensation benefits, a
tendency to take minor accidents more seriously, and the
higher average age of the employees.
The improvement in the figures for the more serious
accidents is attributed to various causes, including concentration of work in smaller units with larger roads and better
supervision, advance of technical knowledge, more widespread
application of principles of roof control and support, greater
use of steel supports, inspection, and the education and training
of the workers.

182

SAFETY m

COAL MINES

Falls of Ground
In 1941, owing to a serious increase in the numbers of
accidents due to falls of ground, an organisation was set up
within the Inspectorate for studying means of avoiding such
accidents. The organisation had a co-ordinating inspector
of divisional rank at headquarters. A senior inspector was
appointed in each division to devote his whole time to the
work and to act as the secretary of committees formed in each
major coalfield. These committees were comprised of representatives of owners, managers, under-officials and workmen.
The members of the committees were to give their advice on
aspects of the problem specially affecting the coalfield and to
make known the results of investigations to their respective
organisations.
The general principles adopted in this work have been
(1) to make supports more effective, by setting them promptly
and with means to ensure theix1 giving adequate resistance,
and (2) to devise measures to protect workmen in their actual
working places.
As examples of the kind of work done under the first
item, prop dynamometers have been devised and used to
discover the best form of prop end for the conditions, so that
the props should resist quickly and maintain substantial
resistance all the time they are in position. As regards
packs, attention has been concentrated on the details of building that bring about the necessary early resistance—building
the walls on a clean floor, sloping them slightly inwards,
bedding the walling stone with small material, and finishing
inside and walls tightly. As regards chocks, the use of which has
been extended, emphasis has been on the use of hard sawn
wood or steel frame chocks erected tightly on the natural
floor.
For example, of measures under the second item, a high
proportion of the fall of ground accidents occurred at roadheads—places where persons work and frequently pass—and
many of these happened to the rippers during the time that the
ripping was well advanced. Much effort has been spent on
devising and giving publicity to means whereby supports
are positioned in time, not only to safeguard persons passing
on other shifts but also to ensure that the rippers themselves

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED KINGDOM

183

work safely. Attention has been paid similarly to means for
making support withdrawal operations safer. Systems of
withdrawals, the kinds of supports used and the forms of tools
used have been improved. In this work, in particular, there
has been co-operation with the Supports Testing Section of
the Safety in Mines Research Establishment.
The Eegulations (put into operation in 1947) dealing with
methods of roof support largely enforced existing good practices devised by colliery managers in co-operation with the
inspectors. They also extended the use of systematic barring
of the roof.
The advisory committees have continued to meet over the
past ten years, and 15 pamphlets, embodying the results of
their views in a simple form, have been issued in large numbers.
Films and film rolls, illustrating principles of roof support in
animation and showing actual practice below ground, have been
prepared and have been shown to audiences in the coalfields
by the inspectors engaged on special duties. Eoughly 100
meetings of this kind have taken place annually.
During the ten years since the appointment of the inspectors for special duties in connection with the prevention
of falls of ground, the numbers of serious accidents occurring
annually from this cause have been reduced by well over
half, as will be seen from the table below.

TABLE X I I I .

N U M B E R S O F ACCIDENTS I N T H E U N I T E D K I N G D O M
F R O M F A L L S OP G R O U N D ,

O n roads

At faces

1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950

1940-1950

Total

433
434
371
313
256
256
230
190
213
194
148

1,270
1,216
1,085
1,041

1,703
1,650
1,456
1,354
1,200
1,139
1,132
1,039
1,015

80
68
75
67
79
49
47
45
30
44
38

207
148
167
163
152
135
114
112
103
83
71

287
216
242
230
231
184
161
157
133
127
109

513
502
446
380
335
305
277
235
243
238
186

1,477
1,364
1,252
1,204
1,096
1,018
1,016

1,990
1,866
1,698
1,584
1,431
1,323
1,293
1,196
1,148
1,030

944
883
902
849
802
709
645
F = Fatal

903
793

NF = Serious non-fatal

961
905
792
716

902

T = Total

184

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

In 1950, of all the serious accidents at faces, 45 per cent.
happened during coal-getting (other than power loading),
7 per cent, during coal-cutting and less than 1 per cent, during
power loading. ÎTearly one-third of all the serious accidents
and over one-quarter of the fatal accidents happened in
ground ahead of the supports. In many of these accidents
there was evidence of delay in spragging or propping. Most
falls were attributed to overloading of wooden props at
the waste edge or to the breaking of the overhanging part
of wood bars extending over the cutter track; wood bars are
not suitable for use in this way as cantilevers. Almost half
the fatal accidents involved some support which, though
intrinsically strong enough, had become unstable as a result
of faulty setting, excessive ground movement or a blow, or
else its area of contact with the roof was insufficient.
On 30 June 1946 there were 15,125 miles of roadways in
use below ground ; 5,148 miles were supported by steel arches,
284 by cambered girders, 2,872 by straight girders, bars, etc.,
and 5,132 by timber and other means ; 1,689 miles were
unsupported. At the end of 1948 the length of roadways
supported by steel was about 8,500 miles, of which 5,500
were supported by steel arches and 3,000 by straight girders.
The total weight of the steel used for road supports was about
324,000 tons. By the end of 1950 the figure had risen to
350,000 tons. Steel face supports accounted for a further
100,000 tons. Round timber supports consumed in 1949
amounted to 531,000 tons, and sawn timber to 265,000 tons.
„
,
Haulage
General.
"
During 1945, an inspector in each division of the Mines
Inspectorate devoted several months to a detailed study of
haulage operations and an analysis of all haulage accidents
that had occurred during the previous five years. Some
of the conclusions that emerge from these studies are summarised by the Chief Inspector as follows :
Roads should be of ample size, straight, well graded and
well lighted.
Trades should be well laid with rails of suitable section,
properly sleepered and ballasted, curves should have ample
radius, and points and crossings should be so designed as
to avoid the necessity for manual guidance.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED KINGDOM

185

As regards rolling stock, more attention should be given to
the design, examination and maintenance in good order of
all drawgear.
Safety devices need to be positive and automatic in action
as far as practicable. More detailed attention should be given
to the provision and proper siting of safety devices, especially
at the tops and bottoms of inclines, at junctions and at both
ends of pass-byes. Signalling arrangements should be so placed
as to be operated from a position of safety.
At loading points it is particularly necessary to have
adequate height and width with suitable provision for the
effective control of the tubs.
Men on roads. Everything possible should be done to
keep men off the haulage roads when travelling to and from
work or when tubs are in motion.
Supervision. An official should be made specially responsible for the supervision of all haulage arrangements.
Training and propaganda.
Improvements should result
from the better training of haulage operatives ; talks and
discussions with officials and workmen on haulage practice
and accidents should also be undertaken.
Locomotive Haulage.
In new undertakings and in major schemes for the
reorganisation of existing mines the trend in underground
transport is definitely towards the use of locomotives in the
main haulage roads and trunk conveyors in subsidiary roads.
In 1946, 62 diesel locomotives and 51 battery locomotives
were in use ; in 1949 the respective figures were 279 and 52.
The Chief Inspector considers that, from the point of view
of safety, locomotive haulage has many advantages, the most
important residing in the fact that the driver must travel
with the train and is thus in a position to take any action
immediately necessary for safety. To make the most of this
advantage the controls should be easily accessible and the
driver should be protected against falls of roof, from inadvertent
contact with the roof or its supports, and from falling out,
and he should have a clear view of the road ahead. To meet
this last requirement it is suggested that the Netherlands
practice of having a driver's seat and controls at each end
of the locomotive should be adopted.

186

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Man-riding.
A number of serious accidents on gradients of man-riding
haulages lead the Chief Inspector to lay down the basic
principle that standards of design, construction, operation,
inspection and maintenance of man-riding apparatus should
not be inferior to those necessary for winding apparatus
in vertical shafts. Acceptance of this basic principle would
entail adoption of the following provisions :
(1) Eope haulage gear should have (a) a road contour
and distance indicator with a device which automatically
warns the engineman when the train is approaching the end
of its journey ; (b) devices which automatically cut off the
supply of power to the engine and apply the brakes in the
event of excessive speed, overwinding of the train or loss
of control by the engineman, unless effective provision has
been made for another person to bring the train to rest ; and
(c) brakes which are able at all times to stop the train at
a reasonable rate of deceleration.
(2) Locomotives should have (a) devices which automatically cut off or sufficiently reduce the supply of power to the
engine and apply the brakes of the locomotive, as well as
any power-operated brakes on the train, in the event of loss
of control by the driver or, alternatively, the arrangement
should be such that the guard of the train would take control
and bring the train to rest ; and (b) brakes which in conjunction with any power-operated brakes on the train are
at all times able to stop the train at a reasonable rate of
deceleration.
(3) Haulage ropes, cappings, couplings (including safety
ropes or chains), carriages or trucks, and all other apparatus,
should be of such strength and construction and so maintained
as to prevent danger to persons riding in the train.
(4) Tracks should be so constructed and maintained that,
having regard to the type and speed of the trains, derailments are unlikely to occur.
(5) All apparatus should be inspected by competent persons
at such frequent intervals as would ensure the replacement
of any worn or damaged part before it became unfit or unsafe
to use.
The use of a continuous braking system for man-riding
trains is advocated.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED KINGDOM

187

Conveyors.
In recent years considerable anxiety has been caused by
the repeated occurrence of serious accidents with conveyors.
Apart from normal haulage risks there are risks of fire, riskß
of propagation of firedamp explosions by coal dust, and
risks to health. The Chief Inspector has outlined a comprehensive scheme of measures for the prevention of conveyor
accidents.
To begin with, conveyor equipment should be properly
designed and constructed and well suited for its duty, and
should incorporate adequate provisions to minimise spillage
and degradation of coal.
All conveyor roadways should have sufficient cross-sectional
area to allow ample clearance above and below as well as on
both sides of the conveyor.
Until efficient and suitable means can be devised for
combating the coal-dust danger from conveyors, the management at all safety-lamp mines should avoid the use of coal
conveyors in return airways. Care must also be taken to see
that the roadway is straight and well graded ; that, as far as
practicable and especially within a radius of five yards of the
driving head, only non-inflammable or fire-resisting materials
are used for the support of the roof and sides ; and that the
roadway is kept free of accumulations of combustible matter.
Installation should be done only by a team of men trained
for the job and properly supervised. Prime essentials are a
good foundation for the structure and precise alignment in
both the horizontal and vertical planes. Wood or other
inflammable material should not be used in the construction
of pillars supporting the structure.
In the operation of the conveyor care should be taken
to avoid spillage, coal degradation and dust formation and
dissemination. Water used for allaying dust should be kept
away from the belt. Lubrication should be done at regular
intervals.
Belt slip at the driving gear is a serious danger from the
point of view of heating. This danger can be minimised on
electrically operated conveyors by using a speed switch driven
by the belt at a point adjacent to the driving gear, which
maintains the pilot circuit of the conveyor system only when
there is negligible belt slip on the drive.

188

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Conveyor roads should be constantly patrolled.
The
conveyor patrol should report any defect or occurrence, such
as fast idlers or rollers, torn belt, misalignment, etc., for
immediate service attention. Arrangements should also be
made for systematic inspection of all conveyors by a competent
engineer. Further, since several conveyor fires occurred some
time after the cessation of work, patrols should operate not
only during working hours but also for some time after the
conveyors have been stopped so as to detect incipient heatings
or smouldering.
Where the motive power is compressed air, wheel-type
control valves which cannot be operated accidentally, and
main control valves, fitted at strategic points, which close
when the pressure is cut off, should be used.
Apart from taking every practicable precaution to reduce
the risk of fire to a minimum, efficient fire-fighting and
extinguishing equipment should also be provided.
Should a fire occur in a ventilation district where the
conveyor roadway is the only intake airway for the district
all means of escape for the men on the inbye side will be cut
off, since the return airway (or airways) will rapidly become
fouled by dense smoke and fumes from the fire. I t is, therefore,
eminently desirable t h a t there should be two intakes to every
district in which roadway belts are used for the transport
of coal.
An analysis of 100 conveyor fires during the period 19401950 shows that 25 were due to heating of drive head or
delivery point as a result of small coal or stalling of broken
belt, 24 to collapsed or seized roller bearings and 12 to faulty
alignment of rollers. In all, 74 fires were associated with
roller failures, eight with other mechanical defects such as
faults in turbines, and seven with electrical defects. In 11 cases
the cause of t h e fire was not ascertained.
Another very disturbing feature associated with underground conveyors is t h e excessive number of accidents, fatal
and serious non-fatal, occurring by " contact with the conveyor ". In the nine years 1940 to 1948, no less than 406 persons were killed or seriously injured from this cause ; 48 of
these accidents occurred during 1948. Of the total for the nine
years, 328 were what may be described as " fencing " accidents
and 52 were accidents while riding or stepping on conveyors.
The location of the ""fencing " accidents was as follows :

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132 at the driving head, 185 at the tension and 11 on the run
of the conveyor. I n respect of the 52 accidents while riding
or stepping on the belt, the causes were : foot through a
slit on the belt, 18 ; caught between roof and belt, 15 ; caught
between belt and drum or structure, 12 ; unclassified, seven.
I n the opinion of the Chief Inspector, the design and maintenance of conveyor fencing merit much closer attention than
they have received hitherto, while much closer and stricter
supervision is needed to prevent riding or stepping on
conveyors.
Haulage accidents in 1950 were classified as follows :
breakages and runaways : killed 22, seriously injured 76 ;
derailments and while re-railing: killed 11, seriously injured 103 ;
coupling, uncoupling, attaching or detaching or otherwise
manipulating tubs : killed 18, seriously injured 104 ; contact
with machinery, ropes or pulleys : killed 1, seriously injured 53 ;
other tub haulage accidents : killed 28, seriously injured 95 ;
conveyors : killed 12, seriously injured 86 ; a grand total of
92 killed and 517 seriously injured.
Explosives and Shotfiring
As regards shotfiring, wide use is being made of sheathed
explosives. During 1946, 36,339,817 lb. of explosives were
used for shotfiring, of which 30,751,806 lb. were permitted
explosives and of this latter amount 15,803,443 sheathed
explosives.
In 1938 some 30,000,000 lb. of explosives were used and
some 63,700,000 shots fired. The increases to 36,300,000 lb.
of explosives and 71,700,000 shots in 1946, followed by further
increases to 38,850,000 lb. and 74,600,000 shots in 1947, gave
rise to some concern and a committee was appointed in
January 1948 to consider the precautions necessary to secure
safety in the use of explosives and to recommend how the
effective exercise of these precautions could best be ensured
in practice.
The committee reported in 1950, by which time the annual
consumption of explosives has risen to over 46,000,000 lb.,
and the number of shots fired to 87,400,000. Its report
constitutes a comprehensive review of existing regulations and
practice, and concludes with a series of general recommendations, an outline of proposed new regulations and a list of

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matters to be dealt with in a code of good practice. Among
other things, the committee recommends that careful consideration should be given to the adoption of alternatives to
shotfiring (cardox, hydrox, hydraulic coal bursters, etc.), to
improvements in methods of roof control, the development
of training courses for shotfirers, effective supervision of
shotfiring, the marking of detonators for identification purposes, and improvements in arrangements for recording the
issue, use and return of explosives.
The new regulations proposed would be in seven parts :
general responsibilities of managements ; general responsibilities of shotfirers and other workmen ; precautions during
shotfiring in all mines ; additional precautions for mines or
parts of mines where permitted explosives are compulsory ;
misfires ; shotfiring in sinking operations ; and miscellaneous
provisions. 1
Ventilation
I n 1946 the ventilation of the mines could be considered
generally satisfactory but there was scope for improvement
through the prevention of excessive leakages between intake
and return airways. Means to this end include the judicious
use of air splits, reduction in the length of the circuits, the
greater use of overcasts, the effective sealing off of old
roads, and the duplication and tightening of doors and sheets.
Booster fans are sometimes used to effect makeshift
improvements in the ventilation and greater use is also being
made of electric auxiliary fans.
Welcome innovations are the employment of ventilation
engineers and t h e making of comprehensive ventilation surveys.
In some mines the emission of firedamp has been reduced
by improved roof control.
The Inspectorate, particularly the section engaged on
special duties, has played a considerable part in practical
tests on various forms of methanometer and of methane
recorders.
The mines inspectors have studied problems of ventilation
and firedamp emission from the aspects of reduction of firedamp emission by improved roof control, or by the elimination
of bed separation and particularly at rippings where there is
the risk of shotfiring igniting firedamp.
1

The regulations were issued on 17 Sept. 1951. See Volume II.

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They have initiated measures to drain wastes of firedamp
and have taken part in the study and application in British
mines of the drainage of firedamp by boreholes from strata
behind longwall workings.
In 1950 there were in all 40 cases of explosion or ignition
of firedamp. The causes were : open lights, 11 ; matches and
smoking, 5 ; electricity, 9 ; shotfiring, 6 ; sparks from coalcutter picks, 5 ; damaged cap lamp, 1 ; unknown, 3. Many
of the accidents have their root cause in a lack of efficient
ventilation or proper diversion of the air current.
Fire Prevention and Protection at Coal Mines
The Mines Inspectorate is taking an active part in extensive
and comprehensive schemes to combat the fire hazard. Among
these schemes are the installation of complete fire-fighting
measures including extensive ranges of high-pressure water
supply pipe lines with standardised valves, hydrants, hoses,
nozzles and drenching sprays at vulnerable points; elimination,
as far as possible, of inflammable materials underground by
substitution of a fire-proof or fire-resisting material ; the
formation and training of efficient fire-fighting teams; and
the installation of effective fire-warning systems.
Certain of the inspectors detailed for special duties are
engaged, in collaboration with manufacturers, in the development of fire detection and alarm systems either by modification
of existing systems to render them suitable for underground
use or the evolution of new methods ; the development and
application of mechanical devices to prevent an abnormal
temperature rise due to frictional heating on moving machinery,
particularly belt conveyor systems, and to cut off the power
when the belt becomes stalled or belt slip excessive ; and
the development of fire-resisting brattice cloth to replace
standard brattice sheeting which is usually of a highly
inflammable nature. They also maintain liaison with the
technical headquarters staff of the National Coal Board in
the standardisation of all fire-fighting equipment for use
underground and with conveyor belt manufacturers in the
development of fire-resisting belting.
Comments are made on the causes and circumstances of
these fires. During the period 1940-1950 the total number
of underground fires (excluding fires due to belt conveyors or

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spontaneous combustion) was 300, of which 116 were accounted
for by electricity, 25 by inbye compressors, 37 by haulage,
38 by open lights, 26 by smoking, 15 by shotfiring, 9 by oxyacetylene burners, 11 by tool friction and 23 by other causes.
The principal causes of the electrical fires were faults in
armoured cables (29) and flexible cables (37).
Dmt Prevention and Suppression
Following upon the publication in 1942 of a report by the
Medical Eesearch Council, dealing with chronic pulmonary
diseases amongst coal miners in South Wales, a special joint
committee was set up in South Wales comprising representatives of the Mines Inspectorate, colliery owners, workmen
and the South Wales Coal Owners' Eesearch Association.
Its task was to deal with the whole question of dust suppression, and a special inspector was appointed in each of the South
Wales districts for full-time work on dust problems.
As a result of the intensive campaign which followed, a
number of methods for the prevention and suppression of
dust at or near the coal face were adopted. These included
wet cutting, water infusion, water spraying, wet cutting with
foam, and treatment of dust at conveyor transfer and loading
points.
Eesearch on the wetting and consolidation of dust on
mine roadways was suspended on the outbreak of war, but in
1943 large-scale experiments were resumed in South Wales
and subsequently extended to other coalfields, with encouraging
results.
General supervision of the dust control measures in British
mines is exercised by all inspectors of mines during the course
of their underground and surface visits to mines, but in each
Division there is at least one inspector who pays special attention to development of improvements in methods of dust
suppression.
By the use of airborne-dust sampling instruments, these
inspectors engaged on special duty are able to advise managements on the need for dust control measures, and their special
experience enables them to suggest the most suitable and
effective measures for the particular working conditions.
They are able to carry out investigations to resolve points of
difficulty or to determine the relative merits of alternative
control measures.

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Progress in the application of dust control measures and
the development of new methods is kept under review by
committees, the members of which represent all sides of the
mining industry. The main committee, the National Joint
Pneumoconiosis Committee, under the chairmanship of the
Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Fuel and Power,
is concerned with all aspects of the pneumoconiosis problem,
but there are subcommittees dealing with individual aspects.
One such subcommittee deals with dust prevention. In
addition there is a committee in each Division under the
chairmanship of the divisional inspector.
Eeviews of dust suppression practice and problems by the
Chief Inspector in his reports for 1949 and 1950 include the
following particulars.
Of 330,169 yards of longwall face estimated to need antidust treatment in 1950, 189,050 yards were treated during
the year, as follows : by wet cutting 109,997 yards, by water
infusion 44,512 yards and by hand spraying 34,541 yards.
The total length treated represents an increase over 1949 of
61,603 yards. There were 10,672 power-driven drilling
machines for stone-drilling operations (3,810 rotary and
6,862 percussive), and of these 2,242 were equipped with
water feed, 17 with foam feed and 32 with dust traps. Very
few pneumatic picks were equipped with water feed—in one
Division, for example, 415 out of 6,000 and in another six out
of 7,500. Sprays or dust extractors were fitted at 2,364 conveyor transfer points out of a total of 9,254 and at 1,687
conveyor loading points out of a total of 2,992. There were
also 210 sprays for wetting tubs after loading.
Infusion.
Infusion has been shown to be practicable provided there
is perseverance to overcome initial difficulties and adequate
trial to determine the most suitable location, depth and direction of boreholes, position of seals and the most suitable
water pressure and quantity. In one Division water pressures
up to 600 pounds per square inch are being used with satisfactory results, but with such high pressures it is necessary to
provide equipment capable of withstanding the maximum
static pressure of the water and to ensure t h a t the control
valves are opened gradually so that any bursting effect on
the coal can be observed and controlled.

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In all cases where water infusion is applied, it is important
to use water meters to ensure that the correct quantity is
used in each hole, for too much water adversely affects the roof
and floor while too little may be insufficient for the suppression
of dust. The water meter is liable to be damaged by sediment
and so filters should be used at appropriate places in the
pipe lines.
Wet Gutting.
More extensive application of wet cutting has shown that
it is an effective method of suppressing dust, provided care is
exercised in the location of the water jets to ensure that the
energy of the water drives the dust against the coal, where it
is arrested before it can become entrained in the ventilation
current. Where cutting is done above floor level it may be
necessary to use shields to divert the ventilation current away
from the cascading stream of holings. Cutter jibs designed so
that the water is fed through them to jets near the chain
track have been found very effective, especially where cutting
is above floor level. Where cutting is done in stone, airborne
dust concentrations of much less than 850 particles per cubic
centimetre between one and five microns may be dangerous.
The aim should be to keep the concentrations below 450 particles per cubic centimetre in the size range of five to 0.5 micron.
More can be done to reduce airborne dust from machine
holings by using gummers which load the wetted holings
directly on to the conveyor. Where the cut is above the floor
level the wetted holings should be conveyed in an enclosed
chute either to the conveyor or to the floor. Tests have
shown that, even where the coal is naturally damp, arcwall
machines may produce too much airborne dust and dangerous
conditions may occur where, as often happens in narrow
workings, there is not a brisk ventilation current. Where
piped water is not available, alternative arrangements, such
as water supplied in pressurised tanks or by pump from static
tanks, should be used. With the development of simultaneous
cutting and loading machinery, the combined operation may
produce high airborne dust concentrations unless the machines
are fitted and used with effective water sprays applied to dust
producing points. I t is usually far more satisfactory to have
the machines equipped for dust suppression by the manufacturers than to improvise fittings at the colliery.

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195

Pneumatic Pieles.
The water supply to the pick is normally controlled
by the air valve lever which operates a combined air and water
valve. The water hose connection to this valve should be
carefully made so that water does not drop on to the operator.
Development by manufacturers has been along the lines of
passing the water through intricate paths in the machine
casing to water jets at the end of the cylinder. Unless the
water is clean and a filter incorporated in the pipe lines, these
passages may become choked and involve dismantling of the
machine for cleaning. I t may be better to take the water
from the control valve to the jets through a strong tube,
moulded and fitted to the external casing of the machine.
The quantity and pressure of water and the angle of the
cone of water issuing from the jets have been under investigation but conditions vary widely. The quantity of water
should be capable of regulation by adjusting pressure or
altering jet size. In hard coal the machine may be working
for long periods and using large quantities of water for a small
amount of coal, whereas the reverse may be the case in soft coal.
The angle of the cone of water should be adjustable. A cone
angle which is wide enough to give satisfactory suppression
in a thick seam may soak the man if used in a thin seam.
Exhaust air escaping from the tool may cause dust to be raised,
but this effect can be lessened by using a rubber seal in the tool
holder and by using exhaust air deflectors.
Hand

Spraying.

Where this is the sole method of dust suppression and where
it is done by the men themselves, it is too apt to be neglected.
For this reason more positive measures are to be preferred,
although there are many cases where hand spraying could be
usefully employed to supplement other dust control measures.
But it calls for adequate supervision. The use of the handoperated trigger-valve and " Eockingham Poker " has
simplified the operation.
There have been complaints that, with percussive drilling,
the use of water slowed down the drilling rate and increased
the wear of bits. One test confirmed that wet drilling was
slower than dry drilling, but in other tests no difference was
observed. I t has been shown that the air pressure should be

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high enough to enable the machine to deliver an effective
blow, while the water pressure and flow must be sufficient to
keep the end of the hole clear of cuttings. Bit wear is
aggravated if t h e bit is operating in a paste formed by the
water and the cuttings. I t is probable that wet drilling is
more effective when the machine is supported by a drill
rig or by an airleg, because the machine is then able to exert
its maximum effort and the operator is better able to avoid
splashing water.
Conveyor Transfer and Loading

Points.

If the air entering a face is already highly charged with
dust, it is obvious that it will be extremely difficult to maintain
concentrations on the face below the arbitrary standards.
Increasing attention must therefore be paid to reducing the
amount of airborne dust arising from transport operations.
A great deal can he done by enclosing and baffling at conveyor
change points, by correctly siting sprays within the enclosure
so that the dust is driven against the larger pieces of coal
or a fixed surface, and by collecting within a hopper the dust
scraped from the return belt. Special chutes have been
designed for use at conveyor change points, and konimeter
samples taken near the chutes have shown considerably reduced
quantities of airborne dust. These chutes have also reduced
the breakage of coal. At some loading points dealing with
large tonnages of coal, it has been found difficult to keep
the dust concentrations below the arbitrary limits despite the
use of shrouding, sprays and belt cleaners, and it has now
been agreed to install chain scraper loaders between face and
gate conveyors and to wet the coal thoroughly on the chain
conveyors.
The most usual method of preventing airborne dust on
conveyor systems is the use of water sprays. With belt
conveyors it is preferable to apply the water on the transfer
or loading chutes so that the belt itself does not become
wetted. The energy of the spray should be used to drive
the dust on to a fixed surface where it will be arrested.
Fine dust which has adhered to the surface of the conveyor
belt is discharged into the air as the belt passes over the
rollers, and this adds substantially to the airborne dust. To
remove and collect it, a vibrating roller is used within an

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197

enclosure close to the gearhead. The dust may be removed
from the enclosure by a small exhausting fan or a compressedair ejector, and it is passed through a filter before the
air is discharged back into the ventilation.
Recent work has been concerned with the development of a
retractable plate between these special chutes and the delivery
drum. The plate is interlocked with an electrical switch so
that a torn belt or other material fouling the chute causes
the conveyor to be stopped.
Ventilation and Atmospheric

Conditions.

The important part played by ventilation was brought
out during a survey of reputedly dusty faces, when it was
observed that some of the worst airborne concentrations
were associated with double-unit faces where the air entered
one end of the face and returned at the other end. In almost
every instance the dust concentrations were reduced substantially by using the centre road as the intake and splitting
the ventilation right and left. I t is important in planning
the ventilation that due regard should be paid to the danger
from dust as well as from noxious and inflammable gases.
In all fast ends the ventilating tubes or brattice should be
kept well up to the face to ensure that there is not a zone of
stagnant air near the face where the dust concentrations can
build up to dangerous levels.
At hot and deep mines with difficult environmental conditions investigations have shown that, if the quantity of water
is carefully controlled and if the method of application is
such that the water is mixed intimately with the coal, there
need not be any serious adverse effects. I t has also been shown
that an increase in effective temperature due to the use of water
for dust suppression can be cancelled by slightly increasing
the quantity of air circulating.
The time at which the water is applied is also important.
When the water is first used there is both a cooling effect
on the strata surfaces due to abstraction of heat by the water
and then an increase in air humidity as the water evaporates.
There is thus a fall in the dry bulb temperature and a rise
in the wet bulb temperature. After a time the evaporation
becomes progressively less and therefore the wet bulb temperature decreases. The dry bulb temperature, however, increases

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at a slower rate until equilibrium has been re-established with
temperature a t the original pre-watering values.
Thus, when the water is being applied the atmospheric
conditions may be adversely affected, but for a period of
time afterwards there may be an actual improvement in
environmental conditions. In one case this continued for about
two hours after the application of water.
Steam for Dust

Suppression.

Tests have been made to compare the suppression of dust
obtained by jets of water and by jets of steam. The results
indicate that the same degree of suppression can be achieved
with a much smaller quantity of water in the form of steam.
In both cases the jets should drive the dust against surfaces
on which the dust will be arrested. Otherwise the wetted
dust may remain airborne.
Shale Busts.
Samples of the shale dust used for stone dusting were
analysed for free silica content. The results showed that
there was as much as 35 per cent, of free silica in some of
the samples. When the matter was taken up with the National
Coal Board, it was agreed that the use of shale dust for stone
dusting should be discontinued.
Wetting

Agents.

The effectiveness of wetting agents as an aid to floor
consolidation bas been demonstrated but tests made so far
with a wetting agent added to the water used for dust suppression at the face have given inconclusive results. I t is
felt, however, that the tests have not been sufficiently
exhaustive and they are to be continued using a higher
percentage of wetting agent than the 0.2 per cent, which
has commonly been used in the past.
Jßoad Consolidation.
The practice is being extended of consolidating the dust
on the floor of mine roadways either by water spraying or
by the use of chemicals which absorb moisture from the air.
Make calcium chloride is the salt normally used but trials

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199

have been made with common salt and magnesium chloride.
Common salt has been shown to be effective only with very
high air humidity and, because the magnesium chloride is
supplied in powder form, there are difficulties in applying
it to the floor of the roadway. The usual practice is to wet
the floor dust thoroughly before applying the calcium chloride,
and a wetting agent is used to ensure that the water penetrates
the dust deposits to a sufficient depth. With the object of
eliminating this initial spraying operation, calcium chloride,
is now being supplied with a wetting agent incorporated.
At a Kent colliery a length of roadway was given a chalk
floor. Approximately six inches of the original floor was taken
up and replaced by granular chalk which was stamped down
to make a firm surface. The loose chalk and coal dust on the
surface of the floor compacted under the feet of the men
and very little dust was raised.
Sorse Grooming.
An investigation was carried out to determine the dust
concentrations to which ostlers are exposed when grooming
horses, and in only a few instances were the concentrations
above the arbitrary standard of 850 p.p.c.c.
Successful trials have been made with electric or pneumatic
vacuum grooming equipment.
Vacuum Cleaning.
The Inspectorate have collaborated with the manufacturers
in the construction of a vacuum unit for cleaning conveyor
structures and for the removal of deposited dust on conveyor
roadways.
Lighting
In 1946 the state of lamp installations was investigated
by inspectors equipped with photometers. The investigations
showed that a considerable amount of light was lost by dirty
and worn reflectors, scratched glasses, faulty switches, dirty
contacts, etc.
The general standard of illumination was still considered
by the Chief Inspector to be too low in the underground
roadways and workings in 1949. The investigations carried
14

200

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

out by inspectors not only revealed unsatisfactory features
but indicated the extent of the improvement that could be
attained by measures such as the proper spacing and positioning of lamps, good maintenance of the lighting equipment,
whitewashing and stone dusting. Fixed lighting equipment is
considered to need at least a weekly examination and cleaning
of lamp fittings.
Electricity
Although the electrical horsepower used at mines increases
every year, the number of electrical accidents is not rising
in proportion. On 30 June 1938 there were 55,809 electric
motors with a total horsepower of 2,243,987 at mines under
the Coal Mines Act. On 30 June 1949 the figures were
87,778 and 2,981,791 respectively. Underground there were
30,391 motors with a total horsepower of 1,198,261 on 30 June
1938 and 51,831 with a total horsepower of 1,674,809 on
30 June 1949.
In 1938, at mines under the Coal Mines Act, there were
eight electrical accidents involving loss of life, 53 accidents
involving serious personal injury and 11 reportable dangerous
occurrences. I n the accidents 99 persons were killed and
55 injured ; 84 of the fatalities occurred in three ignitions of
firedamp or coal dust. In 1949 there was one fatal accident,
37 non-fatal accidents and nine reportable dangerous occurrences. In the accidents one person was killed and 42 seriously
injured.
During the ten-year period 1929-1938 there were in all
97 fatal and 559 non-fatal accidents and dangerous occurrences
directly or indirectly due to the use of electricity in mines under
the Coal Mines Act. During the ten-year period 1940-1949
the corresponding figures were 61 and 607. Electric shock
and/or burns accounted for 40 fatal and 463 non-fatal accidents.
In this period the contributory causes of all but a few of the
accidents were defective installation or maintenance, misuse,
negligence and ignorance. Defective or unsuitable apparatus
accounted for only four fatal and 21 non-fatal accidents.
First

Aid

A number of mines have reorganised their first-aid arrangements. Towards the end of 1946 a scheme prepared by the
Chief Mines Medical Officer was launched in all the coal-

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201

fields to provide for the erection at the larger mines of medical
treatment centres.
The effective distribution of first-aid equipment has been
greatly facilitated by the use of tubular first-aid containers.
Improvements in distribution have also resulted from the
application of the " 250-1,000-250 yard rule ", whereby there
is a first-aid station within 250 yards of the shaft bottom,
within 250 yards of the face and at intervals not exceeding
1,000 yards along the main roadways on which men work or
travel. A weak spot in the first-aid organisation is the
shortage of competent first-aid men. Organisation generally
has been improved in one Division by the appointment of
area first-aid organisers.
Mine Rescue Services
A careful study of the working of the rescue services after
a number of major explosions in 1942 led to the formulation
of several recommendations, of which the following are of
general interest :
(1) Based on or co-ordinated with an efficient mines rescue
service, there should be (a) a first-class fire-fighting service ;
and (b) an efficient mobile scientific service for the prompt
analysis of samples of mine atmospheres and for the interpretation of the results of analyses. All these services should
be communal for mines of every kind and size, whether coal
mines or not.
(2) The management at each mine should have in readiness a detailed plan which can be operated promptly and
effectively in the event of a serious emergency arising at the
mine.
(3) In view of the number of lives lost due to carbon
monoxide poisoning following mine explosions and fires, the
question of developing a simple, suitable and easily portable
mask for the protection of miners against carbon monoxide
is well worthy of consideration.
(4) The use of trained dogs to assist in the recovery of
missing bodies of victims of mine disasters should be given
further consideration and trial.
On matters pertaining to rescue organisation the Ministry
of Fuel and Power is assisted by an Advisory Committee on
Rescue Work and Rescue Apparatus. I t also employs a

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Eescue Apparatus Testing Officer. The Committee and the
officer have together carried out a considerable amount of
experimental and research work. The matters investigated
included the use of portable wireless sets and sound-powered
telephones, the design of oxygen driers, and the colorimetrie
detection and measurement of small quantities of carbon
monoxide.
Other recent developments include closer co-ordination of
the rescue services with the fire-ñghting services, the provision of mobile laboratories, and trials of new types of selfcontained breathing apparatus.
In the light of experience acquired in the rescue operations
at Knockshinnock Castle Colliery in 1950 when 116 trapped
men were successfully rescued—probably the most successful
life-saving operation in the history of coal mining—the Chief
Inspector recommends, inter alia, the provision of simple,
lightweight self-contained breathing apparatus which could
be worn by any workman without much training, the provision of an escape roadway to an adjacent mine, and the provision of telephone cable highly resistant to damage from
inrush, inundation or fire.
New

Regulations

New regulations, giving effect to recommendations of the
Eoyal Commission on Safety in Coal Mines have been issued
in recent years on ventilation, lighting, shotfiring, support
of workings, inspection of workings, and training.

SAFETY

ORGANISATION

AND ACTIVITIES
COAL BOARD

OF THE

NATIONAL

Aims
The National Coal Board has built up and maintains a
considerable safety organisation throughout the coalfields,
co-ordinated and guided by a Safety Branch of the Production
Department at the Board's headquarters in London. This
organisation, which is still being expanded and developed,
aims at providing colliery managements with a service covering
the practical and scientific aspects of all safety matters,

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203

at ensuring a thorough investigation into the causes of all
accidents and the means of accident prevention, and at promoting, through the machinery established for consultation
with the workmen or otherwise, a wider knowledge of, and
interest in, the measures conducive to the safe conduct of
their work.
The National Coal Board itself exercises control over
safety and health policy through a small Safety and Health
Committee composed of members of the Board.
Accidents from falls of ground and transport accidents
still account for approximately 50 per cent, and 25 per cent.
respectively of the total underground accidents in British
coal mines, and these are the main problems which the organisation has to tackle in the accident field. At the same time,
although the risk of explosion has been greatly reduced in
the last 40 or 50 years, there has been ample warning that
it has as yet by no means been eliminated, while accidental
fires and the use of explosives are always potential sources
of danger.
The modern trend towards increasing mechanisation has
brought with it many new problems and hazards, by no means
the least of which is the problem of airborne dust and injury
to the health of the miners. This problem has its medical
aspects, but the only remedy—the prevention and suppression
of the dust—is an engineering problem, which is receiving
much attention from the safety organisation.
In a word, the broad aim of the Board's safety organisation
is to keep up to date with the ever-changing conditions of
mining, so that the best means can be evolved of making
the mines as safe as possible, from every point of view.
Safety and Health

Legislation

Prior to nationalisation of the coal industry on 1 January
1947, safety and health in the working of collieries were
mainly regulated by Acts of Parliament and a comprehensive
code of Eegulations made by the Minister of Fuel and Power
under powers conferred by those Acts. These statutory
standards of safety and health are still in force, but under
nationalisation it has become possible to supplement them by
general instructions issued from Board headquarters and applicable to all collieries worked by the Board, and by similar

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directions issued from Divisional or Area headquarters applicable to all t h e collieries in a particular Division or Area.
In this way, higher and more uniform standards throughout
the industry are being gradually developed.
Organisation
For management purposes the Board's organisation functions at four levels :
(a) the National Coal Board at its headquarters in London ;
(b) Divisional Coal Boards (of which there are nine) with
offices in each of the principal coalfields or a group of coalfields ;
(c) Areas, each under an area general manager and comprising a number of collieries producing in the aggregate from
one to eight million tons of coal per annum ;
(d) Individual collieries or groups of collieries.
national

Headquarters.

The safety organisation at national level consists of the
Chief Safety Engineer with a small technical and administrative staff, who form the Safety Branch of the Production
Department. I t is the duty of the Chief Safety Engineer
to advise the Director-General of Production and the National
Board on all safety matters, and to co-ordinate and guide the
activities of the divisional safety engineers. To promote
this latter object there are two standing committees : (a)
the Safety Conference, and (b) the Eeseue Advisory Committee.
(a) Safety Conference. The Safety Conference consists of
a representative (the divisional safety engineer) from each of
the nine Divisions, together with specialists and secretarial
staff from headquarters, under the chairmanship of the Chief
Safety Engineer. At its meetings, all matters affecting safety
and health are discussed, reports on accidents and serious
incidents are considered, and the lessons to be learned are
discussed and are thereby disseminated to all Divisions. By
this means progress is made towards the general adoption
of the best safety measures, the results of the remedial measures
introduced are checked from time to time, and attention
is drawn to matters requiring specific action.

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(b) Rescue Advisory Committee. This Committee advises
the Board and the Divisions on all questions relating to fire
fighting and rescue work. Its chairman is the Chief SafetyEngineer. Its membership comprises three superintendents
of central rescue stations, a mining engineer specially qualified
in mine rescue work, with specialists and secretarial staff
from headquarters, and a representative of the Minister of
Fuel and Power, sitting as an " assessor ", who ensures
liaison with the Ministry. One of the Committee's principal
objectives—for which the nationalisation of the industry has
provided a unique opportunity—is to bring the equipment and
efficiency of the Board's 35 central rescue stations and the training of rescue personnel up to a uniformly high standard throughout the coalfields. The Committee also fosters practical research
into all aspects of fire fighting and rescue work and the development of improved fire-fighting and rescue appliances.
The Safety Branch at headquarters works in close harmony
with the Chief Medical Officer's Branch.
The Coal Industry National Consultative Council, which is
the hub of the machine established for consultation between
management and workmen, has a Safety and Health Committee, on which all sides of the industry are represented. The
Committee provides a forum for joint discussions on all
aspects of safety and health, and it is the recognised medium
for discussing any proposals put forward by the Minister
of Fuel and Power for fresh safety and health legislation.
Divisions.
In each Division a divisional safety engineer organises and
supervises the safety organisation and safety measures generally within the Division. He is responsible to the Divisional Production Director. His function is to keep the
Divisional Production Director and the Divisional Board
advised of all aspects of safety, to keep abreast of new developments, to study the implications of all accidents in the Division,
and at all times to maintain a close liaison with the Safety
Branch at headquarters.
Areas.
In each Area there is an area safety engineer who performs
similar duties within his area and keeps in touch with the
divisional safety engineer.

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Collieries.
At each large colliery or for groups of smaller collieries
(sub-areas) there is a safety engineer or safety officer charged
•with the primary duty of promoting the safety of the workmen
at the colliery or collieries. In British law statutory responsibility for the safe working of a colliery rests on the manager,
and the safety engineer or officer is a specialist engineer
appointed to advise the manager on all safety problems,
to help him to see that the statutory requirements are observed,
and to promote the adoption of measures and techniques
likely to prevent accidents.

Work of the Organisation
Accident

Statistics.

One valuable result of the co-ordination of safety activities
within the Coal Board Divisions established under nationalisation is that it is now possible to obtain standardised accident
statistics for every area and colliery unit, thus enabling safety
engineers to compare the accident records of areas and even
units, and to take action where the accident rate is unduly
high.
Flow of Information,

etc.

There is a two-way exchange of reports and information
between collieries and areas, areas and divisions, divisions and
headquarters. Thus, as part of their routine duties, group or
colliery safety engineers and safety officers make regular inspections at the collieries, investigate accidents and follow up
matters arising therefrom which require special attention; they
also investigate and report on particular safety matters at the
request and for the guidance and information of the area
safety engineer, the group agent or a colliery manager. The
area safety engineers then report to the divisional safety
engineer, who in turn keeps his divisional production director
informed of all important safety matters, and reports any
important or unusual matters to the Chief Safety Engineer at
headquarters. Circulars and information bulletins on all
matters affecting safety (including new devices and machinery,

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207

new hazards and the best ways of meeting them, etc.) are
prepared at headquarters and distributed to Divisions. The
divisional safety engineers also prepare their own information
circulars giving details of accidents and suggestions for
prevention of their recurrence, accounts of the progress of
rescue work and other useful information. These are circulated throughout the Division and serve a most useful purpose
in promulgating knowledge and promoting the wider application of local experiences.
Competitions and Safety

Propaganda.

Safety suggestion schemes have been successfully organised
in some Divisions, with prizes for the best suggestions and an
annual exhibition of the models, etc., which are submitted.
Safety posters are put up at some collieries, the subjects being
changed weekly, and competitions for poster designs are held.
First-aid competitions are held throughout the industry,
culminating in a miners' national first-aid competition.
Strata Control and Roof

Support.

The Board has taken over from the Ministry of Fuel and
Power responsibility for field research work in the coalfields
on strata control. Research committees have been formed
in all Coal Board Divisions to continue this important work,
and it is intended to continue the issue of local reports in the
same or some similar form. Of interest in this connection
are the experiments which are in progress with several novel
types of adjustable steel props and hinged bars for roof support on fast-moving highly-mechanised faces.
Lighting.
For many years past considerable attention has been paid
to the improvement of lighting standards, both underground
and on the surface.
Special efforts are being made to develop suitable equipment to allow of the use of fluorescent lamps at the coalface,
where the installations already put in have proved extremely
popular with the workmen.
Apart from this, the portable electric cap lamp continues
to be the general source of lighting at the coalface, but the

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standard of this type of lighting has been substantially raised
by the introduction in large numbers of modern high-power
lamps to replace the older and less efficient types.
The extension of mains lighting by tungsten filament and
fluorescent lamps, together with the extended use of whitewashing, has done much to improve the lighting of underground roadways, especially at loading points, junctions and
pit bottoms.
Explosives and

Shotfiring.

In addition to mechanisation, a striking feature of underground work in British coal mines during the present century
has been the increasing dependence on explosives, mainly high
explosives, for both driving underground roadways and coalgetting. Despite technical advances in the relative safety
and reliability of mining explosives and electric detonators,
this tendency is from the safety aspect a cause for some
concern, because no explosive can be entirely immune from
the danger of igniting inflammable gas if present. Efforts
are therefore being made by means of training courses and
otherwise to promote a higher standard of qualification among
shotfirers, and a close watch is being kept by the safety
organisation on the use of explosives generally and on accidents
with explosives in particular.
Dust Prevention and Suppression.
The Board is pressing on with the installation of equipment for preventing and suppressing airborne dust in the
effort to eradicate silicosis and pneumoconiosis from the coalmining industry.
Training courses in dust-suppression measures are held
at the National Coal Board Training Centre at Britannia
Colliery in South Wales, and these courses are open to staff
from all Divisions of the Board.
Under instructions from the Board no new coal-cutting
machines are now purchased unless they are equipped with
dust suppression fittings, and existing machines are being
so fitted as rapidly as possible. An effort is also being made
to get all rock-drilling machines equipped for wet drilling
or used in conjunction with dust traps.

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209

In I960 regular dust surveys were made in South Wales,
Kent and North Staffordshire, where the dangers are known
to be greatest. Elsewhere in England and Wales about threequarters of the faces were surveyed during the year and in
Scotland all faces were surveyed. In South Wales 54 miles
of face were treated for dust suppression and in other regions
47 miles.
More than 1,300,000 samples of mine dust and nearly
400,000 samples of mine air were analysed in 1950 by the
Board's scientific services. The emergency service which
makes special analyses of air at the scene of underground
fires or explosions was needed several times during the year.
Experiments were carried on to discover how to cut coal
so as to create as little dust as possible and to reduce breakage
of the coal. A machine based on the same principle as the
coal plough was used. Experiments with rotary rock drills
were continued. Among the subjects investigated in universities were prediction of air flow underground, percussive
drilling and power losses in ventilating fan drifts.
Fire Fighting.
A comprehensive scheme of training in fire fighting is being
developed in all Divisions. Eley men from collieries or groups
of collieries are given special training in fire fighting and they
in turn train the colliery workmen, while colliery fire-fighting
teams carry out regular fire-fighting practices.
Furthermore, research is being carried out on fire-resistant
materials and automatic fire-prevention devices.
During 1950 the Board tightened up precautions to reduce
fire hazards underground. At every colliery, water supplies
and fire-fighting equipment were checked and the Board
issued fresh instructions about the training of fire fighters,
fireproofing of transfer points, regular patrolling of conveyor
roads, the suppression of accumulated coal dust on conveyors,
and the layout of telephones. Eesearch into fire dangers,
particularly those connected with the use of belt conveyors,
was intensified. Various kinds of belting, including non-rubber
belting, were put through laboratory tests for inflammability,
and experiments were made in fireproofing the cotton duck
base, which was found to be the most inflammable part of
the belting. Tests were made on oils and greases used for

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lubricating conveyor rollers and the use of preventive appliances on equipment. In consultation with the machinery
manufacturers, the design and construction of underground
machinery were reviewed from the point of view of fire risk.
Medical Aid.
Nineteen colliery medical centres were completed in 1950.
At the end of the year, 98 registered nurses were employed
and 24 full-time doctors. All Divisions introduced schemes
for further first-aid training, and the work of improving
first-aid rooms and equipment was continued. To stimulate
interest in first-aid work a miners' national first-aid competition is held every year.

EESEARCH

Introduction
Prior to the nationalisation of the coal mines in 1946
research into problems of mining safety was conducted by
the Safety in Mines Eesearch Board, virtually an independent
body attached to the Mines Department. By the Coal Industry
Nationalisation Act, 1946, the Minister of Fuel and Power
was made responsible for securing the prosecution of research
into methods of advancing the safety and health of miners.
The work of the Board was carried on by the Safety in Mines
Eesearch and Testing Establishment (S.M.E.E.) of the Ministry
of Fuel and Power, and the research stations in Sheffield,
Buxton and London were made part of the Ministry. The
cost of the work, previously borne by the Miners' Welfare
Fund, was made a charge on the Exchequer. Eesearch is
now concentrated at Buxton and Sheffield.
The Safety in Mines Eesearch Board was appointed in
1921, to direct generally the research work of the Mines
Department on the causes of mining dangers and the means
of preventing them. The work was carried out at the Board's
large-scale experimental station at Buxton, its laboratories
at Sheffield, and in the Mining Department of the Imperial
College of Science and Technology in London. Grants were
also made to research workers in certain of the universities
and to district investigators working in the coalfields under

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211

committees appointed b;y branches of the Institute of Mining
Engineers.
The researches were chiefly directed to the prevention
of explosions and spontaneous combustion ; the safety of
electricity, explosives and safety lamps ; lighting ; the prevention of accidents from falls of ground and haulage operations ; the improvement of wire ropes and mine rescue
apparatus ; health hazards of mine dusts ; and the ventilation
of deep and hot mines.
Work was also carried out on the use of protective equipment or clothing, including hard hats, gloves, boots and
goggles, to prevent or minimise the effects of accidents to
head, hands, feet and eyes.
Further, the Board engaged in educational and propaganda
activities in the interests of mining safety.
These have
included—
(1) the production of a series of booklets which described
some of the results of the researches ;
(2) the holding of annual meetings of mining teachers,
at the research stations, for discussion of the researches ;
(3) demonstrations and addresses given to large groups
of mining men who visited the Buxton research station during
the summer months over a period of years ;
(4) lectures and exhibitions given in the coalfields ;
(5) the provision of 16-mm. cinema films and lantern
slides for use by members of the staff, mining teachers, and
others engaged on lecturing in the coalfields.
In addition to undertaking research and educational
work the Board tested mining equipment of various kinds,
including electrical equipment, gas detectors and winding
and haulage gear, and analysed mine dusts and air.
The Board co-operated with the principal mining research
organisations abroad.
The present research can be divided very broadly into
three groups : explosion and fire hazards, engineering hazards,
and health hazards. To these must be added work relating
to the official testing of such things as flameproof electrical
apparatus, intrinsically safe electrical apparatus, explosives,
safety lamps, methanometers, and other equipment and
material used in coal mines that have to satisfy statutory
requirements.

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In addition to the main research work of the Establishment, work is undertaken with other organisations to extend
the Establishment's knowledge and facilities to problems
outside the raining industry. In this way, the Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research gives financial support
to work done on industrial dust and explosion hazards in
general, while the Electrical Eesearch Association provides
staff and finance to extend the work on the safe use of electricity in mines to its safe use in the atmosphere encountered
in other industries.
Certain fields of research have been discontinued, transferred or temporarily suspended. I n particular, the very
important work carried out by the Safety in Mines Research
Board on the fundamental problems of roof control has been
made the responsibility of the National Coal Board, but the
Establishment still has a section engaged on the examination
and development of new types of roof supports and the use of
new materials for this purpose. Work at the Establishment
on spontaneous combustion and protective clothing has also
been suspended. Much of the educational and propaganda
work of the Safety in Mines Research Board in the interests
of mining safety is now the responsibility of the National
Coal Board.
The Establishment issues a very large number of publications dealing with the results of its researches and interpreting them for the use of the technical personnel of the
mining industry. I t also, from time to time, produces cinema
films and film strip slides to illustrate matters connected
with the application of the results of research, or of the standard
practices concerned with the maintenance of safety underground.
Explosions and Allied Hazards
The earliest work of the Establishment was concerned
with coal-dust explosions. Recent work has covered such
matters as the most suitable type of stone dust that could be
used to prevent these explosions, the effect of exposed layers
of coal dust on stone dust, the dispersibility of different
dusts, wetting and binding agents, waterproofing, and the
rate of deterioration of stone dust on mine roadways. Work
is now being planned to find better methods and materials
to be used in addition to the application of stone dust to deal

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213

with the large amounts of coal dust produced at localised
points in mechanised mines.
The design of intrinsically safe electrical apparatus is also
connected with the question of explosions. Electrical apparatus is described as intrinsically safe if a break in part of the
circuit does not produce a spark that can ignite an inflammable
atmosphere. The researches of the Establishment have been
widely applied both in Great Britain and abroad : over 300
items of electrical equipment for use in mines have been
certified as intrinsically safe. The standard of intrinsic safety
has also been adopted by the Factory Department of the
Ministry of Labour for industries other than mining, and
sixty items of factory equipment have been tested at the
Establishment. Electrical research has so far been directed to
the study of inductive circuits, but it is now being extended to
non-inductive circuits so that portable electronic devices and
battery-operated lamps can be certified. Allied to the problems of intrinsic safety are those of flameproof enclosures.
The mechanism of flameproofing is not yet fully understood,
and further research into the underlying physical and chemical factors may well yield useful results.
A recent development in the problems of gas explosions
in electrical motors was brought about in 1949 when work
by the Chicago Underwriter's Laboratory showed that an
unexpectedly high pressure was produced within certain types
of electric motors if these motors were driven during test.
Experiments have been conducted at the Establishment to investigate the effects of turbulence and pressure piling in
such motors. Experiments are now being carried out to
correlate the strain in the casing material with the pressure
record of the explosion.
The ignition of firedamp by frictional sparks has led to
a series of experiments. The production of sparks from
stone and metal generally, and from such equipment as
handpicks and coal-cutters, has been examined. Eecent
developments have involved an examination of the hazard
associated with aluminium paint and mechanical stowing
equipment. Other experiments have dealt with the sparks
caused by release of chocks or props embodying quick release
mechanisms, or by the fracture of light alloy members.
The mining explosives section is engaged in the study of
the fundamental characteristics of mining explosives and the

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SAFETY m COAL MINES

relation of these characteristics and the conditions of shotfiring to the possibility of ignition of firedamp. The work
has recently included the examination of new " equivalent
safety " (Bq. S.) explosives as an improvement on sheathed
explosives. The main ignition hazard with explosives seems
to be caused b y breaks across shotholes, and a new laboratory
has been built to study this problem. An interesting new
development in the explosive field is the manufacture of
short-delay detonators. Their use is being studied from the
safety aspect.
Recently a fire research section has been formed. At
the outset the emphasis is on fires on conveyor roads, and an
intensive study is being made of methods of detecting these
fires and of reducing the hazard by all possible means. The
design of equipment and the fire-retardant treatment of
materials are studied in co-operation with the manufacturers
and the National Coal Board.
The need for improvement in mine lighting has led to
experiments on the use of fluorescent lighting at the coal face,
and the equipment is being tested for safety. Experiments
with 150 tubes have failed to ignite a firedamp-air mixture
when the tubes have been broken ; but there is a real danger
after breakage, when the local automatic starter switch
resumes control and attempts to re-establish the discharge
by raising the tube filaments to the high temperature necessary
for restarting. Two manufacturers are trying to develop
cold-start devices, and tests at Buxton on their work are
encouraging. Other recent work on mine lighting has dealt
with cap lamps and safety lamps. Work on the cap lamp
has produced a model with a rectifier unit inside the battery
cover to prevent dangerous current being drawn from the headpiece of the lamp or from the cable. A programme to improve
the flame safety lamp (which continues to be widely used
to detect firedamp) has recently been brought to a close: a paper
on new locking mechanisms and an electric spark relighter,
and another paper on a machine for testing the springs
used in magnetic locks, have been published.
Other research that may be conveniently examined at this
stage includes mine gas analysis and mine rescue apparatus.
Eecent research on gas analysis has dealt with the design of
a recording methanometer and with methods of determining
small concentrations of carbon monoxide. As regards the

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215

latter point a study is now being made of the iodine pentcxidc
method and of new reagents using silver permanganate,'
which have been developed in the United States. The mine
rescue apparatus research programme is concerned with
testing and developing both self-contained and filter-type
mine breathing apparatus.
Engineering

Hazards

The metallurgical section has recently been developing
methods of non-destructive testing and applying these methods
to mining. Bad welds are the most common cause of failure
in mining gear, and these methods of test can detect flaws
and so reduce the chance of lives being lost. In one test
the gear is placed between a source of gamma or X-rays and
a photographic film. The radiation is absorbed by the gear
by an amount depending on its thickness, and any internal
cavity or large slag inclusion causes a darkening of the film.
In another test a magnetic field is induced in the gear, and the
gear sprayed with a suspension of fine particles of magnetic
iron oxide in paraffin : the oxide collects at any cracks that
there may be in the gear.
Other recent work by this section has dealt with the heat
treatment of colliery haulage and winding gear, and shows that
normalising with careful temperature control is the only treatment that should be used for dead soft and mild steel chains
and fittings. Subcriticai annealing of mild steel causes
brittleness, especially when old-fashioned methods such as
the use of wood fires or blacksmith's hearths are employed.
As mentioned at the outset, the fundamental problems of
roof control have become the responsibility of the National
Coal Board. The Establishment, however, still examines and
develops new types of roof supports. Recent work has been
carried out on light alloy supports, support at roadheads,
the design of roadway arches, methods of withdrawing supports,
quick release mechanisms, and convergence recorders. A
related field of enquiry is the application of hydraulics to
mining engineering.
Other work in the group deals with winding and haulage
problems. Work has just finished on a series of problems
dealing with the use of diesel locomotives in mines, and
especially with the danger to health from their exhaust fumes.
15

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In its research work on ropes the Establishment keeps in
close touch with the manufacturers : for example, in 1950
a type of rope having a flattened strand construction was
criticised by the Establishment, and the manufacturers agreed
in the interests of safety to stop producing it. Other suggestions that have been made are that the use of the bent-backwire type of capping be discontinued, and that drawn
galvanised ropes be supplied as standard for mine work.
Health Mazaréis
The Establishment's research on dust control and pneumoconiosis is part of a national programme which is co-ordinated
under a National Joint Pneumoconiosis Committee.
The
Medical Eesearch Council studies the progress of the disease
and ways of improving the methods of diagnosis. The Establishment is primarily concerned with improving methods of
dust sampling and measurement, and with the study of the
mineralogical constituents of dusts responsible for the disease.
The best way to control pneumoconiosis is to prevent
dust. Since the dust which causes this disease may be almost
invisible, methods of dust measurement are required to check
the standard of dust prevention achieved. At the Establishment various methods are being examined and their value for
practical purposes assessed. Thus, for example, a report has
already been published describing a cap lamp densitometer
produced at the Establishment, and work has been done on the
German tyndallometer. Other reports describe an automatic
dust sampler developed by the Establishment that takes a
sample on a paper strip every ten minutes for a whole shift
without attention. The samples are evaluated by another
instrument and the results give a picture of the dust produced
at different times during the shift, and so indicate the operations producing most dust.
I t is important not only to know which operations produce
the dust but also to know something about the size distribution
of the dust. Recent research has so far examined 130 samples
of airborne dust and found that the size distributions all
conform to a single pattern. This makes it possible to relate
the distribution both to the readings of the various instruments
and to our knowledge of the particles retained by the lung.
I t is hoped t h a t further work on these problems, using an

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217

electron microscope, will produce valuable results. Auûther
development in the field is the study of dust by an X-ray
diffraction camera. The process is rapid and has the advantage
over ordinary chemical analysis that it enables the different
forms of silica to be distinguished. One of the general results
of this series of experiments is that no relation has been
found between the stage of the disease and the mineralogical
composition of the lung residues, but it has been found that
the quantity of the residues usually increases with the stage
of the disease.
Mathematical

Studies

This work is new and fits into none of the three major
research groups. TJp to date the work has been largely
statistical in nature. For example, in a large number of
industries techniques for inspecting the products of manufacture have been developed that depend on modern methods
of analysing small numbers. These techniques are easy to
apply although the theory behind them is difficult, and they
give reliable information from a relatively small amount of
data. These methods of quality control have much in common
with techniques that can be applied to the investigation of
accidents, and the development of these techniques for accident control is a considerable future task for the Establishment. Existing techniques have already been examined and
it has been shown that accident figures can be analysed by
means of graphs without the use of mathematics.
Other
statistical work has been done on the pneumoconiosis problem,
and in particular the relationship of pneumoconiosis to
environment.
I t is anticipated that other mathematical work will
shortly be carried out. This work falls into three sections.
First, there is the design of experiment, one purpose of which
will be to ensure that the maximum amount of information
is obtained from the minimum number of experiments : this
work has already been started in the field of dust explosion
research. Secondly, there is progress by hypothesis : roughly
speaking, a hypothesis is formulated and then checked by
experiment, but frequently a careful mathematical investigation of the hypothesis will give some indication of its probability and the best line to follow in the experiments. Thirdly,
mathematics will be used to help operational research : to

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discover, for example, the best way to reduce accidents at a
reasonable cost, or to discover whether equipment is being
used to the best possible advantage and to see what changes
in the equipment or method of use will most economically
improve the results obtained.
Testing Services
An important part of the work of the Establishment is
the statutory testing of various items of mining equipment.
Several sections devote their whole attention to testing, while
others are concerned partly with testing and partly with
research. The work of some of these sections has already
been mentioned. The explosives section, for example, tests
explosives, and certificates are granted by the Ministry. Tests
are also conducted for intrinsic safety, and certificates issued
to makers of a wide variety of apparatus. In 1950, 106 units
were certified as flameproof, and discussions with the manufacturers caused a number of units which had failed the test
to be modified so that they were later able to pass. Other
work in this group deals with the approval of methanometers,
producing a British Standard for miners' helmets, and so on.
Work by t h e engineering group includes testing light-duty
winding ropes and recommending an extension of life beyond
the normal period if this is justified. An examination is also
made of broken and defective mining gear. This sort of
testing work gives the Establishment very valuable research
information.
A considerable amount of testing work on the analysis
of mine dusts and mine air samples is done for Inspectors of
Mines. Thus in 1950, 8,466 samples of mine dust and 5,000
samples of mine air were analysed. Other tests concern dust
control for, although there is no regulation to enforce the use of
approved drilling appliances, it is part of the Ministry's policy
to encourage efficient dust suppression, and manufacturers
are invited to submit machines for official tests.
TRAINING

Voluntary training courses for juveniles specially relating
to safety were first instituted in Yorkshire in 1932 and successful students were granted a Mines Safety Badge. This scheme

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quickly extended to all coalfields and, in the course of years,
tens of thousands of boys attended such courses, a large proportion of them receiving badges. Undoubtedly the scheme
served a most useful purpose, but it had its limitations, and
attendance was in most cases voluntary and in the student's
own time.
For some years before the war the reluctance of juveniles
to enter the industry had been apparent. With the outbreak
of war this feeling was intensified and, combined with the
loss of experienced mineworkers to the Forces and other
industries, served to cause a serious labour shortage in the
mines. In 1942 a committee was set up under the chairmanship of Sir John Forster to enquire into the opportunities
for training and advancement and the general welfare of
juvenile workers in the industry.
The committee recommended a long-term scheme for
post-war application and full effect could not be given to
it in wartime. In the meantime, however, it was necessary
to provide training appropriate to wartime conditions and to
the needs not only of juveniles but of new entrants over
18 years of age who had volunteered, opted or been directed
to the mines to increase the production so urgently needed.
To make arrangements for this training, a special branch
of the Ministry (including a special training inspectorate) was
established in August 1943. In conjunction with the Ministry
of Labour and National Service 13 centres for the preliminary
training of wartime entrants over 18 years of age were set up
in various coalfields, and by the end of the war in Europe
44,000 trainees had passed through these centres. The number
of centres was then reduced to four, which had dealt with a
further 9,300 trainees by the end of 1946. In addition a
mechanisation training centre was set up at Sheffield for
running short courses for maintenance men and in handling
American types of mining machinery, and longer courses for
training mechanics and electricians. By the end of 1946,
nearly 3,000 trainees had passed through this centre.
The Coal Mining (Training and Medical Examination)
Order, 1944, was made and came into force on 1 February
1944. The training provisions of the Order established the
general principle that no person was to be employed in or
about a coal mine on work of which he had had no previous
experience, except under adequate instruction and supervision,

220

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

until competent to do the work without supervision. In
particular, it specified a minimum training to be given to
persons before being employed for the first time (a) below
ground, and (b) at the coal face. The Order also required
training officers to be appointed for superintending the training
given at collieries, and specified their duties, especially in
relation to the making of records and reports on trainees.
At the same time a training inspectorate was established
to inspect and report on the training provided by employers
and to advise those engaged in the operation of the Government training centres for the training of " Bevin Boys "
and other special wartime entrants to the mines. The inspectorate consisted originally of a chief inspector at headquarters
and an inspector in each region. Later eleven assistant
training inspectors were appointed.
Early in 1945 it was decided to replace the training provisions of the Order by General Regulations under the Coal
Mines Act, 1911, and at the same time to give effect to the
recommendations of the Forster Committee by expanding
substantially t h e specific requirements for the training of new
underground workers (particularly in relation to juveniles)
and new coal-face workers. After the usual discussions with
representative bodies in the industry the Regulations were
made in September 1945, but as they required that training
should only be given in accordance with schemes approved
by the Minister the main provisions did not come into force
until 1 January 1947. The intervening period was allowed
for the submission and approval of schemes. With the making
of these Regulations, the training branch became part of the
Health and Safety Division of the Ministry, and the training
inspectorate was merged in the Mines Inspectorate.
With the object of assisting colliery training officers to
obtain a better understanding of their duties the Ministry
established in April 1946 a Staff College at the Miners' Hostel,
îfuneaton, Warwickshire. By the end of the year every
available training officer had attended a course at the College.
The results of these courses were most encouraging, and in
October 1946 the College premises were extended and courses
for chief practical instructors and head colliery lampmen
were added to the curriculum.
During 1949 nearly 24,700 persons received preliminary
training, some 17,000 less than in 1948. I n that year, some

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED KINGDOM

221

9,000 foreign workers were being trained but recruitment
dropped heavily in 1949. By the end of the year 56 preliminary
training schemes for juveniles, comprising 72 practical training
centres and 47 technical colleges or schools, were in operation.
Forty-four of these schemes involved 16-week courses which
the trainees attended five days a week. Over 5,500 adults
were trained at adult training centres by means of courses
of 112 hours. By the end of 1948, 573 coal-face training
schemes covering about 950 mines had been approved and
525 of these schemes were for training on fully reserved
faces. During 1949 approval was given to 90 coal-face training
schemes providing for fully reserved training faces. Over
16,600 persons received coal-face training in one or more
operations, an increase of approximately 900 over the previous
year. About 6,500 of them were on fully reserved faces,
the remainder being on parts of production longwall faces
set aside for training.
I t is the considered view of the training inspectors that
a far higher standard of training and efficiency is obtained
on fully reserved faces because (a) each trainee receives
instruction on a face manned by " training pairs " and not
when working with his supervisor as an " isolated pair "
on a part of a production face ; (b) it is much easier to increase
progressively the stint or quantity of work to be done
jointly by the supervising workman and his trainee ; (c) there
is less likelihood of exploitation of the trainee for production
at the expense of safety and craftsmanship ; and (ä) in general,
the conditions are more favourable for ensuring t h a t each
trainee receives the close personal supervision of a supervising
workman.
While undergoing training, 14 trainees were killed and
58 reportably injured in 1948, and 72 were killed or reportably
injured in 1949. Of the victims in 1948, 11 were killed and
45 injured below ground ; 39 of the accidents were considered
as avoidable by ordinary caution, 20 were due to direct carelessness or lack of interest and attention by the trainees,
20 were classified as unavoidable under existing practices,
nine were due to breaches of rules by a trainee and one by
an official, and three were due to defective plant. Seven
of the fatal and 17 of the non-fatal accidents were due to falls
of ground at the working face. All the fatal and 14 of the
non-fatal accidents occurred to persons under training on parts

222

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

of coal-production faces. On fully reserved training faces it
is strikingly significant, observes the Chief Inspector, that
there were no fatalities at all and only three non-fatal accidents.
During the years 1947, 1948 and 1949 steady progress
was made towards achieving a higher standard of training.
Both on the surface and underground the training facilities,
equipment and conditions were improved and so was the organisation of the work as a whole. During 1949 training inspectors
of various grades made 2,570 inspections at mines and 564 at
group training centres.
The Nuneaton Staff College was closed in September 1949
and its functions taken over by the various Divisions of the
National Coal Board.
Although t h e statutory requirements for the training of
adults have been relaxed in view of the paramount need for
increased production, training as a whole is now firmly
established and the preliminary training given to juveniles by
the National Coal Board well exceeds the minimum prescribed
by the regulations. While no immediate effect is to be expected,
systematic training must eventually result in safer working
generally and help to reduce the accident rates.
OTHER SAFETY ACTIVITIES

Safety work is also being carried on by a number of
unofficial bodies in the coal industry. Prominent among
them are the national and local institutions of mining
engineers which frequently hold meetings devoted to safety
topics and conduct research and investigations. The Institution
of Mining Engineers, for example, has been very active in
this respect and has published many papers on safety problems of all kinds.
Work on somewhat similar lines is carried on by bodies
such as the National Association of Colliery Managers and
its local branches, the Association of Mining Electrical
Engineers and its local branches, colliery under-managers'
associations and mining students' associations.
Some of the universities, Sheffield and Birmingham for
example, where there are large numbers of mining students,
have also interested themselves in mine safety.
Standards for mining equipment, and in particular flameproof equipment, are drawn up by the British Standards
Institution.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

223

UNITED STATES
INTRODUCTION

The United States is a federal country, and coal-mining
safety activities, both official and unofficial, are carried on by
federal and by State agencies.
Until recently, except for leased lands on the public domain,
safety regulations and inspections were entirely in the hands
of the coal-produeing States, but the creation of a Federal
Mines Inspectorate in 1941 and the adoption of the Federal
Mine Safety Code in 1946 made the United States Bureau of
Mines a partner of the States in these two fields.
The Bureau remains the federal agency for research, experiment, testing, education, training and propaganda.
In recent years the United Mine Workers of America have
been very active in the safety field, and the signature of the
Krug-Lewis agreement in 1946 gave them a recognised standing
in this field.
Voluntary safety work is carried on by a number of national
organisations, prominent among which are the Joseph A.
Holmes Safety Association, the National Coal Association, the
American Mining Congress, the National Safety Council and
the American Standards Association. There are also numerous
regional and local bodies that concern themselves in various
degrees with safety in coal mines.
GENEBAL SURVEY

Since the Bureau of Mines came into existence in 1910
the safety record of the American coal-mining industry has
improved very substantially. The fatality rate per million manhours exposure in 1911 was 2.04 ; it is now less than half that
figure. The rates for recent years have been 1.22 in 1947,1.11 in
1948, 0.91 in 1949, and 0.90 in 1950.
A review of progress during the decade 1942-1951 by the
Director of the Bureau of Mines indicates that improvements
have been made in several directions ; the use of black powder
has been discontinued in over 1,000 mines ; over 2,000 new
main ventilating fans have been installed and auxiliary blower
fans removed from nearly 500 mines ; the practice of making
pre-shift examinations for gas and other hazards has been
introduced in over 2,100 mines and examinations during the

224

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

shift started in nearly 1,700 ; more water is being used to
allay coal dust ; rock dusting has been introduced in over
1,400 mines ; second openings have been provided in over
600 ; and smoking and the use of open lights have been discontinued in over 1,000.
However, the Bureau is of the opinion that although real
progress has been made in the safety of coal mining much
remains to be done, for unquestionably the mines can be made
much safer and the number of fatal and non-fatal injuries
further reduced at least 50 per cent., possibly as much as 75
per cent. Moreover, there is reason to believe that this reduction can be made without increase in production costs if both
mine operators and mineworkers work together in a reasonably co-operative manner. 1 This view is supported by the
outstanding safety records achieved by a number of coalmining companies, a few instances of which are given below.
A hand-loading mine in Pennsylvania operated without a
fatal accident for over nine years, during which period it produced 7,770,546 tons of coal ; man-hours of exposure totalled
10,451,396.
A mine in Illinois worked without a fatal accident for
nearly six years ; the total production was 7,031,035 tons of
coal, and the total man-hours of exposure 5,175,835. This
was a fully mechanised mine employing an average of 420
workers.
A Wyoming mine operated nearly 17 years without a fatal
accident and produced 5,220,209 tons of coal in this period.
This mine, employing an average of 192 men, is fully mechanised and the thickness of the coal-bed ranges from 18 to
28 feet.
A mine in Colorado worked over 18 years without a fatal
accident ; in this period 3,586,434 tons of coal were mined,
and the total man-hours of exposure was 4,705,637.
A Pennsylvania mine operated over 21 years without a
fatal accident, producing 4,095,087 tons of coal for a man-hour
exposure of 8,120,284.
I t is quite obvious that, if the majority of coal mines could
achieve safety records comparable with these, the accident
rate for the whole industry would fall very considerably.
1

UNITED STATES BUREAU OE MINES : Safety in the Mining Industry, Informa-

tion Circular 7485, Washington, D.C., Apr. 1949.

GENEBAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

225

Falls of Ground
The reduction of the large total of accidents due to falls of
ground and coal is largely a matter for individual mine managements. Many progressive mining companies have timbering
rules requiring the miner to set timber in accordance with a
predetermined plan rather than according to the individual's
judgment ; in some mines the enforcement of a uniform timbering plan has resulted in stopping or at least greatly reducing
accidents from falls of ground, and if this practice were adopted
uniformly and enforced rigidly these accidents could probably
be greatly reduced.
A promising new development has been the replacement
of conventional timbering by roof bolting. This system of
roof support has been found to become completely effective
almost immediately after the coal has been extracted, and it
has the additional advantage of providing extra working space
and thus promoting the efficient use of mechanical face equipment. At the end of 1950 some 400 coal-mining companies
were employing this system of support and many of the
mechanised mines in the United States are going over to roof
bolting methods.
A Bureau of Mines investigation of 263 of the 315 fatal
accidents from falls of roof, face or rib that occurred in the
bituminous coal mines of the United States in 1950 x indicates
how such accidents are caused and how most of them can be
prevented.
One hundred and ninety-six (74 per cent.) occurred at the
face, 48 (18 per cent.) on haulageways, and 20 (8 per cent.)
at various other underground locations.
One hundred and forty-nine (76 per cent.) of the 196 accidents at the face occurred inbye the last permanent roof
support. I n 61 (41 per cent.) of these cases, safety posts were
set at the face as temporary supports, and in 88 (59 per cent.)
no temporary supports of any kind were set inbye t h e last
permanent support. The average distance between t h e last
permanent roof support and the face (in those cases where
the fall occurred at the face) was 13 feet. Since the average
1

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF MINES : Falls of Roof : The No. 1 Killer in Bitu-

minous Coal Mines, Information Circular 7605, Washington, D.C., May 1951.

226

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

dimensions of the 220 pieces of roof rock that fell were
1 2 x 8 x 1 feet it is clear that the setting of suitable supports
at the face is a sound precaution.
Mnety-eight (50 per cent.) of the 196 face roof-fall fatalities
occurred in places where coal was loaded by machine, although
fewer machine loaders are employed than hand loaders. This
is further evidence that there is a greater risk of falls of roof
with machine loading than with hand loading, and owing to
the high concentration of machine loaders any fall of roof
is likely to be more serious than in hand loading.
Eight (3 per cent.) of the 263 roof-fall fatalities occurred
in places where roof bolts were installed as permanent supports. However, roof bolts were involved in only one of these
fatalities, and in this case the bolting plan was not adhered to
strictly.
The most dangerous area in the mine is seen to be that
between the last permanent roof support and the face, an area
averaging 13 feet in width.
Managements were held responsible for 127 (48 per cent.)
of the accidents investigated, and in most cases poor supervision by bosses and foremen was to blame. In 47 cases the
foreman did not have a known bad roof condition corrected; in
33 cases the foreman was aware of the large unsupported area
under which men were working but did not have the condition
corrected ; in eight cases the foreman examined the roof but
did not detect the bad condition ; and in seven cases the foreman visited the place just before the accident but did not
examine the roof.
Employees were held responsible for 76 (29 per cent.) of
the accidents. I n 36 cases they did not correct a dangerous
condition that had developed in hand-loading places in the
absence of the foreman ; in eight they removed roof supports
to allow free movement of equipment ; in seven they did not
correct dangerous conditions that developed in a machineloading place in the absence of the foreman ; and in six they
did not detect or support bad roof resulting from blasting.
Joint or undetermined failure accounted for 31 (12 per
cent.) of the accidents. In 15 cases the victims were attempting to secure a roof that fell ; in 11 rolling stock dislodged
roof supports ; and in five the victims were taking down
loose roof, usually with a pick.

GENEBAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

227

Dangers that could not have been foreseen accounted for
29 (11 per cent.) of the accidents. I n some cases the roof
•was apparently well supported.
In all, 89 per cent, of the accidents were considered avoidable. Among the measures required to avoid roof-fall accidents are the adoption by each mine of minimum standards
for systematic roof support suited to the conditions and
method of working of the mine, improved supervision and
inspection, and the training of supervisors and workmen.
Haulage
The problem of reducing haulage accidents, says the
Bureau of Mines, " is as difficult in our coal mines as it is on the
streets and highways of the United States". 1
Direct-current trolley locomotive haulage systems have
been responsible for fatalities through contact with the trolley
wire, through fires started by arcs from fallen wires, through
gas ignitions by sparks at the current collectors, and through
premature explosions by current straying from the grounded
rail return circuit. These accidents have suggested the possibility of replacing trolley locomotives by diesel locomotives.
A number of engines have been procured and studies made to
determine (1) the toxicity of the exhaust gases under various
conditions of operation ; (2) the effectiveness of flame arresters
at elevated temperatures as compared with room temperatures ; and (3) the improvement of water-scrubber efficiency
by addition of chemicals.
Two schedules giving the conditions under which approvals
of diesel-driven equipment would be granted have been
published. One of these covers conditions applying to
diesel locomotives for gassy mines, and the other covers
conditions applying to mobile diesel-powered equipment for
non-coal mines. Very few approvals of locomotives or other
diesel-powered equipment have yet been granted.
Some indication of the directions in which further improvements can be made in the record of haulage accidents is
given in an analysis of fatal haulage accidents in bituminous
mines in 1950 made by the Bureau of Mines. 2 The analysis
1

Ü2JITED STATES BTTBEATT or MINUS : Safety in the Mining Industry, op. eit.

Idem, Analysis of Haulage Fatalities in Bituminous Coal Mines in 1950,
Information Circular 7604, Washington, D.C., June 1951.

228

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

covers 121 fatal accidents, of which 102 occurred underground,
l a on the surface and five in strip mines.
The most frequent causes of fatal haulage accidents are
given as follows : falling or stumbling into the path of moving
equipment (23 per cent.), contact with roof or cross bars
(19 per cent.), derailments (15 per cent.), collisions (11 per
cent.), and runaway equipment (11 per cent.).
Some form of physical hazard was evident in more than
71 per cent, of the accidents investigated and was considered
to be the primary cause of 23 per cent. The commonest
hazards were irregular or scant vertical clearance (16 per cent.),
obstructed or inadequate side clearance (15 per cent.), no
provision for skids or retarding devices (14 per cent.), defective
locomotive or mine cars (13 per cent.), substandard track
conditions (12 per cent.), and defective coupling (8 per cent.).
Unsafe practices were involved in over 75 per cent, of the
accidents and were considered to be the primary cause of
29 per cent. The commonest were excessive speed (12 per
cent.), failure to comply with instruction or safety rules
(11 per cent.), riding in unsafe position (9 per cent.), pushing
trips (8 per cent.), getting off or on moving equipment (8 per
cent.), confusion or disregard of signals between workmen
(7 per cent.), and not looking in the direction of travel (6 per
cent.).
Explosives
The number of fatalities resulting annually from the
use of explosives in underground bituminous coal and lignite
mines has been reduced considerably in recent years. The
safe methods of use, handling and storage of explosives in
mines have been widely publicised, and the workers have
been given better instruction in explosives practice than
formerly. This, plus the manufacture of safer types of explosives, has resulted in a much better accident record from the
use of explosives in recent years than early in the century.
The first list of permissible explosives was published on
15 May 1909. In the 41 years of test work since that time,
a total of 767 explosives has been tested for permissibility
and 475 of these have been certified as permissible. At
present 191 explosives are on the active list.
Although permissible explosives have established an
impressive safety record, their adoption has been relatively

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

229

gradual. In 1926 only 25 per cent, of all explosives used
in coal mines were permissible. In 1949, however, black
powder constituted only 16 per cent, of the blasting powder
used in American coal mines.
Since the inauguration of the explosives testing programme
there has not been a coal-mine explosion definitely chargeable
to permissible explosives when such explosives were used
in a permissible manner. I t is noteworthy that these results
have been obtained without any material loss in blasting
efficiency. Thus, permissible explosives have been developed
by American industry that do not generally require large
amounts of inert diluents or inert sheaths to prevent initiation
of an explosion even in gassy or dusty mines. The use of
these relatively strong permissible explosives has materially
aided in maintaining the coal-production rate demanded in
the United States.
During the first 35 years of the use of permissible explosives
in American coal mines even a certified explosive was not
considered permissible if more than 1 % H>- O I i* were used
per shot-hole. In 1943, the Coal Mining Institute of America
recommended to the Director of the Bureau of Mines that the
charge limit for permissible explosives be increased from 1%
to 3 lb. per shot-hole. The coal-mining industry was generally
unanimous in its desire for this increase in charge limit to
satisfy the higher production schedules desired for the war
period. In January 1945 the Bureau tentatively approved
the increase in charge limit, and this tentative approval
was made permanent in January 1948, after an extended
series of more than 650 tests in the experimental coal mine
at Bruceton, Pa.
Continuous search for safer, cheaper and more efficient
methods of coal breakage has led American industry to a
number of recognised substitutes for fixed explosives. One
of these blasting devices, cardox, has a potential ignition
hazard associated with the heating element employed.
Explosions
Very great progress has been made in reducing explosion
hazards in coal mines. The yearly rate of fatalities from
gas and coal-dust explosions in coal mines averaged 478
(438 in bituminous mines) over the period 1906-1910 ; 338

230

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

(296 in bituminous mines) over the period 1921-1925 ; 80
(65 in bituminous mines) over the period 1931-1935 ; 108
(102 in bituminous mines) over the wartime period 19411945 ; and 55 during the period 1946-1949. The fact that
in 1948, 41 persons were killed in explosions, in 1949 only
six and in 1950 only eight, suggests that the improvement
is continuing.
Mine fires now only cause a very small loss of life. In
1949 there were 30 coal-mine fires in all, and only one had
fatal results (four persons were killed). The average annual
number of fires over the period 1944-1949 was 20 and for the
period 1929-1944 about 18 (excluding outcrop fires). Electrical equipment is now the most serious fire risk in coal mines,
and one of the most frequent causes of fires is heating from
short circuits. So far, means of eliminating this risk have
not been devised.
One safety measure that seems to need wider application
is stone dusting.
On the basis of mine tests it has been recommended that
all passageways in producing entries in mines should be rock
dusted to within 40 feet (12.2 metres) of the coal face. For
initial application, a minimum of 3 to 4 lb. of rock dust per
linear foot (4,500 to 6,000 gm per metre) of entry is recommended, and frequent re-examination and redusting are
necessary.
Experimental studies have shown that explosion flames
can be checked or extinguished by the installation of properly
designed rock-dust barriers in mine passageways. Owing
partly to the work needed to maintain barriers in good
operating condition at all times and to the rapid advance
of the mine workings, rock-dust barriers have not come into
wide use in t h e United States.
Information on stone dusting is provided by a recent
study by the Bureau of Mines x , covering 1,637 bituminous
coal and lignite mines, in which 290,458 men were employed
and 1,755,080 tons were produced daily in 23 States.
In 754 mines (46 per cent.) in 18 States dust allaying was
unnecessary because the mines were wet or the amount of
coal dust in suspension was small. Included in this number
1

UNITED STATES BUREAU or MINES : Review of Dust-Allaying Practices at

Working Faces in Some Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mines, Information Circular
7566, Washington, D.C., May 1950.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : XTttTED STATES

231

are all the mines in Maryland, Michigan, Missouri and ÎTorth
Dakota.
I n 520 mines (32 per cent.) in 16 States, means were not
provided to allay the excessive amount of dust raised in
suspension during cutting operations. These include all the
mines in Kansas, 82 per cent, of the mines in Kentucky and
77 per cent, of the mines in Virginia.
In 316 mines (19 per cent.) in 17 States, the dust produced
during cutting was allayed adequately. Included in this
group are all the mines in Utah and 88 per cent, of the mines
in Wyoming. Dust raised in suspension during loading
operations at the face was allayed effectively in 114 mines
in 13 States.
In 47 mines (3 per cent.) in 11 States, allaying of dust was
practised during cutting, but the results were not satisfactory.
All production was loaded by hand in 871 mines (53 per
cent.). In 355 of these (40 per cent.), dust allaying was necessary; however, in 77 per cent, no provisions were made to allay
dust raised in suspension during cutting. Included are all
the " hand-loading " mines in Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, New
Mexico and Tennessee, 99 per cent, of such mines in Kentucky
and 91 per cent, in Virginia. Dust was adequately allayed
in 66 mines (19 per cent.), including all the " hand-loading "
mines in Utah and 83 per cent, of such mines in Wyoming.
Mechanical loading was used exclusively in 513 mines
(31 per cent.). In 363 of these (71 per cent.) dust allaying
was necessary ; however, in 42 per cent, means were not
provided to allay the dust produced during cutting. All
mines in which mechanical loading was practised in Iowa
and Montana, 75 per cent, of such mines in Indiana, 86 per
cent, in Kentucky and 77 per cent, in Virginia, are included
in this group. Dust was allayed adequately in 185 " mechanicalloading " mines (51 per cent.), including all such mines in
Hew Mexico and Utah and 71 per cent, of such mines in
Pennsylvania, 67 per cent, in West Virginia and 90 per cent.
in Wyoming.
Both hand and mechanical loadmg methods were used
in 253 mines (16 per cent.). In 165 of these (65 per cent.)
dust allaying was necessary ; however, in 58 per cent, means
were not provided to allay the dust produced during cutting.
Included in this group are all the " hand and mechanical
loading " mines in Illinois and Indiana and 94 per cent, of
16

232

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

such mines in Kentucky and 91 per cent, in Virginia. Dust
•was adequately allayed in 63 combination-loading mines
(38 per cent.). These include all such mines in Colorado,
£Tew Mexico and Utah, and 77 per cent, of such mines in
Alabama.
Of the 1,637 mines included in the study, 817 (50 per cent.)
employed 25 to 99 men ; 689 (42 per cent.) employed 100 to
499 men ; 114 (7 per cent.) employed 500 to 999 men, and
17 (1 per cent.) employed 1,000 or more men.
Ventilation, Mine Air and Airborne Dusts
In 1910, although a considerable amount of engineering
knowledge was available, coal-mine ventilation was almost
entirely on an empirical trial-and-error basis. Throughout
the years there has been a very considerable increase in the
amount and reliability of engineering data made available,
and the practice of ventilating coal mines has been greatly
improved because of the necessity of maintaining the
concentration of methane far below the lower explosive
limit.
Considerable research has gone into the development of
portable electric instruments of greater accuracy than the
safety lamp for gas-detecting purposes. Besearch with electrical devices resulted in the development of several types of
methane detectors, all of which are arranged for connection
to the battery of miners' electric cap lamps as a source of
current, as well as two devices having their own batteries
for operation independently of cap lamps.
The impinger method of sampling airborne dust has
received the most general application in the United States
and is likely to continue as the more or less standard method
for some time to come. A midget impinger was designed
before the war. A more recent development is the cascade
impactor, and X-ray diffraction techniques are being tried.
Electricity
Much progress has been made by the manufacturers of
electrically-driven mining equipment and accessories in
attempting to make the equipment safe for use in gassy mines,
on the assumption that it is maintained in proper operating

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

233

condition and is used with care and judgment. Accidents
caused by electricity have been due largely to the use of
open or non-permissible equipment, but some serious accidents
have been caused by permissible equipment that has not
been maintained in permissible condition, as a result of which
gas has ignited. Improper grounding of equipment has caused
shock hazards. The guarding of overhead electric-trolley
wires is more common than formerly, particularly at the
places where the man-trips are loaded and unloaded, though
numerous deaths are caused by contact with unguarded trolley
wires. Trailing-cable insulation has been, and still is being,
improved ; electric circuits are being improved and sectionalised, and circuit breakers are being installed to prevent overloading the circuits to a greater extent now than in the past.
All these improvements and many others have helped to
reduce the accidents due to electricity, but such accidents
continue to occur far too frequently.
Nowadays, electricity is widely used for coal-getting,
haulage and winding equipment, for miners' lamps and for
communication systems. Some of the more recent developments include the electric cap lamp, the sound-powered
telephone and the trolleyphone, which permits locomotive
drivers to keep in constant touch with one another and with
despatchers.
Personal Protective Equipment
The status of respiratory protection in the United States
in 1950 was far different from that in 1910. At that time
there were no gas masks, dust respirators were flimsy and
inefficient, hose masks were rudimentary, and loose fitting
smoke helmets and imported oxygen breathing apparatus were
the only respiratory protection available for mine rescue and
recovery operations.
Self-contained oxygen breathing
apparatuses
were
introduced in the United States in the summer of 1907. The
first of these were imported from Europe. The operating
principle was generally the same for these apparatuses. Compressed oxygen from cylinders in combination with oxygen
from regenerators was stored in breathing bags. All had a
constant flow of oxygen.
Experience in mines with these early types of apparatus
revealed many shortcomings, and the Bureau of Mines under16«

234

SAFETY IN COAL MIKES

took active experiments to improve them. As a result,
standards were set up for permissible self-contained mine
rescue breathing apparatus.
Changes in approval requirements by the Bureau of Mines
and the need for improvements brought out by the use of
the oxygen breathing apparatus caused many modifications
to be made. Eefillable regenerators were approved, and the
metal was changed from steel to copper for longer life.
Cardoxide composed of hydrated lime, sodium hydroxide and
water was used as an absorbing agent because of its nonagglomerating and superior carbon-dioxide absorbing properties. Other mechanical improvements and substitutions
of aluminum for steel made a better-functioning and lighter
apparatus.
The Chemox self-generating oxygen breathing apparatus
was approved by the Bureau of Mines on 3 October 1946,
for a wearing period of three-quarters of an hour. This apparatus develops its own oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
from the exhaled breath. The primary parts are a Chemox
canister, breathing bag, and full facepiece with valves to
control the direction of flow. Moisture in the breath liberates
oxygen from the potassium tetroxide in the canister for the
oxygen supply.
Two one-half-hour demand types of self-contained breathing apparatus were also approved by the Bureau of Mines on
3 October 1946. The primary parts are a cylinder for compressed air or oxygen, a demand-type reducing or regulating
valve, and a gas mask facepiece. Oxygen or air is supplied
to the wearer on inhalation, and the exhaled air is passed to
the outside atmosphere.

U N I T E D STATES BUREAU OF MINES

The Bureau of Mines was established in 1910, largely as a
result of public concern over the repeated occurrence of mining
disasters and the growing realisation of the waste of life and
resources in the mining and metallurgical industries of the
United States.
The over-all functions of the Bureau in the sphere of safety
and health are now governed by the following provision of

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235

the Act of Congress of 25 February 1913 *, under which it was
established :
That it shall be the province and duty of the Bureau of Mines,
subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, to conduct
enquiries and scientific and technologic investigations concerning
mining, and the preparation, treatment, and utilisation of mineral
substances with a view to improving health conditions, and increasing safety, efficiency, economic development, and conserving resources
through the prevention of waste in the mining, quarrying, metallurgical, and other mineral industries ; to enquire into the economic
conditions affecting these industries ; to investigate explosives and
peat ; and on behalf of the Government to investigate the mineral
fuels and unfinished mineral products belonging to, or for the use
of, the United States, with a view to their most efficient mining
preparation, treatment, and use ; and to disseminate information
concerning these subjects in such a manner as will best carry out
the purpose of this Act.
From its inception one of the main objectives of the
Bureau's work has been the prevention of loss of life and limb
and the protection of the health of those who make available
the mineral products vital to the life and progress of the
country. The Bureau has continuously conducted campaigns
of investigation and education aimed a t fulfilment of the
objectives laid down by Congress. Its varied safety activities
extend to all the operations of coal, metal and non-metal
mining and also petroleum operations in every mining district
and oilfield in the country. In many fields the Bureau has
been a partner with the mineral industries in making working
conditions and working practices safer and more efficient. The
Bureau has been a research organisation for finding hazards
where they are not already known ; a recorder and reporter
of failures and successes year by year in the elimination of
accidents and injuries ; a promoter of safety programmes and
methods ; and an instructor bringing detailed knowledge of
safety methods to officials and miners.
Tests of dusts, gases and materials found in mines are made
in the central laboratories at Pittsburgh, Pa., to determine
their dangerous qualities and find ways to overcome the
danger. Mine equipment is tested and only approved when
it is so designed and manufactured that it is found by rigorous
testing to be safe and durable, and the miners and the officials
can be sure that it is safe for the job. At the request of manufacturers, the development of new types of mining machinery
is studied in laboratories and tried out in the mines to find
1

37 Stet. 681 ; 30 U.S. Code, Section 3.

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

weak points before they are revealed by the injury or death
of the men who operate the machines. Eesearch on explosives,
gases, dusts, mine lighting, underground communications,
ventilation and other matters has helped to better working
conditions not only in the mines but in other industries having
related needs.
The Bureau gives instruction in methods of first aid and
in the use of mine rescue apparatus. Thousands of persons
are trained each year in industries such as coal mining, metal
mining, quarrying, metal extraction, rock tunnelling, petroleum and natural gas, and non-metallic mining (salt, mica,
fluorspar, etc.).
The training of mineworkers and officials in safe working
practices is one of the chief tasks of the Bureau, and one of
the most difficult. Experienced and carefully trained mine
safety engineers and inspectors conduct courses at the mines.
One course is designed primarily for coal-mine officials, another
is designed for coal miners, and a third covers accident prevention in metal mines. These courses are very thorough and
require from 20 to 40 hours of class attendance.
The work of the Bureau of Mines in coal-mine inspection
has been described in Chapter I I .
Other Bureau activities that should be mentioned are the
control and elimination of smoke and smog and of harmful
dusts in mines and plants ; control of mine fires, and rescue
and recovery work after mine fires and explosions ; flood prevention in the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania ; a safety
training course for coal-mine haulage men ; and the successful
development of new roof control systems, such as the use of
roof bolts, which may save hundreds of lives each year.
The Bureau's publications include : handbooks on first aid,
rescue, breathing apparatus, etc. ; technical papers on safety
problems ; reports on investigations (usually technical) ;
information circulars (including accident statistics, description
of safety schemes, safety equipment, safe practices, and miscellaneous items of safety news) ; miners' circulars (safety
rules and practical advice to miners) ; and schedules (mostly
specifications and testing procedures for mine appliances,
respiratory protective equipment and explosives).
The Bureau has an experimental mine near Bruceton, Pa.,
and an experimental station at Pittsburgh.

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237

The Bureau of Mines Las undergone a number of reorganisations in recent years. Under the latest, in 1950, the five
divisions—Mining, Metallurgical, Fuels and Explosives, Health
and Safety, and Economics and Statistics—were reduced to
three—Health and Safety, Minerals, and Fuels and Explosives.
Health and Safety

Division

This Division is composed of four separate subdivisions :
Coal Mine Inspection Branch, Safety Branch, Health Branch,
and Accident Analysis Branch. The functions of these branches
are described briefly as follows.
Coal Mine Inspection

Branch.

This branch was organised in 1941 to carry out the duties
of the Bureau of Mines as outlined in the Coal Mine Inspection
and Investigation Act of 1941, Public Law 49. Under the
provisions of this law, the Secretary of the Interior, acting
through the Bureau of Mines, is authorised and empowered to
make annual or necessary inspections of coal mines the products of which regularly enter commerce or the operations of
which substantially affect commerce. One of the principal
objects of the law is to obtain and disseminate information
relating to health and safety conditions and practices in the
nation's coal mines. In addition to carrying out inspections
and investigations, the branch arranges for the training of coalmine supervisors and coal miners in accident prevention, and
the preparation and dissemination of information regarding
health and safety in coal mines.
Federal inspection of coal mines is considered to have
contributed to the steady decline in fatal accident rates since
1942. There was no major coal-mine disaster in the United
States between 4 November 1948 and 18 January 1951, the
longest disaster-free period in the history of American coal
mining.
Safety

Branch.

This branch specialises in the instruction of workers in
the mineral industries in first aid, mine rescue and accident
prevention, jointly with engineers and inspectors of the other

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

branches of the Division. Investigational and educational
work is conducted in varied fields of the industry.
The Electrical-Mechanical Section of the Safety Branch
makes tests and issues approvals of electrical equipment
designed for use in coal mines.
The Anthracite Flood Control Section of the Safety Branch
was organised in 1944 for the purpose of conducting studies
relative to the underground mine water problems in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, evaluating information obtained,
and preparing plans to aid in solving the mine water problem.
The Eoof Control Section of the Safety Branch was organised in 1949 ; its principal function is to investigate and conduct
research on roof control in the mining industry and to provide
more adequate and safe means of roof support.
Up to the end of June 1951, the Bureau's coal mine accident
prevention course for mine supervisors had been completed
by 12,276 persons and the course for miners by 34,832. The
demand for the miners' course is growing, but the number of
classes that can be held is limited by the number of coal-mine
inspectors that can be spared for the work. During the year
1951, 32,850 employees of the mining and allied industries
were given first-aid and rescue training. A further 341 firstaid course instructors were trained, bringing the total up to
18,571.
Two new training programmes were instituted in 1951 :
the coal mine haulage safety training course and the roof-fall
accident-prevention training programme.
Health Branch.
The activities of this branch include : (1) literature research
and the compilation, co-ordination, and documentation of
scientific information relating to industrial hygiene and
preventive medicine in the mining and allied industries ; (2)
development of equipment and procedures for measuring
atmospheric contaminants ; (3) laboratory studies, surveys
and inspections to evaluate unhygienic conditions and to
appraise sanitary and medical facilities in the mineral industries ; (4) application of control and corrective procedures to
improve the working environment ; (5) testing respiratory
protective devices for permissibility -, and (6) analysis of air
and dust samples.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

239

The minimum requirements that various types of respiratory protective equipment should meet to be considered
safe and satisfactory are set out in a series of schedules.
Provision has been made for the testing and approval of
the following types of respiratory protective devices : selfcontained breathing apparatus, supplied-air respirators, gas
masks, dispersoid respirators, and chemical cartridge respirators. These devices are tested at the Central Experimental
Station of the Bureau of Mines in Pittsburgh, Pa. Self-contained breathing apparatus is tested by the Safety Branch,
and the other types of respirators are tested by the Health
Branch.
Approvals by the Bureau of Mines of respiratory protective
devices are based upon performance tests rather than upon
specifications as to how the devices must be built. For instance,
the maximum exhalation resistance of a gas mask facepiece
to an air flow of 3 c.f.m. is set at 1.25 inches of water, but
there is no requirement as to the size and shape of the exhalation valve or as to the composition and physical properties of
the material from which it is made.
This policy allows the manufacturers wide latitude of
choice in the design of respirators and allows the Bureau to
approve radical changes and improvements in the devices
without frequent revision of the schedules. Each schedule
contains a statement to the effect that (1) the respirator must
be constructed, in all of its parts, of materials suitable for the
purpose they must serve, and (2) the design, mechanical
construction, durability and workmanship must be satisfactory from the standpoint of safety of the wearer, freedom of
movement, field and clearness of vision, fit of the facepiece,
and comfort under all conditions of use. This statement gives
the Bureau of Mines certain discretionary powers that permit
the denial of approval of a device that may meet the performance requirements of the specific schedule, yet may be
extremely uncomfortable to wear, flimsily built or constructed
of materials that are not suitable for conditions the device will
encounter in service.
Accident Analysis

Branch.

The principal function of this branch is the collecting,
checking, analysis, compilation and publishing of official
injury statistics on all mineral and allied industries, and of

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

consumption and other data on industrial explosives. The
branch also conducts six annual safety competitions, and
awards Certificates of Achievement to mines and quarries
with outstanding safety records.
Minerals

Division

The Mining and Metallurgical Division, replaced in 1950
by the Minerals Division, consisted of a number of sections,
of which the Coal Mining Section, the Mine Ventilation Section
and the Electrical-Mechanical Section were engaged in work
for the promotion of safety in coal mines.
Among the subjects dealt with by the Coal Mining Section
in recent years are ground movement and roof control, including the effects of air conditioning ; and the decay of mine
timber.
The principal functions of the Electrical-Mechanical Section
have been : (1) to determine by inspection and test whether
electrical equipment for coal mines is of a construction that
will minimise hazards of shock and of gas and dust ignitions ;
(2) to study hazards connected with the operation of mechanical equipment in mines, and to devise means of eliminating
them.
The work of the section has greatly increased as the result
of the establishment of a Federal Mine Inspection Service.
One of the new tasks of the section has been to assist in the
training of federal mine inspectors in so far as concerns the
inspection of electrical installations, and in the solution of
electrical problems connected with mine inspections.
The mining equipment tested for approval includes motordriven equipment (conveyors, loading machines, storagebattery-operated cars, mining machines, pumps, rock-dust
distributors, etc.), lamps, methane detectors, electric shotfiring devices, and explosion-proof parts of electrical equipment.
This section also regularly engages in educational work.
For instance, it has given demonstrations in the electrical
laboratory to show how electric sparks and flashes can ignite
methane, and to explain the procedure for approving mining
equipment. I t has also organised a portable demonstration
unit with lantern slides which has been used in the mining
districts of Pennsylvania and West Virginia to illustrate
informal talks to groups of mining officials and maintenance

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : "UNITED STATES

241

men on electrical hazards and the maintenance of permissible
equipment.
During 1950 research work on roof bolting was done both
in the field and in the laboratory. In efforts to solve some of
the technical problems involved, tentative standards were
established for torque to be applied in bolting. A centrifugal
testing laboratory was established for testing models of mine
structures under body loading. In the field, a co-operative
project was begun at a coal mine to determine the safest and
most efficient method of roof bolting. Colour photography
of the inside of boreholes is being used experimentally in this
work. Other field studies involve the use of the stratascope
to determine strata separation, torqueometer readings to
determine bolt tension, roof painting to determine efficiency
in preventing the disintegration of mine roof, and the adoption
of roof bolting where pillars are being extracted.
Fuels and Explosives

Division

I n 1946 the Explosives Division, now the Explosives
Branch of the Fuels and Explosives Division, was reorganised
and divided into seven sections respectively for explosives
research, explosives testing, experimental coal mine and dust
explosions, physical chemistry and physics, gaseous explosions, jet propulsion, and explosives utilisation. So far as
safety in coal mines is concerned, the work of this division
has related to the prevention of dust explosions ; explosives
and shotfiring ; the causes, behaviour and control of mine
fires ; the uses of diesel locomotives underground ; and the
investigation of mining disasters.
In recent years the work of the division in connection with
explosives and shotfiring has been concerned with matters
such as liquid oxygen explosives ; the liberation of poisonous
gases by explosives, and more especially sheathed explosives ;
the mechanism of the ignition of firedamp by explosives ;
cushion blasting ; the use of cardox ; the sensitivity of explosives to initiation by electro-static discharges ; increases in
permissible charge limits and the designing of an electronic
chronoscope for measuring velocities of detonation of explosives.
In addition to special studies of these kinds, the division
is responsible for the routine testing of explosives and detonators, and it also engages in educational work by giving

242

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

lectures to bodies such as the Mine Inspectors' Institute of
America, coal operators' associations and classes of mining
students, and by arranging demonstrations at the testing
station of the hazards of explosives and blasting devices.
Experimental Coal Mine
The experimental mine serves as a large-scale testing
laboratory. I t was established in 1910 after a series of disastrous coal-mining explosions in the United States and Europe.
I t is chiefly used for studying the explosibility of coal dust
and gas and means of preventing mine explosions, but it has
also served as a testing ground for many other kinds of
research work relating to mine and industrial safety, and
to the conservation of mineral resources.
Early work carried on in the mine included the determination of the relative explosibility of various coal dusts in
air and the manner of propagating mine explosions ; the prevention or limitation of coal-dust explosions ; studies of firedamp diffusion and explosion processes ; ventilation ; methods
of extinguishing small mine fires ; tests on the deterioration
of explosives during storage in coal mines ; tests of the strength
of mine stoppings of various construction ; compressibility
and bearing strength of coal ; roof movements and roof
pressures ; roof protection ; training of mine officials in the
use of gas detectors and rescue equipment ; tests on the
performance of mining machines and equipment ; and demonstrations of mining hazards.
More recent work has been concerned with the application
of rock dust in coal mines ; the laying of dust by wetting
agents and other means ; mine roof failures ; timber decay
in coal mines ; and the testing of permissible explosives under
actual mining conditions. As regards work in connection with
shotfiring, particular mention may be made of investigations
into the effect of increasing charge limits of permissible
explosives ; the causes and effects of blown-out shots ; and the
effects of fissures or crevices in the shot-hole.
Investigations are being made of methods of testing roof
that are more accurate than hand tapping, methods based
on resonance, electronics, seismology and electricity. Trials
are being made with radio and telephone systems for controlling locomotive haulage systems in the interests of efficiency

GENERAI, SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

243

and safety. Much attention is being given to the improvement
of mine lighting, in particular by flood-lighting at the face,
fluorescent lighting and more powerful cap lamps. Another
contribution to efficiency and safety alike is the study of
fast delay detonators for high-speed multiple shotfiring.
Other important matters under investigation are nonflammable conveyor belts and the electronic testing of winding
and haulage ropes.
Subjects for Future Research
A review of the research work of the Bureau of Mines
during the first 40 years of its existence, from 1910 to 1949,
describes the progress made in various fields and comments
on the matters in which further research is needed. 1 The
fields covered include explosives, dust explosions, gas explosions, mine atmospheres, respiratory protective equipment,
electrical equipment, locomotives, mechanical equipment and
prevention of roof falls.
Among the subjects on which further research is needed
in connection with explosives are the mechanism of the
ignition of firedamp, the maximum charge limit of explosives,
multiple blasting, stemming of shot-holes, methods of testing
explosives, cardox, airdox and liquid-oxygen explosives.
More fundamental investigations are needed into the
mechanism of the ignition of flammable dust particles and
the propagation of flame through dust clouds. Eesearch is
also needed (1) to determine the most effective proportions
of rock dust on the floor, ribs, and roof of mine entries,
respectively ; (2) to develop more efficient methods for distributing rock dust in rooms than by hand spreading ; (3) to
study the value of inert dusts other than limestone and shale,
which are now in most common use ; (4) to evaluate the
possibilities of complementing generalised rock dusting by
dispersing rock dust into the path of the explosion flame
directly from devices that are free from the defects of the
conventional rock-dust barriers ; and (5) to investigate different
measures for arresting the flames, as by use of water sprays,
water barriers, chemical inhibitors, and other agents. More
1

UNITED STATES BTTREATT OF MUTES : Achievements in Mine Safety Research

and Problems Yet to be Solved, Information Circular 7573, Washington, D.C., June
1950.

244

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

effective means of allaying airborne dust are required, and
means should be developed to permit the application of rock
dust during the -working shift as the face advances.
Many problems related to gas-explosion hazards are still
unsolved. Among them are (1) the explosibility of gaseous
combustible mixtures at greatly reduced pressures, simulating
combustion processes at high altitudes, and (2) explosibility
at high pressures, simulating conditions now used in the
secondary oil recovery processes, whereby natural gas-air
mixtures are forced through partly depleted oil sands to increase
the recovery of oil. Information is also needed on the explosion hazards of high-boiling hydrocarbons, including the
hydraulic fluids used in some mining equipment.
Other
matters still to be investigated include admixtures of inert
gases at high temperatures and pressures, the properties of
flame-quenching materials, flame propagation, fire fighting
in mines, localisation of explosions by flame arresters, release
diaphragms, rupture discs, etc.
As regards mine atmospheres, one of the main tasks for
the future is to apply much of the scientific knowledge
that has accumulated during the past 20 years ; this is particularly important as regards the new continuous mining machines,
the operation of which may release large quantities of methane.
A desirable development would be the equipment of these
machines with a reliable automatic firedamp detector and
alarm. Another great safety measure would be the degasification of the coal bed in advance of the working face, by
drilling holes either from the face or from the surface. There
would be advantages, both from the economic and safety
points of view, in replacing ordinary textile brattices and
ventilation piping by more durable and less combustible
materials, such as plastics, fibre glass and other ceramics.
Laboratory methods and instruments for examining and analysing samples of mine air and dusts need to be supplemented
by methods and instruments for on-the-spot tests.
Future efforts towards development of techniques for the
collection and examination of airborne dusts might include—
(1) a method for collecting enough dust samples in coal
mines to determine free silica by X-ray diffraction ;
(2) improvement of chemical or physical methods for the
determination of free silica in small samples of airborne dust ;

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

245

(3) determination of the effect of air velocities, of the
magnitude encountered in mines, on the results of airborne
dust sampling by existing techniques ;
(4) further studies of charges upon particles and the effects
of surface-active agents as related to the collection of dust
from air.
Further, the electron microscope and electron diffraction
might offer possibilities for extending the study of airborne
dusts into the range of particles not distinguishable by ordinary
microscopic methods.
One of the chief problems confronting those engaged in
respiratory work is the education of the worker to wear the
proper type of respiratory protective device when exposed to
harmful atmospheres. There are several objections to presentday respirators and research is needed to overcome those relating to size, weight, flimsiness, complexity, short service time,
discomfort, etc. Eesearch is also needed on mechanical filters
for dispersoids and absorbents and catalysts for toxic gases.
Some of the safety problems related to the use of electricity
are in need of better solutions. ÎTeeds still to be met include
adequate face lighting ; a fire-resistant insulating substance
for trailing cables that will not liberate irritating fumes and
gases when overheated ; improved reeling and unreeling
devices on mobile equipment ; improved methods for grounding
the frames of electric equipment ; more positive protection
of electrical equipment and circuits against overload and short
circuit ; a fire-resistant substance for conveyor belts ; improved
means of communication between each working section underground and the surface independent of trolley, rail, or feeder
wire ; and a method of detecting defective trolley hanger
insulators without disconnecting the trolley wire.
The recently developed technique of roof bolting is the
most promising solution yet found to the problem of preventing falls of roof. A device is now needed to indicate roof
conditions, since the mechanical equipment at present in use
makes so much noise that workers often fail to hear the sounds
given off by a falling roof. Another device is needed to allay
or collect the dust formed by drilling dry roof holes. More
engineering knowledge is required regarding the behaviour
of mine roof, and more particularly the distribution of stresses
about mine operations in stratified rock.

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SAFETY IN COAL MINES

T H E UNITED M I N E WORKERS OF AMEBICA AND THE
FEDERAL M I N E SAFETY CODE

In the safety programme of the United Mine Workers of
America the chief objectives have always included better
mining laws, the enforcement of such laws when enacted,
better and more competent supervision, and greater safety
for men employed in the industry.
The union has long held the view that it could not carry
out a comprehensive national safety programme unless federal
legislation was passed which would provide uniform rules and
a uniform system of inspection in all coal-producing areas.
The union has, therefore, consistently pressed for federal
legislation which would bring this about.
The enactment in 1941 of Public Law 49 by the 77th
Congress brought this programme closer to realisation. This
law provided for the inspection of coal mines by federal mine
inspectors, with written reports of such inspections to be sent
to the company owning the mine, the mining department of
the state in which the mine is located and the labour union (if
any) having a contract at the mine. However, the fact that
the law carried no enforcement provisions has hampered the
mineworkers in completely carrying out the objectives of the
union.
The wage agreement of 1941 carried a provision for the
appointment of mine safety committee men, but their activities were restricted by the fact that recommendations of
federal mine inspectors were only advisory. In the union's
opinion, state mining departments generally were non-cooperative and coal companies in many instances were hostile
to the idea.
This situation was greatly improved by an agreement
entered into on 29 May 1946 by Mr. John L. Lewis, President
of the United Mine Workers of America and Mr. Krug, Secretary of the Interior representing the President of the United
States, which provided for the setting up of a Code of Safety
Standards and their enforcement during the period of Government operation.
This agreement, commonly known as the Krug-Lewis
agreement, dealt with safety, health, welfare, compensation

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

247

for occupational diseases, paid holidays and various other
matters affecting conditions of employment in coal mines.
As regards safety, the agreement provided that the Director
of the Bureau of Mines, after consultation with representatives
of the United Mine Workers and such other persons as he
deemed appropriate, should issue a reasonable code of standards
and rules pertaining to safety conditions and practices in the
mines.
The agreement further provided for the appointment at
each mine of a mine safety committee selected by the local
union. While performing their duties the members of the
committee would be paid by the union.
If the committee discovered dangerous conditions it would
report its findings and recommendations to the management.
If the danger was immediate and the committee recommended
to the management the removal of all mineworkers from the
unsafe area, the operating manager or his managerial subordinate must follow the recommendations of the committee
unless the Coal Mines Administrator overruled them.
The Federal Mine Safety Code was duly promulgated on
24 July 1946 ; it will be analysed in Volume I I of the present
report.
The National Bituminous Coal Wage Agreement of 1947,
concluded on 8 July 1947 between a large number of mining
companies and the United Mine Workers of America, adopted
both the Federal Mine Safety Code and the provisions of
the Krug-Lewis agreement concerning mine safety committees. These provisions were renewed in the subsequent
agreements.
The agreement further provided for the appointment of
a Joint Industry Safety Committee composed of four members,
two representing the mineworkers and two the operators.
The functions of the Committee are : (1) to arbitrate upon any
appeal from an operator or a mineworker " who feels that any
reported violation of the Code and recommendation of compliance by a Federal Coal Mine Inspector has not been justly
reported or that the action required of him to correct the
violation would subject him to irreparable damage or great
injustice " ; and (2) to consult with the Bureau of Mines concerning the review or revision of the Federal Safety Code.
This Committee has functioned as required. The appeals have
been few in number.

248

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

The Safety Director of the union and his assistants attend
safety meetings of various types and, where necessary, go into
the field and assist district officers ; each federal mine inspection report is carefully studied and analysed, and a letter is
written to the coal company which owns the mine stating the
union's views on steps to be taken to make the mine safer.
Copies of such letters are mailed to the district organisation
and the local union affected and, in most instances, the union
receives letters from coal companies and local union safety
committee men stating to what extent the company is complying or has complied with the federal mine inspector's
recommendations.
The United Mine Workers of America employ a national
safety director and two assistant safety directors on full time.
In a number of the larger districts there are district safety
directors on a full-time basis. Through the co-operative efforts
of the Federal Bureau of Mines and the United Mine Workers
of America, education along safety lines is being carried
out continuously by actual contact with the men, including
union officers, safety committee men and all other members
who desire to take courses, and the Journal of the United Mine
"Workers from time to time carries needed safety information.
The efforts of the union are, in general, directed towards
the elimination of recognised hazards and dangerous practices
in the coal-mining industry, and the creation of intelligent
co-operation by all concerned. The union feels that if its
efforts are successful coal mining will become one of the safest
occupations in the nation.
In his Annual Report for 1947, the Director of the Bureau
of Mines states that mandatory compliance with the Federal
Mine Safety Code resulted in substantial improvements in
conditions. Appraising some of the tangible results, he finds
it significant t h a t in the last three months of 1947 compliance
with code provisions in mines was estimated at 48 per cent.
Bureau records of some of the major accomplishments reveal
that roof-fall hazards were eliminated by improved timbering
in 787 mines ; ventilation improvements were made in 955
mines ; permissible explosives replaced dangerous black blasting powder in 199 mines ; 399 mines were rock dusted for the
first time, and 759 partly rock-dusted mines were brought up
to standard ; smoking was discontinued in 235 mines ; and
open lights were discontinued in 160.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

249

OTHER SAFETY ACTIVITIES

Joseph A. Holmes Safety

Association

One of the most important of the voluntary organisations
of national scope working for safety in the mining industry is
the Joseph A. Holmes Safety Association. 1 This Association
was founded in 1916 by 24 leading national organisations of
the mining, metallurgical and allied industries to commemorate the efforts of Dr. Joseph Austin Holmes, the first director
of the United States Bureau of Mines, to reduce accidents and
illness and to promote the organisation of safety generally
in the industries mentioned. At the present time there are
26 member organisations, including the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, the American Federation of
Labor, the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineers, the American Mining Congress, the American Bed
Cross, the Coal Mining Institute of America, the Mine Inspectors' Institute of America, the Mining and Metallurgical
Society of America, the National Coal Association, the National
Safety Council, the United Mine Workers of America, the
United States Bureau of Mines, the United States Geological
Survey and the United States Public Health Service.
The first annual meeting of the permanent organisation
was held in Washington, D.O., on 4 March 1916, when the
objects of the Association were defined as follows :
(1) The making of one or more annual awards, with or
without honorariums, to be known as the " Holmes Safety
Award ", for the encouragement of those originating, developing, and installing the most efficient safety devices, appliances,
or methods in the mining, quarrying, metallurgical and mineral
industries, previous to the close of the preceding calendar
year ; these awards to be the result of reports and investigations made by the secretary and representatives of the Association.
(2) The awarding of suitable medals, from time to time,
for personal heroism or distinguished service in the saving of
life, in any branch of the mining, quarrying, metallurgical and
mineral industries.
1

UNITED STATES BUBEATT or MINES : The Joseph A. Holmes Safety Association

and its Awards, Information Circular 6831, Washington, D.O., Feb. 1935.

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The general aim of the Association was to bring mining
safety before the public and to stimulate the safety movement
by the grant of suitable awards.
The Director of the Bureau of Mines is ex officio president
of the Association, and for several years the head of the safety
branch of the Bureau has been secretary. Thus the two bodies
work in close collaboration.
Owing to shortage of funds it was only in 1927 that the
Association began to issue awards for meritorious safety
records, and at the present time the grant of these awards
constitutes the major activity of the organisation and one
that exercises a vital effect upon safety in the mining and
allied industries. These awards are made for safety devices,
safety methods, and exceptional safety records of miners and
officials and of mines or organisations. During the period
1927-1951, 2,450 such awards were made, 1,192 of them going
to the coal-mining industry.
In some of the important centres of the mining industry
the Association has chapters which are engaged in various
forms of safety work.

National Coal Association
The National Coal Association has an active safety department to assist its members throughout the United States
in safety matters. The department prepares for distribution
posters, safety messages, speeches and articles for publication,
and it reviews safety literature issued by member companies,
other industries, the Government and foreign countries. I t is
usual to obtain any material that is considered useful and
distribute it to a group of safety engineers affiliated to the
Association.
Many of the regional and local coal operators' associations
have full-time safety engineers whose work consists of instruction, inspection and consultation in everything that has to
do with the safety of the members' undertakings. These
associations also collaborate with the safety department of
the National Association.
All the larger coal operators have safety and inspection
departments, and many of the smaller ones who may own
only one mine employ a safety engineer or a safety inspector.

GENEBAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

251

I t is not a common practice, however, to employ a full-time
safety official for less than 100 or 150 miners.
The National Coal Association has vocational and engineering education departments which endeavour to foster safety
education in technical schools and colleges.
The National Coal Association's Safety Division works
in co-operation with the United States Bureau of Mines with
particular reference to the Bureau's work for training miners
and mine officials in accident prevention. The Association
helps the coal companies to set up classes and obtain instructors
from the Bureau of Mines, and assists the latter by keeping
mine officials informed of arrangements for the classes.
The Association actively supports first-aid, mine rescue
and safety contests, and awards prizes to individuals and
companies, usually in the form of cups, columns, plaques and
" safety " jewellery, such as pins, rings and belt buckles.
Most coal-mining companies have issued safety rules and
regulations in pamphlet form for their employees, and also
subscribe to a poster service such as those provided b y the
National Safety Council and the Elliot Company.
American Mining Congress
The membership of the American Mining Congress is
composed of mining companies (coal, metal and non-metallic)
throughout the United States, and manufacturers of mining
equipment. The general aim of the Congress is to associate
these companies for the betterment of the industry by improving operating practices and by improving safety in mining.
There is a special committee on safety, composed of operators
and manufacturers, which reports on practices that have been
found effective in reducing accidents and which recommends
general procedures for improving safety in mining. After
preparation, reports and recommendations are carefully
reviewed by the committee and, following approval, are presented to the industry by publication in the Mining Congress
Journal and by subsequent reprints.
National Safety Council
Another national organisation that has devoted a considerable part of its activities to the mining industry is the National
Safety Council. The annual national safety congresses organised
17

252

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

by the Council include one or more sections concerned with
mining safety, and in addition the Council has issued a number
of safe practices pamphlets, engineering studies, industrial
data sheets, safety posters and films for mining, and publishes articles on matters of mining safety from time to time
in its journal the National Safety News.
Miscellaneous

Activities

Among other national associations that have included
safety in the sphere of their activities, mention may be made
of the Coal Mining Institute of America, the American Institute
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and the Mine Inspectors'
Institute of America. All these bodies regularly discuss safety
problems at their meetings.
The American Standards Association has issued a series
of mining standards which include a safety code for coal-mine
transportation ; safety rules for installing and using electrical
equipment in coal mines ; recommended practice for coalmine tracks, signals and switches ; recommended practice
for miscellaneous outside coal-handling equipment ; specifications and recommended practice for wire rope for mines ;
construction and maintenance and recommended practice in
the use of ladders and stairs for mines ; recommended practice
for rock dusting of coal mines ; and recommended practice
for the use of explosives in the bituminous coal mines.
The coal-mining industry will benefit from a laboratory,
known as the John T. Ryan Memorial Laboratory, which
has been built in Pittsburgh by the Mine Safety Appliance
Company and works in collaboration with the Bureau of
Mines, the Public Health Service and other bodies. The
laboratory undertakes industrial researches and develops
safety equipment of all kinds. Among the matters of special
interest to the coal-mining industry that receive attention
are breathing apparatus, methane and carbon monoxide
detectors, mine lighting equipment and personal protective
equipment.
Safety work on similar lines to that of the national organisations is also conducted by a very large number of regional
organisations. I t would be beyond the scope of this study to
describe this work in detail and it must suffice merely to
mention the names of a few prominent institutions that

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

253

regularly concern themselves with mining safety—the Illinois
Mining Institute, the Indiana Coal Mining Institute, the Central
West Virginian Coal Mining Institute, the Eocky Mountain
Coal Mining Institute. Some of the more usual features of
the work of these and many other similar associations are
the discussion of safety problems at conferences, congresses,
etc., the promotion of safety education, the award of safety
trophies, and first-aid and rescue competitions.
A few states, of which Kentucky, Ohio and Pennsylvania
are the most active, provide high-school classes for coalmining subjects, with the general aim of making safe miners
out of the entrants to the industry. Up to the present,
systematic mining education with safety as a separate specialised subject appears to have been given only at one college,
Georgia Technical School.
PENNSYLVANIA

Dust Control in Anthracite

Mines

In the Pennsylvania anthracite field individual mining
companies started experimental work in controlling airborne
dust in their mines in 1937. In 1942 a joint study was made
over a two-year period by the United States Bureau of Mines
with several of the largest producing companies.
In 1946 it was felt by most of the large producing companies that an industry-wide attack should be carried on under
the guidance of the Anthracite Institute, whose members
represent over 80 per cent, of all anthracite mined. A silicosis
committee was promptly formed, and the groundwork was laid
for a series of graphically illustrated talks to be given to all
mine officials in the region, covering anthracosilicosis, oxides
of nitrogen fumes, water for control measures, methods of
control and the benefits to be expected from such a programme.
Large and small mining companies responded, and meetings
were held with more than 3,500 mine officials and United
Mine Workers of America local committee men.
Dust surveys were then made in the mines of many producing companies covering the inspection of working places,
taking of dust samples, laboratory analyses, consultation with
safety engineers, mine foremen and mineworkers in regard to
availability of water for control methods and the attitude of

254

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

workmen toward its use. Eecommendations were then made
to management as to the conditions present and the measures
necessary for control. A modern dust laboratory was installed
in the Anthracite Institute Building in Wilkes Barre, Pa.,
and frequent meetings were held with dust engineers of various
companies to assist with individual problems. Large industrywide meetings were held with general managers, safety engineers, dust engineers and workmen's compensation managers,
where ideas were exchanged and mutual problems discussed.
A school for dust engineers was held at the Institute dust
laboratory, the sessions being attended by producing company
engineers, chemists and inspectors.
I n the year 1952, there were six individual dust laboratories in various parts of the region and a central dust
laboratory at the Anthracite Institute. Seventeen trained
engineers and technicians are actively engaged in routine
sampling, counting and analysing the content of dust atmospheres underground and supervising the installation of dust
control equipment.
A list of laboratory equipment necessary for dust sampling,
counting and analysing free crystalline silica content is a long
one, but, generally speaking, all dust laboratories are equipped
with Mine Safety Appliances Company's dust impingers for
dust sampling, M.S.A. microprojectors for dust counting and
pétrographie as well as chemical apparatus for determination
of free crystalline silica content of airborne dust, as well as
settled dust samples.
The dust problem appears to be a vast one seeing that some
collieries work 14 veins of coal. The problem of getting water
under pressure to each working place is complicated if only
because mining is not centralised, and mining sections in one
vein are sometimes scattered over areas that are thousands
of feet apart. Miles of water lines are necessary in order to
control the dust in a single coal vein. As anthracite mining
is done in veins varying from two to a hundred feet in thickness and as the pitch varies from flat to vertical, there is no
easy road to control of dust.
The greatest difficulty encountered in anthracite mine
dust control lies in the piping of water over long distances to
the working places so that a constant supply is available at a
working pressure of at least 50 pounds per square inch. I t is
paradoxical that some anthracite mines are required to pump

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : UNITED STATES

255

50 tons of seepage water for every ton of coal mined and still
have many working places that are dry and dusty because of
lack of water in the immediate area. The method of supplying
water to the working faces is standard in relation to pipe
layout, but the sources of water supply are varied.
Some mine water sources include inside accumulations or
pools which are piped from upper veins through boreholes to
lower veins, sufficient pressure being supplied by gravity to
provide dust control in several sections where both mechanical
and hand mining are being done. Some mining companies
have tapped shaft and slope column lines where it has been
necessary to install pressure reducers to reduce the line pressure from several hundred pounds to 90 pounds in the workplaces. One large anthracite producer has constructed water
storage dams of concrete inside the mines. One of these dams
holds more than 50,000 gallons of water and is filled during
an off-shift period, through the compressed-air line, tapped
on a drainage pump line. The least convenient method of
supplying water is by tank car because of the haulage involved
and the periods when cars are being changed and water is cut
off from the working faces. Tank cars are only used when no
other method of supplying water is feasible from the cost
standpoint. There are several hundred tank cars in use in
the Pennsylvania field.
The recent advances made in dust control in the anthracite
mines through the Pennsylvania field are based primarily on
preventing coal or rock dust from becoming airborne. Electrical precipitators or high pressure fog sprays are necessary
to remove efficiently airborne dust particles in the low micron
sizes. Cleaning mine air by electrical precipitation is costly
and impractical, while fog sprays result in reduced visibility
and are generally difficult to maintain. From an economic
standpoint the most practical method of dust control consists
in wetting the dust at its source and thereby preventing it
from getting into the atmosphere. The wet-type jackhammer,
when used properly, is by far the most practical tool yet
devised for dust suppression in either coal or rock drilling and
is now widely used in anthracite mines.
Investigations appear to show that all rock development
tunnels in anthracite mines are now being driven by wet
methods. Dust samples taken during drilling and mucking
cycles indicated total dust counts of less than 5 million particles

256

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

per cubic foot in the rock tunnels of three large producing
companies. Close observation in more than 30 rock tunnels
establishes t h a t the procedure for controlling dust is similar
in all cases. The rock contractors use portable water tank
cars, wet-type machine-fed jackhammers and spray the muck
piles before loading both by mechanical loaders and by hand
loading. Airborne dust is now controlled to a point where it is
no longer visible in rock tunnels and requires the use of dust
sampling apparatus for its detection.

INTEBNATIONAL

International co-operation for the promotion of safety in
coal mines is not yet highly developed. Apart from the International Labour Organisation, the only agencies active in this
field are the periodic conferences of representatives of national
research institutions and experimental stations, which began
in 1931, and the International Electrotechnical Commission
which has concerned itself with flameproof enclosures of
electrical apparatus since 1948.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION

The activities of the International Labour Organisation
have comprised those of a routine character such as the collection and publication of information on safety in coal mines,
and special tasks such as the framing of the Model Code of
Sajety Regulations for Underground Worlc in Goal Mines.
Safety information has been regularly published in Occupational Safety and Health, formerly the Industrial Safety Survey,
in English, French and German before the war and in English,
French and Spanish since. The information published includes
summaries of laws and regulations ; annual reports of mines
inspectorates ; accident statistics ; reports of research institutions ; and reviews of handbooks, pamphlets and articles in
periodicals, etc. A systematic compilation of information on
accident risks, legislation, inspection and safety activities
generally in the coal-mining industries of several countries was
attempted in Safety Provisions for Underground Worlc in Coal
Mines, published in 1939.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : INTERNATIONAL

257

The preparation of the Model Code was begun in 1937 bul
was interrupted by the war. In this work the Office was
assisted by committees of coal-mining experts from the principal coal-producing countries and also by a committee of
experts on electricity in coal mines. The Code was finally
discussed and adopted by a Tripartite Technical Conference
held at the International Labour Office in Geneva in September
1949, and attended by representatives of Governments,
employers and workers from 15 coal-mining countries. The
Code is not a binding instrument but has been compiled for
the guidance of Governments and industry, especially in countries where coal mining is not yet highly developed. I t is a
comprehensive document of 24 chapters, dealing not only
with technical matters such as explosives, ventilation, haulage,
winding, electricity and precautions against coal dust and
fires, but also with first aid, rescue, notification and investigation of accidents, and mine safety organisation.
One of the resolutions adopted by the Tripartite Technical
Conference called for a conference of men with practical experience in coal mining to deal with methods of preventing and
suppressing dangerous dust in coal mines. Another resolution
bearing on dust prevention and suppression was adopted by
the Third International Conference on Pneumoconiosis, held
under the auspices of the International Labour Organisation
at Sydney in 1950. This recommended that a further conference should be held to study the prevention of pneumoconiosis
from the point of view of the engineer, the physicist and the
chemist. Account of both these resolutions was taken by the
Governing Body of the International Labour Office when it
decided that a meeting of experts should be held, if possible
before the end of 1952, to consider and advise on the prevention and suppression of dust in mining, quarrying and tunnelling.
The meeting, which was held at the International Labour
Office in December 1952, was attended by 30 experts from
16 countries. I t discussed over 90 papers written by a large
number of experts on the following broad subjects : prevention
of dust formation, suppression of dust at source of formation,
prevention of deposited dust from becoming airborne, removal
of airborne dust, airborne dust sampling and measurement,
personal protective equipment, supervision and maintenance
of dust-prevention and suppression devices, education and

258

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

training of workmen and special problems (such as those
created by extremes of altitude, temperature and humidity).
On these subjects the meeting adopted a set of over a
hundred recommendations for good practice in mining, tunnelling and quarrying, and also made proposals for the development of international co-operation. x
As regards good practice, the recommendations covered
the general principles of dust prevention and suppression and
also their particular application in operations such as stowing
or packing, drilling, shotflring, coal-getting, loading and
transport. Stress was laid on the fundamental importance of
good ventilation.
The meeting expressed the view that, in the present state
of knowledge, all dusts liberated in mining, tunnelling and
quarrying should be considered potentially dangerous to health
if breathed in sufficient quantity, and that dusts containing
free silica should be considered specially injurious to health,
the injurious particles being below five microns in diameter.
The meeting's proposals concerning international cooperation may be summarised as follows :
1. I t would be highly desirable to develop exchanges of
information and experience between all the countries interested
in the prevention and suppression of dust in mining, tunnelling
and quarrying, and to this end a central organisation should
collect and distribute information of an administrative,
technical or scientific character.
2. To enable this central organisation to function efficiently,
each country concerned should undertake to communicate
to it, in the original language and at the time of publication,
material such as regulations, recommendations, circulars,
reports on tests and researches, descriptions of new equipments
and methods, and in general abstracts or complete publications on the prevention and suppression of dust.
3. At appropriate intervals, the central organisation would
publish brief abstracts, in a suitable form, of these publications,
and would furnish original publications on request.
4. The International Labour Office should act as the international centre of information.
5. A general report on matters pertaining to the prevention
and suppression of dust in mining, tunnelling and quarrying
1
The full text of these recommendations has been published in Occupational Safety and Health, Vol. Ill, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1953.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : INTERNATIONAL

259

should be communicated annually to the central organisation
by each of the countries concerned and, to facilitate comparison,
these annual reports should be drawn up on a uniform plan.
6. On the basis of the annual reports, the central organisation should compile a general report in which stress would be
laid on matters in which outstanding progress had been made,
and also on the most urgent tasks still to be accomplished.
To assist the central organisation in the preparation of this
general report, a small committee of experts should meet
annually.
7. The experts also felt that a meeting similar to the present
one should be held after a suitable interval to consider more
particularly matters that have developed in the meantime
and new problems that have arisen.
CONFERENCES OP RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

The conferences of research institutions were held in
Buxton (1931) \ Montluçon (1933) 2, Dortmund (1935) 3 ,
Brussels (1937) 4, Pittsburgh (1948) and Verneuil (1950).
The agenda of the conferences have been largely concerned
with coal dust and firedamp, mining explosives, shotfiring,
electrical equipment and rescue apparatus.
The Pittsburgh conference, the first of its kind since the
outbreak of war, was held under the auspices of the United
States Bureau of Mines and was attended by delegates from
Belgium, France, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom and
the United States. The subjects discussed included explosives, firedamp, coal-dust explosions, electricity, haulage and
mine fires, as well as health and safety generally. The papers
read provided information on recent research into several of
the most important problems of safety in coal mines, as well
as a general survey of such research in the United Kingdom
and the United States.
The most recent conference was held at the Study and
Research Centre of the Charbonnages de France at Verneuil
1
These proceedings are published by the British Safety in Mines Research
Board as Paper 74, 1932.
2
A summary of the proceedings of this conference was published in Industrial
Safety Survey, Vol. X I , No. 3, May-June 1935, p . 70.
3
Idem, Vol. X I I I , No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1937, p . 127.
4
Idem, Vol. X I V , No. 4, July-Aug. 1938, p . 108.

260

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

in July 1950. I t was attended by delegates from Belgium,
Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the
United States. The subjects dealt with in the 23 papers read
at the conference included ignition of firedamp by shotfiring,
ignition of coal dust by shotfiring, combustion of methane,
detection and measurement of firedamp, stone-dust barriers,
tamping of shot-holes, flameproof electrical equipment, draining
firedamp from seams, and control of mine fires.
INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

At the instance of the British Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission, the latter set up Advisory Committee No. 31 in 1948 to consider the international
standardisation of flameproof enclosures of electrical apparatus.
The subject was discussed at a meeting of the Committee held
in London in July 1948 when representatives attended from
Belgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands, ÎTorway, Sweden and
the United Kingdom.
The British view was that standardisation had become
desirable owing to the international trade in flameproof equipment that had developed since the war. I t was found, for
example, that American equipment imported into the United
Kingdom did not completely conform to British standards
and this caused some difficulties. At the meeting a preliminary discussion was held on a draft " International specification for the construction of the enclosures of flameproof
electrical apparatus ". The discussion will be resumed at the
next meeting of the Committee.
INTERNATIONAL COAL MINING CONFERENCE

An International Coal Mining Conference was held at
Harrogate, Yorkshire, in June 1948 under the auspices of the
National Association of Colliery Managers. Papers were read
by delegates from Belgium, Prance, the Netherlands, Poland
and the United States, as well as the United Kingdom. While
the conference was not specifically a safety conference, some
of the papers were devoted to health and safety problems,
and most of the others, which dealt with haulage and winding,
touched upon such problems. The conference, the first of
its kind, was a great success and is likely to be repeated.

GENERAL SAFETY ACTIVITIES : INTERNATIONAL

261

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON W l R E BOPES IN MINES

An International Conference on Wire Bopes in Mines was
held at Ashorne Hill, Warwickshire, in September 1950 under
the auspices of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy in
co-operation with the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
the Institution of Mining Engineers, the Ministry of Fuel and
Power, the National Coal Board, associations of manufacturers
and other bodies. Delegates from a number of European
countries, Australia, Canada, India, Northern Ehodesia and
South Africa attended the conference. The International
Labour Office was represented. 1
Eighteen papers were read on wire rope practice in the
mines of Belgium, India, Ontario, South Africa and the United
States, as well as on specific topics such as testing of ropes,
Koepe winding, rope research, locked-coil ropes and electronic
inspection of ropes. A paper on Government regulations with
particular reference to safety factors compares various regulations with the relevant provisions of the Model Code of
Safety Regulations for Underground Work in Coal Mines,
published by the International Labour Office in 1950.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON GROUND PRESSURE
AND SUPPORT OF E ACE WORKINGS

An International Conference on Ground Pressure and
Support of Pace Workings, organised by the Belgian National
Institute for the Coal Mining Industry (Institut national de
Vindustrie charbonnière) was held at Liège from 24 to 28 April
1951. The conference was attended by a large number of
delegates from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, India,
Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, the Saar and the United
Kingdom. The International Labour Office was represented.
The papers submitted dealt with seven groups of subjects :
A. Ground pressures and movements around the working
face ; B. Measurement of ground pressures and movements ;
C. Practical measures ; D. Methods of support at the face ;
E. Methods of support in roads ; P. Eoof bolting ; and G.
Bock bursts, inrushes of water, outbursts of gas and falls of
ground.
1

See Occupational Safety and Health, Vol. I, No 1, Jan.-Mar. 1951.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I
NOTE ON STATISTICAL AND OTHER OFFICIAL ANNUAL
REPORTS CONCERNED WITH ACCIDENTS AND THEIR
PREVENTION IN COAL MINES
This note mentions only a selection of the governmental reports
concerned with safety in coal mining published throughout the
world. I t does, however, include those of the principal coalproducing countries whose reports are received by the International
Labour Office.
BELGIUM:

Statistics of accidents in mines, quarries and metal works are
published annually in Annales des mines de Belgique, which also
publishes the annual report of the experimental and research station
of the Institut national des mines.
FBANCE

Statistics of accidents in coal and other mines are published
annually in Statistique de l'industrie minérale. The annual report
of the experimental and research station at Verneuil is published
in the Annales des mines et des carburants and in the Notes techniques
of the Charbonnages de France (formerly Comité central des houillères
de France).
GEBMANY

A report on safety in the Prussian and Saar mines, together with
accident statistics, was before the war published annually in Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten-, und Salinenwesen im Deutschen Reich.
INDIA

The Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines contains
information on safety in coal mines and statistics of accidents.
NETHERLANDS

The annual report of the Chief Inspector of Mines (Jaarverslag
van den Inspecteur- Qeneraal der Mijnen) is mainly devoted to safety
questions and contains accident statistics.
U N I O N OP SOUTH AFRICA

Information on safety in coal mines, together with statistical
tables, is contained in the Annual Report of the Government Mining
Engineer.

APPENDICES

263

U N I T E D KINGDOM

The Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines is mainly
concerned with safety, and provides tabulated statistical information on accidents. Information and statistics on electrical accidents
in mines is furnished in the Annual Report of the Electrical Inspector
of Mines. Information on research work in the interests of safety
in coal mines is furnished in the Annual Report on Safety in Mines
Research.
U N I T E D STATES

The United States Bureau of Mines publishes annually a statistical bulletin entitled Goal Mine Accidents in (year). The most
recent issue, published in 1944, gives figures for 1942. Figures for
1948 are given in Injury Experience in Coal Mining, 1948, Bulletin
509, 1952. The Bureau also publishes annually an Information
Circular, entitled Goal-Mine Explosions and Metal-Mine Fires in the
United States during the Fiscal Year ended . . . .
Information on research and other matters of safety interest is
to be found in the following publications of the Bureau :
Studies on Explosives and Explosions, Fiscal Tear . . . .
Annual Report of Research and Technological Work on Coal,
Fiscal Tear . . . .
Annual Report of the Mining Division, Fiscal Tear . . . .
Work of the Safety Division, Fiscal Tear . . . .
Annual Report of the Explosives Division, Fiscal Tear . . . .

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

264

APPENDIX II
LIST OF PERIODICALS, PAMPHLETS, ETC.
Periodicals
This is a selected list of periodicals appearing in some of the
principal coal-producing countries and regularly publishing material
on safety in coal mines. Information of safety interest from all the
coal-producing countries appears regularly in Occupational Safety
and Health (formerly Industrial Safety Survey), published by the
International Labour Office.
BELGIUM.

Annales des mines de Belgique.
Année des câbles.
CANADA.

Canadian Mining

Journal.

FBANCE.

Bulletin bibliographique de documentation technique des Charbonnages de France.
Annales des mines et des carburants (formerly Annales des mines).
Mines.
Bévue de l'industrie minérale.
GERMANT.

Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten-, und Salinenwesen im Deutschen
Reich (has not appeared since the war).
Bergbau-Bundschau.
Glückauf.
Elektrizität im Bergbau.
UNITED KINGDOM.

Colliery Engineering.
Colliery Guardian.
Iron and Coal Trades Review.
Mining, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer.
Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers.
Transactions of the National Association of Colliery
UNITED STATES.

Coal Age.
Mechanization.
Mining Congress Journal.
Mining and Engineering
Journal.

Managers.

APPENDICES

265

Pamphlets, etc.
BELGIUM.

The Institut d'hygiène des mines issues a series of Communications
in which accounts are given of its research and experimental work.
The Institute also issues a Bulletin de documentation technique and a
Bulletin de documentation médicale.
FRANCE.

The Centre d'études et recherches des Charbonnages de France
publishes a series of Notes techniques which give accounts of its
research and experimental work and contain other technical information relating to matters of safety and health.
Another series of Notes techniques is published by Charbonnages
de France and some of these also deal with safety and health matters.
Prior to the nationalisation of the mines Notes techniques, some
of which were concerned with safety and health, were issued by the
Comité central des houillères de France.
GERMANY.

A series of studies of mining safety problems has been published
by the Versuchsgrubengesellschaft (Experimental Mine Company)
under the general title Berichte der Versuchsgrubengeséllschaft.
U N I T E D KINGDOM.

Series of Safety Pamphlets and Safety Circulars are issued by
the Ministry of Fuel and Power, and the Safety in Mines Eesearch
and Testing Establishment of the Ministry issues a series of Research
Reports.
Prior to the nationalisation of the mines in 1946, research reports
were issued by the Safety in Mines Eesearch Board.
The Ministry of Fuel and Power also issues a series of Testing
Memoranda laying down the conditions for the testing and certification of various items of mining equipment, including electrical
equipment and safety lamps.
The reports of a number of committees appointed by the Ministry
of Fuel and Power to advise on various safety matters have been
published by H.M. Stationery Office. The most recent are :
Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Precautions Necessary
to Secure Safety in the Use of Explosives in Coal Mines, 1950.
Report of the Committee on the Amendment of the General Regulations Governing the Use of Electricity in Mines under the Coal Mines
Act, 1911. 1941.
Report of the Committee on the Firedamp Detector Regulations, 1935.
Several standards for mining equipment, principally electrical
equipment, have been issued by the British Standards Institution.
Prior to nationalisation, several reports were published by the
Coal Dust Eesearch Committee of the Monmouthshire and South
Wales Coal Owners' Association.

266

SAFETY IN COAL MINES

Eeference may also be made to the report of the Royal Commission on Safety in Coal Mines published by H.M. Stationery Office
in 1938, and to the report of the Advisory and Technical Committee
on Coal Mining published by the same office in 1945 (Cmd. 6610).
UNITED STATES.

The Bureau of Mines has issued several thousand Information
Circulars and Reports of Investigations, a large number of which deal
•with safety and health matters of various kinds.
A series of safety handbooks for miners is constituted by the
Bureau's Miners' Circulars.
Information of interest from the safety and health standpoint
is also contained in press releases (Series H.S.S.).
Eequirements relating to the testing and approval of items of
mining equipment are laid down in a series of Schedules issued by
the Bureau.