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INTERNATIONAL

LABOUR

OFFICE

TRAINING PROBLEMS
IN THE FAR EAST
Report on Technical and Vocational Training in
the Far East, prepared for the International Labour
Organisation and the United Nations Economic
Commission for Asia and the Far East

by
Marguerite THIBERT

GENEVA
1948

STUDIES AND REPORTS
New Series, No. 11

PUBLISHED

BY THE

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

Geneva, Switzerland

Published in t h e United Kingdom for the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR O F F I C E
b y Staples Press Limited, London

Distributed in t h e United States b y t h e INTERNATIONAL LABOUR O F F I C E
Washington Branch, 1825 Jefferson Place, Washington 6, D.C.

P R I N T E D B Y " J O U R N A L P E G E N E V E " , G E N E V A , SWITZERLAND

PREFACE

In the summer of this year Mrs. Thibert, the author of this
report, spent a few months in Asia, for the purpose of studying,
on behalf of the International Labour Organisation and of the
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, the available
facilities for vocational and technical training in the Asian
countries and of making suggestions for rendering these facilities
more adequate. The importance of this question needs no
emphasis.

In t h e underdeveloped countries in all p a r t s of t h e

world increasing attention is being paid to agricultural and
industrial development. Among the conditions of such development, the supply of highly trained technicians and of skilled
labour in adequate numbers is one of the most essential.
Requests for help in achieving this purpose have come to the
I.L.O. from Europe, from Asia and from Latin America. Each
of these regions differs from the others and has to be considered
separately ; for while fundamentally the problems are the same,
the solutions must be adapted to the special needs of each
particular region. The present report is confined to Asia and is
designed as a basis for practical international action in the
promotion of vocational and technical training in the countries
of that continent.
The task was not an easy one to fulfil. The field to be
surveyed was a vast and complex one. Information on it was
incomplete and had to be supplemented within a very short
period of time. It was not possible to lay down very precise
terms of reference for the investigation, as many points could
be settled only after Mrs. Thibert's arrival at Shanghai and
after she had discussed these matters with the Executive
Secretary of ECAFE. She was therefore given a wide discretion
to act in co-operation with ECAFE, in the best interests of the
countries participating in its work, for whom in reality the work
was undertaken. Mrs. Thibert has, however, had a long experience of international work in general and of training questions

PREFACE

in particular. She occupied responsible positions in the
International Labour Office for twenty years. During those
years she acquired a special knowledge of training problems
and wide experience of social and industrial problems in general.
More recently, she has discharged on behalf of the International
Labour Office a series of important missions in the regions of the
world now in process of intensive economic development, and
especially in Asia and Latin America. In the course of these
missions she has had, and made the fullest use of, unusual
opportunities for understanding the needs, problems and
aspirations of these regions, which differ so widely from those
of Europe and North America. In my opinion, she has performed
her task with skill and good judgment and has written a report
which will be the starting point of a movement leading to the
provision of increasing numbers of technical and skilled personnel and therefore to a rising standard of living for the
peoples of Asia. It has consequently been decided to make the
document available to the public as it stands.
On the basis of her report, I am submitting concrete proposals to the Governing Body of the International Labour
Office, which will consider them in December 1948. These
proposals envisage a comprehensive programme of I.L.O. action
in Asia for the improvement of technical training. They can be
put into operation immediately. They will make it possible to
draw for Asia's benefit on worldwide experience and resources.
In this manner, the I.L.O. hopes to fulfil the wish expressed
at the Preparatory Asian Regional Conference of the International Labour Organisation, held in New Delhi in November 1947, for vigorous action on a problem which has a
vital bearing on the social and economic developments of
Asia in the interests of her peoples.
Geneva, 9 November 1948.
David A. MORSE.
Director- General,
International Labour Office.

CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE

Ill

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. A Survey of Existing
Technical Training
A.

Facilities for Vocational and

Pre-Employment Training of Juveniles
Technical Education in Schools
Level of Studies
Capacity of Existing Institutions
Access to Training Facilities
Administration of Technical Schools
In-Plant Vocational Training
The Situation in the Different Countries
Burma
Ceylon
China
Hong Kong
India
Indo-China
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
Malayan Union
Pakistan
The Philippines
Siam
Singapore
B. Training and Retraining of Adult "Workers
Upgrading
Retraining of Adult Workers
Retraining of Disabled Persons
Training of Foremen and Instructors
The Situation in the Different Countries
Ceylon
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
Pakistan
The Philippines

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8
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12
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16
20
23
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25
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41
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75
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98

CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I I . Facilities and Requirements : A Balance-Sheet . . .
Availability of Technical Personnel
Deficiencies in Facilities for Technical Training
Deficiencies Caused by the W a r
Gaps in the Various Levels of Qualification . . . . . .
Obstacles to Development
Financial Difficulties
Shortage of Teaching Personnel
Shortage of Equipment and R a w Materials
Difficulties of a Social Character
CHAPTER I I I .
Conclusions: National Effort and
International
Co-operation
National Effort
International Co-operation
International Assistance in the Preparation of a Master-Plan
International Assistance in the Implementation of Training
Schemes
International Assistance for Training Abroad

100
100
104
104
104
110
110
112
113
114
116
116
117
117
119
126

Appendices
A P P E N D I X I.
Labour

Recommendations
Conference

Adopted

by the

International
132

A P P E N D I X II. Resolutions Adopted by the Third Labour Conference of American States which are Members of the International Labour Organisation

144

A P P E N D I X I I I . Resolutions Adopted by the Preparatory
Asian
Regional Conference of the International Labour Organisation

154

A P P E N D I X IV. Resolutions Adopted by the United Nations
nomic Commission for Asia and the Far East

158

Eco-

INTRODUCTION

In pursuance of the resolution on technical training and on
the use of expert assistance which the United Nations Economic
Commission for Asia and the Far East adopted at its second
session (Baguio, November-December 1947)1, the Executive
Secretary of the Commission approached the International
Labour Organisation with a view to obtaining its. co-operation
in implementing the resolution. The Preparatory Asian Regional
Conference of the International Labour Organisation, held in
New Delhi in October 1947, had also stressed the necessity of
promoting the development of training facilities throughout
the region.2 Both organisations thus gave expression to a
common concern, which made co-operation between them
not only desirable but immediately practicable, and the
International Labour Office accordingly promised the desired
collaboration.
In the opinion of the Office, the question of the precise
nature of the machinery to be created in order to implement
the resolution could not be decided before a preliminary survey
had indicated more clearly what the problems actually were.
Consequently, in order to carry out such a preliminary survey,
the Director-General agreed to lend the services of an expert of
the Office to ECAFE for a period of three months.
By agreement between the Director-General of the Office
and the Executive Secretary of ECAFE, reached in FebruaryMarch 1948, the expert was requested to investigate the problem
and, as far as possible, to define its scope. Particular attention
was drawn to the following two points :
(a)

(b)

1
2

the development of technical training facilities in the
Asian countries by a full use of local resources and the
employment of experts from abroad ;
an investigation into the facilities for the training of Asians
either in another country of the Far Eastern region or
in other regions.
See Appendix IV, A.
See Appendix III.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

The I.L.O. expert joined the ECAFE secretariat at the end
of June 1948, after the third session of the Commission in
Ootacamund. The report is the outcome of her investigations
during a period of barely three months. Owing to the very
short time that was available under the conditions laid down,
it was not possible to undertake as thorough a study as the
complexity of the subject warranted. Moreover, during the
interval between the acceptance by the Office of the invitation
extended to it and the actual arrival of the expert, the Secretariat of ECAFE had already undertaken investigations into
existing facilities for the technical training abroad of the
nationals of Asian countries. The report submitted to the third
session of ECAFE contained fairly extensive factual information
under this head.
It accordingly seemed desirable in the survey undertaken
by the International Labour Office expert to lay particular
stress on the first of the two items in respect of which the Office
and ECAFE had agreed that investigations were necessary,
i.e., the survey of existing facilities for vocational and technical
training in the ECAFE countries and of the difficulties these
countries meet with in the attempt to provide adequate facilities.
Nevertheless, the second item has also been touched upon briefly
in the general conclusions to the present report, since these
must necessarily bear on the problem as a whole.
The report herewith submitted to the Economic Commission
and to the International Labour Organisation presents the
results of the initial survey of conditions which was entrusted
to the I.L.O. expert. It is hoped that, in spite of obvious deficiencies, it will throw enough light on present conditions to
enable the two organisations to decide upon means of collaboration with a view to contributing to the solution of the problems
which it brings out. It does not attempt to suggest such means,
nor to define responsibilities in respect of the particular steps
which it may prove desirable to take. But an effort has been
made to suggest how the Far Eastern countries could draw on
their local resources to supply the national economy with
qualified personnel, and also to suggest how international cooperation could help them in their efforts and promote their
success.
Shanghai, 28 September 1948.

CHAPTER I

A SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES FOR VOCATIONAL
AND TECHNICAL TRAINING
In a survey such as the present there can be no question of
covering exhaustively the whole field of vocational training. 1
Strict limits were placed on the survey by its very purpose.
What was desired was to obtain as clear a picture as possible
of the organisation in the Far Eastern countries of vocational
training for all grades of technical personnel in the various
fields of activity which directly contribute to the national
economy.
Though no form of human activity is unconnected with
economic prosperity, and though health or social welfare
personnel, for instance, play their part by maintaining the
health of the workers directly engaged in production, this
study is primarily concerned with the training facilities for
"productive" workers of every kind, grade and qualification.
In order to avoid wearisome detail and to bring out clearly the
characteristic features of the administrative machinery existing
in each country for training the technical personnel required
for economic production, references to particular training
schemes for vocations and trades not directly related to economic
production (e.g., pharmacists, nurses, lawyers, artists, domestic
servants, etc.) have been deliberately omitted. The object has
been, rather, to extract whenever possible from the mass of
available data any information concerning the three main
1
The expression "vocational training" is used in a wide sense
covering all forms and grades of training, in conformity with the definition given in Article 1 of the Recommendation on vocational training
which the International Labour Conference adopted at its 25th Session
in 1939 (for the text of the Recommendation, see Appendix I). Owing
to the more restricted meaning given to this term in some of the countries
covered by the study, however, the title of this chapter speaks also of
"technical" training in order to eliminate doubts as to the subject
treated.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

branches of economic activity: industry, agriculture and commerce, all three terms being used in their broadest sense.
For the purposes of this study, the term "industry" covers
handicraft trades as well as power-operated industry, wherever
these trades make use of regular systems of training and the
techniques in operation are not simply passed on from generation to generation within the family or learned through a
wholly unregulated apprenticeship. It must be borne in mind
that in the Far East handicrafts are not a relic of the past ; they
not only play their customary part in meeting family needs in
the vast rural areas where the great majority of Asians live,
but also supply a considerable proportion of goods both for the
national market and, at times, for export. Handicrafts, therefore, are given an important place in post-war economic planning, and Governments in these countries are anxious to preserve
and even to foster this mode of production by adapting it to
modern needs, such as the processing at the local level of agricultural raw materials. In many cases there are in consequence
special agencies for training craftsmen, whether training courses
in ordinary schools or special centres for practical training.
Some of these cater only for young persons, while others are
primarily for the training of adult workers. Obviously, therefore, the facilities for the training of craftsmen, at least in
outline, have a place in the present survey.
On the other hand, the problems arising out of the technical
training of craftsmen could not be investigated in detail, but
they call for a special survey of handicraft techniques in Asia
and the Far East. In the first place, there is the question of
the selection of the types of crafts that should be kept alive,
either because they are recognised as capable of survival at the
stage of development reached by modern industry in the
country concerned and are able, because of the beauty and
originality of their products, to hold their own in competition
with machine-made goods, or because it is thought that the
dispersion which is characteristic of this form of activity promotes the most economical way of fully utilising certain types
of raw material. The question next arises as to what specific
teaching methods should be established if craftsmanship is to
avail itself of scientific progress to improve both skills and
equipment. The Baillie school (an industrial co-operative) in
China, the weaving schools of various Indian co-operatives, the
lacquer schools in Indo-China, are working successfully to that end.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

According to the currently adopted classifications in labour
statistics, agriculture, for the purposes of this survey, includes
forestry, fisheries and stock raising—all three, branches of
major importance for the economic development of the ECAFE
countries. However, with the data available, it was not always
possible to get an accurate picture of the scope of the training
facilities in this field, but any particulars obtained as to training schemes for spreading a knowledge of the use and maintenance of mechanised agricultural equipment are mentioned.
As regards so-called commercial training, the term should
be taken to include both business and office training. The
latter is, indeed, of no less concern to industrial than to commercial establishments. Modern undertakings of every kind,
whether private or State-owned, need skilled personnel for
accountancy, correspondence and general business administration as much as they need skilled production workers in the
case of industrial and agricultural establishments or skilled
salesmen and buyers in that^ of commercial establishments.
A good many commercial occupations also require training in
the handling of machines, such as typewriters, calculating
and sorting machines, etc. A well-trained office staff is an
essential factor in achieving a high degree of efficiency.
The so-called commercial schools are, of course, also used
for training administrative personnel for Government offices,
and among the schools classified as " commercial " there may
in fact be some which specialise in office administration. But
although it is recognised that the standard of training of civil
servants has an influence on the economic development of a
country, no attempt has been made to study the organisation
of technical training for civil servants generally, but only for the
group classed as "technicians ". The training of the technical
civil servant is classified logically either with industrial training
{e.g., schemes for the training of railway personnel in India
and China) or with agricultural training (e.g., for the personnel
of agricultural stations and experts in soil conservation in
China, for inspectors of waterways and forests and land surveyors
in Cambodia).
The plan followed in this survey makes a distinction between
facilities for juvenile training and those for the vocational
training or retraining of adults. This classification, like any
other, has the disadvantage of making too rigid a demarcation,
since some of the training schemes — particularly those run

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

by individual firms—serve both adults and juveniles and so
should be classified in both categories.
However, taking the survey as a whole, the distinction is
a necessary one. Systems that differ both in their purpose and
in their methods should be studied separately. The purpose of
juvenile training is to prepare young people for their adult
career as workers and to give them some knowledge of a specific
trade before they actually go to work or at the very beginning
of their career. Most of the schemes in question are long-term
schemes. They are in a way an extension of general education,
and borrow some of its methods. Training for adults, on the
other hand, consists very often in a process of upgrading. Even
when it consists in retraining courses or courses of training in
a new skill, it is designed primarily for persons who already
possess working habits which can either be adapted or have
to be corrected. Moreover, it is usually meant to meet immediate
needs, so that it is desirable, for both psychological and economic
reasons, that it should be as rapid as possible, which explains
the adoption of special methods.
However, long-term training courses for juveniles and,
particularly, higher technical training which may extend over
a number of years after a lengthy preparation of general studies,
are sometimes taken up by students who may be older than
the normal run of trainees at courses intended for adults.
Similarly, there are many cases where juveniles, for the same
economic reasons as apply in the case of adults, have to be
content with a short-term training such as that given to adults
taking jobs with firms which run training courses for new
entrants, just as there are persons who, after working for
several years at a paid job, are nevertheless willing to subject
themselves again to school discipline and start on an extended
training course. In consequence of all these factors, the age
criterion is not always reliable, though, in the main, it fits the
over-all picture.
Pre-employment training schemes for youth and upgrading
or retraining schemes for adults serve a double purpose : they
give each worker or prospective worker an opportunity to
develop his abilities to the full ; they also meet the specific
needs of the national economy. The second purpose, with which
this survey is particularly concerned, was clearly set forth in
the Recommendation on vocational training adopted in 1939
by the International Labour Conference, which emphasised the

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

urgent need for every country to draw up a general programme
of vocational training that would take due account of the stage
of development reached in general education and vocational
guidance, of changes in techniques of operation and organisational methods, and of the structure of and trends of development in the labour market and in the national economic policy.
The activities of all vocational training institutions, whether
public or private, should be co-ordinated in order fully to
implement the national programme.
In the Far East, as in other parts of the world, technical
training institutions show a wide diversity : schools and universities, vocational training centres, in-plant training schemes,
on-the-job training courses, and so on. As in most countries
where training is subject to regulation, the working of the /
various schemes is supervised by an equal variety of administrative authorities. In the last few years, general programmes
have frequently been set up, but the co-ordination of existing
systems has seldom been attempted. India has made a definite
start in this direction through the creation of a permanent
body — the All-India Council for Technical Education —
though according to its terms of reference this body is concerned
only with higher technical training and so far enjoys only
advisory status. However, the All-India Council has interpreted
its terms of reference broadly and concerns itself also with the
training of highly skilled manual workers, and it may eventually
be given executive authority. In other countries in the region,
co-ordination is either less far advanced or else relates to a more
restricted field. In Ceylon, although the need for general coordination of all training systems is recognised, a central executive body has been planned covering apprenticeship only.
In several other countries, such as China, the Philippines,
Indonesia and Indo-China, responsibility in respect of technical
education in schools has been centralised either completely or
in part.
In describing existing conditions country by country, it has
therefore seemed unnecessary in each case to devote a preliminary paragraph to the general structure of the administrative authorities responsible for organising and supervising
vocational training. However, in the appended accounts of the
training facilities for juveniles and of the schemes for the
training and retraining of adult workers, the supervisory
authorities are indicated in each case.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

A. Pre-Employment Training of Juveniles

For the sake of clarity, this section on the training of juveniles
is divided into two parts : technical education in schools and
in-plant training.
From the point of view of the legal status of each individual,
the distinction is very clear : it is the same as is to be found
between the status of the student preparing for a vocation
and not, as yet, having entered into any contract of employment
and that of an employee, whether wage-paid or not, who is
undergoing a course of training — whatever its length — when
he has already entered into such a contract.
As regards actual training methods, the difference is the
same as exists between instruction in which the teaching of
theoretical knowledge plays an important part — though
technical school curricula devote more and more time to practical exercises — and instruction which is given mainly on
practical lines — though systematic in-plant training programmes include an increasing amount of theoretical knowledge,
or at least of those aspects of theoretical knowledge which are
essential to a clear understanding of the techniques of a particular
trade. It is, however, difficult to draw a clear distinction.
So much so, that some technical schools for training skilled
manual workers are endeavouring to engage in production
work in the training workshops, not so much in order to meet
their expenses as to provide a teaching method under conditions
as similar as possible to those prevailing in the plant where
the trainees will be working after completing their training.
The technical schools in the Philippines are a special instance
of the extensive adoption of this method.
There are also to be found mixed systems of vocational
training, with instruction provided partly in a school and
partly in a plant. According to one of these types of system,
students who take technical courses in a school or in a university
also take practical courses in a firm, either during the holiday
period or at fixed hours or on particular days during the school
term. In China arrangements of this kind have been made by
schools or universities with selected firms, and the All-India
Council for Technical Education has suggested the use of the
method in India. Another type — to be found extensively in
countries where apprenticeship is regulated and which is coming

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

into use in Ceylon, Japan and Hong Kong — is that in which
in-plant apprenticeship is supplemented by attendance at
theoretical courses in technical schools. Lastly, again in Japan,
there is a third mixed type : under the laws governing technical
education, firms may open schools with the same curricula
as those of technical schools of a certain grade, though the
tempo is different, and the same diploma is granted to both
types of trainee.
Since the distinction between the two forms of training
discussed below is thus not clearly marked, the information
in respect of the one must be taken as complementary to that
supplied in respect of the other.
T E C H N I C A L E D U C A T I O N IN SCHOOLS

In comparison with other methods of organised vocational
training, technical education in schools has reached a fair level
of development in Far Eastern countries. All the countries
which supplied information in answer to the ECAFE questionnaire listed at least a few such schools already in operation.
This is not the case in respect of organised in-plant training
schemes.
As far as possible, t h e information on teaching institutions

has been classified, on the one hand, according to the category
of studies — preparatory to industrial, agricultural or commercial careers or skills — and, on the other hand, according
to the grade of instruction, in order to show for each category
the number of students attending the institutions and the
main lines on which instruction is organised.
Level of Studies
Under this head, the questionnaire sent by ECAFE in 1947
to the members of the Commission has been followed, and the
enumeration of institutions existing in each country starts
with the highest and proceeds down the scale. The 1947 questionnaire divided technical institutions into three groups,
two of which offer education of university level, whether a
course of training leading up to a degree or post-graduate
studies in a university or a research institution. All the other
technical institutions were grouped together in a category
referred to as " non-university ". The information supplied

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR

EAST

by Governments on this category does not always permit of a
distinction between the very diversified grades included under
so general a heading.
The Recommendation on vocational training adopted in
1939 by the International Labour Conference distinguishes
between the training of journeymen and similar grades and
the training of staffs in intermediate grades, and again between
the training of the latter and that of managerial staffs. The
intermediate group includes a great variety of technicians.
Some are skilled manual workers who are also responsible for
some measure of supervision (e.g., overseers, foremen).
Others are technicians who are thoroughly grounded in practical
knowledge, but whose job it is to supervise the work done by
others in a more or less important production unit (e.g., superintendents). Still another group includes technicians whose
responsibility does not lie in supervising or managing other
workers, but in exercising their own technical speciality on
which the execution of the practical work depends (e.g., assistants in industrial research departments, draughtsmen).
It would have been interesting to analyse in greater detail
the network of schools training technicians of the intermediate
grades in every country. However, for lack of the required
information, it has been necessary to adopt the general classification of the questionnaire in the summaries for a number
of countries.
Nevertheless, the range of intermediate schools seems to
be fairly wide in Far Eastern countries. In the Philippines it is
possible, on the basis of the admission qualifications of existing
State schools, to distinguish three grades of non-university
institutions, both for agricultural and for industrial education.
In China three grades at least are to be found in industrial
schools, and a fourth, of an intermediate type, for foremen and
assistant engineers appears to exist at the Shanghai Technical
Institute, a municipal school which offers something novel in
the form of rapid training (two years instead of the three years
applicable in the higher national schools). This training is of
a grade more or less similar to that for students in national
technical institutions, but it is definitely of a more practical
nature. In Burma there are four grades of industrial technical
courses, two of which are designed for the training of intermediary grades. In Indonesia there exist, both for commercial and
for technical studies, three grades of non-university schools,

SURVEY O F EXISTING FACILITIES

two of which are specially intended for trainees for intermediate
grades. In Indo-China industrial education covers three grades
(preparatory, first and second grades), the instruction in the
last category being a direct preparation for the arts and crafts
schools, classified as third-grade schools, in France. If existing
conditions could be analysed in the countries where vocational
schools are mostly on a local basis (provincial and municipal)
or are privately owned, the distinctions to be drawn between
the several types of schools and educational grades would be
still more complicated.
The order adopted (i.e., starting with the higher-grade
institutions) should not result in overlooking the logical order,
which leads from the base to the apex of the pyramid and
which all students must follow in part, if not in full, in the
course of their studies. For a clear understanding of the structure of a system of education and of how the student passes
from one grade to another, it is the upward movement that
must be examined.
In this latter respect, the structure of technical education
varies greatly from country to country ; but it is not apparent
from the information available what is the prevailing trend
when dealing with two systems with opposite tendencies.
According to one system the students who successfully terminate
their studies in one grade are allowed to enter the next grade,
and so on right to the top, namely, the university grade. Other
systems erect barriers to entry to the university grade, and
these can be lowered only for those who possess a secondary
school certificate ; parallel studies undertaken at the same
age of a technical nature are not considered an equivalent.
It is evident that such barriers not only interfere with individual
advancement, but may also have the effect of depriving the
national economy of potential skills that the secondary technical
studies have shown to exist. The problem deserves careful
consideration with a view to revising school regulations, when
necessary, in order to facilitate the progress of the most talented
pupils, subject, of course, to the necessary safeguards for maintaining the special value of the higher studies.
Some information is provided regarding the duration of
the courses available in each grade and the organisation of the
curricula. But the basic data were not received from every
country and for every type of study, besides which their detailed
analysis would have taken too much space. Hence the observa2

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

tions on this aspect are superficial and insufficient for valid
conclusions. It is obvious that studies classified in the same
grade are far from being of the same standard.
The problem of the comparative value of technical studies
and the equivalence of the diplomas, bearing the same or
different titles, awarded after the conclusion of each type of
study is not an easy one to solve. For instance, to judge of the
relative value of the Bachelor degree in engineering in India,
in Siam and in the Philippines, respectively, after a four-year
course, it would be necessary not only to analyse the full syllabus
for those courses, the nature of the practical work carried out
during the four years and the methods in use in respect of the
final examinations, but also to compare the curricula of the
preceding secondary studies and the stiffness of the final examinations which open the door to technical studies proper. Though
protracted and difficult, such a study of equivalence would
be of more than purely academic interest. It may even be
necessary to undertake it before organising a system of exchange
of students between any two countries, if the persons who are
to benefit are to be adequately prepared to profit fully by the
opportunity of studying abroad afforded them.
Capacity of Existing

Institutions

A considerable amount of material has been collected
regarding the number of existing institutions and the number
of students engaged in the various categories of technical
studies. Unfortunately it has not been possible to present it
in a systematic way, as the data available in each country
were not compiled on the same basis and moreover were not
available for every school year. Only the more recent available
material has therefore been used, together with material relating
to one of the last pre-war years and one of the first post-war
years, whenever it was possible to secure these, in order to
get a picture of developments during that period.
To be fully understood, this material should be studied in
relation to the background of conditions prevailing in the
country to which it refers. Comparatively, the 16,000 students
taking industrial courses, or attending schools of various grades,
and the 10,000 students taking agricultural courses, or attending similar schools, during the past year in the Philippines,
a country with a population of approximately 19 million, make

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a far more impressive total in relation to the possibilities of
industrial development in that country than the 40,000 students
following industrial courses and schools and the 47,800 students
following agricultural courses and schools cited (with one
year's interval) in the statistics supplied by China, a country
with a population of over 450 million. In both countries,
however, the statistics show a rising curve. For instance,
industrial courses and schools in the Philippines show two new
schools and an increase of 14 per cent, in the number of students
from 1946-1947 to 1947-1948. In China, between 1945 and 1946,
the increase in respect of the same type of studies was one of
nearly 19 per cent, in the number of institutions, and 27 per
cent, in that of students. Considering the heavy toll paid by
both countries during the war, and the strenuous efforts required
for the rehabilitation of pre-war facilities, these increases are
substantial.
Access to Training

Facilities

The mere multiplication of institutions for technical education would not suffice to ensure an increase in the number of
students if steps were not also taken to facilitate school attendance. In this connection, two factors should be taken into
account : the available institutions should be accessible, both
physically and financially, to the persons who need them.
Physical accessibility depends on a sound distribution of
training facilities in accordance with the requirements to be
met. The 1939 Recommendation, to which reference has
already been made, specifies that in every country the network
of vocational schools should be adjusted to the economic requirements of each area and district, in respect of numbers, location
and curricula, and furthermore should be so conceived as to
offer the workers sufficient facilities to enable them to develop
their technical and professional abilities. Consequently, the
distribution of technical schools should be regulated according
to a plan based upon both economic and social requirements,
and that plan should be revised periodically. Experience shows
that the fact that a need is felt does not necessarily mean that
that need is immediately met by the supply of the requisite
facilities. The studies carried out by the All-India Council
for Technical Education have led to the conclusion that, in
India, not only is there a general deficiency in facilities for

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EAST

technical training, but the existing facilities are badly distributed, and in several areas are totally lacking. Studies carried
out in Ceylon have brought to light a fact which is certainly
not peculiar to that country, namely, that fairly adequate
facilities are available only in the national capital.
It is also highly desirable that admission to technical schools
should be made easy to persons who possess the requisite qualifications, whatever their financial means, in conformity with
the social principle that " equality of educational and vocational opportunity" should be ensured to all workers. 1 According to the 1939 Recommendation, technical education should
be free and steps should be taken to help students who are
without means of support. From the economic point of view,
public interest also requires that the technicians of the future
should be selected according to their abilities and not according
to their means. The question of the cost of technical studies and
of the obstacles that school fees are apt to raise to the expansion
of technical training is not unrelated to the subject under review.
As far as possible, information was collected on the cost
of courses. It seems that in the Far East technical studies
are free in only a very few schools, except in those run by
relief institutions. State tuition is free in the Philippines, and
the school fees for other public schools, whether provincial or
municipal, are moderate. Technical education, though not
free, is not expensive in either China or Siam. In Ceylon the
problem has been considered and the Committee on Apprenticeship has recommended that technical education should
be entirely free.
In India, where educational institutions
generally require fees — sometimes fairly substantial in the
higher grades — a system of scholarships is generally in operation, and the All-India Council for Technical Education has
recommended its extension, through Central Government
grants-in-aid to technical institutions, as a means of promoting
the expansion of this type of education. In China, also, a few
scholarships for technical studies have been created, particularly at the universities. However, the problem as a whole has
yet to be solved.
In countries where the State itself runs a number of technical
schools, the solution of the problem depends on the decision
1

Constitution of the International Labour Organisation, Annex :
" Declaration concerning the Aims and Purposes of the International
Labour Organisation " , III (j).

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FACILITIES

of only one party, a decision which, though subject to budget
considerations, can have a definitive influence in making educational facilities accessible to young people without means. The
question is more complicated in the many countries where
technical institutions are financed not out of the central but out
of regional or local government budgets, and even out of endowments or private capital. The question is interrelated with
many others, different but no less complicated, that arise as
a result of the lack of central administration of institutions
for technical education. The national information supplied
below will give a rough idea of the conditions.
Furthermore, free technical education, or the exemption
from school fees, would prove of little avail if a comprehensive
system of assistance, either in cash or in kind, were not instituted for the benefit of students who have no means of selfsupport. In countries where child labour at an early age cannot
yet be completely abolished because many families are so poor
that they need the extra wages brought in by their children,
the generally low standard of living is of necessity a serious
obstacle to the extension of vocational training among large
groups of the population. Technical courses are, and will
remain, an inaccessible luxury to the vast majority, largely
for the reason that the student remains economically dependent
on his family for several years after he has reached the minimum
working age. Here we are brought up against one of the social
problems that are inseparably connected with technical training
in its relation to the general economy of a country.
An over-all survey of vocational and technical training
facilities ought to deal with workers of both sexes. It is, however,
obvious that the training of girls raises special problems, which
are intensified in the Far East. How far were the training
facilities which were surveyed in the Far East found to be open
to women and girls as well as men and boys, as suggested by
the international labour Recommendation of 1939 ? Has it
been deemed expedient to give women and girls special training
facilities designed to meet their special requirements ? Here are
points which deserve to be studied, even if their social aspects are
deliberately set aside S in order to concentrate only on the
1
For a study of the social aspects of the problem, see : Preparatory
Asiatic Regional Conference of the International Labour Organisation,
New Delhi, 1947, Report II : Labour Policy in General, including the
Enforcement of Labour Measures, Chapter IV : " The Employment of
Women", pp. 180-202.

TRAINING

PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR

EAST

economic aspect. It will be appreciated that a great part of the
potential for development of the national economy is neglected
when the abilities of half the population are left out of the plans
devised for utilising a country's resources, both human and
material.
In the following pages no detailed information will be found
to enable an assessment of this problem to be made, but only
sufficient data to give an idea of its importance and to realise
the variations from one country to another. The small number
of vocational schools for girls and the equally small number of
girls who avail themselves of the mixed vocational schools in
India are certainly striking, particularly in the case of commercial schools, so frequently attended by girls in most countries
of the world and already fairly well attended by girls in China.
The small number of girls enrolled in China in industrial schools
of secondary grade is explained by the fact that they have no
right of access to the majority of such schools, whereas they
enjoy equal rights with men in regard to university education
of a similar type. On the other hand, the numerous domestic
science courses for girls in Indonesia and Siam and the facilities
for attending agricultural schools that they have in the
Philippines are indications that the Governments of all three
countries are anxious to ensure that the consumer goods
which the national economy makes available to the population
are turned to the best account, and even to encourage women
to engage in the production of such goods.
The problem also arises with respect to the various vocational
training systems, including in-plant training. However, in the
case of school training, the public authorities are in a position
to take immediate action towards finding a solution.

Administration

of Technical Schools

In no country in the region does technical education form
a homogeneous whole. In most, administrative responsibility
is very much divided. Most technical schools are not State
institutions, but are maintained by local bodies, being frequently
private establishments which may or may not be State-aided
or "recognised". The sections below dealing with China, India
and the Philippines include statistical tables showing the
administrative structure of technical education, which bring

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FACILITIES

out this division of responsibility and also the differences that
exist in this respect between the three countries.
In China the Ministry of Education has, in principle, a right
of supervision over all the education given in recognised (including vocational) schools, but the Ministry itself runs only 4.4
per cent, of the vocational schools in all categories ; in 1946
the students of the "national schools" accounted for only
3.8 per cent, of the total number of vocational school students.
Approximately 38 per cent, of the vocational schools were
provincial, 26 per cent, were municipal or district (hsien) and
31.6 per cent, were private schools. In agriculture the major
responsibility lay with the municipalities and the hsiens, and in
commerce private schools formed over 57 per cent, of the total.
In the Philippines, also, the Department of Education
supervises the whole educational system and it has a more
considerable direct responsibility in respect of technical education, since the national vocational schools it administers had,
in 1947, 14 per cent, of the total enrolment of these students ;
over 61 per cent, attended a public school, either national,
provincial or municipal. The problem of the supervision of
private schools, however, is of no small importance in that
country, since 39 per cent, of the students in question were
enrolled in private vocational schools. The problem is particularly
difficult in relation to commercial education, in which over
95 per cent, of the students attended private schools. Private
institutions also play a very important part in higher technical
education designed to prepare students for industrial careers ;
in 1946-1947, 91 per cent, of the students who went in for this
type of study were to be found in private institutions. On the
other hand, in the Philippines agricultural education in all
grades is almost entirely controlled by public authorities, either
central or local.
In India the administrative cleavage goes even deeper,
owing to the fact that, constitutionally, education does not
fall within the competence of the Central Government, but of
the Governments of the provinces and States. A certain measure
of control is exercised, however, over university education by
the Inter-University Board. Co-ordination of higher technical
education is being sought on the. recommendation of the AllIndia Council for Technical Education, which has been instructed
by the Government of India to examine this problem. On the
secondary level there is no general national supervision of

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

schools administered by local authorities or privately. Such
supervision can be and is exercised only on the more limited
geographical basis of the province or State. It should be noted
that, while in higher technical education there were 20 governmental (provincial) colleges out of 36 in the territories making
up British India in 1942-1943, 19 per cent, only of the lowergrade technical schools were administered by a provincial
Government. Conditions varied appreciably from one category
of studies to the other. As in the Philippines, agriculture was
the branch in which the most senior authority—in this case,
the provincial Government—administered the highest proportion of existing schools, or 13 colleges out of 15 and over one
half of the lower-grade schools. In the case of industrial technical
courses, 6 colleges out of 10 were governmental institutions,
but in the lower grades only 25 per cent, were governmental
and over 67 per cent, were private institutions. In commercial
education, one college only out of 11, and 5 per cent, of the
schools, were governmental institutions ; State-aided private
schools formed 8 per cent., and non-State-aided schools 87 per
cent., of the total.
The numerous private schools that hold courses of vocational
training are not all of one type, and may even differ widely.
Some are cultural foundations. Others have been created by
industrial concerns for the express purpose of meeting the
demand of a particular industry for technicians. Still others
have been created by occupational bodies, such as chambers
of commerce. Others, again, are the work of missions ; when
a school is established as part of a relief or social welfare programme for destitute young persons, it offers free education
in addition to maintenance (for instance, the "Don Bosco"
industrial schools of the Salesian Brotherhood, which exist in
several Eastern countries). In the group of private schools,
many institutions are to be found operating for a profit like.
any other commercial establishment, and this is particularly
true of the commercial schools, just as in every other country.
Whatever the character of the various private schools,
since they are each the direct result of private initiative, they
inevitably give rise to a problem of co-ordination similar to
that created by schools founded by local authorities. Their
curricula should be standardised and a high level of education
should be safeguarded throughout. There is no doubt that some
of the local or private schools are excellent and their standards

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above the average ; sometimes, indeed, they may even be looked
apon as institutions to be used as a general model—yet others
can only be regarded as totally inadequate.
While the technical schools should be left a certain amount
of freedom in order to enable each to adapt its programme and
methods to the economic requirements of the district or area
it is intended to serve, there is no doubt that it is necessary to
standardise the education given. A minimum programme is
required, carefully established by the central authority, for
each grade of education in each category of courses, in order
that certificates and diplomas, valid for the whole country,
may be awarded by or under the control of that authority.
In many of the major Far Eastern countries, and particularly
in China and India, diplomas at non-university level are established individually by each private school and, in most cases, are
sanctioned by a local authority. In some cases only are they
recognised by the Government of the country. The need for
standardisation is beginning to be realised, as appears from
the setting up of the All-India Council for Technical Education
with its subsidiary boards, each of which deals with a particular
branch of study, with a view to promoting the standardisation
of technical training in the schools.
Two countries in the region—Indonesia and Indo-China—
seem to be on the way to achieving standardisation, at least
in respect of industrial technical schools. In Indonesia all
schools in this category are Government schools, and the
Department of Education, which is responsible for them,
itself draws up the curriculum for each type of study.
The too theoretical character of the teaching of technical
subjects militates against its value in several countries of the
region. Too often there is no link between the school and industry
or agriculture, so that the school curricula are planned without
reference to the country's real economic needs. This defect
has already been pointed out by the Ceylon and Indian Committees referred to earlier. In China, also, an effort has been
made to remedy the situation by the organisation of practical
training for students, but only a small percentage of them
benefit. The fact that in Japan a large number of firms have
set up their own technical schools would seem to have resulted
in part from the failure of the teaching given in the regular
schools to meet the firms' needs. The information supplied
from Korea also draws attention to this gap between the school

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

and practical life, which is so wide that, except in a very few
cases, the schools have not been called upon to take part in
the extensive technical training schemes introduced by the
Interim Government since the liberation of the country.
Nevertheless, as was indicated earlier, technical schools in
the Philippines are closely connected with economic activities.
In Indo-China industry is associated with the direction of
technical training. In India a first link has been established
on the national plane between industry and the technical
training institutions, since employers and workers are represented in the All-India Council for Technical Education. But in
those countries where public education plays only a small part,
the practical advice of the parties directly concerned cannot
have a real influence on school curricula unless the governing
body of each school includes representatives of employers and
workers. The 1939 Recommendation on vocational training
previously cited and other texts on this subject all dwell on the
necessity of establishing close collaboration between technical
schools and industry or other branches of economic activity,
particularly by associating employers' and workers' representatives, at the national, regional and local levels, with the activities of institutions for technical education as well as with the
framing of policy in this field.

IN-PLANT VOCATIONAL TRAINING

As in other countries, the majority of juveniles get their
instruction in the workshops where they are first employed.
The small number of institutions for vocational and technical
education existing in Far Eastern countries points to the fact
that the vast majority of workers learn their trade while at work
in the plants, on the farms or in the offices where they are
employed. The question then arises whether there are organised
systems of training for them.
The training given seems to be mostly empirical. As the
Government of India realistically stated in its communication
to ECAFE, "the new recruit is left to learn what he can by
working with the more experienced workers". An investigation
conducted in 1945 by the Indian Department of Labour listed
only 29,794 apprentices in training in approximately 20 of the
major branches of industry, including those requiring skilled

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FACILITIES

workers. Moreover, it was stressed that in most cases the
apprentices were not under contract. In order to give a clear
idea of the relative importance of these figures, they should be
compared with the number of apprenticeship contracts in one
of the smallest countries taking part in ECAFE sessions, namely,
New Zealand, where the training of skilled workers is conducted
under a controlled apprenticeship scheme. In 1947, registered
apprenticeship contracts numbered 12,877, of which 12,164
were actually in operation ; or, in round figures, there was one
apprentice to every 17 workers occupied in industry and transport (on the basis of the last census figures for the gainfully
occupied population). The same system of calculation applied
to the results of the investigation in India would show approximately one trainee per 604 workers occupied in the same
branches. In fact, no Far Eastern country operates such a
scheme of controlled apprenticeship except Japan, where it
has only recently been organised under new post-war regulations. (A description of these regulations will be found below.)
In other countries of the Far East the term apprenticeship must
be taken to cover a variety of methods of in-plant training.
In the first place, some remnants of the traditional system
of apprenticeship for craftsmen are found, under which an
apprentice is placed with a master-employer for a protracted
period, to serve him both as servant and as pupil. This form
of apprenticeship still provides a considerable number of small
workshops with manpower, with little or no outlay for wages.
The system which, as the Government of the Philippines pointed
out, has now fallen into disfavour, has been made subject to
regulations in China, Indo-China and Japan with a view to
repressing the abuses attached to it.
On the other hand, these same countries have tried by
legislative action to compel the larger undertakings to organise
their own schemes of vocational training with a view to
supplementing the deficiency in school training facilities. For
all practical purposes, except in Japan during the war, regulations of this kind do not seem to have led to any very important
results.
However, a certain number of technical training schemes
exist, which range from a few months' initiation in the case of
semi-skilled trades to a fairly high level of technical training
covering a period of four to five years, and are operated either
by a few big industrial plants or by the technical services of

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR

EAST

Government departments—in particular, services such as
railways, naval dockyards, and military ordnance factories,
water and electricity plants, etc.—with a view to training
skilled labour, otherwise unprocurable, for their own requirements. Instances of such schemes are to be found in a number
of countries. They have been the subject of various official
enquiries, such as that in India already mentioned, and the
very detailed survey made in Ceylon in 1946-1947.
In the sections below describing conditions in individual
countries will be found an account of several types of in-plant
training schemes organised or encouraged by Government
departments. In China the Ministry of Industries and Commerce
even has a special bureau responsible for preparing such schemes.
Similarly, national corporations set up as a result of the postwar rehabilitation work conducted in China by the United
Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and the
Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
(UNRRA-CNRRA), and now by the Board of Trustees for
Rehabilitation Affairs (BOTRA), have organised their own
training schemes for their personnel.
It is a curious fact that, up to the present, in most of the
Far Eastern countries the majority of systematic in-plant training schemes continue to be individual in character, created one
by one, and entirely unrelated to the similar schemes of other
bodies. This applies even where such schemes are operated
by different technical services of the same Government. Each
is undoubtedly suited to its own special purpose, namely, the
training of skilled labour or of technicians of intermediate
grades for a particular plant or service. Some of them are based
on the most modern methods and possess carefully framed
curricula and syllabi, but they remain unknown outside a
narrow circle and they do not seem likely to spread. In every
case they must have entailed thorough preliminary study ;
i t w o u l d b e d e s i r a b l e t h a t all y o u n g -workers of a c o u n t r y o r

region should be in a position to avail themselves of these
facilities, whereas now only a few thousands, at the most,.
benefit by them.
The highly selective nature of existing apprenticeship
schemes, their lack of standardisation and of co-ordination
were criticised by the Ceylon Committee on Apprenticeship
Training in its report of 1947. The comments of the Committee,
as well as the remedies it suggested, could appropriately be

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applied to other ECAFE countries. The country-by-country
summary appended to the present section describes the Ceylon
proposals for the institution of a modern system of regulated
and supervised apprenticeship, on the lines indicated in the
1939 Recommendation on apprenticeship. It also presents
the scheme drawn up for India, the implementation of which
is now under consideration.
In two countries, however, the existing schemes are operated
on a co-ordinated basis in respect, on the one hand, of shortterm training schemes intended to meet immediate requirements, and, on the other, of long-term schemes intended to
supply a steady flow of skilled labour to meet the economic
needs of the country. In Korea a Council for Technical Training
has been set up to direct all the short-term schemes that the
Interim Government put into operation, immediately after the
liberation of the country, through the medium of six or seven
different departments. In Japan post-war legislation inaugurated
a system of regulated and supervised apprenticeship in all
establishments,- whether public or private, interested in the
training of skilled labour. The object of these regulations is to
substitute rational methods of training, adapted to the requirements of modern industry, for the old system of craft apprenticeship, which has fallen into disfavour in that country also. The
new system, described below, is a first attempt in the Far East
to utilise on a wide basis a training method which has been
of the greatest value in western countries, and which is extensively employed for the training of technical workers in the
South Pacific countries of Australia and New Zealand.

T H E SITUATION IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

In preparing the following summaries relating to the technical
and vocational training of juveniles, use has been made, on the
one hand, of the answers sent by ECAFE members to the
questionnaire sent to them in 1947, and on the other hand, of
the documents available at the ECAFE Secretariat, particularly
those received recently which supplement the information
supplied earlier.
At the time when the preparation of the present study was
being completed, the Secretariat had received no information
from Pakistan, and the reply of the Pakistan Government to

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR

EAST

t h e E C A F E questionnaire did not arrive until 12 October 1948,
when t h e I.L.O. expert had already left Shanghai. A summary
of t h e information contained in this reply was prepared b y t h e
Secretariat and communicated to t h e Office in time for inclusion
a t t h e appropriate place, t h u s filling a regrettable gap. Attention
m a y further be drawn to the fact t h a t t h e particulars given in t h e
s u m m a r y on India relating to t h e period prior to 15 August
1947 also generally hold good for Pakistan.
Burma
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Information supplied by the Government * is limited to industrial
technical training in schools.
University Level.
In Burma vocational training at university level seems to be
limited to the Burmah Oil Company College of Engineering at
Rangoon University and the Government Technical Institute at
Insein.
The College of Engineering awards engineering degrees to
students who have taken a six-year course and diplomas to those
who have taken a four-year course. The admission standard in
both courses is the Rangoon University matriculation examination. In June 1948 the College had an estimated enrolment
of 600, or six times the pre-war number. But its activities are
seriously handicapped by lack of adequate teaching staff and
equipment.
Secondary Level.
The Government Technical Institute at Insein, which used to
specialise in training civil engineering overseers of diploma standard,
has not recovered from the effects of war. Both school and workshop accommodation are ample for 350 students, but the hostel facilities have been destroyed. A decision with regard to the future
status of the Institute is pending.
For engineering journeymen and tradesmen, there is an Artisan
Training Centre at Rangoon, which provides 20-month training
courses in radio mechanics, electric and power wiring, carpentry
and joinery, engineering, machining, vehicle mechanics, foundry
work, blacksmithing and boiler making. The Centre is already
operating at its maximum capacity, with 204 trainees. It is hoped
that a similar centre will be opened at Mandalay in November 1948.
1

Communication from the Directorate of Technical Education,
Ministry of Industry and Mines, March 1948.

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FACILITIES

Ceylon
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Problems of technical training have been given a great deal of
attention in the last few years by the Government of Ceylon as well
as by different official commissions which have drafted plans for
the social and economic reconstruction of the country.
In 1943 a Special Committee on Education took up the problem
of technical training within the general framework of educational
reform and its findings were approved by the State Council.
Beginning in 1945-1946, when, at the request of. the Board of
Ministers, various Government departments were engaged in the
planning of a general scheme which was to be directed towards
"the increase of production and earning power, the elimination of
unemployment and the fostering of greater self-sufficiency" 1,
several departments included in their proposals a number of schemes
relating to the expansion of facilities for vocational training. The
main schemes were presented by the Ministry of Labour, Industry
and Commerce (Nos. 190-191) and by the Ministry of Education
(Nos. 203, 218, 219, 220, 221 and 222).
In February 1947, a report was presented by the Commission
on Social Services which had been set up in July 1944 to enquire
into and report upon existing social institutions and to propose
social insurance schemes. In its study of problems of employment
with a view to the establishment of social security schemes the
Commission found that there were no satisfactory criteria for an
adequate classification of workers according to their skill. This was
attributed to the lack of adequate schemes for vocational training.
The Commission made suggestions for the development of training
facilities in technical schools as well as in plants, and insisted upon
the necessity of establishing closer liaison between the educational
authorities and those concerned with employment so that educational
services might be better adapted to the economic needs of the
country. 2
Finally, in September 1947, the Committee on Apprenticeship
Training presented its report. 3 This Committee was created to
enquire into the facilities immediately available for apprenticeship
training, to ascertain whether they were adequate and, if not, in
what aspects they should be improved and to make recommendations. While stressing that the two methods of training—in technical
schools or by the apprenticeship system—were, in a large measure,
closely associated and should be co-ordinated, the Committee made
a special study of apprenticeship and related problems. Its principal
1
Post-War Development Proposals (Colombo, Ceylon Government
Press, 1946).
2
Report of the Commission on Social Services (Colombo, Ceylon
Government Press, 1947).
8
Report on Apprenticeship Training (Colombo, Ceylon Government
Press, 1947).

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR

EAST

recommendation was the proposed creation of an Apprenticeship
Board, which would comprise, under the chairmanship of the Commissioner of Labour, representatives of the following Government
departments : Labour, Commerce and Industry, Railway, Education, Technical College, Electrical, University, Harbour, Government Factories, and Irrigation, together with representatives of
employers' associations and workers' organisations. Any other
person might be co-opted by the Board to assist it if necessary.
Other proposals and recommendations of a more specific character
will be briefly mentioned in their proper place in later paragraphs.
Definite action has not yet been taken on all of them. It is to be
expected, however, that these proposals and recommendations will
increasingly influence the development of vocational training institutions in Ceylon.
Technical Education in Schools
Industry.
University level. The University of Ceylon does not possess any
courses in engineering. Scheme No. 203, presented in 1946 by the
Ministry of Education, proposed the creation of a Faculty of Engineering with an output of 50 graduates a year after a few years.
The only existing opportunities for such studies may be found
in the Ceylon Technical College (Colombo), which provides fouryear courses in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering. The
output of the senior courses was 9, 10 and 20 engineers in 1944,
1945 and 1946 respectively. From 1947 onwards, the number was
to be increased to 30 engineers a year, suitable for recruitment to
the probationary junior assistant engineer grades. In 1946 the
Ministry of Education proposed to increase by nearly 50 per cent.
the staff and equipment of this College in order to increase the output
of engineers to 50 per year. This proposal seems to be well on the
way to realisation, as the Government reported in 1947, in answer
to the ECAFE questionnaire, that 296 full-time students were
registered for engineering courses. The Ministry of Education
further proposed in scheme No. 219 to introduce a course of chemical
engineering of four years' duration. This plan has already been
carried out.
Secondary level. The Ceylon Technical College also provides less
advanced courses for minor supervisory grades. In 1946, in scheme
No. 218, the Ministry proposed the reorganisation of these courses
in order to achieve an output of 120-180 per year. At the end of
1947, the Government reported that 370 students were registered
in courses of trades and arts.
No other industrial technical schools exist at the present time.
The Committee on Apprenticeship recommended in 1947, as did
the Ministry of Education in scheme No. 221 in 1946, the establishment of other technical schools in the more important districts.
These schools should either have full-time courses for two years,
as a preliminary training for practical apprenticeship in industrial

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FACILITIES

undertakings, or part-time courses to supplement with theoretical
knowledge the training of a practical character received by apprentices in factories.
Furthermore, the Technical College has courses for training
skilled labour. Several years ago evening courses were organised
for engineering apprentices, and recently day part-time courses
were added. 1 This is a clear indication of the results of studies
undertaken in the last few years with a view to reforming the
apprenticeship system (see below, under "In-Plant Training").
The Committee on Apprenticeship urged that technical education, particularly in the Technical College, should be free.
Agriculture.
Exact information is not available on present schemes of training in agricultural schools. An Agricultural College and several
schools operate under the œgis of the Ministry of Agriculture ; it
seems from various references made to this problem by the abovementioned committees that existing facilities for agricultural
training are inadequate for the requirement of the country, whose
production is mainly agricultural. A department of agriculture
and veterinary science is being organised at the University.
Commerce.
The Ceylon Technical College offers commercial courses, which
at the end of 1947 had an enrolment of 220 students. The creation
of these courses was proposed by the Ministry in 1946.
Three different courses can be taken at the College :
(a)

a full-time course of four years with a diploma at the conclusion
of the course (professional) 2 ;
a full-time course of two years leading up to a certificate of the
London Chamber of Commerce (sub-professional) ;
an evening course in accountancy covering three years (professional).

(b)
(c)

In addition, there are private schools. The Committee on
Apprenticeship Training expressed its doubts about the efficiency
of their instruction, and recommended that some supervision should
be exercised over standards in commercial schools, so as to extend,
if possible, to commercial education the scheme of national certificates which was proposed elsewhere for technical students.*
Pre-Apprenticeship in Schools
Several of the so-called central schools, i.e., schools administered
by the central Government, and several grant-aided schools offer
1
a

Ceylon Year Book, 1948, p. 132.
A professional certificarte gives the graduate the right to enter a
recognised professional association and to exercise his profession in
accordance with the regulations governing it.
8
See Report on Apprenticeship Training, op. cit., pp. 7 and 8.
3

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

practical part-time courses in craftsmanship for wood, brass and
coir work, etc., intended as a preliminary training for pupils who
may later have to learn a manual trade. The creation of such courses
in the 24 existing central schools has been decided. *
IN-PLANT TRAINING

The only more or less systematic programmes of in-plant training organised to date in Ceylon are to be found in State workshops.
The Public Works, Railway, Tele-Communications, Electrical and
Harbour Engineering Departments have their own schemes of
apprenticeship training. The Committee on Apprenticeship criticised
in its report both the lack of uniformity and the lack of co-ordination
of these schemes. In its replies to the ECAFE questionnaire, the
Government of Ceylon stressed the differences which exist in the
minimum age required for participation in the schemes. (The
minimum requirements vary from 16 to 20 years.) There is, however,
uniformity as regards the duration of the courses : in all cases, the
apprenticeship course is one of five years. The rates of pay, though
providing for increments in all these schemes, are not always calculated on the same basis. The candidates for training are selected
from among the sons of workers employed by the department in
question.
From the technical point of view, these apprenticeship schemes
also differ.
For instance, the Electrical Department organises
apprenticeship schemes for skilled workers in several specialised
trades. The duration of apprenticeship is the same for all, but with
various differing requirements ; thus the minimum age for admission
varies from 17 to 25 years. The educational standard required is
generally a junior school certificate, but sometimes senior school
certificates are required. Attendance at certain theoretical courses
in the Technical College is made compulsory under some, but not
all, apprenticeship schemes. 2
The completion of apprenticeship under certain schemes run by
Government departments having the same curriculum leads to
the award of diplomas of two different grades. At the end of the
apprenticeship the more advanced students are offered the opportunity to undergo a more difficult final examination than the usual
one. Those who pass it satisfactorily are awarded a diploma
carrying "assistant engineer's grade".
On the other hand the Department of Commerce and Industries,
which used to organise apprenticeship schemes in plants under its
administration, now only runs short-term initiation courses.
As regards private undertakings, a survey of the existing position
made by the Committee indicated that in the training of their
1
2

Ceylon Year Book, 1948, p. 124.
It should be noted that the Ceylon Technical College has evening
courses which may be utilised in this connection. In 1946 they were
attended by 246 students. The College recently organised day courses for
apprentices.

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FACILITIES

apprentices no uniform rule was adopted by any two employers in
any particular industry or as between different industries. Moreover,
the policy in force in a particular firm may at any time change to
meet changing circumstances and immediate needs.
The Committee found that certain private firms, particularly
in the engineering industry, had specialised apprenticeship schemes
of four years' duration, which were generally completed by theoretical courses at the Technical College. Some private firms required
the candidate to deposit with them a sum of money, sometimes very
large (from 150 to 1,500 rupees). The deposit is refunded on the
completion of the full term of apprenticeship. The Committee
suggested that this practice should be prohibited.
The Committee accordingly proposed a scheme in respect of
in-plant training which aims at placing this type of training under
methodical rules and on a uniform basis throughout the country.
In the preparation of this scheme the Committee relied in a large
measure upon the 1939 Recommendation on apprenticeship. The
proposed central Apprenticeship Board would determine the terms
and conditions which would govern apprenticeship for the different
trades : the period of training, remuneration of apprentices, etc.
The report of the Committee recommends two types of apprenticeship scheme. The first, called a "trade apprenticeship", is open to
young persons of both sexes from 15 to 16 years old who desire to
become skilled workers. The selection of candidates would be made
solely according to their qualifications, and irrespective of parental
connection with the firms in question. The second scheme covers a
superior grade of apprentices, to be trained as qualified technicians
for minor supervisory posts. In this class the maximum age for
admission suggested is 21 years. In both cases the Committee
recommended that the completion of the apprenticeship course
should be attested by a national certificate, and that the Apprenticeship Board and the Commissioner of Labour should be responsible
for holding tests to assess the skill of the trainees and for the award
of certificates.
In the opinion of the Committee, apprenticeship programmes in
large undertakings should become the responsibility of a particular
officer. It should be his duty to ensure that all apprentices receive
adequate practical training in workshops, and to make arrangements
for them to receive additional theoretical training in technical
colleges. 1 The Committee, furthermore, emphasised the need to
relate vocational training to employment opportunities and to
national requirements. While recommending that both scholastic
and practical training systems at all levels should be developed and
improved, it stressed that the future policy of the Government
should be directed toward channelling a part of the talents from
the schools into industrial and commercial occupations which at
present are not getting their fair share of the national ability. These
remarks of the Committee were endorsed by the Government of
Ceylon in its communications to ECAFE.
1

Courses are now organised for this purpose. See above, p. 27.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E

FAR

EAST

Chilla
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
Technical education in Chinese schools of all types is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, which directly runs the schools
of a national character, and supervises schools administered by
various public bodies (provinces, municipalities or hsiens) and
recognised private schools. There are, however, a certain number of
non-recognised private schools which function independently of
the Ministry.
Other technical training schemes, some of which concern youth,
have been organised by, or are under the supervision of, various
other Ministries—the Ministry of Industry and Commerce, the
Ministry of Communications and the Ministry of Social Affairs.
These schemes frequently include courses in technical education,
but as these are generally carried on while the trainee is in employment (either with or without wages) they are dealt with later in
this section.
University Level.
The main facilities which exist for the training of high-grade
technicians are provided by the scientific departments of public or
private universities. The duration of such courses is four years. An
entrance examination is required before admission, but this may
be taken after the student has obtained a diploma of a senior middle
school. There are, further, a number of research departments in
the universities, two research institutes, and several research bureaux
attached to various Ministries, in which opportunities for advanced
studies exist.
During the war and also to a limited extent after it, the Government encouraged universities to develop their scientific departments
to meet the demand for technicians for the national economy, and
took steps to interest young people in these courses. During the
war, the National Resources Commission concluded agreements
with several universities for the establishment of new facilities.
One method of encouraging such studies was the formation of
scholarships for scientific studies. Sixteen such scholarships were
granted by the Commission in 1947 and 1948 respectively. These
scholarships for studies in China are additional to the facilities
available in foreign countries (already mentioned in the report on
technical training prepared for the third session of ECAFE 1 ).
Moreover, in order to permit science students to complete their
theoretical knowledge through practical training, the National
Resources Commission gives facilities to successful competitors
1

Cf. Document E/CN. 11/83.

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FACILITIES

to enter its industrial establishments for practical studies during
the summer vacations. Similar facilities are provided for students
who are not scholarship holders, through agreements concluded
between certain universities and industrial plants run under the
auspices of the Commission.
Secondary Level.
Although the requirements for admission to the " national
senior " technical schools are equal to those of a university, namely,
possession of a senior middle school diploma (high school certificate)
plus an entrance examination, all technical schools are classified
for administrative purposes with middle schools, although they
constitute a separate educational ladder. It is not possible to pass
from the first type of education to the second ; the diplomas acquired
in the technical groups are not considered equal to diplomas for
further study in universities. On the other hand, termination of
studies in a junior technical school confers the right of admission,
after examination, to a senior technical school on an equal footing
with students holding a middle school diploma.
The junior course in the national technical schools takes two
years ; the duration of the course in senior technical schools is
generally three years. Moreover, certain schools, among which is
the Municipal Technological Institute of Shanghai, have reduced
the duration to two years.
In 1946 (the last year for which more or less complete statistics
are available 1 ), 720 technical schools of different kinds and of various
grades were in operation : 32 national schools, 256 provincial schools,
172 schools dependent upon a municipality or hsien and 260 private
schools, of which 142 were recognised schools. These 720 technical
schools possessed a student enrolment of 137,040. The figures show
an advance on those for 1945, when there were 517 technical schools
with a student enrolment of 92,278. The increase in the number
of students in technical schools was both relative and absolute,
because, in comparison with the over-all figures for middle school
students, students in technical schools formed 9.1 per cent, of the
total in 1946 as compared with 8.2 per cent, in 1945. Since 1942 the
following rules have applied to the number of technical schools :
(1) for senior middle schools, there should be one normal school
and one technical school to every two schools for general
education ; (2) for junior middle schools, there should be three
normal schools and two technical schools to every six schools for
general education.
The policy of the Ministry of Education is to continue to favour
the greatest possible expansion of technical education and the
improvement of its methods. With this twofold end in view, a
programme of development has been prepared, which, however, is
being delayed by present conditions.
1

Statistical documents of the Ministry of Education state that,
owing to present conditions, it is not possible to prepare a complete
report on educational institutions in North China.

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FAR

EAST

Statistics of technical education for industry, agriculture and
commerce. To give some idea of the degree of reconstruction and even
growth of technical education in China, in the branches of activity
particularly concerned in economic development, a table is given
•below which has been prepared from available statistics showing
the number of industrial, agricultural and commercial schools
respectively in 1936, 1945 and 1946. More recent data are not
available. The classification of these schools into three groups,
schools with both senior and junior courses, schools with only senior
courses and those which have only junior courses, is that normally
adopted in Chinese statistics. In the last group it is impossible to
distinguish between the technical schools which, like the national
schools, require two years of general middle school studies prior to
participation in an entrance examination for a junior technical
course and those which, like certain municipal or private schools,
require only a primary school certificate for participation in an
entrance examination.
TABLE I.

NUMBER OF TECHNICAL SCHOOLS BY MAIN BRANCHES
OF ACTIVITY AND GRADES
Industrial
schools

Courses

Senior and junior
Senior
Junior
Total

Agricultural
schools *

Commercial
schools

1936

1945

1946

1936

1945

1946

1936

1945

1946

18
41
69

44
43
45
132

52
53
52
157

13
39
109
161

65
42
109

71
50
152
273

5
24
40

27
39
22

38
46
37

121

128

216

1
In accordance with the classification generally used in occupational statistics,
fishery schools should be included with agricultural schools. But in China they are
classifled with schools of navigation and cannot be shown separately from these ; the two
together numbered 12 in 1946.

The table shows that by 1945 industrial technical education
was barely regaining its pre-invasion level of development, but that
a new tendency was appearing in the increase in the number of
senior schools or of schools operating higher courses. This same
tendency appears even more strongly in the growth of commercial
schools, whereas for agriculture, efforts are still being directed
towards the development of preparatory schools. This is perfectly
understandable in view of the vast need to popularise modern
agricultural methods among the immense and largely illiterate
agricultural population of China.
Although there was a substantial rise in the number of technical
schools in 1945 and 1946 — a rise which probably continued during
the two following years — the small number of schools for these
three economic groups is striking in comparison with the total
population and the degree of development of the three branches
of activity.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

No information is available for making a corresponding comparison of the administrative grouping of technical schools in the
same three years, namely, according as they were national, provincial, municipal or Asien, or private schools. The totals for 1946
for the three main economic branches are shown in table II.
TABLE II. ADMINISTRATIVE GROUPING OF TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, 1 9 4 6
Group

Industrial

Agricultural *

Commercial

9
84
26
39
(4)
167

11
93
103
66
(43)
273

32
19
70
(38)

Provincial
Municipal or hsien
Private
(Recognised private schools)
Total

Total

20
209
147
176
(86)
661

121

1
Of the 12 schools of navigation (most of them, schools of fishery), 1 was national,
10 were provincial and 1 was private (recognised).

The division of responsibility, combined with the relatively
large part played by the local authorities (especially in agricultural training) and even by private initiative (especially in
commercial training), obviously makes it difficult to standardise
the educational system in schools of the same category.
Table III shows the enrolment of students in the existing technical schools and the number of graduates during the three selected
years, in the three main occupational categories.
TABLE III.

NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
Industrial

Group
1936

Students registered
Graduates of senior
courses
Graduates of junior
courses

Agricultural '

1945 | 1946

1936

1945

1946

Commercial
1936

1945

1946

18,101 31,470 41,911 16,865 36,352 47,732 14,229 21,386 29,125
1,366

2,793

3,474

1,066

2,053

2,625

1,366

2,160

3,173

1,728

2,682

3,666

1,645

4,552

6,594

1,343

2,334

2,871

• To this group can be added for 1946, 254 students of the navigation schools
(mainly, fishery schools), of whom 82 graduated.

The number of registered students thus doubled between 1945
and 1946 in industrial schools and commercial schools and tripled
in agricultural schools, but the increase was not evenly spread over
the different grades of schools. In industrial schools the number
registered in 1946 was higher in the higher grades (22,103) ;than
in the lower grades (17,808), while in commercial schools the
number of students in the junior grades (16,217) was higher than
in the senior grades (12,908), and in agricultural schools the number

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR

EAST

in junior grades was more than twice the number in senior grades
(32,525 against 15,070), a proportion which is approximately the
same among the graduates.
The 1946 statistics can be used to show the sex distribution of
students enrolled in middle-grade technical schools.
TABLE IV. SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS, 1 9 4 6
Group

Industrial :
Senior course
Junior course
Total
Agricultural :
Senior course
Junior course
Total
Commercial :
Senior course
Total

Female
percentage
oí total

Total

Female

Male

21,360
18,785
40,135

763
1,033
1,786

22,103
19,808
41,911

3.4
6.2
4.3

14,269
31,291
45,550

848
1,354
2,202

15,107
32,625
47,732

6.6
4.2.
4.6

9,525
12,993
22,518

3,383
3,224
6,607

12,908
16,217
29,125

26.2
19.9
22.6

Girls may attend any university, but they are not admitted to
engineering and technical schools, which explains their small attendance at industrial schools (courses in sericulture are open to them).
On the other hand, their participation in commercial studies is
fairly high. It should also be noted that 3,805 girls were attending
the 27 domestic economy schools.
The classification of the students according to the administrative
grouping of the schools appears in table V.
TABLE V.

DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS BY ADMINISTRATIVE GROUPS
OF SCHOOLS, 1 9 4 6
Agricultural

Industrial
School
group

Total
students

Municipal or hsien
Private.
.....

3,186
26,873
4,513
7,377

Graduates
Senior Junior

632
2,214
10
673

41
2,185
814
626

Total
students

1,348
21,890
16,748
7,746

Graduates
Senior Junior

137
1,934
395
159

Commercial
Total

Graduates

students

Senior Junior

86
2,214 10,987
2,811 4,902
1,483 13,117

1,308
1,865

912
709
1,250

The maintenance of equal standards in respect of the diplomas
awarded by the different authorities, and particularly by local
authorities or by private schools, clearly necessitates the estab-

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lishment of strict control. In this lies one of the difficulties of
organising technical education in China.
Pre-Apprenticeship in Schools and Children's Homes
In China, as in many other countries, certain schools, particularly private schools, include in the curriculum a few hours of
practical work which may be regarded as a form of pre-vocational
training. Moreover, special mention should be made of the vocational training courses organised for young people between 15 and
18 years of age in the many children's homes which have been
opened since the end of the Sino-Japanese war by various bureaux
of social affairs of provincial Governments or municipalities, for
the care of orphans and other homeless children, who have increased
so gravely in number since the war and the subsequent internal
strife. Owing to the lack of the equipment necessary for more
serious technical training, these children's homes can only train
the young residents in very simple crafts or give them the most
elementary knowledge to serve as the first step towards more serious
apprenticeship training, should the latter opportunity be afforded
them later.
IN-PLANT TRAINING

As can be seen from the figures in the preceding paragraphs,
only a small percentage of the juvenile labour force has at present
the possibility of receiving technical training in an educational
institution. In China, as in other countries, technical skill is most
frequently acquired when the young person is already working in
a plant, whether for pay or not.
In most cases, training is undertaken empirically and not as a
result of any definite plan. However, through various ways, official
action has begun to make itself felt in China either by the establishment of a certain measure of supervision over the training given
by employers on their own initiative, or by encouraging firms to
promote their own training schemes and to lay down definite principles and procedures. Several Government departments have
played an important part in this connection.
Official Supervision of In-Plant

Training

The first attempt at official control was the inclusion in the
Factories Act of 1932, which is administered by the Ministry of
Social Affairs, of a section concerning apprenticeship. This section
makes the drawing up of a written apprenticeship contract compulsory ; fixes at 13 years the minimum age for apprentices ; makes
it a duty for the employer to ensure adequate training for the apprentices and to provide them without charge with board and lodging,
as well as pocket money ; and, finally, limits to one third of the
total labour force of the plant the number of young workers who
can be employed as apprentices. However, as this section of the

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Factories Act has not yet been put into force, these regulations
merely indicate the intention to standardise apprenticeship methods.
Furthermore, as the Act applies only to mechanised plants with a
minimum labour force of 30, its application will be without effect
on the smaller workshops employing large numbers of young workers,
where empirical training methods will be left unchecked.
Promotion of In-Plant

Training

More tangible results have been obtained through official action
which aims at stimulating the adoption by firms of methodical
systems of technical training, but here also it has been possible to
put only a part of the plans into operation.
The Activities of the Bureau of Technical Training.
An important starting point was the creation in 1940 by the
National Defence Industries Commission of a Bureau for the Training of Skilled Workers, which was continued after the war as a
Bureau of Technical Training attached to the Ministry of Industry
and Commerce. It is unnecessary to recall in detail the initial
activities of this body. x However, it should be mentioned that,
besides the schemes it administers itself, this Bureau—in conjunction
with all other departments interested in technical training—has
drawn largely on the co-operation of public and private plants for the
development of training facilities.
Co-operation with undertakings.
The attempt to use in-plant
training to supplement the inadequate training facilities given by
technical schools led to the adoption of the regulations of 4 August
1941, which were prepared jointly by the Ministries of Education,
Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Social Affairs, and defined the
methods to be employed. The principles embodied in these regulations are to be found also in numerous subsequent enactments.
According to the 1941 regulations, factories and mines employing
over 500 workers and farms employing over 300 workers were
required to put into operation long-term training schemes for their
own personnel and, upon request of the Government, to place their
equipment and personnel at the disposal of the Government for
organising short-term training schemes in these undertakings.
Undertakings employing over 200 workers, but less than the number
given above, were required to co-operate in the establishment of
such schemes, while smaller undertakings were required to contribute to the expenses of neighbouring technical educational institutions. The details of the obligations imposed on the undertakings
were altered from time to time, but the basis of the system was left
untouched, since the Government regarded the undertakings as
its main agents for carrying out its decisions relating to technical
training.
1
Cf. Labour Policy in General, including the Enforcement of Labour
Measures, op. cit., pp. 128-129.

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The system at present in operation is as follows. The principle
that the larger undertakings should organise their own training
schemes still holds good. The latest interpretation of the regulation
is that those employing over 100 workers are required to organise
training systems for 5 per cent, of their personnel. It does not seem,
however, that strict supervision is exercised to ensure the observance
of the regulation.
In addition, the Bureau of Technical Training, which comprises
a technical and administrative staff of 60 persons, prepares apprenticeship schemes as well as specialised training schemes, which are put
into operation in specially selected plants. The latter bear the full
cost, but the curriculum is drafted by the Bureau, which also prepares
the teaching manuals and supervises the various steps taken by
the plants to carry out the schemes.
Apprenticeship schemes. The selection of apprentices is governed by the following requirements : the apprentice must be
at least 14 years old and possess a certificate of primary studies ;
he must undergo a medical examination and must find a sponsor
who will be responsible for his good behaviour during the period
of training ; he must promise not to give up the apprenticeship
course before its termination.
The apprenticeship schemes now in operation relate mainly to
mechanical and electrical engineering, the chemical and metal
industries and mining, and some to carpentry and woodworking,
paper making, painting, etc.
The curriculum includes theoretical courses combined with
practical work in laboratories and workshops, as well as half an
hour of physical training per day. Theoretically the working
week should be one of 48 hours, including 10 hours at most for
theoretical courses. Actually, the apprentices keep the same hours
as the adult workers (generally nine hours a day in State-owned factories) and then have additional theoretical courses of two hours'
duration on five evenings a week. The apprentices receive free board
and lodging as well as a small sum of pocket money, the amount
of which is fixed periodically. The apprenticeship lasts three years,
but the diploma is issued by the Bureau only after a six-month
period of probation in the same plant. The apprentice is considered
a skilled worker only after he has accomplished the probationary
period and has received his diploma.
Specialised training schemes. These are long-term schemes of
training of a higher grade, intended mainly for young workers,
though they do not exclude adult trainees. The trainees are carefully
selected, being drawn mainly from the best graduates from the
apprenticeship courses. These advanced courses are mainly of a
practical character, and the greater part of the training takes place
in the workshop itself. The workers continue to receive their regular
wages throughout the course.
The targets set for the technical training schemes have been
revised from time to time with a view to extending their scope.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E

FAR

EAST

On 13 February 1947 regulations were issued stating that the
number of skilled workers trained under the schemes of the Bureau
of Technical Training should reach 10,000 a year (7,000 in
mechanical engineering, 1,000 in electrical engineering, 1,000 in
the chemical industry, 500 in the metal industry and 500 in mining).
Conditions, however, did not permit these targets to be reached,
as, in 1947, only 1,586 trainees took the courses, 336 of whom graduated. The small number of graduations is explained by the
slowing down of the training programmes during the two preceding
years. In all, from 1940 to June 1948, 9,017 persons took the Bureau's
training courses, of whom 4,719 graduated. The greater part of the
schemes were carried out in State-owned factories, which took
84 per cent, of the total number of apprentices or other types of
trainees, 80 per cent, of whom graduated ; 1,452 persons only (with
933 graduations) were trained in private firms.
Of the 4,719 persons who received diplomas, 3,081 graduated
from general apprenticeship courses and 576 from specialised courses ;
the latter specialised in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, smelting, mechanical drawing and the optical industry. The
rest graduated from the intensive training courses discussed in
section B of this chapter.
In July 1948, 2,274 trainees were undergoing a long-term (three
years) training in 26 plants, under the direction of 126 instructors
or teachers.
The Training Scheme of the Ministry of Social Affairs.
The Ministry of Social Affairs has prepared a scheme for training
between 50 and 60 Shanghai youths selected among young people
whom the internal strife has left without family support and whose
placing in a job has been handicapped by lack of skill. The selection
has been made from among unemployed literate youths who have
registered with the Employment Bureau of the Ministry or are being
cared for by the Municipal Bureau of Social Affairs, in one of the
homes of the type already referred to in the description of technical
schools. The training, which will vary from six_to nine months in
duration, will be given either by specially selected firms with good
training facilities or by thè Don Bosco Technical School. In some
cases wages will be paid ; in other cases the trainee will not be
paid, but will receive free fares, working overalls, and board and
lodging from a China Relief Mission grant made to the Ministry
to enable it to carry out this scheme.
Schemes of National Corporations.
Certain of the national corporations which were created in
connection with the rehabilitation programme of UNRRA and later
of BOTRA, as a result of international co-operation in the post-war
period, have established their own training schemes. Those of the
National Agricultural Engineering Corporation deserve to be reviewed
briefly. While its plants are still being installed and are expanding
gradually, this Corporation, which produces all kinds of tools and

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

implements necessary for agriculture, trains its own personnel in
their use in accordance with methods adopted as a result of extensive
studies.
Its main programme covers the basic training of newly engaged
personnel of all types. Ten per cent, of the personnel undergo this
training at a time. In the summer of 1948, 150 persons out of 1,500
were undergoing this basic training. Young engineering graduates
of technical schools are given training identical with that given
to selected young workers without previous technical training who
wish to become skilled workers. The former receive practical education in addition to their theoretical instruction, while the latter
learn the fundamentals of their trade. The full programme covers
a period of slightly over two and a half years, alternating six 10-week
periods of instruction, consisting of theoretical courses combined
with systematic practical exercises in a training shop, and six
14-week periods of practical work in the production shops. Each
of the latter courses follows closely on each of the former. The six
fundamental techniques which are included in this training are :
design and drawing, forge and foundry, carpentry and cabinetmaking and setting up of machine parts.
The same Corporation also runs advanced courses of training
of somewhat shorter duration.
Similar schemes have been organised in quite a different field
by the National Fisheries Rehabilitation Administration.

Hong Kong 1
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
Technical training facilities provided by the Government of
Hong Kong may be summarised as follows.
University Education and Research Stations.
The University of Hong Kong, re-established after the war, is
the only institution that offers, among other studies, a four-year
course in civil engineering including advanced studies in hydraulics
and surveying. In the year 1947, 39 first- and second-year students
enrolled and there is at present some room for expansion.
For advanced study and field work, a Fisheries Research Station
and an Agricultural Research Station have been established and a
Forestries Research Station will be established in the near future.
It is hoped that facilities for advanced training in these research
stations will soon be developed to meet the needs of external students.
1
Unless otherwise specified, the information given below is based
on a communication from the Government of Hong Kong dated November 1947.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Technical Education below University Level.
Industrial training. The Trade School has now been renamed
the Technical College, as giving a better idea of the functions it
fulfils in the life of the community. The College, a Government
school, was reopened early in 1947 when it was still only possible to
conduct evening classes. These included instruction in wireless
telegraphy, preliminary engineering and shipbuilding. Since November of that year, however, the College has again been opened for
regular courses. A wireless telegraphy course covering one year for
day students has an enrolment of 25 day students and an equal
number of night students, while the shipbuilding course, which covers
five years, has 50 students. It is hoped that the building and
engineering courses, which cover respectively three and five years,
will come into operation late in 1948 and are expected to take
30 students each. A Junior Department is also planned to come
into operation in 1948 to admit 60 apprentices yearly for a fouryear course in engineering. At present the College runs a night
school course covering three years, with 450 students enrolled in
elementary classes for apprentices, many of whom are employed
in the Royal Naval Dockyard and two other dockyards. Consideration is being given to the establishment of courses in electrical
engineering and automobile engineering for apprentices, as well as
in navigation. The Technical College is expected to be filled to
capacity for some time to come.
The Aberdeen School, a Salesian Fathers' industrial school
built in 1935 on a site granted by the Government, offers craftsmanship training in electro-mechanics, carpentry, shoemaking and
tailoring, according to the syllabi drawn up by the Salesian Society
for all its schools. The course lasts five years, with five hours a day
of vocational training with a view to obtaining a fully qualified
craftsman's diploma. A three-year course qualifies the trainee for
a lower-grade diploma. 1
Commercial training. This is given by the Evening Institute,
which reopened in 1946. In 1947 it had a total enrolment of over
1,100 students. The instruction provided includes bookkeeping,
shorthand and commercial English. 2
Agriculture and fisheries. The education of the children of the
fishing community is a post-war development in Hong Kong. In
1947 there were nine such schools supplementing the normal curriculum of a primary school. 2 The Taikoo rural orphanage, with
140 pupils, provides training in farming and home-making.
In-Plant

Training

According to information supplied by the Taikoo Dockyard
Company, this firm has an apprenticeship scheme of three years'
1

Information provided by the Salesian Society.
OF HONG KONG : Annual Report on Hong Kong
for the Year 1947 (March. 1948), p. 65.
2

GOVERNMENT

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

duration for youths of 16 years and over admitted as a result of a
competitive examination. There are two grades of apprentices :
grade A, with entrance examination in English composition and
intermediate mathematics ; and grade B, with entrance examination
in elementary mathematics. Those in grade A must attend evening
classes for theoretical training. For those in grade B, evening classes
are optional. Those attending regularly are entitled to a bonus.

India
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

As will be seen in the next section, war requirements in India
gave a strong impetus to the development of vocational training of
adult labour, through programmes of intensive training.
This
impetus did not immediately affect the training of young persons,
which in the main requires long-term programmes. But as soon as
post-war economic development schemes began to take shape,
programmes dealing with the training of young persons were given
serious consideration, as it was thought that a substantial increase of
technical personnel would be required in comparison with the
number available under pre-war conditions.
These problems were considered as early as 1944 by the Advisory
Committee on Technical Training, a body composed of representatives of Ministries, employers and workers and other interests,
which was set up to review the working of the wartime schemes and
to recommend measures to adapt these schemes to peacetime requirements. In particular, the Committee suggested that an apprenticeship
scheme should be established on a national basis, and emphasised
the need for a wider general education as a foundation for vocational
training and the need for co-ordination among the different training
schemes. x
Before the end of the war a survey was also undertaken, with a
view to a general reform of education, by the Central Advisory
Board of Education, on which the Government of India, the provincial Governments and the States, as well as experts, are
represented. The Board drew up a very comprehensive plan outlining
the structure of a harmonious public education system, based on
compulsory elementary education, in which vocational guidance
and technical training in schools also have a place. Though it is
anticipated that the plan will take forty years to be fully
implemented, it is obvious that, as it gradually develops, the
obstacles which mass illiteracy raises to a comprehensive plan of
technical training will gradually lessen.
Some of the functional reforms advocated by the Central Advisory
Board of Education and adopted by the Government may have
1
Cf. Labour Policy in General, including the Enforcement of Labour
Measures, op. cit., pp. 133-137.

TRAINING PROBLEMS I N T H E FAR EAST

a decisive influence upon the development of technical training
facilities in India.
First, acting on the recommendation of the Board, the Central
Government has established a separate department for dealing with
all educational problems, the Department of Education. This is to
be divided into three main sections, the first being concerned with
general education, the second with technical education and the
third with studies abrcad. Secondly, considering the present structure of public education in India—which is extremely complicated,
as the responsibility for administering and controlling educational
institutions lies with the provincial Governments and the Indian
States and not with the Central Government—the Board was of the
opinion that, in a modern economy, higher technical training could
not be established efficiently on a provincial level. In order to meet
the requirements of industrial development, the Board believed it
was imperative that the plan for higher technical training should
cover the whole of India. To this end it recommended the establishment of a central body. The Government, by a resolution dated
30 November 1945, accordingly established an All-India Council for
Technical Education. The Council now enjoys only advisory status,
though the possibility of its being turned later into an executive
body, as the Central Board of Education had first intended, is still
kept in mind. 1
Numerous departments of the Government of India, provincial
Governments, State Governments, employers' organisations (both
industrial and commercial), workers' organisations, educational
bodies and various interested professional associations (engineers,
architects, etc.), as well as the National Planning Committee, are
represented on the All-India Council for Technical Education. The
Council was requested, in the first instance, to make, in consultation
with the provinces and States, an over-all survey of conditions in
respect of technical education, to study the several schemes already
contemplated in order to estimate their place in a nationwide plan,
and to conduct preliminary negotiations in order to ensure the
co-operation of already established technical training institutions in
implementing the national plan for higher technical training.'
The recommendations made by the All-India Council are
analysed later at the appropriate place, along with the means
employed to implement them. It should be emphasised that the
various bodies to which reference has already been made are still
active, and that much more important results can be anticipated than
were possible in the short time that has elapsed since their creation.
Much is to be expected from the influence they are likely to have on

Cf. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Pamphlet No. 32 : Proceedings of the

Twelfth Meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education (Simla,
Government of India Press, 1946), Appendix D.a., pp. 44-48.
3
Cf. Idem, Pamphlet No. 38 : Proceedings of the First Meeting of
the All-India Council for Technical Education, Appendix 2, pp. 20-22.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

the implementation of a co-ordinated policy as regards technical
and vocational training throughout India.
The Scientific Man-Power Committee set up on 19 April 1947
in order to assess the requirements for scientific manpower that mayarise within the next ten years in governmental services and private
concerns, and to make recommendations regarding the action to be
taken to meet those requirements, is another organisation whose
activities are directly connected with the present subject. The
first studies undertaken by this Committee, as well as by the
other organisations already referred to, afford valuable data on the
actual conditions, and these have been made use of in the following
pages to supplement the replies sent by the Indian Government to
the ECAFE questionnaire.
The creation of other subsidiary organisations is also under
consideration. To increase efficiency and to speed up completion of
the tasks entrusted to them, the All-India Council for Technical
Education suggested the establishment within the Council of three
types of committees:
(a) All-India boards of technical studies, one for each of the main
subjects of technology, in order to achieve a uniformly high
standard of education in each such subject ; these boards to
be responsible, primarily, for laying down regulations governing
the grant of all-India diplomas and certificates. The recommendation was adopted and the creation of six councils was decided
for the following branches : engineering and metallurgy, architecture, commerce and business administration, chemical technology, textile technology, applied art.
(b) Regional committees, one for each region, to perform the
functions assigned to the Council and, in particular, to supervise
the work of the higher technical institutions not affiliated to the
universities. The recommendation was adopted and the setting
up of four regional committees is now under consideration. The
Central Government has requested the provincial and State
Governments to help in the establishment of the committees.
(c) A co-ordinating committee, to co-ordinate the activities of the
various organs of the Council and to act as its executive organ.
Technical Education in Schools
Present Situation.
Owing to the fact that technical education, as well as the general
education that precedes it, is the responsibility of the provincial and
State Governments, there are fairly wide differences in educational
planning from one end of the country to the other, so that it is not
easy to draw a line of demarcation between the several grades of
education. Bearing this factor in mind, an attempt can nevertheless
be made to draw an approximate picture of the development of
technical education in the various grades, using the data made available by the studies to which reference has already been made.
4,

TRAINING PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

The most detailed statistics regarding the number of technical
educational institutions, and the number of students listed in those
institutions, are to be found in the General Educational Tables for
British India, 1942-1943, published by the Indian Bureau of Education in 1947. As the title of the pamphlet shows, these statistics do
not cover the institutions located in the States that now belong to
the Indian Union, but on the other hand, they cover the territories which are now included in Pakistan.
At the university level the recognised universities and institutions
included in 1942-1943, besides 15 universities 1 the technical departments of which were not specified, 10 industrial colleges (engineering
and technological), 14 colleges for agriculture or related sciences
(forestry and veterinary science) and 11 colleges for commercial
studies. 2
The number of pupils of both sexes listed in the institutions for
technical education in industry, agriculture and commerce is shown
in table VI.
TABLE VI. NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENTERED IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS, 1 9 4 2 - 1 9 4 3
Educational institutions

Universities and intermediate
education
Special schools for lower-grade
education
Total

Industry

3,18o1

Agriculture (including
forestry and veterinary
science)

Commerce

2,429

5,535 »

33,475

748

12,271

36,655

3,177

17,806

1
Statistics for 1944-1945 show 3,742 students registered for industrial studies and
10,194 for commercial studies.

The sex distribution of the figures for special schools in 1942-1943
shows that there were 478 industrial schools for boys with a total of
25,671 students, as against 158 for girls with a total of 7,804 students ;
13 agricultural schools for boys with 684 students as against 2 for
girls with 64 students ; and 359 commercial schools for boys with
11,904 students as against 5 for girls with 367 students. Finally,
259 and 399 girls respectively attended industrial and commercial
schools classed as operated for boys.
Classified by the authorities which administered institutions for
technical education, the numbers of institutions and of students
entered in 1942-1943 were as shown in table VII.
1
In August 1948, there were 21 universities, 14 of which provided
opportunities for technical research (communication from the Government of India).
2
In 1944-1945, the number of industrial and agricultural colleges
remained unchanged while the number of commercial colleges had
risen to 15.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

TABLE VII. DISTRIBUTION OF TECHNICAL COLLEGES AND SPECIAL
SCHOOLS BY RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITIES, 1 9 4 2 - 1 9 4 3
Industry
Responsible
authority

Number of
institallons

Technical colleges :
Government. . .
District board . .
Municipal board .
Aided
institutions 1 . . . .
Unaided institu-

Agriculture
Number of
insulations

pupils

Commerce
Number of
lastlintions

pupils

Total
. Number of
Institutions

pupils

1,861

1,853

747

4,463

1,310

499

2,826

4,635

1,962

2,048

3,180

2,429

5,535

11,146

Special schools for
lower-grade training :
Government. . . 160
District board . . 30
Municipal council. 17
Aided schools . . 387
Unaided schools . 42

12,391
1,162
580
18,163
1,189

407

633

341

18
329

748

364

185
30
17
934 412
10,704
371
12,271 1,015

13,431
1,162
580
19,428
11,893
46,494

Total

636

33,475

1
To these figures should be added the 15 universities with scientific departments
which contribute to technical training.

Owing to the fact that university courses usually last four years,
preceded by two years' intermediate studies, the number of graduates
will certainly have been well below the number of registered students,
though the report cited gives no information on this point. According
to the information collected by the Scientific Man-Power Committee,
the number of students who graduated in 1940 in the whole of British
India was 638 in engineering courses (civil engineering, mechanical
engineering, mining and metallurgy) and 293 in agricultural studies.
Research begun in 1945 with a view to assessing the potential
output of existing institutions in relation to the requirements of the
Indian economy for technicians had to be undertaken without the
help of the results of a general school census. The information was
derived mainly from replies to a questionnaire and from direct
investigations conducted in the leading institutions. As a result
there are many gaps, as all the institutions did not reply to the
questionnaire. However, the investigation brought new factors to
light, as it was extended to the States as well as to the provinces.
It should be noted that it was not concerned with agricultural
education. This last problem was studied separately by a subcommittee of the Advisory Council, and again by the Scientific

TRAINING

PROBLEMS

THE

FAR

EAST

Man-Power Committee, but the factual information published in
consequence of those studies is not so detailed as that relating to
industrial technical education.
The first published results 1 relate to the present Indian Union,
and therefore exclude Pakistan, whose territories were also covered
by the investigation. These results are classified by four regions,
the institutions falling into four groups according to the type of
course offered, namely :
Group A : Institutions providing facilities mainly for post-graduate
and research work.
Group B : Institutions where the duration of courses ranges from three
to four years and which offer primarily degree or equivalent
courses. The general admission qualification is the intermediate with science, or its equivalent. a
Group C : Institutions which offer primarily diploma or equivalent
courses with matriculation as the admission qualification.»
Group D : Institutions providing certificate or equivalent courses, the
minimum admission qualification being the 7th standard of
a high school.
The interim results of the investigation are shown in table VIII.
T A B L E VIII.

NUMBER

OF INSTITUTIONS FOR TECHNICAL

EDUCATION

CLASSIFIED B Y VOCATIONAL GROUPS A N D B Y REGIONS
Commerce

Industry
Region

Grade of education
A

North.
South.
East .
West .

.
.
.
.

4
3
1
1

Total . .

5
10
4
3
22

9
12
6
5
32

Grade of education
Total

21
25
11
15

Total
D

2
1

—

4
1
3
2

—

5
3
4
6
18

" The total of 90 Institutions shovm in this table excludes those of a level below g r o u p D .

The tabulation of results by regions brings to light the irregular
distribution of technical education facilities after the separation of
Pakistan, the southern populations having better facilities while
the population in the east suffers from a perceptible deficiency in
1
Facilities for Technical Education in India. Preliminary Report on
the Survey of Technical Institutions in India conducted by the All-India
Council for Technical Education (New Delhi, 1948).
2
Intermediate studies include two-year courses following high
school courses, in preparation for university studies.
8
Under the former school regulations, which are still enforced in a
number of provinces, matriculation is taken at the end of the tenth
year of school studies. In the new system, it will be taken at the end of
the eleventh year.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

training facilities, despite the existence of a high degree of industrialisation around Calcutta and several important coalfields.
The lack of figures for lower-grade institutions is presumably to
be ascribed to the predominant interest taken by the All-India
Council for Technical Education in the training of higher technicians,
and probably accounts for the low numbers in column D in respect of
industry and column C in respect of commerce. If the enumeration
of commercial schools gives an accurate picture of existing conditions, it reflects the almost total neglect of a group of technical studies
which are no less indispensable to the training of efficient personnel
for modern business than industrial schools are to the training of
skilled productive labour.
On the whole, the totals obtained from the enumeration of
technical training institutions still remain very low in proportion
to the area concerned and to the population in need of such facilities.
Information relating to the number of technical schools is usefully
supplemented, as regards training in agricultural technology, by
the communication sent by the Indian Government in answer to
the ECAFE questionnaire. This communication gives a list of 40
research institutions providing advanced technical training facilities,
out of which 19 are concerned with agriculture and related sciences.
As regards schools proper, the communication gives a list of
28 technical institutions of university grade for different categories
of engineering and technological studies, with the intake of students
and the output of graduates in 1946-1947. The totals are respectively 2,832 and 1,178.
Eleven of these institutions also provide less advanced courses,
for which a diploma is granted. The number of students so registered
was 1,017, and 462 diplomas were granted. If we add these totals
to those of the students taking diploma courses who were registered
in 18 educational institutions of non-university grade, as shown
in a separate list covering such institutions, the total of students
enrolling in Indian industrial schools in 1946-1947 to take diploma
courses would appear to be 1,978, with 772 qualifying for their
diplomas in the same year. There were in addition 346 students
at a still lower grade taking courses with a view to obtaining a
certificate, and 49 certificates were actually awarded in the year.
In its answer to the questionnaire, the Government of India
stated that it was necessary to wait until the Scientific Man-Power
Committee had completed its studies to assess accurately the number
of technicians now available, compared with the present and future
requirements of the Indian economy. However, the Government
emphasises the fact that higher-grade technical institutions. can
hardly train more than 1,300 engineers and other technicians per
year, while the short-term requirements for reconstruction alone
may be estimated to be four times that number.
As regards agricultural studies, the data collected by the Scientific
Man-Power Committee show a striking lack of training facilities.
A preparatory memorandum emphasises the present lack of courses
leading to a degree in the field of veterinary and dairy science. On

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E

FAR

EAST

the whole, the annual output of technicians in the several categories
of higher agricultural training is negligible. In 1939-1940, the last
period for which information is available, the following diplomas
were awarded for the whole of British India ; Master of Agriculture,
24 ; Bachelor of Agriculture, 264 ; Licentiate of Agriculture, 289. l
Plans for

Expansion.

Without waiting for the final estimates of requirements in
technicians, the All-India Council for Technical Education has
taken action with a view to expanding educational facilities in
those places where existing facilities are obviously inadequate.
Its efforts have been directed primarily towards the development
of higher technical education.
The Council suggested that four regional higher technical institutions should be set up, on the lines of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, one for each of the regions contemplated in the
investigation. The Government of India has accepted the recommendation and added that the first two institutions should be
created within the next five years, in the east near Calcutta and in
the west near Bombay respectively, both being places where the
investigation showed the greatest deficiency in that respect. Each
of the four higher institutions are to take in about 2,000 undergraduates and 1,000 postgraduates and research students. Instruction
will be provided in various types of engineering (electrical, mechanical, aeronautical, marine and civil), architecture and regional
planning, textile technology, metallurgy, meteorology, geology and
geophysics.
The Council has also recommended the strengthening of existing
institutions in general, specifying some by name, in particular,
the mining school at Dhanbad, which is to be turned into a mining
and applied geology school with more than twice the present number
of students. In order to promote such development, the Council
suggested the implementation of a broad policy of grants to schools,
and the Scientific Man-Power Committee has also endorsed and
generally emphasised this recommendation in its programme for
immediate action.
In the communication of the Indian Government to ECAFE,
it is stated that the Government is now developing all the central
institutions, and that the provincial and State Governments are
also bent on developing technical institutions in their own fields.
Thus it may be expected that, when all the plans are put into
execution, central and provincial institutions combined may meet
all the requirements of the country in technical personnel. However,
there remain many difficulties to be removed before the plans are
fully implemented.
The schemes now being carried out by the Central Government
relate to the Delhi Polytechnic, the four departments of which will
1

BUREAU

OF EDUCATION,

SCIENTIFIC

MAN-POWER

Interim Report (New Delhi, 1947), pp. 52-63.

COMMITTEE :

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

be developed in order to double the number of seats within four
years, and the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, which will
have a department of power engineering and a high voltage engineering laboratory, as well as expanding its existing facilities. Provincial schemes include the establishment of 140 technical and
vocational junior schools, 38 technical high schools and 4 senior
technical institutions (engineering colleges and research institutes).
Moreover, the schemes include the reorganisation and development
of 29 technical junior schools, 4 technical high schools and 11 senior
technical institutions.
Several other recommendations of the Scientific Man-Power
Committee also aim at the expansion of technical education facilities, such as, in the short-term programme, the organisation on a
co-operative basis, by the undertakings concerned and relevant
institutions (a total of 14), of intensive training courses in chemical
technology with a duration of 12 months, to be taken by students
with a Master degree, and the possible organisation of a two-shift
system of education in institutions where this is feasible.
Improvement of Technical Education Standards.
The problem of improving the standard of technical education
offered by the various technical institutions has not been overlooked
by the Council. The visiting committees calling on the main
institutions are open to receive all relevant data for a comparative study of teaching programmes and results. Moreover, as
has already been noted, the problem of the standardisation of
diplomas has been taken up by the special boards set up for six
branches of technical education.
Other factors are brought into play to induce institutions to
raise their teaching standards. On 29-30 May 1947 ' the second
session of the Council adopted a resolution on grants to be given
by the Central Government, which, if widely implemented, may
have the most favourable effect on the improvement of teaching
standards. The Council holds the view that financial grants should
be given directly to institutions whose expansion is desirable, the
grants being subject to the following conditions :
(a) The institutions must adopt a minimum standard of salaries
for teachers, the scale to be laid down by the Council. (This
condition is in line with the opinion expressed elsewhere by the
Council, namely, that the low salaries paid by technical education
institutions to the teachers impede the recruiting of qualified
Staff.)
(b) The institution must maintain such minimum standards of education as may be laid down by the Council.
(c) In the appointment of teaching staff, the institution must
1

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Pamphlet No. 48 :

Proceedings of the

Second Meeting of the All-India Council for Technical Education, held at
Bangalore on the 29th and 30th May, 1947 (New Delhi, 1948), p. 13.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

arrange to associate with the selection committee independent
experts in the subjects concerned, who must be approved by
the Council.
(d) The institution must agree to periodical inspections by the
Council's authorised representatives and render them every
assistance to enable them to report whether there is compliance
with the conditions laid down above.
More measures of great practical importance to the improvement
of technical studies were suggested by the Scientific Man-Power
Committee regarding the scientific and technical equipment of the
institutions. The Committee desired the immediate cancellation of
all import restrictions that may prevent this type of equipment
from being bought abroad, and a reduction of tariff duties on equipment of this type bought for technical training institutions.
Technical Training for Craftsmen.
The All-India Council for Technical Education has also made a
study of the facilities for the training of skilled workers and craftsmen.
The first session of the Council approved a scheme regarding the
implementation of a programme for systematic training of craftsmen
and urged upon the Government the necessity of carrying it out at
the earliest possible date. In principle, the Government has accepted
the recommendation and has begun consultations with provincial
Governments and the chief States with a view to ascertaining the
best way of using technical education institutions to that end. *
As this problem is related to the organisation of in-plant apprenticeship it is dealt with below.
In-Plant

Training

The Government of India points out that some facilities are
available for in-plant training through apprenticeship in organised
workshops, such as railways, ordnance factories, public utilities and
engineering industry (public and private undertakings). However,
the training, which generally lasts five years, is by no means systematic and the new recruit is left to learn what he can by working
with a more experienced worker. Theoretical education is provided
for the apprentices by the better organised workshops through
technical courses established in the plant itself or in local institutions.
Some of the undertakings insist on their apprentices signing an
indenture, but most of them have no apprenticeship contract. The
training is organised in their own way by the services or managements initiating it.
According to the survey of apprenticeship training facilities
available throughout the country, carried out in 1945 by the Department of Labour of the Government of India, there were 29,794
apprentices under training in the following assorted industries :
chemicals and dyes ; coach building and motor-car repairing ; aero1

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Pamphlet No. 48, op. cit., pp. 8 and 33.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

nautical engineering ; electrical engineering ; general engineering ;
food, drink and tobacco ; minerals and metals ; ordnance factories ;
paper and printing ; railways ; shipbuilding and docks ; skins and
hides ¡'textiles (cotton ; jute ; silk, wool, hosiery) ; wood, stone and
glass ; transport ; Government undertakings (others) ; miscellaneous.
The industries having the largest number of apprentices were the
railways (8,027) and mechanical engineering (5,639), while a very
small number of apprentices were under training in some industries
requiring highly skilled labour, such as motor-car repairing (377)
and printing (170).
The Government observes that, on the basis of a five-year course,
the annual output at the time of the survey was approximately
6,000 skilled workers, and that if the shortage of skilled craftsmen is
not to prove a bottleneck in the post-war development of Indian
industries, many more skilled workers will be required.
During the war, intensive training programmes were put into
execution in order to secure for the defence services and civil industries
engaged on war work the semi-skilled labour they required. The
scheme discussed below in section B of this chapter was intended for
the training of adults rather than juveniles. However, special provisions were made for the training of young persons as naval artificers for the Royal Indian Navy.
As previously stated, the Advisory Committee on Technical
Training, which was requested in 1944-1945 to draft proposals to meet
the requirements of the post-war period, took up the problem of
apprenticeship. After a careful consideration of existing conditions,
the Committee came to the conclusion that the best way of ensuring
a regular supply of skilled craftsmen to industry was through a
comprehensive and methodical system of apprenticeship ; but
since the bulk of the craftsmen who would give the instruction in
the workshop were illiterate, it appeared advisable that the apprentices should follow training courses in special training centres. The
Committee drew up a training programme 1 to be implemented on
a nationwide basis, with provision for two years' training at a
special centre and one and a half years' practical training in a factory.
The training at the centre is divided into two parts : six months for
basic training, the same for all allied trades, and eighteen months'
special training devoted to one specific trade. The trades selected
for the application of the programme — 22 in all — are divided
into two groups only, for the purpose of basic training. The special
courses for each trade include 12 hours' theoretical instruction
and 20 hours' practical education weekly. The programme was
drawn up to provide from the start training facilities for 4,608
workers in different provinces.
The first session of the All-India Council for Technical Education
approved the proposals of the Advisory Committee. The second
1
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR, Report of the
Advisory Committee on Technical Training, 1944-1945 : Training and
Apprenticeship of Craftsmen for Industry, Part II : " Syllabuses of
Training " (New Delhi, 1947).

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR

EAST

session l of the Council was deeply concerned with the fact that the
project did not come into being as fast as was desired. 2 It seems
that the consultations to be held with the provincial Governments
regarding the implementation of the project were a cause of delays,
and also the fear that new skilled workers might be trained at the
very moment when difficulties encountered in industrialisation
plans left quite a number of skilled or semi-skilled workers unemployed.
However, the Scientific Man-Power Committee again insisted
that the programme should be initiated without more delay. It
went further and even suggested that legislative action should be
taken to make it compulsory for undertakings to train more personnel
in their workshops and to include, provisions to that effect in the
contracts entered into by the Government for the purchase of
equipment. Lastly, the Committee emphasised the desirability of
ensuring that undertakings provide practical education facilities
for the trainees and graduates of technical schools, to enable them to
complete their training.
Indo-China
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
University Level.
According to the answers of the French Government to the
ECAFE questionnaire, covering the whole of the Indo-China Federation, the institutions shown in table IX possess technical training
courses at university level.
T A B L E IX.

SIZE OF FACULTY A N D N U M B E R OF S T U D E N T S AT S I X
UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS
Teaching stall
1941-1942

School

Science School
Higher Radio-Electrical
(opened only in 1947)
School of Public Works

Total

1941-1942

207

12
5

62
23

30
6

59
14

365

1948

School
30

Higher School of Agriculture and
Forestry

Number of students

•

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Pamphlet No. 48, op. cit., pp. 8 and 33.
SCIENTIFIC

MAN-POWER

pp. 4, 8, 13, 26 and 28.

COMMITTEE

: Interim Report, op. cit.,

SURVEY O F EXISTING

FACILITIES

The School of Fine Arts (59 students in 1941-1942) includes
lacquering among its courses, this being an important branch of
Indo-Chinese handicraft industry.
There are also research institutes especially for agriculture
(including forestry and fisheries), which, although they do not have
actual training courses proper, nevertheless offer certain facilities.
Among these institutions are : (a) the Oceanographical Institute in
South Annam, which renders services in prospecting for new fishing
grounds and in the organisation of fisheries and the improvement of
fish processing and canning ; (b) the Institute of Forestry Research
in Cambodia, now being restored, which also deals with the
technology of timber and pisciculture ; (c) the Rice Institute.
In the administrative field, the Faculty of Law has a statistical
course.
Furthermore, numerous possibilities exist for the continuation
of higher studies in France (scholarships, etc., described below). The
French higher technical institutions seem to be considered as the
normal place of study for students from Indo-Chinese technical
institutions seeking more advanced qualifications. For instance, in
a letter of 12 March 1948, addressed to ECAFE, the Government of
Cambodia stated that before the war Cambodian students utilised
the College of Hanoi in Tonkin for their more advanced studies, but
that now these students availed themselves of the higher training
facilities in France, since Cambodia possessed only institutions of
secondary level.
Secondary and Elementary

Levels.

The trends and developments of the technical education system
in Indo-China for training in industry, handicrafts and applied arts,
at both secondary and lower levels, is explained at length by the
French Government in its reply to the questionnaire. The main
stages in the evolution of the educational system since its establishment in 1900 are as follows.
A General Directorate of Education was set up in Indo-China by
a Decree of 2 March 1920, with vocational education as one of its
functions. However, at that time there was only one industrial
school in Hanoi which was supported out of Federation funds and
controlled by the General Directorate.
All other vocational
training establishments were financed and controlled by the
various territories of the Union. Until 1939 technical education
developed slowly, the policy followed being that of training
technicians for available jobs only and to pay little attention to
future economic requirements.
In 1939 a link was formed between the technical education system
and industry by the appointment of the Chief of Section for
Industrial and Ordnance Factories as adviser to the General Directorate of Education. In 1940 the development of this type of education gained ground mainly as a result of the establishment of a
Permanent Committee for Industrial Technical Education, which
included employers. Intensive training techniques began to develop

TABLE X.

Type of school

Technical schools :
Vocational courses
Handicraft schools
School workshops
Trade schools
Practical industrial schools .
Total

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS (INDUSTRIES AND HAN
AND SCHOOLS OF APPLIED ARTS, 1 9 4 5

Tonkin

Cochin China

Cambod

Annam

Schools Students Schools | Students Schools Students Schools St

6
1
4
1
1

500
200
330
350
100

1,480

33 *

900

100

14
1
Ia

250
150
150

1
1

50
150

1,450

300

280

—

Schools of applied arts :

1
2
8

Chiefly vocational courses attached to primary schools for boys and girls.
Severely damaged during the occupation.
School of local type usually called vocational.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

at this time and numerous special centres were opened, particularly
in Tonkin.
In 1941 the existing laws on technical education were consolidated
and revised. A measure of standardisation of educational curricula
resulted. In 1942 vocational training for applied arts was separated
administratively from technical education and became subject to
special inspection. A system of inspection of technical education was
organised in 1944 and its status was confirmed by a Decree of 26
January 1945.
Table X shows the situation existing in relation to technical
schools at 9 March 1945, when the Japanese seized power.
In all, there were thus 77 schools or courses for technical education and applied arts, with a total enrolment of approximately
3,800 students in 1945, as against 45 schools and courses with
2,400 students in 1939.
The statistics available for the beginning of 1945 do not contain
any information on the teaching staff, but it is interesting to note
in the educational records for the years 1940-1941 and 1941-1942
some details on the number of teachers engaged in technical education as compared with the total number of teachers in the country.
According to these statistics, out of 630 professors and members
of the European teaching staff in Indo-China in 1941-1942, there
were 18 teachers of technical education and 28 supervisors of training workshops, or 46 technicians in all. Out of 12,824 Indo-Chinese
teachers and instructors, there were 7 drawing teachers, 191
instructors and 14 supervisors of training workshops, or 202
technicians in all.
Technical, industrial and handicraft education. The organisation
of technical, industrial and handicraft education was on the
following lines.
The preparatory elementary grade includes vocational courses
and supplementary courses for apprentices, handicraft schools
and training workshops. Their purpose is to train apprentices or
give them supplementary training and to prepare students for
admission to industrial schools at both primary and secondary
levels. The period of study is from one to two years and leads to
the award of a certificate of pre-apprenticehip, handicraft apprenticeship or supplementary training.
The primary grade includes trade schools and preparatory sections
of technical schools for the training of skilled workers. The period of
instruction is from two to three years and results in the award of
a journeyman's certificate or a certificate of industrial apprenticeship.
The secondary grade includes practical industrial schools (with
special preparatory sections for the higher-grade schools in France*)
1

Out of 71 scholarships granted in 1946-1947 out of the Federal
Indo-Chinese budget to Indo-Chinese students to continue their studies
in France, 35 were granted for engineering or other industrial schools,
13 for agricultural schools, 20 for commercial schools and 3 for merchant
marine schools. Out of 47 loans granted in the same year, 28 were for
studies in the industrial field.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

and the senior sections of technical schools. Their purpose is to
train workshop superintendents or prepare students for entrance
to schools of the third grade in France. These studies take from
three to four years, with the grant of a diploma at the end.
Education in applied arts. The organisation of education in
applied arts is divided as follows.
There are no special institutions at an elementary or preparatory
level. The preparation may be taken in the training workshops
mentioned above.
The primary grade includes regional schools of applied arts in
Cochin-China, Cambodia and Tonkin, which train skilled workers
and craftsmen for artistic decorating work, particularly in furniture, ceramics, lacquering, metal engraving and lithography. The
duration of these studies is three years.
It is proposed to organise secondary grade schools. A senior
school of applied arts was to be opened at Hanoi, but its opening
has been delayed. Two years of additional training were proposed
for candidates selected from schools of primary grade.
From March 1945, restrictions imposed upon the supply of
raw materials and the difficulty of replacing the teaching staff did
not permit any further development of existing institutions. A
large number of these establishments suffered as a result of damage
to buildings, equipment and records. Plans for industrial rehabilitation and development have been approved and they were explained at length by the Government of France in its statement to
ECAFE.
Finally, several specialised courses for technical branches of
Government service should be mentioned. Among the more important are the School of Water and Forest Conservancy in Cambodia,
with courses lasting two years, and courses for training land surveyors and public works superintendents.
In-Plant

Training

Little information is available on in-plant training apart from
the fact that many of the first facilities of this kind were created in
Government workshops engaged in the repair or upkeep of machinery,
or by public bodies such as chambers of commerce. Although the
technical schools have developed, the training of manual workers in
the workshop is still the more common method, but it is rarely
applied in a systematic way such as could be considered a form of
apprenticeship. An exception must be noted in the case of certain
State workshops, such as those of the Naval Arsenal.
It should also be mentioned that apprenticeship is subject to
regulation under a Decree of 30 December 1936, though the regulations are rudimentary and do not establish specific standards.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

Indonesia
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

In reviewing the existing technical training facilities in Indonesia, it is important to take into account the new system of education proclaimed after the war, which lays stress on the needs of
the Indonesian peoples. The general plan for the grading of schools,
however, has remained more or less the same as in pre-war days,
though an effort is being made to enable the schools to develop a
national character of their own. Of the five points emphasised by the
Department of Education when outlining the new educational plan
for Indonesia, the two following 1 are particularly noteworthy in
the present connection :
(a) The new curriculum must recognise fully the new structure
of Indonesian society.
(b) Knowledge and skill must go hand in hand in the curriculum. Drawing and handicrafts for boys, domestic science fo r
girls and physical training for all are considered of great importanceTechnical Education in Schools
The Department of Education supervises all education and training plans. Curricula are determined by the central authority and
uniformity is further maintained by means of advice and suggestions.
University Level.
The University of Indonesia, re-established after the liberation
in 1945, provides research facilities and advanced vocational training in its Faculty of Economics at Macassar, the Faculty of Agricultural Science (including Forestry) and Veterinary Science at
Buitenzorg, and the Faculty of Technical Sciences at Bandoeng.
The last-mentioned faculty is further divided into departments of
public works, engineering, electricity, shipbuilding and industrial
chemistry.
The Agricultural College was established in 1940 when it became
impossible to obtain technical staff from the Netherlands. It
provides a five-year course and trains personnel for the Agricultural
Advisory Service and for laboratory work in experimental institutions.
Secondary Level.
As shown by a chart published in the official pamphlet cited
above, five types of schools are listed under secondary education :
vocational education for boys ; commercial education ; general
secondary education leading to classes preparatory to the uni1
Cf. A New System of Education for Indonesia, circulated by the
Information and Publicity Section of the Department of Education
(Batavia, Feb. 1948), p. 2.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

versity or institutes for the training of teachers ; schools for training
teachers for general education at all levels ; and vocational education
for girls. The age for secondary education is approximately from
12 to 19 years. In this survey we are concerned with the first two
types, which provide industrial and commercial vocational training
respectively.
Technical schools. There are three grades of technical education :
the technical school, the higher-grade technical school, and the
Technical College.
The technical schools, which give a two-year course, admit pupils
after six years' primary school education and train them to become
skilled workers such as turners, welders, carpenters and electromechanics. The pupils are required to devote three quarters of their
school hours to practical training in workshops. At the end of the
two-year course, selected students can proceed to a special additional course, which includes elementary teaching techniques, in
order to qualify as specialised teachers in technical schools.
The higher-grade technical schools, which also offer a twoyear course, admit boys of 14 years who have finished two years in
a secondary school and are recommended for vocational training
instead of continuing their general education. With their school
hours equally divided between theoretical instruction and practical
work, the pupils are trained for position's as foremen in house building, public works, and electricity.
The Technical College, which admits boys at 16 years of age who
have finished four years in a secondary school, provides training for
superintendents for public works and in mechanics, electricity and
chemistry. The training lasts three years, of which one is spent on
practical work.
In November 1947, according to the communication of the
Netherlands Government, there were 20 technical schools with an
enrolment of 2,600 students. Plans for considerably increasing
the number of technical schools have been drawn up.
Commercial schools. Like technical schools, commercial schools
are of three grades : commercial schools, higher commercial schools
and the Commercial College. The duration of their training and the
conditions for admission are similar to those for technical schools.
In the commercial schools pupils are trained to be managers of
retail shops or to carry on a handicraft. Besides receiving instruction in languages, bookkeeping, sociology and hygiene, the pupils
are given practical experience in salesmanship in a toko (shop)
or in a shop attached to the school when this is available. This type
of training is designed to meet the urgent need to develop an Indonesian commercial middle class, which hitherto has been composed
mainly of peoples of foreign origin.
The higher-grade commercial schools provide training for bookkeepers, clerks, secretaries in banks, trading companies and industrial undertakings, and for agents of commercial firms dealing witk

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

import, export and wholesale trade. An opportunity for gaining
practical experience is also given here.
The Commercial College trains pupils for administrative posts in
large or medium-sized commercial undertakings, co-operative societies and Government agencies.
Statistics.
In the absence of up-to-date figures concerning vocational education, those for the year 1941 l may be taken as illustrating the
efforts made by the Indonesian Government in pre-war days to
promote vocational training.
TABLE XI.

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, 1 9 4 1
Public

Type of education

Government

Private

Total

Other »

Total

74
97
4

14
448

88
646
4

30
77
1

118
622
6

175

462

637

108

745

Vocational, commercial and industrial :
Instruction in the vernacular . .
Total
1

Province, regency, municipality, self-governing State and local communities.

TABLE XII.

N U M B E R OF TEACHERS A N D P U P I L S , CLASSIFIED

NATIONALITY, 1941
Indonesians

Europeans

Other Asians All nationalities

Type of education
Teachers

Vocational, commercial and industrial:
Instruction in
Dutch
. . . .
Instruction in the
vernacular x . .
University
Total

Pupils

831

3,776

197
91

176
245

1,119

4,197

Teachers

128

Pupils

5,990

Teachers

Pnplls

Teachers

Pupils

23 1,822

982 11,588

757 26,532
19
637

6
15

147
364

960 26,855
125 1,246

904 33,159

44 2,333

2,067 39,689

1
Including courses in agriculture and commerce, at the universities, and the
numerous vernacular schools.

In-Plant

Training

No information is available as to conditions of apprenticeship,
and no steps would appear to have been taken by the State or by
employers to supervise or unify such conditions.
1
Statistical Pocket Book of Indonesia, 1941, published by the Central
Bureau of Statistics (Batavia, 1947), tables 30, 31 and 32.

TRAINING

PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

Japan
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Twice during the last decade national events have caused Japan
to make important changes in its vocational training system. The
first important change took place in 1939 and arose from the necessity to adapt the training system to war needs within the framework of the general mobilisation of the country's resources. Japan
is now undergoing new changes with a view to the economic and
social reorganisation of the country on a peacetime basis. From a
technical point of view, however, the wartime institutions left
behind some valuable experiences which will be available when new
training schemes are inaugurated.
In Japan, as in most other countries, juveniles can obtain their
vocational training by two roads : the school or the plant, farm or
office. However, to a greater degree than is the case in other Far
Eastern countries, the two roads are interconnected and, up to a
point, the two parallel systems make up a single, general programme.
The information summarised below, on the basis of documents
furnished to ECAFE, relates almost entirely to industrial training.
Despite various gaps, it has been considered desirable to include
it as giving some idea of the methods applied in a country which,
although not a member of ECAFE, is situated in the Far Eastern
region.
Technical Training in Schools
University Level.
Highly qualified technicians can find suitable means of education
in the scientific departments of various universities or colleges.
The universities are open to young people possessing a high school
diploma, at the conclusion of twelve years of elementary and secondary studies. 1 Admission is also open to graduates of junior industrial colleges and those who possess equivalent instruction. A
diploma is granted by the universities at the conclusion of three
years' study.
The junior industrial colleges, created in 1903, are open to graduates of middle schools who have completed the three first years
of secondary school education after six years of primary studies.
These colleges thus form an intermediary grade between middle
schools and universities. They possess technical courses of a more
practical character than those of the technical departments of
universities, namely, courses in mechanics, applied chemistry,
electricity, construction and various special courses. They train
in the main skilled production workers or workshop superintendents.
It is interesting to note that there are no barriers between these
practical studies and university courses ; a student may pass from
1
According to the new education system, which provides for six
years of elementary school, three years of middle school and three
years of high school.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

one grade to another if his ambition urges him to attain more than
mere practical knowledge by proceeding to a scientific course in the
university.
Secondary Level.
In virtue of a Decree of 1899, Japan possesses industrial middle
schools which offer training facilities in different trades and crafts
on the non-university level. They include trade schools, fishery
schools and schools for navigation and commerce. There are two
grades of schools, with three- and five-year courses.
Mixed Systems of Technical

Training

Two types of Japanese institutions may be considered in this
connection. They are characterised by collaboration between the
workshop and the school for the vocational training of juveniles.
Part-Time Education.
Among the former institutions were the youth schools, where
attendance was compulsory during the war. These schools, which
either had full-time or part-time courses, offered supplementary
technical education together with military and civil instruction to
youths already in employment. Attendance at these schools was
compulsory for youths between 12 and 19 years of age who were not
attending full-time schools. The duration of the courses varied in
accordance with the term and with the trainee's job. The schools
offered technical courses for various industries and commerce, as
well as for agriculture and for fisheries. The trainees were allowed
to attend these courses on a rotating basis, on certain days of the
week or for a certain number of hours a day. The full courses were
five years for boys and three years for girls, including a preparatory
course of two years. Furthermore, they offered a specialisation
course of one year's duration, which was not compulsory. Schools
of this type could be opened by prefectural or local authorities,
by chambers of commerce and industries, agricultural associations
and by private persons. Numerous factories opened such schools.
This system has now been terminated, but new institutions
carry on the technical work of these schools, their main tasks—
military and nationalistic—having been eradicated. The plants
may choose, according to the new School Education Act, 1947,
to open either what is called a part-time high school or a school
operated under the regulations applying to miscellaneous schools.
Part-time high schools will be opened in accordance with section
44 of the Education Act, which specifies that high schools may
have part-time night courses in addition to their regular courses.
The Act specifies further that schools having only part-time courses
may also be opened. At present a legal difficulty handicaps the
change-over of old schools opened by private undertakings to
schools of the new type. According to the new Act, schools cannot
be opened by private persons, this right being reserved to public
authorities and to public bodies of the type mentioned above.

TRAINING PROBLEMS

IN T H E FAR

EAST

Bodies corporate are also permitted to open such schools which
means that factories must acquire legal personality for this purpose.
Alternatively they could open a school of a lower grade, which can
be operated as a " miscellaneous school ", whose existence is authorised under section 63 of the new Act.
Private undertakings must respect the standards established
for high schools under the Act should they desire to open schools
of this type. These standards were set on 27 January 1948. According to a Decree of tliat date, candidates for admission to parttime high schools must first complete the senior middle school
course (three years), or they must present proof of equivalent instruction. Students in the youth schools may pass into the high schools
without taking any additional examination during the changeover period.
It is also provided that a minimum curriculum of studies may
be set up for part-time high schools, in accordance with the subject
of study.
The Ministry of Education has decided that these schools shall
provide courses corresponding to 85 " u n i t s " of education, comprising
general subjects, technical courses and practical work, as shown by
the following table :
Units
M

General subjects
Technical courses . . . .
Practical work
Total

Ä Ä

38
23-27
24-20
85

ComnWe

Needletrade

38
29
18
85

38
22
25
85

The practical part of this course may be undertaken by youths
who are not in employment by either of the two following means :
(1) through practical work in factories or commercial establishments outside school hours ; (2) through practical work at the
school, provided it is on a production basis and not only a practical
exercise. For workers in employment, regular work in the factory,
shop or office where they are employed may take the place of practical training provided that the work is related to their school course.
The completion of 2,975 school-hours is required for the award
of a diploma. This diploma has the same value as that given after
three years of study in senior technical schools. In the case of parttime schools the period of instruction is not determined. The students may arrange their own programme on the basis of four years
of education with 700 hours of study a year, or five years of education with 600 hours of study a year. Students may carry on their
studies for a greater number of years with a proportionately smaller
amount of school hours every year. They are free to abandon their
studies or to take up only a few of the courses. In such cases they
receive no diploma, but simply a certificate indicating the courses
they have followed and the number of units of education they have
completed.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

Management

FACILITIES

Training for Graduates.

Another system of combining school education with practical training, which has not been regulated by law but which was applied
extensively during the war and is still in use in certain establishments,
consists of special schemes of management training in factories,
mines or offices for graduates of industrial colleges or universities.
After a period of such systematic training—one year in the case
of the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Company—the young graduate
receives a better job on the staff than he would normally obtain
without such training.
In the following paragraphs on in-plant training, as well as in
section B on the training and retraining of adult workers, mention
is also made of the Japanese training schemes in which the factory
to a large extent takes the place of the school in order to give its
employees a greater measure of theoretical and practical instruction.
In-Plant Training
This type of training in Japan is provided both on a long-term
and on a short-term basis. The various training schemes have undergone important changes during the past few years.
Apprenticeship.
There is still to be found in Japan in the smaller workshops the
archaic form of apprenticeship under which a young worker serves
his employer for years as a servant or workman for little or no pay
rather than as a pupil. This method has fallen into disfavour and
two successive laws have been passed in order to eradicate exploitation and replace this method of employment by a modern system
of in-plant training.
The first Apprenticeship Ordinance, passed in 1939 and now
repealed, was based on the General Mobilisation Act and required
all industrial and mining undertakings to take all necessary measures for the training of a skilled labour force for war industries.
The regulations applied to all factories employing more than 200
workers of over 16 years of age, as well as to all factories having
from 50 to 200 workers in the branches of industry specially designated by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Over 20 industrial branches
were specified by the Ministry, and as time passed other branches
were added to the list. From 4 to 6 per cent, of the labour force
were to be trained under this system. In principle, the apprenticeship period was to last three years, but could be reduced to two
years. The results obtained from this system during the years 1939
to 1944, according to Ministry of Labour Statistics, are given in
table X I I I .
The post-war regulations on apprenticeship were included in the
Labour Standards Act, No. 49, of 7 April 1947, and define the conditions to be observed in the vocational training of an apprentice
under a contract freely concluded with the employer. Plants are
now no longer compelled to operate an apprenticeship system.

TRAINING PROBLEMS

TABLE XIII.

Year

1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944

IN THE FAR

APPRENTICESHIP,
No. of establishments having an
apprenticeship
system

1,095
1,462
1,597
1,520
1,544
1,773

EAST

1939-1944

No. of persons
entered into
apprenticeship

No. of workers
having completed
training

33,689
52,995
58,670
85,603
105,269
97,650

943
31,921
39,844
126,669

Employers who wish to undertake the training of apprentices are
required to obtain the authorisation of the appropriate authorities,
to report to them the engagement of any apprentice and to conform
to the conditions laid clown by law.
Exploitation of apprentices is forbidden, as well as their employment on tasks which have no relation to the trade in which they
are apprenticed. Trades covered by the apprenticeship system are
to be designated by a special Ordinance, which will also define the
qualifications required of the employer, the duration of the apprenticeship contract, the methods of training, the length of the working
day, the minimum wages to be paid and the dangerous and unhealthy occupations on which an apprentice may not be employed.
Apprentices are entitled by law to twelve days of annual leave with
pay.
A committee composed of representatives of employers,
workers and the public must be consulted in the preparation of
the Ordinances for the administration of these regulations.
By Ordinance No. 6, dated 31 October 1947, the Ministry of
Labour specified 15 trades to which these regulations on apprenticeship are to be applied. Numerous other trades were added to this
list by other ordinances. In July 1948, 47 trades, divided into
six categories, were listed, with an exact definition of all processes
to be covered by apprenticeship. The duration of the apprenticeship
period is generally fixed at three years ; six trades require four
years of training : metal engraving, lacquering, hand weaving, lens
grinding, mechanics (precision instruments) and skilled printing
(maps, banknotes, etc.). The qualifications required of the person
undertaking the training are also defined : he must have had a
minimum period of practical experience following the completion
of one of the programmes of technical training in the trade he
proposes to teach, namely, ten years' practice after the completion
of an apprenticeship based on traditional custom, or five years after
completion of courses in an industrial middle school (which may be
replaced by a corresponding programme in factories), or three years'
experience if he is a graduate of a university or college or has
followed a corresponding programme in a factory (see below, section
B of this chapter).

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

Except where a period of one year is authorised by individual
permit, the apprenticeship period may not exceed the prescribed
duration for the trade, which is three years in most cases, four
years in a few. A trial period of one month is permitted.
It is further stipulated that the employer must establish the
apprenticeship scheme along the lines laid down by the Ministry.
However, these regulations had not been published by July 1948.
At that date only 20 plants had applied for authorisation to organise apprenticeship schemes.
Part-Time Technical Studies.
This system, which combines school instruction and practical
work in the factories, has already been explained. It should be
noted, however, that if the factory organises its own technical
school, the over-all scheme is developed within the framework of
the factory.
Management Training for Graduates.
These schemes have also been explained under the head of
mixed schemes. They are undertaken in factories in addition to
school study.
Korea x
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Since the repatriation of Japanese nationals in 1945, one of the
major tasks of the United States Army Military Government in
Korea has been to train and recruit technical personnel to fill the
large gap left by the Japanese, who formed 80 per cent, of the
managers and technicians in factories and 65 per cent, of the engineers and technicians in mining undertakings. Some progress has
been made in increasing the number of specialists in key industries. This has been accomplished in the first place through a policy
of " Koreanisation ", that is, handing over the responsibility of
management to Koreans ; secondly, through the intensification of
a training scheme for technical personnel under a Technological
Board ; and, lastly, through recruitment of American experts in
particular fields. The problem is still a long way from being solved.
Technical Education in Schools
University Level.
Of the 23 universities and colleges listed, with a total student
body of 13,417 and a teaching staff of 1,335 (January 1947), only
three, namely, Kun Kook Technical School, Chong-Ju College of
1
This summary is prepared from information on technical training
furnished by the National Economic Board, U.S. Army Military Government in Korea (Seoul, Oct. 1947).

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Commerce and Taegu College of Agriculture, offer industrial, commercial and agricultural vocational training, as their names indicate. Their total enrolment in January 1947 was 743 students.
Among the other 20, 10 are outside the present field of survey, but
it can be presumed that in the 10 universities and colleges whose
nature is not indicated by their titles, some courses are available
in industrial, commercial and agricultural subjects.
Secondary Schools.
Of the 172 junior secondary schools for pupils of the 7th, 8th and
9th grades, 91 are vocational, including 64 for agriculture, 2 for
fisheries, 6 for technology and 19 for commerce. Their total enrolment in June 1947 was 17,571, and the number who graduated in
October 1946 was estimated at 1,627.
Of the 218 senior secondary schools for pupils of the 10th, 11th
and 12th grades, 100 are vocational, including 53 for agriculture,
4 for fisheries, 19 for technology and 24 for commerce. Their total
enrolment in June 1947 was 54,983. There were no graduates for
the year 1946-1947 as the secondary schools are in process of changing
from a four-year to a six-year programme.
As to the 12 schools of higher grade, the statistics are not entirely
reliable, because of difficulties of communication and a recent
change-over from the old Japanese system to the American system.
As far as can be ascertained, however, there are 1 for fisheries, 3 for
agriculture, 2 for technology and 6 for commerce. Their total enrolment in June 1947 was 3,277 and the number of graduates in 19461947 was 325.
The total enrolment of students in agricultural and fisheries
schools of all three grades was 38,005, in commercial schools 20,674
and in technical schools 17,152. Similarly, in respect of the number
of schools in each category, agriculture, with 120, heads the list.
Next come commerce with 49, technology with 27 and fisheries
with 7. In the case of all four subjects, the enrolment of students
in the senior secondary schools greatly outnumbers that in the other
two grades.
Under the Japanese régime no co-ordination was achieved between the activities of these technical schools and the industrial
training programme. Even today the extent to which such co-ordination can be achieved has still to be seen, as 90 per cent, of the
courses provided by the Technological Training Board for its programme, covering nearly 20,000 technical personnel, will not be
carried out through the technical schools.
In-Plant

Training

There is no indication as to whether the various types of inplant training described below are provided exclusively for young
persons or for adults ; most probably they are mixed courses for
both groups. In any case, practical training is so much emphasised
that formal school education is either non-existent or occupies
only a negligible part of the programme.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

Factory Schools.
Under the Japanese régime, all factories of a certain size were
required to set up a training school on their premises. As a result,
all larger industries possess facilities for training on the job, though
these are now in a rundown condition. With the repatriation in
1945 of the Japanese engineers, foremen and technicians who formed
the teaching staff, these schools have ceased to function. In their
place, the South Korea Interim Government, at a cost of two million
won, has arranged to set up a short-term technological training
programme in which these training facilities will be fully utilised.
Apprenticeship

Programme.

No formal apprenticeship programme exists, but it is true to
say that in many industries informal apprenticeship training has
been widespread.
A technological training scheme serving both young and adult
trainees is described in section B of this chapter.
Malayan Union
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
Present

Situation.

According to information supplied to ECAFE by the Malayan
Government in August 1948, the existing training facilities on the
higher level 1 are the following : for industry, the Technical College ;
for agriculture, the College of Agriculture, the Forestry Research
Institute, the Timber Research Laboratory and the Forest School ;
for commerce, a certain number of trade schools.
The Forestry Research Institute and the Timber Research Laboratory, although research rather than training institutions, nevertheless
offer a limited amount of instruction. 2 The Forest School gives a
relatively elementary type of instruction in the vernacular languages.
Plans for Development.
As regards industrial training, the establishment of a larger
Technical College is planned for the near future, in order to extend
training facilities in civil engineering, telecommunication, electrical
and mechanical engineering, surveying and mining.
1
There is no indication as to whetner students at these institutions
qualify for a university degree or for a lesser diploma.
2
The Government also states that the Government departments
covering the economic field are staffed for the most part by officers with
high professional or technical qualifications, among them an increasing
number of Malays who received their training in the United Kingdom
or elsewhere, more especially Australia, India and the United States,

TRAINING PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

As regards the sciences allied to agriculture, two projects are
contemplated for the establishment of training institutions for
veterinary science and. fisheries.
When the proposed plan for opening the University of Malaya
materialises, there should be a substantial increase in the technical
training facilities available. It will be some years, however, before
the project is completed.
In-Plant

Training

No information is available.
Pakistan 1
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The Pakistan Government states in its reply that the existing
facilities for technical education are extremely inadequate, both in
relation to the current needs of Pakistan and to the plans of economic
development and reconstruction which it is contemplating. Pakistan
has established a Council of Technical Education to advise the authorities on the problem of technical training. This Council met in June
1948 and appointed two committees, one to prepare a comprehensive
scheme for the development of technical education for the whole of
Pakistan, and the other to consider the provision of training facilities
for animal husbandry, including veterinary subjects, as well as for
higher post-graduate and research training in special branches of
agricultural science. These committees have not yet completed
their tasks.
The Government complains that its main difficulties are lack of
equipment and a shortage of trained staff.
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
University Level.
There are three engineering colleges—at Karachi, Lahore and
Dacca—providing courses of degree standard in civil, mechanical
and electrical engineering. The Dacca college provides, in addition,
courses in agricultural, textile and chemical engineering. The duration of the courses is three and a half years at the Karachi college
and five years at the Dacca and Lahore colleges. This period includes
practical training for two years for the students of the Lahore
college, and one year for students of the Dacca college. The minimum qualification for admission to all three colleges is intermediate
science with mathematics. The Forman Christian College at Lahore,
which is a pure science college, offers a post-graduate course in
industrial chemistry for those who are qualified as Bachelor of Science
with honours in chemistry. Four candidates are taken every year.
1

Summary, supplied by EC AFE, of information received from the
Government of Pakistan on 12 Oct. 1948 (see above, p. 23).

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

There is an agricultural college at Lyallpur offering courses of
Bachelor of Science and Master of Science standard in agriculture.
It takes 80 students every year. There are also short-term courses
for the children of agriculturists and for teachers of agriculture.
There are two colleges of commerce, one at Karachi and the other
at Lahore. The Karachi college offers a Bachelor of Commerce
course and takes 125 students every year, and the Lahore college
offers Bachelor of Commerce and Master of Commerce courses
and takes 69 students every year.
Secondary Level.
There are 8 senior technical institutions offering courses of
diploma standard. The duration of courses varies from three to four
years, and the qualification for admission is matriculation. There
are also 19 junior technical institutions giving training in blacksmithing, carpentry, weaving, dyeing, automobile mechanics and
other engineering and industrial trades. The duration of these courses
varies from one to two years, and the minimum qualification for
admission is a knowledge of some English and of a vernacular
language.
In-Plant Training
There appears to be no specific provision as yet for in-plant
training or for State-controlled apprenticeship.
The Philippines
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
Before the beginning of the war in the Pacific, the Philippines
possessed an important network of institutions for technical education, many of which suffered serious damage as a result of the
war, necessitating after liberation an energetic effort with a view to
their restoration. This restoration has not yet been completed,
although the Department of Education, and in particular its Division of Vocational Training, has striven not only to repair war
damage, but also to develop the institutions and improve their
curricula and methods of teaching, as a part of the general planning
of economic reconstruction and development.
University Level.
The Government of the Philippines, in the information presented
to ECAFE in reply to the questionnaire of 1947, includes among its
institutions for technical education at university level, not only the
Lechnical courses of the University of the Philippines, but also
senior courses at three national arts and trades schools, the National
Agricultural School and the School of Commerce. In addition there
are courses at private schools, the total number of which is not

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

indicated. Information is available, however, concerning the number of students classified by subject. Table XIV shows the number
of students for the second semester of 1946-1947 in technical training institutions, both public and private, according to occupational
groups, with the number of graduates as shown at the time the
information was obtained.
TABLE XIV. NUMBER OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES IN INSTITUTIONS
OF UNIVERSITY GRADE, CLASSIFIED BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS, 1 9 4 7

Institutions

University departments .
Senior courses in national schools .
Private schools
Total
Total for State institutions . . .

Industry
and similar
activities

Agriculture,
forestry, etc.

Commerce and
office work

Students

Graduates

Students

Graduates

Students

Graduales

410
164
6,103
6,677
574

313
36
60
409
349

42
33

30
115
7,052
7,197
145

•

The table shows that the contribution of private schools to the
training of technicians is substantial, particularly in the fields of
industry and commerce. Nevertheless, although a number of these
schools, such as the Institute of Technology in Manila, are of a
recognised senior scholastic level, it is possible that the number of
students in this group may have been swollen by the addition of
middle school students since according to the statistics no private
school was included in the classification for institutions at " nonuniversity level "—not even schools of commerce, although the
large number of students in these latter schools seems to indicate
the existence of courses for practical instruction.
University studies normally last four years.
The Government of the Philippines mentions that opportunity
for taking advanced courses suitable for the training of technicians
is available in various research institutions, namely, the Bureau of
Aeronautics, the Bureau of Science, the Bureau of Mines and the
National Development Company.
Non-University

Grade.

The information available in respect of institutions at nonuniversity grade gives the number of registered students in existing
schools during the last two school-years (1946-1947 and 1947-1948),
and thus shows the progress of technical training since the restoration
of training facilities (see table XV). These schools are divided, on the
basis of the responsible administrative authority, into national,
provincial and municipal schools. The Department of Education
controls the whole system and grants subsidies to foster the development of local teaching facilities.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

TABLE XV. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS OF NON-UNIVERSITY
GRADE, CLASSIFIED BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS, 1 9 4 6 - 1 9 4 8
Industry
Administrative
authority

Commerce

No. of No. of students No. of No. of No. of No. of
schools 1946-47J1947-48 schools students schools stndents
1947-48
1946-47

3
Provincial
Agricultural schoolsl . .
Rural schools1

Agriculture

1,111
7,796

1,471
7,908

23 2
28
2

739
8,907 10,118

2,062

12 a
9

4,016
3,693

9,771

149

In the provincial agricultural schools, a distinction is drawn between "agricultural"
schools and " r u r a l " schools. The first group are boarding schools, while rural schools
take the children of neighbouring farmers as day pupils.
2
One of the provincial schools in each group is still being restored, so that the number
of schools actually in operation is 22 and 11 for Industry and agriculture respectively.
Moreover, many of the schools suffer from a lack of equipment.

The three national industrial schools are known as schools of arts
and trades and the provincial schools as trade schools. Their courses
last four years, the first two years being devoted to subjects of
general education, nameiy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, mechanical drawing and practical elementary exercises in workshops.
The last two years are devoted to specialisation in one of the following
branches : auto-mechanics, general metal work, practical electricity,
cabinetmaking, building, draughtsmanship.
Courses in marine
engineering and diesel engineering are also taken in the national
schools. Facilities for specialisation in other trades are not available
owing to shortage of funds.
Two municipal schools were recently created and are of an
essentially practical character. They accept students from 14 to
16 years of age, in possession of an elementary school certificate
(obtained after two years at a middle school, i.e., after six years
of schooling). These two schools train skilled workers, who are
awarded a diploma at the end of four years. The first two years are
devoted mainly to theoretical studies, while the two following
years are devoted to practical work in the workshops, under
conditions resembling as closely as possible those operating in a
factory. These schools also accept students requiring practical
training in one of the trades or crafts included in the curriculum,
namely carpentry and cabinetmaking, automobile repairs, metal
work, practical electricity, chemical industry, or, for girls, the needle
trades and hairdressing. The training is carried on as far as possible
on an actual production basis, the students receiving 50 per cent, of
the resulting profits.
In the agricultural schools, the same principle is applied, but
here the students receive an even larger share (70 per cent.) of the
profits. The schools attempt to develop and improve the goods
they produce as much as possible, so that they are almost selfsupporting, apart from teaching expenses. In the national schools

TRAINING PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

the education is free. In the provincial schools, however, school
fees may be charged, but owing to the participation of students in
the profits, these fees are in effect negligible and the attendance
is very high.
The subjects covered include animal husbandry and dairy work
as well as agriculture and gardening. Methods of farm management comprise a part of the curriculum of the larger schools, and
increasing importance is attached to mechanised cultivation, with
courses for the maintenance and repair of modern machinery.
Moreover, a Government-owned agency, the Agricultural Machinery
and Equipment Corporation, has organised a special school for
training workers in the maintenance of this kind of equipment (see
section B of this chapter).
A notable feature is the high proportion of girls in the agricultural schools. In 1947-1948 over one third of the students were
girls (3,306 girls out of a total of 9,771 students). The proportion of
girls in trade schools is lower but even then not negligible, namely,
781 out of a total of 10,118 in 1947-1948.
In-Plant Training
According to information furnished by the Government of the
Philippines, long-term training of skilled workers through apprenticeship, which prevailed under the Spanish régime and in the early
days of the American occupation, slowly disappeared with the
development of modern industry, which mainly requires semiskilled labour. The system now in vogue is to give preliminary
training to new workers who have little or no experience of the
particular job by means of training courses lasting two to three
months, and then to assign them to a specialised job. For highly
technical work, those who have had training in technical schools
are preferred.
Siam
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
According to statistics published by the Siamese Ministry of
Education, 180 schools in 1946 and 176 schools in 1947, with a
teaching personnel of 1,180 and 1,238 respectively, possessed courses
of vocational training at various levels.
Table XVI below shows the number of trainees taking vocational
courses, according to sex and level of education.
It is interesting to note the fairly high enrolment of girl students
at the senior technical schools, although the number is much smaller
than the corresponding number for courses in literature, natural
science or medicine. The high proportion of girls taking technical
studies in the elementary schools is explained by the large number
of homecraft schools (where dressmaking is also taught), which are
included among the vocational schools. There are approximately
200 such schools, with a total of over 2,000 students.

SURVEY OF EXISTING
TABLE XVI.

FACILITIES

NUMBER OF TRAINEES, CLASSIFIED BY SEX AND LEVEL

OF EDUCATION, 1946-1947
1946

Vocational schools

Higher . . .
Secondary . .
Elementary .
Total . . .
Grand total

1947

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

2,042
255
2,888

516
8
1,557

2,025
337
3,864

446
112
2,842

2,081

6,226

5,185

3,399
9,625

7,266

The statistics available do not make it possible to supply a
classification showing both the standards in operation and the
occupations in which training is carried on in these schools. It is
therefore impossible to show the number of industrial, agricultural
and commercial schools at each level, or the number of students in
each such group. The following table, covering 1946 and 1947,
shows the number of registered students in each of the three main
categories of study :
TABLE XVII.

NUMBER OF STUDENTS REGISTERED FOR VOCATIONAL

COURSES, 1946-1947
Year

1946
1947

Industry
and related
activities

Agriculture

Commerce
and foreign
language studies

Total

4,515
7,009

1,016
1,085

1,755
1,531

7,286
9,625

In the industrial group, where there was a substantial increase
in the number of students enrolled between 1946 and 1947, the
number of students in training in the different trades or crafts was
as follows :
Engineering
Metalwork
Blacksmithing
Construction
Carpentry
Boat building
Woodwork
Leathsrwork
Weaving
Tailoring
Needle trades
Hairdressing
Miscellaneous crafts
Carving
Total

1946

1947

172
19
57
164
1,618
14
554
91
343
71
1,123
100
187
12_
4,515

251
78
61
268
2,434
14
789
93
424
104
2,082
147
260
24_
7,009

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

It will be seen that technical training in the engineering trades,
as well as in blacksmithing and metalwork, occupies a very small
place in industrial and handicraft training taken as a whole. Only
248 students in 1946 and 380 in 1947 registered for training in
these trades, or in both years only 5.4 per cent, of the total number
of students enrolled in industrial schools.
Most of the trainees are interested in carpentry and handicrafts.
Even with the exclusion of weaving and leatherwork, which in
Siam are still carried out mainly by handicraft processes, the total
numbers of trainees in handicrafts (last five items in the table) were
1,493 and 2,607 for 1946 and 1947 respectively, or 33 per cent, and
38.6 per cent, of the total enrolment in all industrial schools. The
progress achieved in the field of vocational training between 1946
and 1947 was thus greater in respect of handicraft trades than in
that of modern industrial techniques.
The organisation of technical studies at the different levels is
as follows.
University Level.
The University of Bangkok possesses a scientific department, in
which requirements for admission are twofold : possession of a high
school certificate and success in the entrance examination.
A four-year course is necessary for a degree of Bachelor in Engineering. The first two years are devoted to general subjects :
mathematics, physics and chemistry. The next two years are spent
in the engineering department. The student can specialise in one
of four subjects : electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, civil
engineering or mineralogy. Few facilities are available for postgraduate studies in the University. The Government encourages
its nationals to take up university studies abroad in order to promote the development of the national economy by increasing the
number of highly skilled technicians.
Secondary Level.
Bangkok has a School of Engineering, which maintains a standard
intermediate between courses provided at the secondary and university levels. It holds 270 students. Those taking the entrance
examination must have completed at least two years at a secondary
school. The course takes three years and covers various branches of
engineering : lathe work, grinding, assembling and fitting, electrical wiring, repair of motor cars, etc. Practical work in the workshops is an important part of the course. Other technical schools
of this type have a more modest curriculum.
Elementary Level.
A certain number of vocational schools, mainly handicraft
schools, do not require the possession of a secondary school certificate to qualify for admission to entrance examinations, but only
an elementary school certificate. Entrance examinations are required by all these schools.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

Technical education in schools at all the above levels is not free,
but school fees are fairly low.
In-Plant

Training

The bulk of workers are trained on the job. This type of training is wholly empirical. No measures have been taken to control
the conditions of apprenticeship and, in view of the small extent
of industrialisation, it seems unlikely that private firms will
voluntarily undertake some standardisation of training methods.
According to the first census of industrial establishments, which
was carried out in 1947-1948 in the Bangkok region and covered
22 branches of industry, there was a total of 15,678 workers and
1,165 plants, or an average of 13 workers per plant. A census taken
in the provinces would probably show a still weaker industrial
concentration, mainly because of the lack of electrification, which
means that any machinery used is operated mainly by animal- or
man-power.
Singapore
PRE-EMPLOYMENT TRAINING OF JUVENILES

Technical Education in Schools
The information given in reply to the ECAFE questionnaire
is summarised below.
Institutions of University Grade.
There are no facilities at the present time, but the establishment
of a University College is under consideration. Facilities in the
Malayan Union for research in rubber, agriculture and forestry and
veterinary science may be utilised.
Institutions of Non-University Grade.
There is a Government Trade School, under the Director of Education of Singapore, with a student body of 70. Courses are held in
motor and domestic engineering, as well as radio. In 1947 the Raffles
College included a scientific department with 47 students. Facilities in the Agricultural College and Technical College in the Malayan
Union are also available.
In-Plant

Training

Three Government departments have organised training systems for their technical staff. The Telecommunications Department runs a course of apprenticeship in connection with the Technical College of the Malayan Union. The Public Works Department supplements the instruction received in the Technical College
by providing one year's practical training on the job. It also trains
apprentices in the local head drawing office for architectural quantity
6

TRAINING PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

surveying and engineering design. The Public Utilities Department
(gas, electricity and municipal services) gives practical in-service
training. Further theoretical training is obtained by the trainees
in night classes, and the fees involved are paid by the Singapore
Municipality.
Some commercial firms, including the Singapore Harbour Board
and the United Engineers, have their own apprenticeship schemes.

B. Training and Retraining of Adult Workers
Apart from the few upgrading courses organised before
the war, which were in most cases due to the initiative of municipal authorities or private organisations, the development of
vocational training or retraining schemes for adult workers in
the Far East has taken place in the last eight years, under the
pressure of wartime requirements. The report on the training
of technical personnel submitted to the second session of
ECAFE 1 and the report on labour policy in general in the Asian
countries submitted to the Preparatory Asian Regional Conference of the International Labour Organisation 2 contain detailed
information on the organisation of such schemes in China and
India. While a repetition of this information here has been
avoided, an indication is given, in respect of all the countries
for which such particulars are available, of the results obtained
from the wartime programmes, since they produced a trained
labour force whose value is by no means negligible in the
peacetime economy. But it is the existing schemes and their
methods that call for more detailed consideration.
In Ceylon, China, India, Korea and the Philippines, and
also in Japan, the wartime schemes served as an experiment on
a vast scale, the lessons from which endure even after the
schemes themselves have been completed. Since they were
drawn up with the assistance of more highly industrialised
countries, they made possible the rapid adoption of teaching
methods that were entirely new to the Far East.
It will be recollected that it was during the period of
depression between the two World Wars that the policy of organi Document E/CN.ll/40, 27 Oct. 1947, pp. 7-9.
* Op. cit., pp. 128-130.

SURVEY OF EXISTING FACILITIES

ising reconditioning and retraining courses for workers whose
physique and staying power had deteriorated as a result of long
periods of unemployment, and whose skills were no longer
marketable, was adopted in a number of western countries
—notably in Great Britain and France. Both adults and juveniles were covered. In these conditions a strong impetus was
given to the development of concentrated short-term training
programmes, a technique which proved of great value both in
the second World War and in the subsequent period of readjustment to peacetime conditions. Examples falling into the latter
category are those carried out on a wide scale in India and
Korea and, on a narrower scale, in China and Japan. Even when,
as in Ceylon and the Philippines, it was not deemed necessary to
keep most of these schemes in operation, the possibility remains
of drawing on past experience when the need becomes more
keenly felt than at the present time.
The country-by-country analysis of existing conditions
divides training schemes for adults into four main categories,
although there is in fact some overlapping.

UPGRADING

COURSES

Under this heading have been classified the schemes whose
main object—primarily a social one—is to improve the worker's
prospects of promotion. From the economic point of view they
serve to improve the qualifications of the existing labour force
and, consequently, to improve production. They also serve the
purpose of specialising certain groups in particular skills in their
own field. It is possible that a great number of schemes of this
type have been overlooked, since the available material is
incomplete. In no country of the ECAFE region is there any
scheme organised on a national basis comprising broad vocational
categories, and the communications received by ECAFE from
member Governments rarely mention them. As a rule the scope
of the schemes is restricted.
Some of the upgrading courses are organised on a full-time
basis ; others are on a part-time basis only and are for the
benefit of workers already in employment. The courses designed
primarily to improve the worker's chances of promotion are
generally evening courses and can be taken outside working

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

hours. But some of those organised primarily with a view to
improving production also operate on a part-time basis.
It not infrequently happens that upgrading courses are a
continuation of a special basic training programme. This is the
case in China, where advanced specialisation courses are organised by the Ministry of Industries and Commerce, which
are attended by persons selected from among the best students
graduating from the apprenticeship courses set up by the same
Ministry ; and in Ceylon, where " special apprenticeship "
courses are organised by several Government technical services.
In some cases evening classes are organised by a technical
school as a supplement to its normal courses (Ceylon, Philippines). More frequently, however, they are due to municipal
initiative, or else they are set up by private social welfare
organisations, such as the YMCA and YWCA. By way of
example, those organised by the Shanghai Municipality, which
lead to a certificate after four years of study, are analysed
below.
Some upgrading or specialisation courses are organised by
industrial firms, sometimes as a continuation of a basic programme—for instance, in China, in respect of the courses
operated by the National Agricultural Engineering Corporation
(NAEC). An investigation conducted in Japan in 1947 showed
a fairly high number of upgrading courses operating on a parttime or full-time basis in factories and mines.
Particular attention should be paid to the courses included
under the present heading which are intended to give farmers
the requisite knowledge of the use of mechanised agricultural
equipment and to train maintenance staff for the care of such
equipment (China, Ceylon, Philippines).
Though there is a permanent need for upgrading courses—or,
perhaps, just because the need is permanent, so that they lack
the attention attracted by more urgent needs—they do not seem
to receive in all the countries under consideration, sufficient
encouragement to attain widespread development.

RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Courses for retraining adult workers were numerous throughout the region, particularly during the war. Such courses as
were readapted to meet the requirements of peacetime economy

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FACILITIES

were intended for the readjustment to civilian life of ex-service
men in Ceylon and in India, and also, in the latter country, for
the resettlement of displaced persons. Special courses to meet
the needs of the repatriated were also set up in Japan.
In Korea, with the help of American technicians, the Interim
Government organised immediately after the liberation a large
number of technical training schemes, particularly short-term
courses, in order to give the Koreans some technical qualifications, since very few opportunities for training in skilled trades
had been afforded them during the Japanese occupation.
In some Far Eastern countries retraining courses were
organised for the unemployed, in connection with unemployment
funds (Ceylon) or through the employment offices (China, Japan).
In Japan such courses were organised on a wide scale ; in China
the principle has been recognised, but so far has not been widely
implemented. As all these courses must take due account of
the situation on the employment market at any time, the type
of instruction offered has to be revised periodically.
Retraining courses for adult workers cover a wide range of
trades and they differ from one country to another, since the
training given in each instance must follow national, regional
and even local requirements. In Japan, no less than 45 types of
trades are included in the schemes and almost as many are listed
in Korea. In India, also, the types of education differ widely.
Besides the techniques of modern industry, handicrafts here, as
in Ceylon, play an important part. Needless to say, the full
range of trades in any given scheme is not covered in each
training centre.
In every case the selection of courses is subject to a survey
of requirements and possibilities, of the needs of the local
economy, as well as of the population groups which are likely
to attend a centre. From the practical point of view, also, the
availability of instructors is a matter which must be taken into
account, though this should not be a determining factor in
making the selection when other considerations are adverse.
Finally, the location of the centres must fit in with the over-all
scheme.
Though all these schemes are called " short-term " schemes,
their duration varies considerably. In India they generally
last twelve months and in Japan six months. In Korea the duration varies widely according to the technique involved, ranging
from two weeks to six months, the usual period being three or

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

six months. For reasons both of economy and of a rapid output of trained personnel, it is obviously desirable to reduce the
duration of the teaching period to the minimum by the adoption
of carefully studied techniques designed to promote this end.
It has proved difficult, at times, to make the adult population for whom the courses are intended realise the benefits that
accrue from them. In India, according to the statistics for May
1948 given below, it can be seen that, in spite of the great
number of refugees to whom the facilities have been made
available, the adult training centres were not used to more than
70 per cent, of their capacity. The problem is one with which
organisers of training centres are well acquainted, also in western
countries. Intensive propaganda is necessary before the opening
of the centres in order that the minds of those for whom they
are intended may be receptive to the underlying ideas.

RETRAINING OF DISABLED PERSONS

"War disablement has enormously increased the number of
workers who can no longer carry on their old trade because of
physical disabilities. Nevertheless such workers often still
possess sufficient physical capacity to make it possible for them
to adapt themselves to another occupation. Courses of technical
training based on special, carefully studied methods have
proved helpful in the vocational rehabilitation of the disabled.
The selection of the types of occupations for which the training
should be organised is of special importance.
Courses of this nature are still rare in Far Eastern countries,
and, except in Japan, they have been strictly limited to persons
disabled in the war. In India this type of training is carried
on in three centres. In China the first limited effort was started
during the war, but since then the activities carried on in the
centres in question have been suspended. The reorganisation of
a limited number of the centres, however, has recently been
started on a somewhat different basis. In Ceylon a plan has been
drawn up, but it has not yet been put into operation. In Japan
there are, on the one hand, centres for the rehabilitation of
disabled ex-service men and, on the other hand, a few centres
for the readjustment of disabled civilian workers.
In this particular field of vocational training much work
still remains to be done in the Far Eastern countries to restore to

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productive activity those whom disablement has immobilised,
and so relieve the community of the burden of maintaining
them in a state of idleness.

TRAINING OF FOREMEN AND INSTRUCTORS

This section includes data relating to various courses which
have one feature in common, that of being designed to develop
in technicians who already possess a vocational skill the ability
to instruct or supervise other workers. Courses of this kind
frequently provide also for supplementary technical education,
though the main emphasis is on teaching methods.
Experience has repeatedly shown that even an intimate
knowledge of a trade does not ensure capacity either to impart
it to others or to supervise the work of others and correct their
technical errors. Excellent technicians may be very bad instructors or foremen.
It is necessary to stress the fact that the training of instructors is an essential part of the general programme which, in
every country, should serve as a basis for the organisation of
vocational training. This is why the 1939 Recommendation on
vocational training already mentioned devotes a number of
paragraphs to the training, both practical and theoretical, of
teaching staff.
Lack of time prevented any detailed survey for each country
of the facilities for training the staffs of technical schools and
training centres. The information on this question summarised
below is thus necessarily both incomplete and scattered and
does not permit of drawing conclusions either as to the main
sources of recruitment for the numerous teaching staffs of technical schools or as to the special training they receive to prepare
them to carry out their duties adequately. Such data as are
given are limited to the occasional mention of the training of
instructors for school courses of a practical nature, and more
often of the training of teaching for practical training centres.
Even in such a restricted field the information is very incomplete,
providing only a few instances of the various facilities available.
The absence of any reference to the question in some of the
summaries does not mean that facilities for the training of
instructors do not exist. Incomplete as it is, however, the information suggests that the need for specialised training of super-

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

visors and foremen, through the use of adequate techniques, is
beginning to be keenly felt, and that the lack of a teaching staff
is one of the obstacles to the rapid expansion of vocational
training facilities in the region.
It appears from the available information that in China
the Ministry of Industries and Commerce has organised courses
of 26 months' duration for instructors with a view to their
employment in connection with the Ministry's own apprenticeship programmes ; about 50 such persons are trained each year.
In India an instructors' centre has been opened recently in order
to supply teaching staff to adult rehabilitation centres ; on the
basis of a 5% months' course, this centre is able to train 400
persons a year, who will be additional to the 1,300 trained in
similar courses during the war. Steps have been taken in Ceylon
to enable the Technical College to select teaching personnel
for practical courses in schools, and also for the direct training
of instructors and foremen for industry. In Japan, although
most of the numerous courses organised during the war for the
training of instructors have now closed down, some were still
running in 1947 in 22 per cent, of the places which were
investigated.
As regards agricultural teaching, an interesting innovation
was found in China, where courses are organised with a view to
enabling selected technicians in the Government agricultural
services to specialise in advising the rural population on how
to improve their production methods.

T H E SITUATION IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Ceylon
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Less consideration has been given to adult training than to
problems concerning the training of young workers. The Committee
on Apprenticeship excluded this question altogether from its field
of work. However, certain partial measures have been taken.
Upgrading
There seem to be few training schemes of this kind, apart from
advanced apprenticeship courses, for which the minimum age of
admission is fixed as high as 17 to 25 years. These are often attended

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by persons who are already in employment. However, certain
schemes, which also impose a maximum age limit, are intended
only to improve the skill of young workers and not to serve the needs
of workers of all ages.
A course recently opened at the Ceylon Technical College should
be added to this category. It is for the training of junior officials
of the Irrigation and Agricultural Departments, to qualify them
to handle and maintain mechanical agricultural equipment. 1
Retraining
There have been and still are several kinds of institutions in
this field. Mention should be made in the first place of courses of
intensive training, inaugurated by the Ceylon Technical College
during the war, for the training of service personnel in skilled trades
for Army needs. The courses were very elementary and lasted ten
weeks. About 3,000 men were trained as blacksmiths, bricklayers,
carpenters, electricians, fitters, engine drivers (internal combustion
engines), turners, painters, plumbers, tinsmiths, draughtsmen and
clerks. The courses closed in March 1946. The military authorities
suggested that courses of this nature should be continued under the
auspices of the civilian authorities, but as at the time the workers
who had completed this type of training were experiencing difficulty in obtaining employment, it was decided to discontinue it. a
In May 1946 shorthand and typing courses were opened for
ex-service men, but were later discontinued owing to the lack of
candidates possessing the necessary minimum qualifications. Out
of the first group of 95 men, 75 finished the course. On the other
hand, 60 scholarships were offered for ex-service men to continue
their studies in the Technical College, as well as in other schools.
As regards the retraining of unemployed civilian workers, the
Department of Commerce and Industries runs vocational training courses for the unemployed, and grants from the Unemployment Assistance Fund have been made to the Department for this
purpose. A dozen crafts are taught, mainly weaving for the men
and coir work for the women. 3 During the training the men receive
50 cents a day. According to information furnished by the Government of Ceylon in answer to the ECAFE questionnaire, 724 persons
were undergoing training in 1946 in schools, training centres or
workshops of the Department of Commerce and Industries. Of this
number, 468 were attached to the training centres.
Retraining of Disabled Persons
A scheme has been proposed under this head, but the 1947 budget made no allocation for its implementation. 4
1

Ceylon Year Book, 1948, p. 132.
Administration Report of the Commissioner of Labour for 1946,
(Colombo, Ceylon Government Press, 1947), p. 21.
8
Report of the Commission on Social Services, op. cit., p. 16.
4
Administration Report of the Commissioner of Labour for 1946,
op. cit., p. 22.
2

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Training of Instructors and Foremen
Since 1944 the Ceylon Technical College has been entrusted
with the work of conducting examinations and awarding industrial
teachers' certificates. The examinations are held in such handicrafts as weaving, coir work, lacquering, pottery, iron and copper
work, wood and rattan work. 1
Recently this College also organised courses in workshop practice, or in shorthand and typewriting, for candidates selected by
the Government Teachers ' Training College, to qualify them for
work in practical schools. Another new course, of two years' duration, is for the training of foremen and workshop supervisors (see
above).
China
VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Upgrading
As stated in section A of this chapter, the Bureau of Technical
Training of the Ministry of Industries and Commerce organises
advanced training courses which aim specifically at giving facilities
for specialisation in highly skilled trades to young trainees who
have just completed an apprenticeship course. This type of training, however, is also available to adults. The courses are mainly
for industrial occupations. Various other public services have also
organised advanced training courses for industrial work or for
clerical and office work.
Industry and Commerce.
The principal courses of this kind are run by municipalities.
The Municipality of Shanghai has opened 7 night schools, which in
1947-1948 had 60 classes, with 1,858 students and a staff of 48.
Apart from language classes totalling 16, of which 14 were English
courses, technical training was divided between industrial education,
comprising 19 classes with 528 students, and commercial or business
education, with 25 courses and 869 students. The main subjects
taught in these schools were mechanical and chemical engineering,
electrical communications and mechanical drawing in one group of
courses, and typewriting, accounting, bookkeeping, statistics and
other commercial subjects for employees of commercial offices and
administrations. Owing to lack of equipment, the courses are
theoretical, with the exception of the typewriting course. The
period of training is four years, divided into two terms of 18 weeks
each. The diploma is awarded only at the end of the eighth term
if progress is satisfactory. Examinations take place once a month
and at the end of each term. Few of the registered students complete the course, and in 1947-1948 only 153 diplomas were awarded.
1

Ceylon Year Book, 1948, p. 132.

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The courses are free, except for a small sum to cover expenses for
stationery.
The training schemes of the employment offices of the Ministry
of Social Affairs, mentioned below under " Retraining ", are also
open to employed workers who wish to improve their skill. They
are mainly of a business or commercial character.
Agriculture.
Besides the courses for the training of instructors described below,
mention must be made of the schemes at first organised by CNRRA
in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
with a view to training the rural population in the use of mechanised
agricultural equipment. The courses were given in the areas where
supplies of such equipment were distributed by these organisations,
in order to speed up the recultivation of land which had gone out
of cultivation and so to increase food production. This programme
is now operated by the Agricultural Machinery Operation and
Management Office (AMOMO).1
The courses have a twofold objective : to train an adequate
maintenance staff for the mechanised equipment provided by the
organisation, and to demonstrate to farm boys the value of machines
and induce them to use the equipment to make their own labour
easier.
Up to 19 May 1948, 1,695 persons were trained in accordance
with the programme : 1,000 as tractor operators, 300 as pump
operators, 45 as combine operators, 100 as well-drilling operators,
and 250 on the maintenance and repair of machinery.
Retraining
The schemes which have been organised by the four employment
offices of the Employment Service of the Ministry of Social Affairs
(at Shanghai, Chungking, Hankow and Tientsin) are partly intended
to provide facilities for training unemployed workers registered with
the offices, in order to assist them to find a job in those fields where
prospects of employment are good. In practice, the courses serve
also as upgrading courses for persons already in employment. By
July 1948 a total of 1,120 persons had been trained in these courses,
mainly for commercial and office work. As a general rule, according
to a decision of the Ministry of Social Affairs of 27 September 1943,
unemployed training courses should normally last three months and
should never be less than one month or more than six months in
duration. As a rule, the courses are free, the cost being met out
of the budget of the employment offices. However, the offices may
request a contribution from the trainees towards the cost of textbooks and stationery.
1
Cf. Précis of the Past and Present Operations of the Agricultural
Machinery Operation and Management Office, and the Plans for Future
Utilization of Agricultural Machinery Equipment (Shanghai, 19 J u n e
1948 ; multigraphed), p . 3.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

During the war the Bureau of Technical Training, to which
reference was made in section A of this chapter, organised shortterm training courses to meet the urgent needs of defence industries
by retraining displaced refugees. The Ministry of Transport, in
order to meet the needs of the railway and radio communication
services, also organised short-term training courses to increase the
number of skilled technical personnel. These schemes were discontinued after the war in view of the adequacy of the existing labour
force for present requirements.
Retraining of Disabled Persons
This problem is an important one for China, where war has been
waged for the last fifteen years. Because of its importance the
problem of retraining disabled veterans throws into the shade the
more general problem, common to all countries, of the physical and
vocational retraining of all those whose ability to work in their
former job has been lost or impaired owing to accident or illness. The
only schemes of this kind which have been prepared in China deal
exclusively with war veterans. Regulations of the Executive Yuan
(December 1946) and of the Ministry of Social Affairs (March 1947)
concerning the employment of disabled veterans reserve certain
posts in public services and private undertakings for this class of
worker, and also deal with the problem of their retraining. The
first of these texts lays down that the disabled veterans may be
retrained before they are placed in employment (section 14), while
the second leaves it to the service or undertaking which intends
to employ the man to organise the required training facilities, with
the help of a public subsidy. Board and lodging are to be furnished
during the whole of the period of retraining by the Government
agency which placed the worker in the job (sections 14 and 15).
Unfortunately, no machinery for enforcing these regulations exists,
and there is reason to believe that they are largely a dead letter.
A kind of semi-official organ, the National Vocational Guidance
Association for Disabled Veterans, was created during the war.
When its headquarters were still in Chungking, the Association
ran a training institute, with 24 classes offering courses in various
trades, and also sponsored the activities of 25 other classes in hostels
for disabled veterans. The total number of men who received training
in these centres for such crafts as umbrella making, towel weaving,
shoe making and repair, cane furniture making, etc., was 464 and
the number trained for office work was 1,006. Of this scheme, all
that survives in 1948 is an accounting course in the 11th hostel in
Wusih, but a new project has now been prepared in order to revive
and to develop this kind of training on a new basis.
According to directives issued jointly at the end of June 1948
by the Ministry of National Defence and the Ministry of Social Affairs,
key training centres will gradually be opened in four different cities
for the expansion of the scheme in their respective areas. The first
centre, near Hangchow, will be opened in the near future for men of
the 25th hostel for disabled veterans at Shaoshan. The purpose is

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primarily to train selected men, drawn from among disabled
veterans, as instructors, in order to create a teaching staff for the
scheme as quickly as possible. The centres are also to serve as experimental stations for working out training methods.
Twelve crafts have been selected and these will be taught in
accordance with local needs and the availability of teaching staff.
They are the following : shoe making, cane and rattan furniture
making, towel weaving, stocking knitting, soap making, umbrella
making, tailoring, light metal work, gardening, cattle breeding and
food preserving. The highest quality of production will be aimed
a t so that the goods made by the disabled veterans may compete
favourably on the market.
Besides instructors, the centres will also train men intending to
take up paid employment, as well as those wishing to go into business
on their own account or to join with others in setting up a small
co-operative. In the last two cases, the trainees will be taught
how to run a small business or to manage a co-operative, as well as
being given technical training.
The practical organisation of these training schemes is entrusted
to the National Vocational Guidance Association for Disabled
Veterans. The Ministry of Defence will supply premises for the
training centres and board and lodging for the disabled veterans, as
well as administrative staff, and defray the travelling expenses
of veterans coming for training from other hostels. The Ministry
of Social Affairs will provide a subsidy to the Association, as a
contribution towards expenses connected with technical training
{teachers' salaries, equipment, etc.).
The development of this plan is seriously handicapped by lack
of funds, and it will be some time before the full plan can be put
into operation, despite the increase in the number of disabled consequent on the internal strife.
Training of Foremen and Instructors
Apart from the training of teachers for technical schools, which
is carried out by the normal technical schools, steps have been taken
in China in the last few years to train supervisors or instructors in
several ñelds, either to meet the needs of vocational training programmes or for other technical duties of a supervisory nature.
Industry.
In addition to the apprenticeship schemes and specialised training
schemes already mentioned, the Technical Training Bureau of the
Ministry of Industries and Commerce provides for the training of
instructors needed to operate these two long-term training schemes.
The organisation of these training courses for instructors, which
are to be on the lines of the United States "Training Within Industry
Programme ", is to be carefully planned by a Research Committee
of the Bureau of Technical Training. The Director of the Bureau
is directly responsible for the programme. The number of
instructors to be trained in accordance with this programme in

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

1947-1948 was fixed at 50. The trainees are selected among
graduates of senior technical schools, or among graduates of the
apprenticeship courses and specialised training courses directed by
the Bureau. A careful selection is made to ensure the necessary
aptitude for the task, as well as technical ability. The candidates
must complete the full course and thereafter accept such posts as
may be offered them with a view to serving as instructors in any
programme which may be organised by the Bureau. If they do not
fulfil this obligation, they are required to reimburse the full cost
of their training.
The training period for instructors is 26 weeks. The curriculum
includes, besides general courses (Chinese and English) and technical
courses (mechanical, electrical and metal engineering, mechanical
drawing, etc.), lessons on management problems, social and labour
legislation, psychology and training methods. A particularly
important part of the programme deals with practical work in the
workshops and training in the technique of teaching.
The students take monthly examinations, the marks in which
constitute 70 per cent, of those necessary for graduation, followed
by a final examination. Board, lodging and a uniform are provided
free of charge during the period of training. In addition the trainees
receive an allowance which, in accordance with the decision of the
Bureau of Technical Training, must be equivalent to the State
scholarship allowance for students at a university.
From 1940 to June 1948, 1,052 trainees graduated after completing the short-term training programme of the Bureau. It is
not possible to ascertain from the statistics of the Bureau how many
of the graduates were instructors.
Agriculture.
In the field of agriculture, two recent measures have been initiated
for training personnel of a special supervisory character, that is,
the technicians who will advise farmers on how to improve their
methods. Courses for this purpose are organised by the Ministry
of Agriculture with the technical assistance of the Bureau of Agricultural Research, and by the Bureau of Forestry Research.
The agricultural training scheme, the first courses of which were
held in 1948, was set up in connection with the campaign for the
increase of food and fodder products. Its purpose is to train officials
who will be assigned to local stations to advise farmers on the fight
against plant diseases, pests, etc. The trainees are chosen from
among agricultural school graduates, as a rule, senior school graduates
who have completed a four-year course. The first series of courses
was attended by 55 trainees from 21 different colleges, who were
from 21 to 37 years of age, the majority being between 25 and 30.
The training period lasted six weeks, the first four of which were
devoted to theoretical studies or to laboratory work (129 and 12
hours respectively) while the last two weeks were devoted to practical
work and training methods. Besides technical subjects, such as
the improvement of rice, wheat and vegetables, the fight against

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FACILITIES

plant diseases and pests, irrigation, use of fertilisers, etc., the
trainees are taught administrative subjects, such as farm loan
systems, farm management, the collection and presentation of
statistical data and methods of reporting, bookkeeping, etc. It is
proposed to organise such courses every year.
Similarly, the Bureau of Forestry Research organised in 1947
two series of courses ; one on soil conservation, attended by 30
trainees, and one relating to agricultural mechanical equipment,
which was attended by 100 trainees. Each of these courses lasted
three months. In July 1948 a new course on soil conservation was
started, with a smaller number of trainees. These courses are also
open to graduates of agricultural schools and are intended primarily
to improve the knowledge of technicians who will be, or are already,
attached to agronomical and forestry stations maintained by provincial Governments. The training lasts three months and the time
is more or less equally divided between theoretical courses and
practical work in the field.
Similar courses covering other specialised subjects, such as
methods of terracing, will be organised if desired.
Hong Kong
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

The technical training and retraining of adult workers would
appear to form part of the programme both of the Technical College,
especially its evening courses, and of the Evening Institute. The
communication from the Government of Hong Kong and its Annual
Report for 1947 do not, however, explicitly state this.
The said Annual Report * shows that classes have been formed
at nine centres in rural areas for the education of adults engaged in
fishing and farming. Their instruction includes reading, writing and
simple arithmetic, which suggests that it is elementary education
rather than vocational training which is provided.
India
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Upgrading and Retraining Courses
When technical training courses were initiated in India during
the war, in order to provide defence services and civil industries
engaged on war work with the skilled and semi-skilled labour they
required, the same scheme served to provide upgrading for some
persons and retraining for others. The two aspects of the question
will therefore be taken together.
1

Op. cit., p. 65.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

The main scheme initiated by the Department of Labour provided
for the training of semi-skilled labour. The scheme covered the
main engineering trades, and the courses varied from three to nine
months, and up to twelve months in some cases. By the end of
August 1945, there were 158 centres, with a total capacity for training
29,707 persons ; 98,155 had already completed training and 22,077
more were still under training.
Other less comprehensive schemes were initiated about the same
time : advanced courses (eight to nine months) for workers who
had completed the semi-skilled workers' courses referred to above
and were trained as machine tool artificers and toolmakers ; training
courses for junior technical staff in ordnance factories ; courses for
aircraft repairing, and so on.
After the war, the methods used in the training centres were
readjusted to meet peacetime requirements. There was an immediate
need for resettlement in civilian life of ex-service men and women.
A Directorate of Vocational Training was created within the Directorate-General of Resettlement and Employment of the Department
of Labour. Numerous training centres, both technical and " vocational " (handicraft), were established and former war centres
readapted. By the end of September 1947, 156 centres, distributed
throughout the country, were working to capacity, over 2,000 exservice men had completed their training, and 8,500 more were under
training. When, following the exchange of populations between
India and Pakistan, the Government of India had to provide for
the resettlement of a refugee population of over 4,000,000, it took
action to open new centres or expand existing centres, in order to
make them available to the refugees. Vocational training centres
for handicraft workers were particularly developed, as they were
better adapted to the needs of a primarily rural population who
would have to be resettled in villages.
At the end of May 1948, the Department of. Labour was
administering 194 retraining centres for able-bodied persons, including 74 for industrial training, with a capacity of 10,342; 109 handicraft centres with a capacity of 4,543; and one special centre for
women, with a capacity of 300, combining handicrafts suitable for
women and office work. Moreover, thanks to arrangements entered
into with firms, 2,136 places were made available to the Department
in 109 workshops, for in-plant training of ex-service men, for the
duration of which the trainees were granted a small stipend. A total
of 12,337 persons were in training under the auspices of the Department of Labour.
In all such training centres, the period of training is generally
twelve months. The training syllabi have been worked out by the
Advisory Board for the industrial trades selected 1 , about 20 in all,
which are mostly connected with metal work, engineering, practical
1

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR, DIRECTORATEGENERAL OF RESETTLEMENT AND EMPLOYMENT: Technical Training

Scheme for Ex-Service Men : Syllabuses of Training, Part I (New Delhi,
1946).

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electricity and woodwork. The handicrafts taught in these centres
are also numerous, including hand weaving, calico printing, soap
making, paper making, cosmetics and dyeing, toys, shoemaking,
basket work, tailoring, food preservation, etc.
Retraining of Disabled Ex-Service Men
Special centres for the rehabilitation of disabled ex-service men
are also placed under the authority of the Directorate-General of
Resettlement and Employment of the Department of Labour. The
three centres are integrated in the general programme and their
activities are limited for the time being to ex-service men disabled
because of the war or for any other reason. The centres were only
recently opened, and in May 1948 they had accommodation for
1,330 trainees.
Training of Foremen and Instructors
During the war some of the instructors at centres for shortterm intensive training came from the United Kingdom (about
100 in number), or were trained there, in accordance with the arrangements for technical assistance agreed upon by the two countries.
Moreover, in India a scheme for the training of supervisory personnel
and other junior officers in ordnance factories had trained approximately 1,300 workshop supervisors. 1 When in 1944-1945 the Advisory
Committee on Technical Training considered the readaptation to
peacetime requirements of wartime training programmes, it recommended, among other things, the creation of a Central Institute for
training instructors.
This proposal was taken up again by the All-India Council for
Technical Education at its first session in April-May 1946, as a particularly important part of the general scheme covering the technical
training and apprenticeship of highly skilled industrial craftsmen.
As a first step in this direction, the Department of Labour proposed
to establish a Central Institute for training instructors, as the Department itself was hard put to it to get a sufficient number of skilled
instructors for its own centres, which normally required one instructor
to every 10 or 15 trainees. However, the rehabilitation scheme for
ex-service men being only temporary, the Department of Labour,
as early as 13 March 1947, contacted the provincial Governments
and the main State Governments, to enquire whether they intended
to utilise the Central Institute—at first, on a small scale, then on a
larger scale, when the Central Government would no longer require
its services—for training instructors for their own centres, as well
as for other technical training institutions. Similarly, the Department of Labour tried to arouse the interest of industries in the
scheme with a view to their co-operation in its implementation. 2
1
Cf. Labour Policy in General, including the Enforcement of Labour
Measures, op. cit., pp. 134-135.
2

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, Pamphlet No. 48, op. cit., pp.

34, 36-38.

8,
7

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

These negotiations somewhat slowed down the actual execution
of the programme, which, however, started in the spring of 1948.
The Institute is able to train annually 400 instructors, divided into
two batches of 200 each. There are plans to train instructors for the
various trades and handicrafts taught in the training centres, as the
need arises. Twenty different types of trades were listed, but a start
was made with 50 trainees in five different trades. It is considered
quite as important to train instructors in craftsmanship as in industry,
though the recommendation by the All-India Council for Technical
Education bears only on modern industry. It was also decided to
add post-training courses lasting two months to the basic training
courses in order to keep the instructors up to date as regards new
methods of production and teaching. A training centre for workers
is to be attached to the instructors' centre, in order to give the latter
an opportunity for practical exercises.
Indonesia
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

There has been no occasion to train workers in the use and
maintenance of mechanised agricultural implements.
No steps have been taken by the Government for on-the-job
training. It is concentrating its efforts mainly on supplying teachers
and instructors for all types of educational establishments.
Training of Instructors
Instructors in technical schools are selected from among skilled
workers who have proved to be good technicians and have undergone
a special training course in order to acquire the necessary theoretical
knowledge and techniques of teaching. Teachers for the technical
schools are recruited from among graduates of the Technical College
who have had some years of practical experience. In turn, those who
teach at the Technical College are experienced technicians with an
academic degree.
The training of teachers for commercial schools is carried out at
the Commercial College in a special division, which admits graduates
who have had one or two years' practical experience. The training
lasts one year.
Various academic institutes attached to the faculties of the University of Indonesia are also entrusted with responsibility for training
teachers specialising in particular subjects and technicians for the
technical and commercial schools in addition to teachers of secondary
schools. 1
Since the inauguration of the system of education, the demand
for teachers has been very great. To meet this need, the training
programme for teachers has had to be somewhat simplified. The
greatest shortage, however, which the Indonesian Government is
experiencing at present is in respect of tools and machinery.
1

A New System of Education for Indonesia, op. cit., p. 7.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

Japan
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Upgrading
Although not required to take such action under any law, it would
appear from the results of an enquiry carried out in 108 industrial
establishments in 1947, that the number of factories and plants that
have organised workers' education schemes is considerable. Although
these schemes relate primarily to general education, technical training
subjects are nevertheless included in some of them.
Some firms have organised more highly developed systems of
upgrading. The Mitsui Chemical Industry Co., Ltd., for instance,
set up a technical training institute for workers' upgrading, which
offers preparatory courses covering three hours a day, three times a
week, during one year, and more complete courses, with the same
number of working hours per week, of two years' duration. At the
Konishi Photo Industry, Ltd., the same kinds of courses are of three
years' duration. Large mining companies like the Mitsubishi Mining
Co., Ltd., possess their own technical training schemes whose curriculum and length of training vary in accordance with the different
jobs.
During the war a programme for training specialists for the
engineering industries was included in the Labour Mobilisation
Enforcement Plan, which was drawn up by the Ministry of Social
Affairs. The object of this programme was the training of a selected
number of mechanics to improve their skill and power of leadership.
As this scheme was intended primarily to train instructors and foremen for engineering industries it is more fully explained below.
Retraining
In this connection, several programmes were adopted and some
of them continue to function.
Courses for New Entrants to Industry.
Mention should first be made of introductory training coursés for
new entrants, which were developed in various plants when war
requirements caused the expansion of certain industries. These
courses were continued after the war. The enquiry referred to above
showed that 42 per cent, of the plants visited were conducting training
courses for new entrants. In 28 plants out of 46, training was undertaken on the job in the production shop, but in 18 plants preliminary
training of three days to a month was given each new entrant before
he was allocated to a job.
Training for the Unemployed.
Technical training has been organised for the unemployed.
Section 3 of the Employment Exchanges Act provided that the
Government might set up technical training centres in connection

TRAINING

PROBLEMS

IN THE

FAR

EAST

with the work of these exchanges, but before the war the application
of this provision was not very extensive.
After the war, in view o f the closing down of war industries and
the demobilisation of the armed forces, the fear of unemployment
spread throughout the country. Beginning in October 1946, the
Ministry of Welfare took steps to develop vocational training as an
important part of the plan to fight unemployment. A Ministry of
Labour was created in 1947, and an Act on employment security was
promulgated on 31 November 1947. In accordance with this Act, an
independent network of vocational training centres is now being
developed by a special section of the Employment Service under the
Ministry of Labour.
Even before this new scheme was approved, the vocational
training centres for the unemployed were already fairly well
developed. A report of the Ministry of Labour for the period from
April 1947 to March 1948 shows that on 31 March 1948 \ 314
training centres were in operation, with a capacity of 31,300. The
total number of persons who had undergone training in these centres
was given as 21,920, or 70 per cent, of capacity, and 18,153 persons
completed the full course of training. Out of this total, 13,118 obtained immediate employment.
Under the new scheme, vocational training centres are administered by the offices of the Employment Security Service, in close
connection with their placing duties. The training has therefore to
be essentially practical and must be adapted to the requirements
of the employment market. The curriculum of the training centres
must be revised periodically in order to keep up with prevailing
conditions. Admission to the centres is open, without distinction of
age, to all persons in possession of an elementary school graduation
certificate.
On the administrative side, governors of prefectures and local
authorities of towns and villages share with the Ministry of Labour
the responsibility .for opening new centres. According to section 28
of the Employment Security Act, the Government may subsidise
in part or in whole the necessary expenditures for the operation of
vocational training institutions by the prefectural or other agencies
under the control of public authority, and may pay an allowance
to trainees.
The plans for 1948 included the operation of 445 centres for
50 trainees each, 2 for 100 trainees each, and 4 for 250 trainees each,
making a total of nearly 24,000 training places. The budget allocated
for these plans is 253 million yen. The training courses will cover 45
different types of occupations, the total number of courses being 440.
The main courses are those for carpentry (128, or 29 per cent.),
woodworking (119, or 27 per cent.) and the needle trades (48, or 10.2
per cent.). Metal work and mechanical engineering (including vehicle
repairs), representing 14 different trades, are taught in 20 centres
through approximately 60 different classes. Commercial and other
1
This report excludes five prefectures, for which figures are not
available.

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

related subjects are taught in 17 classes, but represent only 3 per
cent, of the over-all figures.
The duration of the courses is normally six months, on the basis
of an 8-hour working day and a total of 1,200 training hours. (For
needle trades only a 6-hour day is required, with a total of 864
hours.) The curriculum includes general education and technical
subjects suitable to each trade, as well as practical training. The
number of hours required for the different aspects of training varies
in accordance with the basic education of the trainees and in accordance with the trade adopted. More general education is required if the
trainee has had only elementary and no middle school education.
In all cases, practical training is assigned more time than theoretical
courses and takes up at least 3/4 of the teaching time and sometimes
even more (900-920 hours out of 1,200 hours). It is stated that
various factors have handicapped the realisation of this programme,
namely financial difficulties, lack of instructors, lack of equipment,
rationing of power, and also the uncertainty of trainees as to their
means of livelihood during their training courses, despite the allowances which are granted to them.
Retraining of Disabled Persons
Two technical training centres have been opened for the retraining
of disabled persons ; one, at Osaka, has courses in five different
trades, and the second, at Fukuoka, covers six different trades. In
the past, these centres were controlled by a body operating in conjunction with the Ministry of Labour, namely, the Association for
Vocational Training. The administration of the centres, however,
was taken over in 1947 by the prefectural governors of these cities.
Another centre was due to be opened in Tokyo in September 1948.
Furthermore, on the basis of the Workers' Accident Insurance Act,
special facilities for retraining have been organised for disabled
workers, all expenses being borne out of the national budget. Their
administration, from the practical point of view, is entrusted to
recognised industrial organisations. A new training institute for the
women's garment industry was opened at Tokyo in June 1948 and a
similar institute was due to be opened for the men's clothing industry
at Kokura in September 1948. Furthermore, the Ministries of Labour
and Social Welfare jointly opened centres for the retraining of
disabled repatriates. The Ministry of Transport and Communications
possesses its own institutions for the vocational retraining of disabled
workers among its own personnel.
Training of Foremen and Instructors
In accordance with the Labour Mobilisation Plan of 1939, which
required the preparation of schemes for the training of skilled mechanics as instructors, special institutions were opened for this type of
training in the prefectures of Tokyo, Osaka, Aichi and Fukuoka in
1939 and at Hiroshima, Kanagura and Hyogo in 1941. The training
scheme at Aichi, where it was operated in the prefectural technical
school, was organised on the following basis.

TRAINING

PROBLEMS

IN THE FAR

EAST

The training was open, on the recommendation of the employer,
to young men of 21 years and over, who had been employed for at
least three years ih a factory in the locality in one of the trades
included in the training programme, i.e., lathe finishing and assembly, milling, grinding, casting, blacksmithing, heat treatment, etc.
The training period lasted six months. Two groups of workers were
in training over the 24 hours on a day and night shift respectively.
The curriculum included courses in : (1) mechanical techniques—
power and dynamics (112 hours), mechanical technology (125 hours),
mechanical drawing (62 hours) ; (2) general science courses (75
hours) ; (3) special courses for the formation of character (38 hours) ;
and (4) elementary courses on labour legislation and workshop
management (25 hours). Technical guidance and practical training
took up the remaining 88 hours out of a total of 525 training hours.
This programme was repeated three times and covered, in all, 190
persons. The bulk of the trainees were between 26 and 30 years, but
workers over 40 years of age were also included.
Numerous factories organised their own training courses during
the war and some firms continued to do so with the advent of peace,
with a view to training foremen for the supervision of workshops
and instructors for teaching apprentices. Certain firms adopted
intensive courses lasting three to six months, and others, such as
the Mitsubishi Heavy Industry Co., Ltd., organised training schemes
for foremen covering a three-year period, on the basis of two hours of
training every evening after work.
The 1947 enquiry, mentioned above, showed that 22 per cent.
of the factories inspected during the enquiry possessed training
programmes for foremen or instructors.
Korea
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

Although young trainees may make use of some of the following
schemes, they appear to be intended primarily for adult workers.
Training in the Operation of Heavy Machinery.
Heavy machinery for road building and mining was previously
operated by Japanese. No training facilities existed for Koreans.
Now some heavy equipment with a repair shop attached is available
for training, but there is a lack of instructors. During the past two
years some short-term training, lasting three to six weeks, has been
given under the supervision of Army engineer enlisted personnel.
There is also a small amount of on-the-job training for operators of
mining machinery, carried on under the general supervision of American engineers, which covers both coal mines and tungsten mines.
There are also a lead-zinc mine and a smelter which are large enough
for training purposes. There are only two dredging machines, and the
only type of training for these is on-the-job training such as has
existed for many years.

SURVEY OF

E X I S T I N G FACILITIES

Programme of the Technological Training Board.
To meet national requirements, the Technological Training
Board mentioned above (see section A of this chapter) has drawn
up a short-term programme to train 19,929 persons, under the
Departments of Commerce (3,950), Agriculture (6,530), Communications (685), Transportation (7,516), Public Works (700), Finance
(128) and Police (70) and for the province of Kyonggi Do (350). The
programme is essentially one of training on the job, though in the
early stages the trainees may undergo a short formal education in
technical schools. For instance, during six months of training,
workers in the textile and chemical industries receive one month of
formal or basic education.
Most of the 45 types of training listed involve a six-month
training course ; some of the courses last only a few weeks. The
programme is clearly a practical one, designed to meet emergency
conditions. Some examples are given below.
Type of training

trainees

Length oí course

Industry :

Textile
Chemical
Engineering
Communication and transportation
Electrical civil engineering. . .
Carpentry
Teletypewriting
Carrier communication . . . .
Driving
Forging
.
Engineering
Radio-operating
Radio engineering
Public works :
Fire brigade
Highway bureau
Agriculture :
Farm training
Forestry
Agricultural engineering . . . .
Course for fishery technicians. .

600
460
1,260

6 months
6 „
6 ,,.

20
40
50
50
1,716
1,000
2,400
30
20

6
6
6
6
3
3
3
6
6

„
„
„
„
„
„
„•
„
„

450
150

5 weeks
6 months

2,400
1,200
120
40

1 month
4 weeks
15 „
6 months

Pakistan 1
T R A I N I N G AND R E T R A I N I N G OF A D U L T

WORKERS

Handicrafts
There are a b o u t 19 weaving a n d dyeing schools scattered all
over E a s t P a k i s t a n , a n d some 15 in W e s t P a k i s t a n for t h e t r a i n i n g
1

See above, p. 68.

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

of weavers and artisans. The duration of courses varies from six
months to a year and literacy is all that is required for admission.
Candidates are paid a monthly stipend. These institutions receive
grants from the Government for their maintenance.
Ex-Service Men
A training scheme is operated by the Ministry of Law and Labour,
and training centres have been established at various places in
Pakistan. The courses are run on a " training cum production "
basis. The institutions are stated to be of the " monotechnic " type.
There are 19 special training centres spread over East and West
Pakistan. They afford training in about 30 different trades, and the
courses last for about twelve months.
The Philippines
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

The facilities which are available for the training of adult workers
are less highly developed than those for young workers. Occasionally,
however, certain training methods particularly suited to adult workers are fairly widespread.
Upgrading
Refresher courses exist solely in the form of evening classes in a
few regional technical schools of arts and trades. In this field the
Government training centres appear inadequate, while institutions
organised before the war as a result of private initiative disappeared
during the upheaval, among them the institutions opened by an
office of adult education under the auspices of the trade unions.
Retraining
The demand of the United States Army in 1945 for skilled workers
and technicians resulted in the introduction throughout the Philippines of intensive training programmes. Batches of workers,
which comprised as many as 1,000 trainees, were selected for training.
The curriculum included carpentry, plumbing, electrical maintenance
and repairing, tyre recapping, construction and rebuilding, watch
repairing, stationary boiler operations, vehicle maintenance and
repair, etc. Half the time was spent in theoretical instruction
and the other half in practical work. Under this training system
thousands of workers learned skilled trades, while others improved
their previous skills. During the peak period for the employment of Filipino civilians in the United States armed forces, who
numbered about 250,000 in November 1945, 58 per cent, were skilled
workers, and there were as many as 70,000 skilled workers in the
Greater Manila area alone. These figures, if compared with the figures

SURVEY OF EXISTING

FACILITIES

of the 1939 census (to which the Government refers), go to show an
important increase in the skill of the labour force as a result of the
wartime training schemes, which have now ceased.
One short-term training scheme is still in existence, namely,
that for the training of skilled workers for operating modern mechanised equipment, which is organised by the Agricultural Machinery
and Equipment Corporation (AMEC). This is a State company,
and its programme began in December 1946 with a group of 50
trainees, which was followed in April 1947 with a second group of 78.
The trainees are usually chosen from high school graduates, but
students who have not completed their high school course are admitted
if they have previous experience of machinery. A diploma is awarded
to the trainees ; 14 from the first group graduated and 54 from the
second group.
The courses are free and a meal allowance is granted. The time
required for finishing the course is at least three continuous working
months on the basis of a 7-hour day on six days a week. The scheme
is designed to familiarise trainees with all types of agricultural
machinery—different types of tractors, ploughs, harrows, sowing
and planting machines, etc. The course includes lectures, laboratory
work and demonstrations to show how agricultural machines are
operated, their maintenance and repair, actual overhaul, painting,
reasons for defective working, etc.
Retraining of Disabled Persons
No steps have been taken to establish a scheme of this kind.
Training of Foremen and Instructors
No information is available on this subject.

CHAPTER II
FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS:
A BALANCE-SHEET
A V A I L A B I L I T Y OF T E C H N I C A L

PERSONNEL

The 1947 EC AFE questionnaire on the training of the
technical personnel necessary for each country's economic
development requested the Governments to state the present
strength of their trained personnel and to estimate what additional numbers would be required to meet their short-term
reconstruction programmes. A period of three years (19471949) was indicated as appropriate.
The problem involved was not interpreted in the same sense
by the various Governments concerned and, on the whole, the
detailed information hoped for from the questionnaire was not
forthcoming.
The majority of the answers stress the great difficulties
involved in an assessment of this nature and avoid a direct
reply. In the case of the Philippines, however, the authorities
tried to make detailed statistical estimates of the available
labour force in order to answer the questionnaire. These estimates were based on pre-war resources and upon the increase
in skilled manpower obtained during the last year of the war
as a result of intensive training schemes put into force by the
United States Army with a view to the vocational training of
locally recruited civilian personnel. The conclusion to be drawn
from the examination of this material seems to be that the
present numbers of available personnel are in the main sufficient to meet reconstruction needs, largely because of a slowing down in the execution of post-war plans caused by lack of
funds and materials. It is stressed that there is in fact unemployment among skilled workers.
The more approximate estimates supplied by other countries of the ECAFE region indicate, on the contrary, a shortage
of skilled personnel.

FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS

101

It will be recalled that in 1945 the General Planning Commission of China 1, in the course of preparing a Five-Year Plan
for the reconstruction of the country, calculated how much
technical and administrative personnel of various categories
would be required for carrying out the plan and found that a
large number of additional personnel was needed. Owing,
however, to the fact that the general application of the plan
has been blocked by various factors, the results of these investigations have now largely lost their value.
No definite statistical information is given in the answers
from Korea to the questionnaire on the numbers of technical
personnel now available. However, the information shows
clearly the singular position of this country, where during the
occupation by the Japanese, the latter formed the vast majority of the available technical personnel. These people received
their training in Japan. Following the liberation of Korea, it
was found that 80 per cent, of the factory managers and technicians in productive industry had been Japanese, and in the
mining industry 65 per cent. Hence, when Korea was liberated
the country was virtually stripped of its managerial and technical personnel, and it has now to renew its resources in
such manpower as well as to create the necessary training
machinery.
For Indo-China the reply indicated that it is proposed to
set up in each country of the Union provisional consultative
commissions on apprenticeship and vocational guidance, with
a view to determining personnel requirements. A review of
the position was undertaken in Cochin China and Cambodia,
where the lack of a skilled labour force is handicapping economic recovery. There is need for a greater number of overseers
and foremen ; and the necessity for short-term training programmes, as well as for part-time technical training on a higher
level, has been clearly recognised.
Special commissions in Ceylon and in India have made a
relatively limited study of the requirements in technical personnel for carrying out post-war plans.
In Ceylon the Committee on Apprenticeship set up at the
end of the war was to enquire into the extent of the shortages
of staff and materials for the execution of as large a civil engineering programme as possible, as part of the Post-War
1

Cf. Document E/CN. 11/40, op. cit., p . 14.

102

TRAINING

PROBLEMS

IN T H E FAR

EAST

Development Scheme. A subcommittee of this Committee was
appointed to report on the number of skilled personnel of all
grades required for carrying out an engineering programme
entailing an expenditure of 100 million rupees a year, and to
enquire into the methods of obtaining the required personnel,
as well as the length of time required. The subcommittee
reported that it was impossible to give the exact number of
engineers required for each million of rupees spent on this
project, as their numbers would vary considerably with the
nature of the work. It arrived, however, at an approximate
estimate on the basis of the number of technicians employed
by each Government department responsible for various public
works projects, and of the annual output of engineers from the
Ceylon Technical College. The estimated requirements would
involve a considerable expansion of the training facilities in
the Technical College, and this has since been undertaken.
Despite these measures, however, and bearing in mind that
young engineering graduates must acquire practical experience
for which the facilities in Ceylon are inadequate, the subcommittee stressed that until 1949 or 1950 it would be necessary
to recruit engineers from abroad if a large construction programme was to be undertaken. 1
In India the Scientific Man-Power Committee undertook in
1947 to investigate the needs in technical personnel for the
four or five following years, but admitted its inability to arrive
at a comprehensive and precise conclusion, in view of the lack
of adequate data on the personnel already available and uncertainty regarding possible intensification of the country's
industrialisation. It limited itself to summary estimates of the
additional personnel in the senior technical grades required by
private industry over and above staff drawn from the annual
output of university graduates. In undertaking this estimate
the Committee based itself upon the output in 1946 of graduates
from the higher technical educational institutions and upon the
increase in capital authorised during the same year in 14 branches
of private industry. It arrived at the conclusion that within this
limited field, and disregarding the requirements of provincial
Governments for the accomplishment of their public works
projects, an output of engineers and other technicians four
1
Report on Apprenticeship
pp. 51-56.

Training,

op. cit., Appendix VIII,

103

FACILITIES AND R E Q U I R E M E N T S

times greater than the corresponding number for 1946 would be
required yearly in India. 1 This 400 per cent, figure was
quoted by the Government of India in its answer to the questionnaire, pending the final results of the work of the Committee,
in order to give an approximate idea of the deficit in technical
personnel from which the national economy would suffer
during the next few years.
The method by which these calculations were made consisted in comparing the output of existing training institutions
and the immediate requirements in personnel, and lies thus
directly within the purview of this report. The angle of approach
is clearly different from that involved in an estimate of available
manpower. As appears from the investigations made in the
Philippines, any figure of skilled workers available comprises
a greater or less number of workers, depending upon the country
and the category of workers, who have been trained as a result
of special schemes organised during the war to meet emergency requirements. In the years ahead these workers will
continue to possess their practical value, but their numbers will
decrease every year. If the emergency training schemes are
not maintained or adjusted to meet present needs (and the
available information shows that the majority have in fact
disappeared), the number of available craftsmen in the various
trades for which these workers were trained will tend to
decline.
For the purpose of this study it is important to know, not
so much the immediate availability or unavailability of technicians and skilled workers to meet present requirements, as
the sufficiency or insufficiency of the facilities for providing a
regular output of the types of personnel required by the national
economy and for increasing such output to meet prospective
requirements.
It is difficult to present information of this character statistically. Nevertheless, a general impression may be gathered from
the statements of the competent authorities, or from the various
plans for increasing the training facilities of the Far Eastern
countries or the improvisations to meet the lack of such facilities.
The conclusion is then reached that in many of these countries
the existing facilities are inadequate.
1

pp.

SCIENTIFIC M A N - P O W E R
8-9.

COMMITTEE :

Interim

Report,

op.

cit.,

104

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST
DEFICIENCIES IN TECHNICAL TRAINING FACILITIES

No Government in the region has suggested that its current
facilities for vocational training are satisfactory. Even in the
countries best equipped to fulfil their requirements in this
respect, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, where a considerable effort was made even before the war to organise
vocational training, the information given reveals various gaps
in regard to particular types of study and certain shortages,
especially in mechanical equipment- In other countries the
gaps and shortages are seen to be more serious. The causes of
these deficiencies, their relative importance, the sectors at
which they are more acutely felt and the points at which
remedies are accordingly first sought, differ from country to
country.
Deficiencies Caused by the War
To the pre-war difficulties which were handicapping the
development of vocational training institutions — lack of
credits, shortage of teaching personnel, etc. — must now be
added war damage. As a result of bombing or looting by the
enemy, a number of technical training institutions have disappeared, or their capacity or efficiency has been greatly decreased. Losses of this nature were experienced in Burma,
China, Hong Kong, Indo-China, Indonesia, Malaya and Singapore, and the Philippines. Funds which could have been devoted
to new developments or expansion had to be utilised simply
for rebuilding. Even now a number of damaged institutions
have not been able to renew their activities.
Gaps in the Various Levels of Qualification
A certain number of countries stated in their answers to
the questionnaire that they possess technical education at all
levels, but only on an inadequate scale. A case in point is the
Union of Burma.
The efforts undertaken by the Chinese Government to
develop existing facilities relate to institutions at university
level and technical secondary schools, as well as to the inplant training of a labour force, the training of juveniles and
the retraining of adults, and thus show that the existence of

FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS

105

gaps in various sections and at various levels of qualification
is realised. In order to promote the provision by the local
authorities of technical training facilities at the intermediate
level, regulations have even been adopted as to the ratio to be
maintained between technical schools and the ordinary secondary schools. Attempts have also been made to enlist the cooperation of the undertakings to remedy the lack of training
facilities. Plans have been prepared by several Government
departments for introducing more or less extensive training
schemes, but in most cases their execution has been delayed
or handicapped by lack of funds. It is nevertheless clear that
existing deficiencies in technical training facilities are a matter
of concern to the Government and are felt at all levels.
It should be added that China has been attempting for a
number of years to remedy the lack of training facilities on the
higher level by recourse to corresponding facilities abroad,
and that Burma followed this example at the close of the war.
The scholarships granted for such studies and the results
achieved therefrom were mentioned in the report presented to
the second session of ECAFE. 1
In Ceylon, immediately after the end of the war, a number
of projects for expanding training facilities were considered.
Some suggestions have already been carried out as far as
advanced studies are concerned, but it is found equally indispensable to provide for adequate training facilities for skilled
workers, foremen and similar grades, and plans to this end are
still in course of preparation.
In other countries attention is concentrated, if not exclusively, at least mainly, upon the gaps existing at a particular
level of skill.
Senior Level.
The lack of facilities at the senior level for training the top
grade personnel needed for economic development is felt
particularly in countries which, as a result of recent profound
changes in their general status, are now seeking to advance
their economic independence as rapidly as possible.
In India the study of problems relating to the training
of high-grade technicians is the task assigned to the All1

Document E/CN. 11/40, op. cit., pp. 9-12.

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India Council for Technical Education. The Committee on
Scientific Man-Power devoted a large part of its work to the
study of this same question. Its programme for immediate
action relates almost entirely to technical training institutions at this level. Among the more important recommendations made by these two bodies are the following : the
development of scientific departments of universities, where
the student acquires the basic knowledge indispensable to the
pursuit of technical studies properly so called ; the stretching
of the capacity of such institutions by the organisation, where
necessary, of two-shift systems ; the expansion of technical
departments of universities and special institutes and the
increase in the output of engineers through a reorganisation
of the curricula which permits the shortening of the course
from four to three years ; the creation of two higher technical
institutions in regions hitherto not possessed of such facilities ;
and, in particular, the creation or the development of those
specialised studies which can be considered as providing a key
to the further industrial development of the country : hydroelectrics, mineral geology and applied chemistry.
Furthermore, in order to stimulate efforts to expand the
facilities available for senior technical training, it is proposed,
on the basis of a long-term programme, to set aside 20 million
rupees in the next five years for subsidising institutions providing technical education.
Pending the attainment of the objectives fixed for the existing technical training institutions, available facilities abroad
continue to be used.
Mention was made in the reports presented to the second
and third sessions of ECAFE of the various schemes which
were undertaken in India and in other countries during the
war and of their results. From 1945 to 1947, 83 senior grade
technicians were trained in the United Kingdom and 29 were
trained in the United States in accordance with the Post-War
Industrial Development Scheme drawn up by the Department
of Labour of the Government of India in 1944. The types of
studies for which scholarships were awarded were the following (in the order of the number of scholarships awarded) :
engineering, electricity, chemical industry, mining industry,
textiles, shipbuilding, metallurgy, naval engineering, plastics,
cement industry, etc. A total of 708 scholarships was awarded
from 1945 to 1947 for technological and other practical

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107

studies abroad on the basis of a scheme developed by the
Ministry of Education with a view to increasing the supply of
the technical personnel most urgently needed by the national
economy. Out of this number, 354 trainees were sent to the
United States or Canada, 348 to the United Kingdom, 4 to
Australia and 2 to New Zealand. These scholarships were
divided as follows : 118 scholarships (including those for Australia and New Zealand) for agriculture, animal husbandry, dairy
products, forestry and fisheries, 107 for general industrial
training and 7 for the mining industries ; the remaining scholarships covered 36 different subjects, of which a number are outside the scope of this report.
Furthermore, in view of the acute shortage of highly skilled
technical personnel with long practical experience, the Government of India is considering the engagement during the next
few years of foreign hydro-electrical experts to assist in planning the installation of power plants.
The lack of technicians with practical experience in certain
highly advanced fields where technical development in the
country heretofore had not been advanced is a difficulty which
does not confront India alone, and was mentioned in the reports
presented to the second and third sessions of ECAFE. It
necessitates not only some degree of recruitment from abroad
as a temporary measure, but also inspires a desire to enable
nationals of the country itself to obtain such experience in
countries where the various techniques have reached a high
level of development.
Reference has already been made in the above-mentioned
reports to the fact that the organisation of this type of practical
training, which must be undertaken within the plants and requires the consent of the managements, has met with numerous
difficulties of a practical nature, mainly as a result of fear of
commercial competition where secrets of production are involved. This problem does not apply solely to vocational
training, but extends to a larger field, that of the possible
exchanges of experience with a view to the improvement of
industrial techniques, even among countries where the study
of this question is well organised and where the application of
this knowledge in the industrial field has already reached a
high level of development.
Both in the completion of advanced studies and in the
gaining of practical experience on their termination, as well as
8

108

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EAST

in obtaining the help of experts, several Far Eastern countries
are receiving regular assistance from other countries, so that,
at least for the time being, they are less affected by their lack
of training facilities.
Thus, the information supplied regarding the situation in
Indo-China and Indonesia shows that it is not considered indispensable to fill all existing gaps in the facilities for training
highly skilled technicians, since such training can be undertaken in universities and colleges of the metropolitan country.
It should be mentioned that in Indonesia, in view of the rupture of communications with the Netherlands, facilities for
senior education, especially in the agricultural sciences, were
developed during the war in order to obtain locally the agricultural experts needed by the country. Scholarships are also
granted for studies in the metropolitan country. In IndoChina, the number paid out of the federal budget for technical
studies during 1946-1947 was 71. It is not possible to determine the numbers of scholarships allocated to technical studies
out of the total of 200 granted in 1947 to Indonesians to enable
them to complete their studies in the Netherlands.
Similarly, in the Philippines it does not appear to be
considered urgent to remedy the few existing shortages in the
training facilities for high-grade technicians, because several
scholarship schemes for studies abroad form a substantial
supplement to the local facilities. On the basis of the Philippines Rehabilitation Act passed by the United States in 1946,
455 scholarships are to be granted up to June 1950 for technical
studies in the United States, comprising 125 for fisheries technicians, 50 for aeronautic administration, 200 for midshipmen
and 80 for geographic surveyors. In addition seven or eight
private American foundations offer scholarships to Filipinos.
In Singapore an intermediate situation exists. Although the
establishment of a University College is now under consideration, it seems that, for the time being, no great haste is being
made with the new project, recourse being had to the facilities
available in the Malayan Union or in the United Kingdom.
The Singapore Government offers three scholarships a year for
study in the United Kingdom, and a private foundation grants
one scholarship every two years. The Colonial Development
and Welfare Fund granted seven fellowships for Singapore,
all of which have been awarded.
The need of Siam for technicians is not yet great, so that it

FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS

109

does not seem to be considered necessary to develop an educational system to cover the full range of advanced techniques,
and preference is given to assisting Siamese nationals to pursue
advanced technical studies abroad.
Technical Personnel of Intermediate Grades.
The Working Party which undertook the study of problems
relating to industrial development for a report to the third
session of ECAFE x stressed the urgent need of countries
in the region for personnel of the foreman type. The report
proposed that special attention should be devoted to training
this class of worker, a proposal similar to that made by the
various commissions of enquiry previously mentioned in the
present report. The information given in the preceding chapter
shows that various efforts have already been made in this
direction. In the main, however, they have been confined to the
introduction of schemes on too narrow a scale.
Skilled Manual

Workers.

The existing shortages in training facilities for skilled manual
workers were clearly shown by the studies undertaken by the
Committee on Apprenticeship in Ceylon, by the Advisory
Council in India and by investigations into manpower requirements in Cambodia and Cochin China. It is clear from the
information contained in the preceding chapter that the majority of the countries of the region do not possess systematic
training schemes for this type of worker. There are also various
factors tending at present to increase the need for organising
adequate schemes of this kind.
The first of these factors may be seen in the efforts now being
made by several countries to increase the number of technicians in key industries. Skilled manual workers will be required
as a result of this primary development if a balance is to be
achieved between the available skilled personnel of different
grades.
The second factor is the gradual development of mechanisation, which is now making its appearance in the Far East,
just as it already prevails in the West. This development is
not limited solely to industrial or agricultural mechanisation,
1
E C A F E Document E/CN. 11/82: Interim Report and Recommendations on Industrial Development by the Working Party, p . 86.

110

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

but applies also to the more general use of machines and mechanical apparatus in everyday life : domestic equipment, transport and communications, radio, etc. The maintenance and
repair of modern equipment of this kind calls for a steadily
increasing skilled labour force. The work is skilled and very
varied. Upon the qualifications of the worker depend both the
life-span and the smooth working of costly equipment which,
in the Far East, is usually imported from abroad. Here,
training of mechanics by empirical methods can provide no
satisfactory solution. Several schemes have been approved in
the last few years for training technicians for the maintenance
and repair of agricultural machinery, but, on the whole, the
training of this type of labour will require the gradual development of fairly extensive schemes.
Finally, the meagreness of the information supplied on
training facilities for adult workers (whether for upgrading or
for retraining) suggests that there are serious gaps in the network of vocational training institutions in most of the Far
Eastern countries. The lack of special schemes for the vocational
retraining of the disabled is particular striking.

OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT

Besides handicaps of a financial character, frequently
mentioned as the main obstacle to the organisation of training
facilities, serious difficulties arise from both the lack of a sufficiently qualified training force and a shortage of equipment.
Financial Difficulties
This problem is not peculiar to Far Eastern countries. The
organisation of an efficient system of technical training is costly.
In the West, as well as in this region, there is probably no
country which has at its disposal as large a fund as it would
like for development in this field.
But in many Far Eastern countries the population to be
supplied with adequate training facilities and the territory to be
covered by a network of training institutions are so large as to
intensify this difficulty. Their very size should induce each of the
interested countries to make a very careful study of the conditions for organising training facilities with a view to securing
maximum results at minimum cost. In other words, the

FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS

111

tightness of funds calls for the utmost rationalisation of national
training programmes, especially as in the initial experimental
stage, when the co-ordination of the various training institutions
has still to be achieved, there is a danger of wasteful overlapping
of effort in the preparation of the schemes and their execution.
One of the points to be considered is that of the judicious
choice to be made when different methods can be used for
obtaining equivalent results. For example, skilled workers can
be trained by three different systems. The first consists of
training in technical schools, possessing the necessary equipment
for giving practical instruction. This is the system preferred
in France, for instance. However, the same category of workers
can be trained equally well in plants by means of apprenticeship
schemes. This is the system in operation in the three countries
of the British Commonwealth which are represented at ECAFE
meetings : the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.
The third system—adopted by India—consists of a combination
of the two first. Both those two systems have their own advantages and disadvantages, frequently stressed by their respective
supporters. It is reasonable to conclude that the two are
equally satisfactory in practice, as good results are obtained
from both. Each method requires expenses of a different
character. In the first, installation costs and the salaries of
the teaching staff are borne by the Government ; expenses
under the second system are carried by the employers, but
experience has shown that this latter system is satisfactory
only if the Government exercises strict supervision over both
the framing and the practical application of the training schemes,
and this calls for special administrative personnel and additional
expenditure. Moreover, the best apprenticeship schemes provide for compulsory attendance at theoretical courses, the cost
of which is borne by the State.
A comparison of two or more systems could therefore be
made on the basis of cost, which would be calculated with
reference to the geographical and other conditions in which the
scheme will be applied, and would be one of the factors to be
borne in mind before deciding to which of several methods
to give priority.
Equitable geographical distribution of training institutions,
and their possible regrouping where some are insufficiently
attended, can do much to reduce over-all expenses by ensuring
a maximum output from each institution.

112

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

There are, however, certain economies which experience
has shown to be inadvisable, namely, those which might result
in a lowering of the standard of training given. If trainees in
a technical school receive such mediocre training that they are
incapable of doing the work well for which they are supposed
to have been trained, the cost of upkeep of such a school,
however low in itself, constitutes a useless expense.
Shortage of Teaching Personnel
The shortage of teaching personnel, and chiefly of good
instructors for practical training, is admitted to be one of the
main obstacles to the development of vocational training
facilities. Nearly all the replies to the questionnaire mention
this handicap.
The shortage of highly skilled personnel is sufficiently acute
in some countries to suggest seeking instructors from abroad.
In one case a request was received by ECAFE to assist in the
recruitment of such personnel. The Government of Burma, in
answering the questionnaire, expressed its desire for help in
engaging, in the engineering field, a lecturer, an assistant
lecturer and a workshop supervisor. In its reply to the
questionnaire, the Government of India stressed its lack of
highly skilled hydro-electric experts and added that any foreign
specialists engaged would be required to train local personnel.
It also mentioned its intention to send a mission to the United
Kingdom and the United States to engage the necessary personnel for two higher technological institutes which it is proposed
to open shortly.
In the above two cases the need is for highly skilled personnel.
In several other countries it is equally hard to find sufficiently
skilled personnel for ordinary technical schools or training
centres. The reason for the shortage does not lie solely in
the lack of sufficiently qualified persons to take charge of such
training, but also in the fact that competent technicians find
employment in industry more profitable than in schools or
training centres. This difficulty in retaining skilled personnel
owing to the unsatisfactory salaries attached to teaching posts
was mentioned by the Bureau of Technical Training in China,
by the Committee on Scientific Man-Power and the Council for
Technical Education in India.
The problem is thus a twofold one : on the one hand, a

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113

sufficient number of special courses must be organised to train
personnel for teaching work and periodically to improve their
knowledge by refresher courses ; and, on the other, more
satisfactory conditions of employment must be established for
them to ensure that they stay on the job.
Shortages of Equipment and Raw Materials
The shortages of equipment, machines and, even, ordinary
tools, is an equally common obstacle in many countries. The
Governments of Burma, China, India, Indonesia, Korea and
the Philippines mention this fact as one of the obstacles to
the development of their schemes of training. To quote the
Indonesian reply : " If ECAFE would be able to facilitate the
supply of tools and machines, then the plans of this Government
could be accelerated considerably ".
It is clear that no satisfactory technical education can be
undertaken without tools and machines, or with obsolete
equipment, or with so few machines that each is considered by
the students as a museum piece rather than as a practical tool.
Three main causes are responsible for the present shortage :
(1) the destruction during the war of the equipment of a number
of technical schools in the region ; (2) the high cost of such
equipment and the lack of funds to buy it ; (3) the scarcity of
such equipment and the fact that in most ECAFE countries
it has to be imported, that the schools can secure it only in competition with the industries of the country of origin as well
as of the importing country, both of which are in need of supplies
of this nature, and that in this sort of competition the schools
are likely to be beaten.
This obstacle is a serious one. In India, the various committees which have already been mentioned in this report have
suggested various ways in which the Government can intervene :
by granting a high priority to import permits for this type of
equipment and instructing the purchasing missions abroad to
endeavour to secure it ; by lowering customs duties on such
equipment ; by encouraging local firms to manufacture such
tools and machines ; and by allocating to institutions for
technical training equipment from war surplus stock likely to be
of use to them.
Another obstacle to efficient technical training is to be found
in the difficulty of procuring suitable materials in sufficient

114

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

quantity for adequate workshop practice. The scarcity of
such materials is acute and their cost high.
The difficulties caused by the lack of textbooks and the like
are less often mentioned in the official communications, but
any conversation with the managers of schools and competent
authorities will bring out the importance attached to this
question. The required material—syllabi, technical manuals,
collections of industrial drawings—the preparation of which
requires a great deal of experience, has to be built up from the
very beginning for training schemes in process of being
organised by new administrative or teaching personnel.
A case in point was noted by the Committee on Apprenticeship in Ceylon : the teaching manuals, to be easily understood
by the trainees, should be prepared in the vernacular. Where,
as in many Far Eastern countries, the technical terms have not
yet been evolved in the national tongue and the necessary
technical vocabulary is accordingly lacking, the creation of
such a vocabulary is a difficult task. To overcome the difficulty,
technical terms are usually borrowed from the particular foreign
language best understood in the country in question. This
rule, however, is not always adopted by all the technical training institutions in a country, and hence the specialists in a
particular subject have no language in common. Furthermore,
some textbooks utilise concurrently technical terms borrowed
from several western languages, which is a source of confusion
to the students. Thus, the question of establishing technical
nomenclatures is another problem which confronts the authorities responsible for technical education in these countries.
Difficulties of a Social Character
The object of the present study is to draw attention mainly
to the technical and economic difficulties met with in the
organisation of vocational training facilities. Nevertheless, the
numerous social factors intervening as a further handicap
should not be ignored. These factors also exert an influence
in other parts of the world, but some of them are undoubtedly
stronger in the Far East.
It was pointed out in the preceding chapter that, owing to the
low standard of living in the area, many families refrain from
arranging for systematic training for their children since it puts
off the date at which they begin earning. Illiteracy is another

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115

difficulty which has not been overcome in a number of Far
Eastern countries and acts as a further handicap, especially
when the training is of a technical character and demands
a basis of general knowledge if it is to be successful.
Furthermore, the prestige which, by social tradition, attaches
to cultural subjects in some countries of the East has long
deterred (and still does) many young men and women of the
middle and upper classes from engaging in studies for acquiring
practical knowledge, and still more a manual skill, even though
they may be better fitted to succeed in such work, and so to
contribute more fully to the development of their country.
In preparing its training schemes, each country will also
have to bear these problems in mind in order to popularise
vocational training and minimise the effects of all these factors.

CHAPTER III
CONCLUSIONS :
NATIONAL EFFORT AND INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
The survey of present conditions made in Chapters I and II
of this report leads to the conclusion that the countries of the
Far East are becoming increasingly aware of the importance
of vocational and technical training and that, even if at times
sporadically, training systems are in course of being organised.
Nevertheless, because of the growing variety of techniques
required by an expanding economy, much still remains to be
done. The question is how to accelerate the work.

NATIONAL EFFORT

It is primarily on a national basis and through each country's
individual efforts that the structure of a vocational and technical
training system should be built. This structure should be adequate to meet every type of requirement. It is obvious that
training abroad can be resorted to only as an exceptional
measure which, while having an importance when the demand
for technicians is very small, can hope to achieve but limited
results as soon as the demand expands. But it may be needed
as a means of making a start.
A system of training that will provide the various branches
of its economy—industry, agriculture, commerce—with all
grades of technicians should cover the whole country. It has to
be built up out of a vast number of individual parts, out of a
great variety of institutions, some of which already exist. But
in order to be fully efficient these institutions should operate
within the confines of a single master-plan if gaps and overlapping are to be avoided. Ac the present moment, such a
master-plan, capable of being used as a guide by countries in
process of developing their vocational training facilities, has
been evolved in only a few cases.

CONCLUSIONS

117

Consequently it is desirable that there should be a mapping
out of the whole field to be covered, section by section, with the
administrative responsibility in each section clearly allocated,
and with the necessary machinery for interrelation indicated
so as to ensure co-ordinated action by all concerned. Existing
institutions will find a place in such a master-plan, and, on
making an inventory of what is available, some institutions
created by individual initiative and with a limited field of
activity might be found to merit adoption as a pattern on which
all institutions with a similar purpose should be based. In any
event, gaps will gradually have to be filled in accordance with
the master-plan, in order to offer to the different groups of the
population requiring vocational training—juveniles and adults,
men and women, the able-bodied and the disabled—the training
facilities best suited to their respective requirements—technical
training in schools, in-plant training or practical training in
special training centres, long-term or short-term courses, fulltime attendance or part-time attendance after working hours.
A time schedule for the implementation of the master-plan
should be laid down at the same time, by fixing an order of
priority for the different stages of development, with reference
to the available funds. In this way the necessarily large sums
allocated to the programme will be turned to the best account.
A master-plan of this nature must meet the special requirements of each country and be drawn up so as to harmonise
with its plan of economic development. The speed of implementation should also be related to the speed of development of
economic programmes which may require a particularly rapid
training in the case of this or that category of skilled worker.
In consequence the master-plan cannot copy some other national plan as it stands, not even the plan showing the best results.
But in drawing up and implementing such a master-plan,
the experience gained in the international field can be of the
greatest assistance.

INTERNATIONAL

CO-OPERATION

International Assistance in the Preparation of a Master-Plan
International experience is already available to every country
in condensed form, IL the shape of the recommendations of the

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TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

International Labour Organisation on vocational training and
related problems. These are to be found in the Recommendations of the International Labour Conference devoted to that
subject or forming part of a text with a wider scope.
Further, the Industrial Committees of the International
Labour Organisation are now studying anew this same problem
for each of the branches of industry with which they are concerned, and their findings can be of help to the Far Eastern
countries, several of which are taking part in their work. Thus
in accordance with the obligation to promote the development
of vocational and technical education imposed on it by its
Constitution, the Organisation has already drawn up a comprehensive international programme to guide the efforts of each
country in this difficult task.
Several references have been made in this report to the
two Recommendations adopted in 1939, one on vocational
training in general and the other on apprenticeship \ because
they are homogeneous texts containing the main results of
studies undertaken in this field by the General Conference of
the Organisation. The principles recommended therein and the
suggested methods of implementation are drawn from the experience of Member States and selected because they have stood
the test of practical application. In a matter of so essentially
practical a nature as the organisation of vocational training,
the fact that representatives of employers and workers collaborated on an equal footing with the representatives of Governments in drafting these Recommendations is a guarantee that
realistic thinking was embodied in the proposals put forward.
Attention may also be drawn to the clauses on vocational
training inserted in 1944 in the Recommendation concerning
employment organisation in the transition from war to peace.2
These are not confined solely to giving guidance on transitional
measures ; some are of lasting value and form a complement
to the 1939 Recommendations on problems which, during the
intervening five years, have changed considerably because
of wartime developments.
Until the Asian countries have an opportunity of closely
studying the problem at one of the Asian regional conferences
of the International Labour Organisation—and such an oppor1
2

See Appendix I, A and B.
See Appendix I, C.

119

CONCLUSIONS

tunity might well arise in 1949 1 —the countries concerned might
perhaps find some useful suggestions to guide them in framing
their general plan of vocational and technical training in the
two resolutions on the subject adopted by the American States
Members of the Organisation at their Third Regional Conference,
held in Mexico in 1946.2 Indeed, the countries of Latin America
which took part in the preparation of these texts are passing
through a stage of economic evolution that in many of its
aspects is very similar to that of the Far Eastern countries, with
which they have many problems in common.
A comprehensive discussion of the problems of vocational
training by the countries of the Far Eastern region at the forthcoming Asian Regional Labour Conference may give an impetus
to the preparation of national plans and of measures designed
to hasten the solution of these problems. The primary purpose
of the regional conferences of the International Labour Organisation is to offer to the States Members in a particular region,
which frequently have common problems, an opportunity of
pooling their experiences, their difficulties and their proposals, in
order to clarify, through resolutions valid only for that region, the
principles laid down in the decisions of the General Conference.
Such meetings also serve as a vehicle for presenting to the
Governing Body of the International Labour Office the suggestions of those countries in respect of the activities which they feel
the Organisation should undertake, as well as of the help which
they expect to obtain therefrom.
International

Assistance in the Implementation
Schemes

Training

The implementation of a training programme raises a number
of practical questions in which the experience of other countries
can be of the greatest value. It may even be regarded as indispensable if rapid results are to be obtained. The transmission of
acquired knowledge is the very essence of human progress. As in
the case of any art or technique, methods of vocational training
are transmissible, and there is no need for a country to take the
hard road of experimentation when other countries have already
traversed that road and can indicate the various obstacles.
1
The Preparatory Conference (New Delhi, 1947) made a preliminary
study and inserted clauses on the subjet in two of the resolutions it
adopted (see Appendix III).
2
See Appendix II.

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TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Several Far Eastern countries have had the help in this
field of a number of countries of the West, closely linked to them
by circumstance. It is desirable that exchanges of this nature
should be extended so that any country can, when in need, call
upon the experience of other countries, in or outside the region, in
order to profit by whichever examples best suit the particular
case being considered, whether the setting up of an apprenticeship scheme, or the organisation of intensive training courses, or
a scheme for the retraining of the disabled, etc.
International

Information.

The choice of the experience to be drawn on requires preliminary information which no one country can possess. It is,
therefore, desirable that an international information centre on
vocational training should be at the disposal of Far Eastern
countries so that they may obtain any information of a technical
nature which they may require.
Such a centre should be able to furnish detailed information
on the various methods, administrative and technical, of
organising training schemes, and, when possible, on the results
achieved by various types of schemes. It should also possess,
for the use of experts of every country, an international collection of such documents as curricula and syllabi, textbooks,
sets of drawings, visual aid material, etc.
In view of the great, size of the region, it would be of particular value if arrangements could be made for temporary loans
of such material or for its duplication in whole or in part. The
proposed centre could also serve as a means of securing from
different countries training material not produced on a commercial basis which may be desired by other countries.
The material should not be collected only from the region,
or even from neighbouring regions, but from the whole world.
It would be as interesting for a Far Eastern country to see how
a Latin American country at a similar stage of economic
development has adapted for its own use a training scheme
applied in a highly industrialised western country, as to know
the detailed method of operation of the original scheme in Europe
or the United States.
The Commission was informed at its third session that such
an information service had been created by the International
Labour Office, at its Geneva office, at the request of the Economic Commission for Europe. In its resolution on technical

CONCLUSIONS

121

training, the Commission noted with interest the decision of the
Governing Body of the Office regarding this service and the
intention to extend it to other regions.
It would obviously be necessary to ensure that the services
of the centre should be readily available to countries of the Far
East and that the required information should reach them as
rapidly as in the case of European countries.
Furthermore, the information centre would have to bear in
mind the special needs of the Far Eastern countries, when they
differ from those of European countries. The I.L.O. centre
is at present concentrating on the question of the training
and retraining of adult workers, and is engaged in publishing
detailed practical information in the form of national monographs on the administrative organisation of various adult
training schemes. This is in conformity with the present needs
of European countries, where the manpower shortage in various
branches of economic activity calls for the establishment of
intensified training schemes for facilitating the redistribution
of the labour force. The need of the Far Eastern countries at the
present time for information on the organisation of basic training
schemes for juveniles is no less great. In particular, practical
studies should be prepared for them on the pre-employment
training of juveniles for skilled and semi-skilled trades. Such
national monographs should deal more especially with the
practical organisational details of apprenticeship training,
whether in factories or in special centres, in order that the
methods adopted by different countries may be readily
compared.
Technical Assistance.
Several types of assistance may be found useful in speeding
up the development of training schemes and securing their
success.
Guidance. An information centre of the kind suggested
cannot limit itself to purely informative functions ; it must be
able to direct countries seeking how to solve a particular problem
to the concrete examples most suitable to their requirements.
It will, in fact, have to render technical assistance, and
therefore the persons operating the service will have to be experts
on an international level.

122

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

Advisory missions and expert assistance. In difficult cases,
countries establishing a training system may profit by the direct
assistance of an expert from another country, who would give
advice during the process of framing and applying a new system
or assist in improving hitherto unsatisfactory existing schemes.
Actually, this type of assistance has often been provided, on
the bilateral basis previously described. Cases of assistance to
Far Eastern countries on a broader basis have been comparatively rare, although some examples can be cited during the
post-war period.
In South Korea, United States Army technicians have
assisted in the establishment of extensive training schemes.
In China training facilities organised as a result of international post-war aid were serviced by foreign specialists of
the international organisations in question, who in this
connection fulfilled the role of experts. However, their work
was confined to setting up special schemes and did not give
any opportunity for assisting in the implementation of a national
programme.
The Chinese Ministry of Social Affairs is at present availing
itself of the services of an expert provided by the International
Labour Office, who is assisting in the organisation of training
schemes for young persons in connection with the organisation
of the employment service.
The question of advisory missions and of technical assistance
provided by international organisations (the United Nations
and the specialised agencies) for purposes of economic development, the co-ordination of this assistance and the ultimate
unification of the conditions relating to the loan of experts,
have been the subject of a recent international survey ; no
definite conclusions have yet been reached. 1
The organisation of training facilities is only one of the
numerous fields in which assistance of this kind is needed. If
the various specialised agencies and the United Nations arrive
at an agreement on general administrative rules for the loan
of experts, special cases will have to fall into line, and it is
1

UNITED

NATIONS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL,

Economic

Commission on Employment, Sub-Commission on Economic Development, Second Session : A Survey of Technical Assistance available for
Economic Development in the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies
(Document E/CN.l/Sub.3/82, 2 June 1948) ; and summary record of
the 33rd Session of the Commission and the 2nd Session of the SubCommission, June-July 1948 (Document E/CN.l/Sub. 3/SR.33 to SR 40).

CONCLUSIONS

123

therefore inexpedient to present concrete proposals here on the
procedure to be followed. But the particular utility of such
loans during the initial period of development of technical and
vocational training programmes, such as is now facing several
Far Eastern countries, should be stressed. In the allocation,
during the next few years, of the funds available for this purpose,
any of these countries applying for such aid should be treated
with particular generosity.
It should be added that the technical assistance rendered to
a Government for the purpose of reorganising its training system
can be undertaken at two different stages : either at the initial
stage, for the purpose of making a study of existing conditions
and advising on methods and principles of reorganisation ;
or at later stage, to help in the implementation of a system the
general principles of which have already been defined.
Administrative experience abroad. International assistance
may also be provided not only in the country where the training
facilities are to be established, but abroad. In this case an opportunity is afforded to a country desirous of developing or improving its training system on the lines of a foreign system to dispatch
one or more officials to follow the working of that system on
the spot, through a period of study in the department in
question.
Several different administrative arrangements are possible
in this connection. If the Government sending the official
can meet the whole cost of his journey and maintenance abroad,
all that is required is to obtain an invitation or agreement
permitting the official to work in the particular department
concerned. Should the Government be unable to meet the full
cost, the scheme of international fellowships described below
might be utilised for this purpose.
It is obvious that agreement between Governments for this
type of training can be reached on a bilateral basis. However,
the inauguration of an international scheme might facilitate
the process. Under such a scheme it would be easier, for
instance, to afford a trainee several successive opportunities of
training in different countries operating similar training schemes,
so that he might compare the various methods adopted
for implementing them.
A special international enquiry has already sounded the
readiness of Governments to participate in a scheme for the
9

124

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

exchange of officials for a period of observation and study.
It was undertaken by the International Institute of Administrative Sciences at the request of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) among the
members of that Organisation. This survey, however, did not
specifically cover the administrative side of vocational training,
and no Government reply to the enquiry mentioned in the
preliminary report J of the Institute (November 1947) suggested
that the operation of the scheme should be extended to this
field. In consequence, this question might well be reopened from
a different angle and not necessarily on the basis of mutual
exchanges.
It may therefore be useful to undertake special consultations
on the subject with a view to the possible establishment of
training facilities of this nature for Far Eastern countries. As
only a small number of persons is involved, it should
not be difficult to secure collaboration. Clearly, such consultations should not be limited solely to the ECAFE region,
but should also include countries outside the region possessing well-organised training systems and offering a wide choice
of methods.
A number of non-Asian countries have special interests in the
Far East and have considerable practical experience of vocational training. Their training systems present a wide variety
of methods, some of which have acquired worldwide renown.
There is an exceptionally well-developed system of apprenticeship in Australia ; New Zealand possesses a varied programme of
both elementary and advanced training for agriculture ; intensive training methods for adults have been highly developed in
the United Kingdom, France, the United States and recently
in the Netherlands ; the United States " Training Within
Industry " system for training instructors and foremen is now
used as a model in several countries, and the training of instructors has also been well developed in France ; retraining of the
disabled has achieved a remarkable degree of success in the
United Kingdom. Many other examples of a similar nature
could be cited.
It is likely that, in view of their interests in the Far East,
these countries would look with special sympathy on any
request to draw on their experience, although it is by no means
1

Communicated to ECAFE.

CONCLUSIONS

125

out of the question that international collaboration may be
obtained on an even wider basis.
Aid in the supply of equipment. International assistance
should also extend to the supply of equipment and teaching
materials, since the shortages in this connection are a serious
obstacle to the development of a really effective system of
training. This is far from being an easy undertaking.
Some steps have been taken in this direction by the most
difficult method of all, the free gift of equipment. One of the
items of the UNRRA programme for China's economic reconstruction provided for the distribution of mechanical and electrical
equipment, as well as of laboratory apparatus, to universities
suffering from war damages. After the close of the UNRRA
activities the programme was undertaken by the East Asia
Scientific Co-operation Office of UNESCO and was completed
in September 1948 after distributing machinery valued at
slightly over U.S. $2,000,000. It would be of the greatest
value if international funds could be raised to launch a programme of this kind on a wider basis.
If donations are not forthcoming, it might at least be possible
to negotiate international agreements under the auspices of an
accredited international organisation, in order to facilitate the
purchase of the required materials, by providing, for example,
for exemption from the duties and regulations limiting the export
of such goods.
Various measures could be taken to assist Far Eastern countries to provide better textbooks and other material for use in their
schools and technical courses. One such measure has already
been mentioned : the collection through the proposed information centre of documents which would help the various countries
to prepare their own teaching material in this field. International
agreements might also be negotiated to provide for free reproduction of textual material intended for purposes of technical
education. An alternative course would be to obtain the assistance of experts in the preparation of model textbooks, designs,
etc., which would be available for translation and reproduction
free of charge. By this means countries lacking qualified personnel to undertake this detailed preparatory work could meet
their needs with the minimum of effort. The work might be
undertaken in collaboration with the information centre.

126

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

International Assistance for Training Abroad
Elsewhere in this report, reference has been made to the
fact that most, if not all, of the Far Eastern countries still
seem to depend upon the educational facilities of other countries
to make good the gaps in their own educational structure.
As a result of the development of schools of higher learning,
the need for the students of these countries to continue their
studies abroad, with or without Government support, is not
so acutely felt as before. On the other hand, a number
of Governments have tried more frequently than heretofore
to obtain for their nationals the opportunity of training abroad
so that they should gain experience in techniques almost
unknown in their own country.
These two processes take place under rather different conditions and call for different methods of international assistance.
Studies Abroad.
Arrangements to this end can be carried out fairly easily,
as they follow an old and well-beaten track. Apart from very
exceptional circumstances, foreign students are not only favourably received, but they are often encouraged by the receiving
country to undertake their studies in its educational institutions.
Universities are always prepared to receive foreign students
and, as a result, arrangements for education of this type require
little preliminary action.
Since the end of the war, however, the admission of foreign
students has been handicapped in several countries by the large
number of ex-service men crowding the universities in order to
complete their studies. But this is a temporary difficulty, which
will eventually work itself out. It is experienced both in international exchanges of a worldwide character and in intraregional exchanges between the Far Eastern countries.
The temporary increase in the number of would-be students
adds to the difficulties created by the underdevelopment of
existing facilities in relation to actual needs. As a result, the
openings for intra-regional exchanges, despite the obvious
advantages, will be limited for several years. Most of the
replies received by ECAFE indicate that the lack of vacancies
in the existing institutions would prevent the enrolment of
foreign students for some time to come. This is particularly
stressed by the Governments of the Malayan Union, Hong Kong

CONCLUSIONS

127

and Indonesia. Although Australia and New Zealand have
declared their intention of contributing to the UNESCO Reconstruction Fund and offering special facilities to nationals of Far
Eastern countries, they have also stated 1 that the choice of
studies would have to be limited, owing to congestion in certain
faculties and technical schools. In Australia it is expected that no
facilities will be available in technical schools until the end of
1949. In New Zealand, apart from a few vacancies for students in
the Agricultural College, the only facilities available are for
studies outside the economic field (chiefly, medical and social).
As regards financial assistance for the development of studies
abroad, this is already available on a limited scale. Chapter II
of this report mentions the various scholarships granted by a
number of Governments for their nationals, as well as those
granted by Governments to nationals of a country with which
they are closely connected.
There are, as well, a number of scholarships offered on a wider
scale which the Government granting them does not restrict
to nationals of a particular country. Students from Asian
countries may also benefit from such facilities as those offered
by the United States Fulbright Act ; funds provided under this
Act can be used, in the currency of the sending country, to meet
the cost of the students' journey to a United States port. There
are also a large number of private scholarships. Finally, there
are a number of scholarships granted or sponsored by UNESCO.
Persons engaging in technical studies abroad are thus able
to benefit from financial assistance which is by no means negligible. How far does this assistance meet the needs of the Far
Eastern countries ? It is useless to attempt to answer this
question on the basis of incomplete information, or to try to
obtain such information when systematic investigations in this
field are already in progress. UNESCO is on the point of completing its " World Handbook of Fellowships and other Forms of
Assistance Available for Persons for Study and Training in
Countries Other than their Own ", which is to be published
early in 1949. A study of existing facilities will then show clearly
whether the geographical distribution of scholarships meets
the needs of Far Eastern countries or whether special efforts
will have to be made for a more adequate distribution.
1
Australia : letter to ECAFE of 8 June 1948 ; New Zealand : statement to the Committee on Technical Training, third session of ECAFE.

128

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

Practical Training Abroad.
Whereas trainees wishing to study in a foreign university
or special training school can readily obtain facilities for regular
teaching, those requiring practical experience are not in so
favourable a position. The general framework of a scheme has
still to be created for them, and separate preparations are needed
in almost every case so as to ensure that the training given
meets the particular requirements.
It might not be impossible for each interested Government
to obtain facilities for such training abroad for its nationals on
a more or less commercial basis. For instance, the purchase of
machinery abroad might be linked up with the provision of the
required facilities. However, the establishment of an international scheme for organising such training might be more useful
than in the case of university studies, with a view to eliminating
the special difficulties mentioned in Chapter II. .
The reports presented to the second and third sessions of
ECAFE discussed the possibility of organising such training
on either a regional or a worldwide basis. The question at issue
is not one of principle but of expediency. If opportunités prove
to be available nearby in adequate number and under satisfactory conditions, ful] advantage should be taken of them ;
if not, they will have to be sought elsewhere.
Organisation. It goes without saying that, in organising such
training, account must be taken of the importance and the
urgency of the needs. All the existing gaps in training facilities
to be found in Far Eastern countries cannot be filled by sending
students abroad. Training abroad, whatever efforts are made to
expand it, will only be available to a limited number of individuals. It would therefore be useful to establish an order of
priority among certain limited objectives with a view to
obtaining maximum results.
In the light of the information supplied in this report, it
appears that such objectives might consist in :
(1) the offer of facilities abroad for technicians training for
the " key " industries of each national economy ;
(2) the offer of training facilities for instructors who will later
help in starting training schemes in their own countries.
In both cases priority should be given to trainees upon whom
will depend, on the one hand, the new economic expansion and,

CONCLUSIONS

129

on the other hand, the qualifications of the skilled personnel
required by this expansion.
As regards training abroad for technicians, the investigations
of ECAFE with a view to the eventual setting-up of intraregional trainee exchanges have shown that several countries
of the region are very anxious to participate in such a scheme.
Such requests as have been received relate to fairly specific
items, whether industrial or agricultural, and most often to the
processing of agricultural products. For instance, the requests
from China bear on tin-smelting, rubber and paper manufacture, and the extraction from rice straw of pulp for use in
papermaking, as well as the processing of tea. India has listed
twelve branches in which the country requires facilities at the
highest technical level; most of them are industrial, such as
petroleum, explosives, glass making, industrial chemistry,
including fertilisers, tanning, etc., but sericulture is also
included. Ceylon is interested in glass and cement making.
Cambodia's interests are centred in tropical agriculture, forestry
and fisheries.
The organisation of training exchanges, whether on a worldwide or on a regional basis, cannot be achieved merely by
awaiting requests and offers, and then matching the one with
the other. Offers should be encouraged in order to meet the
demands, and the value of the offers made should be tested
to avoid waste of money and other disappointments. Their
technical value should be the first subject of investigation
and, after that, their practicability. One of the offers to ECAFE,
concerning agricultural research, drew attention to the lack of
housing accommodation on the spot. The living conditions
offered to the trainees should be settled in advance at the same
time as the technical conditions.
The selection of the nominees should also be based on fixed
standards. With the help of the Government concerned, the
methods used should be such as to ensure that the nominee is
fully qualified to profit by the opportunity offered him and that
he is serious in his intention to pursue his special field of activity.
One of the most important considerations is the linguistic one.
The great variety of languages in the Far East may hamper the
use of opportunities offered in countries whose languages are
little known outside their own national boundaries. Thus, the
language factor may well impede a matching of requests with
offers which, at the first glance, seems highly appropriate.

130

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

For this reason, and also on account of the specific character
of the requests for technical training, it might be desirable to
build an international system of exchanges on a fairly wide
geographical foundation in order to encourage a variety of
offers. Even though the first offers and requests investigated by
ECAFE seldom coincided, it should not be inferred that they
could not be brought together on a regional basis. A thorough
survey would open new approaches. The chances of their coinciding, however, would grow with the field of action and with
the inclusion of geographical areas whose economy, in regard to
the more advanced activities, is more diversified than in the Far
East and might offer favourable opportunities for this type of
training.
Note must also be taken of the contribution towards the
success of a programme of exchanges that might result from the
collaboration of national and international employers' and
workers' organisations. Wider opportunities in private undertakings might be expected from such collaboration, to round off
the opportunities offered by nationalised industries, where
periods of training can be more easily organised.
It must be recognised that the organisation of a sound
system of exchanges of technical personnel for periods of training
abroad is a complex task. Its very complexity is one reason why
machinery to this end has not yet been set up on an international
basis. In the main, the system has been restricted to interchanges between two countries only. A few months ago, the
Economic Commission for Europe requested the International
Labour Organisation to consider the problem of the development of exchanges of trainees and instructors. Priority had to
be given to other urgent requests for assistance made by the same
Commission, but the question still remains on the agenda of the
Organisation, since the request in effect only renewed suggestions
already made by the Conference when the decisions on vocational
training were adopted.
Financial assistance. The organisation of an efficient system,
not based on fellowships, for providing training abroad for
technicians and instructors might be envisaged, since the main
object is to afford good openings for acquiring practical experience. In most cases, there would be little objection to the
payment of the travelling and maintenance expenses of the
trainees by their own Government.

CONCLUSIONS

131

It would, nevertheless, be desirable to grant a reasonable
number of fellowships to trainees seeking vocational experience
abroad (technicians and instructors) or desiring to study foreign
methods of organising vocational training (officials). Fellowships might be granted in cases where the impossibility of
meeting the expenses of the training, or currency exchange
difficulties, might prove an insurmountable obstacle to the studies
abroad that are admittedly necessary to stimulate the progress
of technical training in Far Eastern countries.
As the title of the World Handbook now being prepared by
UNESCO shows, existing facilities for financial assistance
towards periods of vocational training abroad, as well as fellowships, will be listed. Here, again, it would be better to wait for
the publication of the Handbook, in order to get a true picture
of the extent of the existing facilities. It seems likely that
among the numerous private foundations, State grants and
international fellowships affording such assistance, there might
be some that could be used for the three categories of training
(for technicians, instructors and officials) mentioned above.
The difficulty would appear to lie not so much in the settingup of a fund as in the co-ordination of existing systems. The
problem is one of ensuring coherence between the grant of a
fellowship and technical guidance during the training period,
so that the training may be carried out under the best possible
conditions and with maximum efficiency.
It therefore seems particularly necessary to revise the basis
on which the international fellowships created after the war to
meet a diversity of needs are awarded, in order to secure a
rational redistribution of international funds on a fully coordinated basis. For vocational training in particular, such coordination is desirable to ensure that the countries of the Far
East are given the greatest possible assistance.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
RECOMMENDATIONS
ADOPTED BY THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR CONFERENCE
A. Recommendation (No. 57) concerning
Vocational Training, 1939
The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,
Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body
of the International Labour Office, and having met in its Twentyfifth Session on 8 June 1939, and
Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals
with regard to vocational training, which is included in the
first item on the agenda of the Session, and
Having determined that these proposals shall take the form
of a Recommendation,
adopts, this twenty-seventh day of June of the year one thousand
nine hundred and thirty-nine, the following Recommendation which
may be cited as the Vocational Training Recommendation, .1939 :
Considering that the Preamble to the Constitution of the
International Labour Organisation mentions the organisation of
vocational and technical education among the reforms necessary for
improving the conditions of labour ;
Considering that the International Labour Conference has already
to a certain extent dealt with this problem, particularly by adopting
at its Third Session (1921) a Recommendation concerning the development of technical agricultural education and at its Twenty-third
Session the Vocational Education (Building) Recommendation, 1937 ;
Considering that at its Nineteenth Session the Conference, by
adopting the Unemployment (Young Persons) Recommendation,
1935, favoured the generalisation of measures for vocational training,
and that it was as a result of a resolution adopted during that session
that it was decided to include in the agenda of the Conference the
question of the vocational training of workers in all its aspects ;
Considering that the effective organisation of vocational training
is desirable in the interests of workers and employers alike as well
as those of the community as a whole ;
Considering that the rapid transformation of the economic
structure of, and conditions in, various countries, the constant
changes in the methods of production, and the widening of the
conception of vocational training as a factor in social progress and
in the general culture of the workers, have in a number of countries
led to a fresh examination of the whole of this question and have

APPENDICES

133

given rise to a general desire to reorganise vocational training on the
basis of principles better adapted to present requirements ;
Considering that, in these circumstances, it is particularly
desirable at the present time to state the principles and methods
which each Member should apply on its territory, with due regard
to the special requirements of the different branches of its national
economy and of the different occupations, as well as the customs
and traditions of the country, and subject to further special measures
that might be required in respect of vocational training for certain
branches of activity such as agriculture or maritime transport ;
The Conference makes the following recommendations :
PART I.

DEFINITIONS

1. For the purpose of this Recommendation :
(a) the expression " vocational training " means any form of training
by means of which technical or trade knowledge can be acquired
or developed, whether the training is given at school or at the
place of work ;
(b) the expression " technical and vocational education " means
theoretical and practical instruction, of whatever grade, given
at school for purposes of vocational training ;
(c) the expression " apprenticeship " means any system by which
an employer undertakes by contract to employ a young person
and to train him or have him trained systematically for a trade
for a period the duration of which has been fixed in advance
and in the course of which the apprentice is bound to work in the
employer's service.
PART II.

GENERAL ORGANISATION

2. (1) The work of the various official and private institutions
in each country which deal with vocational training should, while
ensuring free play to initiative and adaptability to the requirements
of the different industries, regions and localities, be co-ordinated
and developed on the basis of a general programme.
(2) This programme should be based on—
(a) the occupational interests and cultural and moral requirements
of the worker ;
(b) the labour requirements of employers ;
(c) the economic and social interests of the community.
(3) In drawing up this programme due account should also be
taken of the following factors :
(a) the stage of development reached in general education and in
vocational guidance and selection ;
(b) changes in technique and methods of organisation of work ;
(c) the structure of, and trend of development in, the labour
market ;
(d) national economic policy.
(4) The co-ordination and development referred to in subparagraph (1) should be undertaken on a national scale with the

134

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

organised collaboration of the authorities concerned with the different
aspects of the problem mentioned in subparagraphs (2) and (3),
and of the interested parties, including more particularly the occupational organisations of employers and workers.
PART III.

PRE-VOCATIONAL PREPARATION

3. (1) Compulsory education, which should be entirely general
in character, should provide for all children a preparation developing an idea of, taste for, and esteem for, manual work, these being
an indispensable part of a general education and likely to facilitate
future vocational guidance.
(2) The proposed preparation should aim, in particular, at
training the eye and hand of the child by means of practical work,
but the importance and character of this work should be consistent
with the general purposes of compulsory education. In drawing,
up the programme of practical work, the nature of the principal
industries in the locality or district might be taken into account,
but any attempt at vocational training should be avoided.
(3) This preparation, which should extend over a period of
at least one year, should begin at the latest at the age of thirteen
years and continue until the end of the period of compulsory education.
4. (1) In order to determine the occupational aptitudes of the
child and to facilitate the selection of the future labour supply,
there should be available to children who intend to enter an occupation requiring vocational training of long duration, and in particular
to those who propose to become apprentices, a preliminary preparation constituting a transition from general education to vocational
training.
(2) This preparation should take place after the completion
of the period of compulsory education : Provided that where the
laws or regulations in force in the country concerned fix the schoolleaving age at not less than fourteen years, this preparation may be
undertaken during the last year of compulsory education.
(3) The duration of this preparation should be determined
with due regard to the occupation concerned and to the age and
educational qualifications of the young person.
(4) In the curricula for this preparation, particular importance
should be attached to practical work, but such work should not be
given precedence over the theoretical courses or courses in general
education. Practical and theoretical instruction should be so arranged
as to be mutually complementary. The preparation should, by
aiming at the general development of the pupil's intellectual and
manual capacities and avoiding undue specialisation, make it possible
to determine for which of a group of occupations he is best suited to
undergo full training. Practical and theoretical instruction should
be so arranged as to secure continuity between this preliminary
preparation and subsequent vocational training.
PART IV.

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

5. (1) A network of schools should be established in each
country, adjusted as regards number, location and curricula to t h e

APPENDICES

137

15. (1) Local or regional advisory committees should be
established to ensure collaboration between the competent administrative authorities and the technical and vocational educational
institutions, public employment exchanges and organisations concerned, in particular the occupational organisations of employers and
workers.
(2) The duties of these committees should be to advise the
competent authorities—
(a) on the promotion and co-ordination of official and private
action in regard to vocational training, guidance and selection
in the locality or region ;
(b) on the drawing up of curricula and the adjustment of such
curricula to changes in practical requirements ;
(c) on the conditions of work of young persons who are receiving
vocational training, whether in a technical or vocational school
or in an undertaking, and, more particularly, on measures for
ensuring—
(i) that the work done by them is suitably restricted and is
essentially of an educative character ; and
(ii) that the work of pupils in technical and vocational schools
is not intended for commercial profit.
15. (1) Measures should be taken to supply information to
interested persons, by means of brochures, articles, talks, films,
posters, visits to undertakings, exhibitions, etc., on the occupations
for which young persons can obtain training corresponding with
their inclinations and aptitudes, on the conditions upon which such
training can be obtained and the facilities that are accorded, and
on the advantages offered by each type of training in relation to the
prospects of employment and a future career.
(2) The primary and secondary schools, vocational guidance
offices, public employment exchanges and technical and vocational
educational institutions should collaborate in furnishing such
information.
PART VII.

CERTIFICATES AND EXCHANGES

16. (1) The qualifications required in the examination on
termination of technical and vocational training for any given occupation should be uniformly fixed, and the certificates issued as a result
of these examinations should be recognised throughout the country.
(2) It would be desirable for the occupational organisations of
employers and workers to assist the competent authorities in the
control of these, examinations.
(3) Persons of both sexes should have equal rights to obtain
the same certificates and diplomas on completion of the same studies.
17. (1) Regional, national and international exchanges of
students who have completed their training would be desirable so
as to enable them to acquire wider knowledge and experience.
(2) The occupational organisations of employers and workers
should, as far as possible, collaborate in organising these exchanges.

138

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST
PART

VIII.

TEACHING STAFF

18. (1) Teachers responsible for theoretical courses should be
recruited from among persons with a university degree or a diploma
awarded after training in a technical school or teachers' training
college and should possess or acquire practical knowledge of the
branch of activity for which they prepare pupils.
(2) Teachers responsible for practical courses should be recruited
from among persons qualified by practical experience, should have
extensive experience of the subject they teach, and should be fully
qualified as regards both theoretical knowledge of their subject and
general culture.
(3) Teachers recruited from industry and commerce should as
far as possible receive special training for the purpose of developing
their teaching ability and where necessary their theoretical knowledge
and general culture.
19. The following methods should be taken into consideration
with a view to improving the qualifications of teachers and keeping
their knowledge up to date :
(a) the establishment of contacts between undertakings and the
teachers responsible for giving practical training, as for instance,
by the organisation of regular " refresher " periods of work ;
(b) the organisation by educational institutions of special courses
which teachers may follow individually and short holiday courses
for groups of teachers ;
(c) the granting, in special cases, of travelling or research scholarships or special leave with or without pay.
20. Arrangements should be made between employers and
educational authorities for the appointment of persons employed
in industry and commerce as part-time teachers of special subjects.
B. Recommendation (No. 60) concerning Apprenticeship, 1939
The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,
Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body
of the International Labour Office, and having met in its Twentyfifth Session on 8 June 1939, and
Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals
with regard to apprenticeship, which is included in the first
item on the agenda of the Session, and
Having determined that these proposals shall take the form
of a Recommendation,
adopts, this twenty-eighth day of June of the year one thousand
nine hundred and thirty-nine, the following Recommendation which
may be cited as the Apprenticeship Recommendation, 1939 :
The Conference,
Having adopted the Vocational Training Recommendation,
1939, which enumerates the principles and methods which should
be applied with regard to the organisation of such training ;
Considering that of the various methods of vocational training,
apprenticeship raises special problems, particularly because it is

APPENDICES

135

economic requirements of each region or locality and affording the
workers adequate opportunities for developing their technical or
trade knowledge.
(2) Measures should be adopted to ensure that, in the event
of economic depression or financial difficulty, the supply of trained
workers necessary to meet future requirements is not imperilled by
a reduction in the facilities for technical and vocational education.
For this purpose, consideration should be given particularly to the
grant of subsidies to existing schools and to the provision of special
courses to make good the loss of opportunities for training caused
by unemployment.
(3) In countries in which a sufficient number of vocational and
technical schools has not yet been established, it would be desirable
that undertakings of such a size as to make such arrangements
practicable should meet the cost of training a certain number of
young workers determined according to the number of workers
employed by the undertaking.
6. (1) Admission to technical and vocational schools should
be free.
(2) Attendance at such schools should be facilitated, as circumstances require, by the grant of economic assistance in such
forms as free meals, provision of working clothes and implements,
free transport or reduction in the cost of transport, or maintenance
allowances.
7. (1) Courses should be organised in several grades, adjusted
for each branch of economic activity to the training requirements
of (a) journeymen and similar grades, (b) staff in intermediate grades,
(c) managerial staff.
(2) The curricula for the courses in the different schools and
for the different grades should be so co-ordinated as to facilitate
transfer from one school to another and to enable promising pupils
with the requisite knowledge to pass from a lower to a higher grade
and to obtain admission to higher technical education at a university
or equivalent institution.
8. The curricula for technical and vocational schools should
be so drawn up as to protect the future vocational adaptability of
the workers, and for this purpose it is particularly desirable—
(a) that the primary object of the courses in the earlier years
should be to give the pupil a sound basis of theoretical and
practical knowledge, avoiding excessive or premature specialisation ; and
(b) that care should be taken to enable the pupil to acquire a wide
grasp of the theoretical principles underlying the practice of
his occupation.
9. (1) In technical and vocational education of all grades,
subjects of general educational value and subjects relating to social
questions should be included in the curricula for full-time courses
and, so far as the time available permits, for part-time courses, other
than special short courses for adults.
(2) The curricula should include courses in domestic subjects,
attendance at which might be either compulsory or optional for young
workers according to circumstances.

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TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

10. (1) Workers of both sexes should have equal rights of
admission to all technical and vocational schools, provided that
women and girls are not required to engage continuously on work
which on grounds of health they are legally prohibited from performing, a short period on such work for the purpose of training being,
however, permissible.
(2) Appropriate facilities for technical and vocational training
should be provided for occupations in which women and girls are
mainly employed, including domestic employments and activities.
PART V.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING BEFORE AND DURING
EMPLOYMENT

11. (1) Where the nature of the occupation, the methods of
operation of the undertaking, the absence of an adequate system
of apprenticeship and traditions of craftsmanship, or other local
circumstances, make it impossible for young persons to secure
satisfactory vocational training while in employment, such training
should be given in full-time schools before they enter employment.
(2) Where young persons are given vocational training in the
conditions referred to in the preceding subparagraph, the practical
training should be given in surroundings as similar as possible to
those of an actual undertaking and, where circumstances permit,
should be completed by periods of practical work at the place of
work.
(3) Where vocational training is given during employment, it
is desirable that separate workshops specially adapted for the purpose
of, giving training should be set up within the undertaking wherever
the size and organisation of the undertaking make such an arrangement practicable.
12. (1) Opportunities for extending their technical and trade
knowledge by attending part-time supplementary courses should
be provided for all workers, whether or not they had received vocational training before entering employment.
(2) These courses should, as far as possible, be held in establishments near to the place of employment or the workers' homes.
(3) The curricula for these courses should be adjusted to the
special requirements of (a) apprentices ; (b) young workers for whom
facilities should be provided to enable them to obtain better posts ;
(c) adult workers who wish to acquire a technical qualification or to
extend or improve their technical or trade knowledge.
(4) The time spent in attending supplementary courses by
apprentices and other young workers who are under an obligation
to attend such courses should be included in normal working hours.
PART VI.
MEASURES CONCERNING CO-OPERATION
AND THE SUPPLY OF INFORMATION

13. Close collaboration should be maintained between technical
and vocational schools and the industries or other branches of activity
concerned, particularly by the inclusion of employers and workers
in the governing bodies of the schools or in advisory bodies to the
schools.

APPENDICES

139

given in undertakings and involves contractual relations between
master and apprentice ;
Considering that the efficacy of apprenticeship largely depends
on the satisfactory definition and observance of the conditions
governing apprenticeship and, in particular, of those relating to.
the mutual rights and obligations of master and apprentice ;
Recommends that each Member should take into consideration
the following principles and rules :
1. For the purpose of the present Recommendation the expression " apprenticeship " means any system by which an employer
undertakes by contract to employ a young person and to train him
or have him trained systematically for a trade for a period the duration of which has been fixed in advance and in the course of which the
apprentice is bound to work in the employer's service.
2. (1) Measures should be taken to make apprenticeship as
effective as possible in trades in which this system of training seems
necessary. These trades should be designated in each country,
having regard to the degree of skill and the length of the period of
practical training required.
(2) Subject to there being sufficient co-ordination to guarantee
uniformity in the degree of skill required and in the methods and
conditions of apprenticeship within each trade throughout the country, the measures referred to in the preceding subparagraph may be
taken by laws or regulations, or by decisions of public bodies entrusted with the control of apprenticeship, or in virtue of collective
agreements, or by a combination of the above methods.
3. (1) The measures referred to in the preceding paragraph
should make provision in respect of :
(a) the technical and other qualifications required of employers in
order that they may take and train apprentices ;
(b) the conditions governing the entry of young persons into
apprenticeship ; and
(c) the mutual rights and obligations of master and apprentice.
(2) In making such provision consideration should be given
more particularly to the following principles :
(a) An employer taking apprentices should either himself be qualified to give adequate training or be in a position to provide
such training by some other person in his service with the
necessary qualifications, and the undertaking in which the
training is to be given should be such as will permit of the
apprentice securing a proper training in the trade to be learnt.
(b) Young persons should not be allowed to enter into apprenticeship
until they have reached a fixed age, which should not be below
the age at which school attendance ceases to be compulsory.
(c) Where the minimum standard of general education required for
entry into apprenticeship is higher than that normally attained
at the end of the period of compulsory school attendance, this
minimum standard should be fixed with due regard to the
variations in requirements of different trades.
(d) Entry into apprenticeship should in every case be subject to a
medical examination, and where the trade in view calls for
special physical qualities or mental aptitudes these should be
specified and tested by special tests.
10

140

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

(e) Provision should be made for the registration of apprentices
with appropriate bodies and, where necessary, for the control
of their number.
(f) Arrangements should be made to facilitate the transfer of an
apprentice from one employer to another in cases where transfer
appears necessary or desirable in order to avoid interruption
of the apprenticeship or to complete the training of the
apprentice or for some other reason.
(g) The duration of apprenticeship, including that of the probationary period, should be determined in advance, any prior training
undergone by the apprentice in a technical or vocational school
being duly taken into account.
(h) Provision should be made for the holding of examinations of
apprentices on the expiry of the period of apprenticeship and,
where necessary, in the course of apprenticeship, for determining
the methods of organising such examinations, and for the issue
of certificates based on the results thereof. The qualifications
required in such examinations for any given trade should be
uniformly fixed, and the certificates issued as a result of such
examinations should be recognised throughout the country.
(i) Supervision should be established over apprenticeship, particularly with a view to ensuring that the rules governing apprenticeship are observed, that the training given is satisfactory
and that there is reasonable uniformity in the conditions of
apprenticeship.
(j) Any requirements of form to be complied with by the contract
of apprenticeship and the terms to be contained or implied
in it should be specified, as for instance by the drawing up of a
standard contract, and the procedure for the registration of
contracts with the bodies referred to under (c) above should be
determined.
4. (1) Provision should be made in the contract of apprenticeship as to how any remuneration in cash or otherwise due to the
apprentice should be determined and as to the scale of increase in
remuneration during the course of the apprenticeship.
(2) Where there are no laws or regulations upon the subject,
or the laws or regulations do not apply to apprentices, provision
should also be made in the contract of apprenticeship in respect of—
(a) the remuneration referred to in subparagraph (1) above during
. sickness ; and
(b) holidays with pay.
5. (1) It would be desirable that the parties concerned in
apprenticeship and more particularly the organisations of employers
and workers should collaborate with the official bodies responsible
for the supervision of apprenticeship.
(2) Close collaboration should be maintained between the
bodies responsible for the supervision of apprenticeship and the
general and vocational education authorities, vocational guidance
institutions, public employment exchanges and labour inspection
authorities.
6. This Recommendation does not apply to the apprenticeship
of seamen.

APPENDICES

141.

C. Recommendation (No. 71) concerning
Employment Organisation during the Transition from War
to Peace, 1944
(Extracts)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES

V. Each Government should, to the maximum extent possible,
provide public vocational guidance facilities, available to persons
seeking work, with a view to assisting them to find the most suitable
employment.
VI. Training and retraining programmes should be developed
to the fullest possible extent in order to meet the needs of the workers
who will have to be re-established in employment or provided with
new employment.
VIII. Efforts should be made during the transition period to
provide the widest possible opportunities for acquiring skill for
juveniles and young workers who were unable, because of the war,
to undertake or to complete their training and efforts should also
be made to improve the education and health supervision of young
persons.
METHODS OF APPLICATION

20. On the basis of information concerning labour supply and
demand in the post-war period, each Government should, in close
co-operation with employers' and workers' organisations, formulate
a national training and retraining programme, geared to the postwar needs of the economy and taking into account changes in the
different skill requirements of each industry.
21. Every possible step should be taken to facilitate the occupational mobility necessary to adjust the supply of workers to present
and prospective labour requirements.
23. In addition to apprenticeship schemes, systematic methods
of training, retraining and upgrading workers should be developed
to meet post-war needs for the reconstitution and expansion of the
skilled labour force.
24. Persons undertaking training should be paid, where necessary, remuneration or allowances which provide an inducement
to undergo and continue training and are sufncient to maintain a
reasonable standard of life.
26. (1) Qualified vocational teachers and instructors who have
been engaged in other work during the war should be encouraged
to resume their previous occupation at the earliest possible moment.

142

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

(2) Refresher courses should be organised in case of need—
(a) for vocational instructors returning to their -work after a
lengthy absence ; and
(b) for teaching new methods and techniques.
(3) Additional vocational teachers and instructors should be
trained in the numbers required to meet the needs of the training
and retraining programme.
(4) Members should co-operate, where necessary, in reconstituting and expanding vocational training and retraining, by such
methods as :
(a) the provision in one country' of training as instructors for
persons from another country to enable them to acquire broader
skill or training not available in their own country ;
(b) the loan of experienced vocational instructors and teachers
from one country to help meet shortages of vocational training
staff or new industrial needs in another country ;
(c) facilitating the return to the territories of Member countries
of subjects thereof living in the territory of another Member
country who are qualified for teaching and instructing in their
home country ; and
(d) the provision of training handbooks and other equipment to
assist instructors and persons in training.
27. Training and retraining services should be co-ordinated on
a national, regional and local basis, and should be closely associated
at all levels of operation with guidance work, with the placement
work of the employment service, and with the training activities of
employers' and workers' organisations.
30. (1) The policy of revising upward the school-leaving age
and the age for admission to employment should be considered by
all countries as a primary factor in planning employment policy
for the transition period.
(2) Maintenance allowances should be granted to parents by
the competent authorities during the additional period of compulsory education referred to above.
31. Student-aid programmes should be developed to enable
young persons above the school-leaving age to continue their education in secondary schools or high schools, and for those beyond
the secondary school level, subject to continued proof of merit, in
technical or higher education schools or courses on a full-time
basis.
32. (1) Vocational guidance services adapted to their needs
should be available for all young persons, both prior to and at
the time of leaving school, through the school or the employment
service.
(2) Free pre-employment medical examination should be provided for all young persons. The results of this examination should

APPENDICES

143

be incorporated in a certificate to serve as a basis for periodical
re-examinations during a period to be prescribed by national laws
or regulations.
34. Employers should be encouraged to introduce programmes
of systematic in-plant training to enable all the young workers employed in the undertaking to acquire training or to improve their
skill and broaden their knowledge of the operations of the undertaking as a whole. Such programmes should be developed in cooperation with workers' organisations and should be adequately
supervised.

APPENDIX II
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE THIRD LABOUR
CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES WHICH ARE
MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
LABOUR ORGANISATION
(Mexico City, April

1946)

A. Resolution concerning Vocational Training
Whereas the organisation of vocational and technical training
is one of the measures which were stated by the Preamble to the
Constitution of the International Labour Organisation in 1919 to
be urgently required ;
Whereas in 1938 and 1939 the International Labour Conference
in Geneva gave detailed consideration to the problem, and, in the
latter year, adopted two Recommendations concerning vocational
training and apprenticeship respectively, which have already formed
the basis of the structure of vocational training and apprenticeship
in the American countries ;
Whereas in the Declaration of Philadelphia, in 1944, the Conference recognised the solemn obligation of the Organisation to further,
among the nations of the world, programmes which will achieve
the assurance of equality of educational and vocational opportunity ;
Whereas, although these. Recommendations have a universal
character, some of their provisions are of particular interest to the
American countries, especially to those in which industrialisation
programmes are being, or will be, undertaken, and which require
an adequate supply of skilled labour ;
Whereas the number of skilled workers can be increased only
if facilities are provided for systematic vocational guidance and
training of workers in these countries and if their placement in employment is assured ;
Whereas the Government and bodies concerned in the American
countries have already given careful consideration to the principles
laid down in the aforesaid Recommendations in the revision and
improvement of their vocational training systems, which proves that
the time has come to prepare an inter-American plan oí action on
vocational training ;
For these reasons, the Third Conference of the American States
Members of the International Labour Organisation adopts the following resolution :
ORGANISATIONAL BASIS

1. (1) Vocational training should be developed on the basis
of a comprehensive national plan, integrated with industrial and
agricultural policy.

APPENDICES

145

(2) It is desirable to define the social and economic objectives
of the national vocational training programme with a view to—
(a) meeting the immediate and prospective labour requirements
of industry and agriculture in each area and in the country
as a whole ;
(b) providing opportunities for developing the full capacities
of the young persons and men and women in each area and
in the country as a whole ;
(c) ensuring that the training programme is directed towards
the general well-being, by helping to develop national human
and material resources with a view to raising living standards
throughout the country.
2. (1) Administrative responsibilities for the development of
vocational training facilities should be defined, and measures should
be adopted to ensure the systematic co-ordination of vocational
training activities and of the work of the authorities concerned with
their development, at the national, regional and local levels.
(2) Machinery should be established for enlisting the full technical assistance and co-operation, at the national, regional and
local levels, of—
(a) representative organisations of management and labour in
industry and agriculture ;
(b) public agencies whose work affects education and planning
of production and employment, respectively ; and
(c) other organisations in a position to advance the development
of vocational training, including vocational guidance, vocational education and youth organisations.
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

3. (1) Measures should be adopted to link vocational guidance
with all forms of vocational training, and for relating the choice of
training to prospective employment opportunities.
(2) It is desirable to provide, free of charge, technical vocational
guidance tests, including any vocational selection or general aptitude
tests, and a medical examination for every person about to enter a
course of vocational training.
(3) In accordance with these purposes, measures should be
adopted to train qualified vocational guidance staff and to select
such technical staff, if already available.
(4) Special arrangements should be made for travelling qualified
vocational guidance personnel, able to provide assistance to young
people in rural areas.
PRE-VOCATIONAL TRAINING

4. In order to relate education closely to national social and
economic policy, it is desirable to provide for a vocational bias in
the last years of primary and secondary education, and to differentiate the courses offered in urban and rural schools, but without
sacrificing general cultural subjects.

146

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

VOCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN SPECIALISED
SCHOOLS

5. (1) At least one industrial training school should be set up
in each region, and this basic network should be supplemented as
rapidly as possible by more specialised facilities for technical training for. particular industries and occupations (including public and
social service occupations) and by additional facilities for higher
technical and professional training for industry, from the secondary
level to the highest professional level.
(2) In order to improve the standard of training offered in
commercial schools there should be adequate official supervision,
and special efforts should be made to relate the training provided
more closely to the requirements of the national economy.
(3) It is desirable that, in drawing up public works and development projects, Governments should, without detriment to general
education, grant special facilities for—
(a) the building of vocational schools and the allocation of funds,
materials and labour needed for the execution of such projects ;
and
(b) the equipment of vocational training schools with an adequate quantity of modern and good quality tools, machine
tools, machinery and other supplies.
6. (1) A staff of instructors, adequate in number, skilled in
technique and qualified in teaching, should be trained for the vocational schools.
(2) For this purpose, a special instructors' training centre or
institute, at which vocational school teachers can receive a preparation for their work and to which they can return at periodic intervals to refresh and modernise their knowledge and techniques,
should be set up.
(3) In order to facilitate recruitment of vocational school
instructors, measures should be adopted to improve their status and
conditions of employment, thus preventing their migration to other
more attractive occupations.
(4) Steps should be taken to train administrative staff for vocational schools and centres, by such means as special courses in
public administration and co-operation.
7. Access to vocational schools should be facilitated by such
measures as—
(a) free attendance and free provision of work clothes, shoes and
protective equipment, necessary tools and supplies of all kinds ;
(b) free or low-cost midday meals and free health care through
the schools, as national circumstances permit ;
(c) special public transport arrangements aimed at widening
the geographic area covered by any school and ensuring that
trainees are able to get to the schools and return home without
undue loss of time, energy or health ;
(d) organisation, on a basis of tripartite co-operation, of residential
boarding units for young persons of both sexes who live beyond
daily commuting distance of vocational training, and payment
of maintenance allowances to those forced to live away from home i

AÌPPENDICES

149

(2) It is desirable to equip specialised vocational schools to
provide this form of training on a part-time basis, and, in addition,
to set up special half-time schools for the various industries, offices
or undertakings, maintained with the support of the employers concerned, but with a public subsidy granted under conditions guaranteeing adequate and well-rounded training, and working in co-operation
with the trade unions concerned.
(3) It is desirable to promote greater national uniformity in
the methods and curricula of the supplementary training provided
in the various industries, occupations and undertakings.
(4) It is desirable to encourage attendance at such courses of
all young workers under 18 years of age employed in any undertaking, and, in addition, to require employers to give such persons
free time during working hours, and without reduction of wages,
in which to take the courses, and to increase the wages of young
workers who make particularly meritorious efforts and who prove
by their records that they have increased their capacity by their
supplementary training.
AGRICULTURAL TRAINING

18. (1) The number of specialised agricultural schools, including schools of stockbreedirtg and fishing, at the secondary school
level, organised on a productive basis, should be increased to ensure
that young people in all rural areas have access to such schools by,
for example—
(a) adequate transport arrangements ; and
(b) setting up residential units near to each of these schools, and
providing for the maintenance of the pupils at State expense
and where necessary for the payment of allowances to their
families.
(2) It is desirable to ensure constant improvement in higher
technical training for agricultural experts and instructors for agricultural schools, and to provide greater access to this type of school
through an extensive system of fellowships for qualified pupils of
the specialised agricultural schools.
(3) It is desirable to equip these institutes to provide short
courses for agricultural technicians and refresher courses for teachers of agricultural education and for teachers in all rural primary
schools.
19. It is advisable to establish a service of travelling agricultural
experts and instructors, paid by the Government, and qualified to
spread knowledge of modern methods of agriculture and develop
the necessary training programmes in each region.
20. In formulating and carrying out programmes of agricultural
education, it is advisable to secure the collaboration of agricultural
enterprises, of agricultural workers, and, in appropriate cases, of
local official councils, and their representation in any advisory
machinery set up in this connection.
TRAINING AND RETRAINING OF ADULT WORKERS

21. Special provision for the training and retraining of adults
should be included in all vocational training programmes.

150

TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

22. (1) Training facilities should be adapted to the use of adult
workers, as for example by special daytime courses and classes in
vocational or apprenticeship schools, by evening classes in vocational
schools, by admitting adult workers freely to in-plant training
schemes, or by organising special centres.
. (2) Measures should be adopted to promote the continued technical training and upgrading of adult workers.
23. (1) Measures should be adopted to encourage the expansion
and use of training facilities for adults, such as public subsidies to
be used for organising supplementary courses (either during or
outside working hours), adequate allowances to adults in full-time
training, and for other purposes, and the enlisting of employer and
trade union support and co-operation.
(2) Machinery should be set up for special investigation and
research, undertaken in co-operation with employers' and workers'
organisations, into the need for training facilities for adults, the
type and method of training which would be most practical and
suitable for the various industries, and the measures needed to promote the organisation of suitable facilities to the extent found
necessary.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF TRAINING

Women
24. (1) Measures, including the orientation of general education towards vocational aims, and vocational guidance, should be
adopted to assure women complete access to all forms of training.
(2) It is desirable to investigate women's training requirements
for the purpose of determining adequate methods of improving
existing training facilities.
Disabled Persons
25. It is desirable to set up machinery for investigating the
special training needs of disabled persons and for ensuring that
such persons have equal, access to all Training facilities suited to
their capacity. Moreover, organisations and institutions should be
established where necessary to undertake the vocational retraining
of the disabled, and further developed where they already exist.
Special Indigenous Groups
26. Special machinery should be established within the framework of the various vocational training schemes to investigate the
vocational training needs of the indigenous population, with a view
to incorporating throughout the country, as may be found necessary,
suitable and adequate provision for their training for industrial,
agricultural and handicraft pursuits, appropriate to their requirements and to those of their country.
Handicapped Children
27. Separate specialised vocational schools should be set up for
children with retarded mental development and children with special
physical defects.

APPENDICES

151

Homeless Children
28. Measures should be adopted to protect minors who are socially and economically handicapped so that they may enjoy the same
vocational training opportunities as other young persons.
METHODS OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

Exchange of Information
29. Systematic arrangements should be made to ensure and
promote regular interchange among Governments and employers'
and workers' organisations of all information useful in developing
and improving vocational training facilities.
Procurement of Equipment
30. It is recommended that Governments should enter into
arrangements for making available, so far as national circumstances
permit and on as favourable terms as possible, the machinery and
other supplies (including materials) needed for increasing the number and the activities of vocational training schools and workshops.
Co-operative Training Facilities
31. It is desirable to organise, in collaboration with employers'
and workers' organisations, co-operative training facilities among
groups of American countries, or on a regional basis, for such purposes as establishing centres for the advanced training of selected
vocational training instructors to serve as a nucleus for the expansion of specialised training for the various trades and occupations.
In order to carry through the regional co-operation of the American
countries in vocational training, a body should be set up to promote
and co-ordinate courses for the training of skilled workers to be
held successively in the different countries, taking into account the
degree of technical development achieved in each branch of industrial or agricultural activity in the countries of the continent.
Exchange of Apprentices and Trainees
32. It is desirable to expand and develop arrangements for an
interchange of apprentices and other persons who are undergoing
extended training for which facilities are especially limited, or who
have completed the training available in their own country, and for
the organisation, on a tripartite basis, of a broad network of interAmerican vocational training fellowships for this purpose.
Co-ordinating Machinery
33. The Conference invites the Governing Body of the International Labour Office to create a subcommittee of the Employment
Committee, consisting of the American members, together with additional members if necessary, with the duties of intensifying interAmerican co-operation on vocational training, and of co-ordinating
adequately the activities of the various American countries.
APPLICATION OF THE RESOLUTION

34. It is desirable that all American States Members of the. International Labour Organisation should adopt legislation to apply

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TRAINING PROBLEMS IN THE FAR EAST

this resolution and to prevent any interference with its application,
and particularly to provide all those who have acquired technical
skill with real opportunities for employment in the occupations for
which they have been trained.

B. Resolution concerning the Organisation of Regular InterAmerican Technical Training Courses for Workers
Whereas paragraphs 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 of the resolution
concerning vocational training adopted by the Third Conference of
the American States Members of the International Labour Organisation refer to methods of establishing inter-American collaboration
in the field of vocational training ;
Whereas in the diversified production of America, depending
on geographical conditions, many natural resources and enterprises
are the same in various countries, which may be grouped in zones
of similar production ;
Whereas within these zones of similar production, certain countries attain a higher level of technical development in certain types
of industries because preference is given to those industries ;
Whereas advantages would accrue, both to the whole continent
by bringing together the workers of various American countries,
and to each nation because the country of origin of the worker who
attends courses will thus obtain a worker highly skilled in his particular occupation ;
The Third Conference of the American States Members of the
International Labour Organisation considers that it would be useful—
(1) That in any country which has reached a relatively high level
of technical development in a particular branch of agriculture,
stockbreeding, or industry, practical and theoretical courses
should be organised with the participation of the workers of
those countries which are interested, even though to a small
extent, in the activity concerned ;
(2) That these courses should be given either in rotation or concurrently in various American countries, taking into account
exclusively their position in a given industrial branch and the
value of training workers in that branch to the other American
countries which are engaged in similar industrial operations ;
(3) That the number of manual courses and of workers attending
them from each country of the production zone concerned
should be determined by the Vocational Training Subcommittee of the Employment Committee of the I.L.O. recommended to be established as the inter-American co-ordinating
body by paragraph 33 of the resolution concerning vocational
training ; this body would operate in agreement with the
participating countries and the country in which the courses
are given ;
(4) That the organisation of the courses, the programme of technical
training and the facilities for further development should be
the responsibility of the country in which the courses are
given ;

APPENDICES

153

(5) That the travel and maintenance expenses of the workers
attending any particular course should be borne by the country
of their origin, these costs being covered by contributions from
the Government or from the employers who send workers.
The Conference suggests as examples of possible courses in one
year :
(a) training of workers in the cane-sugar and derivative industries
in Cuba ;
(b) training of workers in the wine industry in Chile ;
(c) training of railway workers in the United States ;
(d) training of workers in the meat industry in Argentina.

APPENDIX III
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE PREPARATORY
ASIAN REGIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL
LABOUR ORGANISATION
(New Delhi, November 1947)
A.

Resolution concerning Employment Service, Recruitment
and Vocational Training
(Extract)

VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

8. Technical and vocational training is of great importance for
improving the skill of the workers so as to increase their productivity
and facilitate industrialisation, and Asian countries require assistance in their efforts to organise vocational and technical training
in a systematic way.
9. The Conference therefore requests the Governing Body to
instruct the International Labour Office to study, with the assistance
of the Governments concerned, the facilities for vocational and
technical training now available in Asian countries and in the light
of international experience to suggest practicable measures for
extending and improving them.
T H E TRAINING OF ASIAN WORKERS IN ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL
COUNTRIES

10. The provision of an adequate supply of technical and
professional personnel and skilled workers is an indispensable
condition for the industrialisation and development programmes
proposed to be undertaken in Asian countries with a view to
improving the standard of living of the people, but few or no
opportunities exist for the securing of technical experience and the
acquisition of the skills necessary for the implementation of such
programmes.
11. Such skills can be acquired advantageously in countries
which have reached a high level of industrialisation and technical
development, and experience in the training of Chinese and Indian
professional and technical personnel and workers in the United
States and the United Kingdom has proved to be beneficial.
12. The Conference therefore requests the Governing Body to
instruct the International Labour Office to study, in consultation
with the Governments and employers' and workers' organisations

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155

in industrially developed countries, the possibilities of training
Asian technical and professional personnel and skilled workers,
and to assist the Governments, in consultation with the employers'
and workers' organisations in the countries concerned, to draw up
a programme for the systematic training of an adequate number
of technical and professional personnel and workers in the various
skilled occupations.
FURTHER ACTION

13. The Conference further requests the Governing Body to
consider in the light of the progress made in the studies undertaken
on the basis of this resolution what aspects of these questions could
usefully be further considered by succeeding Asian regional conferences.

Resolution concerning the Protection of Children
and Young Workers
(Extract)

GENERAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

4. Compulsory free education should be continuously expanded
as a condition of equal vocational opportunity for all children and
young persons ; it should be of a standard and duration to permit
adequate physical, intellectual and moral development covering
the years up to the general minimum age for admission to employment as provided by national laws and regulations, with additional
provisions for young persons to continue education in accordance
with their abilities to benefit thereby. The age should be progressively raised towards the international standard as social and
economic conditions permit.
5. Provision should be made for expanding progressively the
available educational facilities, in accordance with an integrated
plan until general fundamental or basic education shall become
accessible to all children of both sexes, and instruction should be
designed to meet the actual needs of children and young persons
through educational programmes suited to their ages and aptitudes.
6. The vocational interests of children and young persons should
be fostered and their eventual selection of employment or a career
be guided with a view to promoting their general education and at
the same time developing a taste and esteem for work.
7. The needs of pupils for economic assistance should be recognised as circumstances permit, particularly in respect of free
use of textbooks, materials and school equipment ; free or lowcost milk and meals ; free or reduced cost of transportation ; and
maintenance allowances and student aid as these become practicable.
li

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TRAINING PROBLEMS IN T H E FAR EAST

8. Qualified teaching personnel should be recruited and teachertraining developed to meet the needs of the expanding school
system, and standards of remuneration and conditions of employment should be provided which will assure an adequate teaching
staff of high quality.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING

9. A network of free technical and vocational schools should
be developed and extended progressively with a view to meeting,
in accordance with their urgency and practicability, the various
needs of the national economy for technical and skilled employees
and to providing increasing numbers of young persons with adequate
opportunities for developing their technical or trade knowledge
in accordance with their occupational interests and aptitudes.
10. Programmes should be adapted to the social and economic
requirements of industries, regions, localities and the national
economy in accordance with a general plan, and curricula for the
courses in different schools and different grades should be coordinated to facilitate the transfer and promotion of students in
accordance with individual need and merit.
11. Where facilities for such vocational training are lacking or
are strictly limited, Governments should initiate schemes for such
training and/or grant subsidies to develop or to enlarge existing
institutions ; and undertakings should be encouraged where practicable to meet the cost of training young persons in numbers
proportionate to their size and need for trained personnel.
12. All technical and trade training should be organised by or
be under the supervision of competent public authorities who
should act in consultation with the appropriate employers' and
workers' organisations.
13. The qualifications required in the examination on termination of technical and vocational training should, as far as practicable, be uniformly fixed for any given occupation or trade and the
certificate issued as a result of these examinations should be
recognised throughout the country ; persons of both sexes and of all
races, creeds and social groupings should be granted the same
certificate or diploma on completion of the same studies.
14. Part-time supplementary courses under skilled direction
should be provided progressively to make available to young
workers, whether or not they have received training before entering
employment, the opportunity of extending their trade or technical
knowledge.
15. Instruction should be given by qualified personnel, including
persons with theoretical knowledge and with practical training
and experience, and programmes should be developed progressively
for the recruitment, preparation and adequate remuneration of
such teachers.
16. Regional, national and international exchange of students
and teachers should be promoted to facilitate exchange of knowledge
and experience.

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157

APPRENTICESHIP

17. As soon as practicable, laws or regulations for the control of
apprenticeship of children and young persons should be established
progressively and applied under the supervision of competent
public authorities acting in co-operation with the appropriate
employers' and workers' organisations.
18. Such measures should make provision in respect of—
(a) the technical and other qualifications required of employers
in order that they may take and train apprentices ;
(b) the conditions governing the entry of young persons into
apprenticeship, including the passing of an appropriate medical
examination, particularly in the case of hazardous occupations ;
(c) the minimum age of entry into apprenticeship, which should
coincide with the school-leaving age where such age has
been established ;
(d) the mutual rights and obligations of master and apprentice ;
(e) regulations covering the registration of apprentices, limitation of their numbers, duration of the apprenticeship, standards
of performance, methods of supervision, examinations to be
conducted and certificates to be awarded, and payment of
apprentice wages, including holidays with pay and sick leave,
etc.
19. Collaboration should be maintained between the bodies
responsible for supervision of apprenticeship and the general and
vocational education authorities, including those engaged in vocational guidance, public employment exchanges and labour inspection
services.

APPENDIX IV
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE FAR EAST
A. Resolution on Teclinical Training and Use of Expert Assistance
by Governments
(Second Session, Baguio, December 1947)
The Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, taking note
of the report on the training of technical personnel in the economic
field and the use of expert assistance by member Governments
(E/C'N. 11/40) and the supplementary report giving information as
to the interest of certain specialised agencies and other organisations
in these fields (E/CN. 11/40/Add.l) ;
In view of the urgency and importance of the needs expressed
by certain delegations during the present session of the Commission ;
Taking note of the resolution adopted by the Economic and
Social Council at its Fourth Session, instructing the SecretaryGeneral to establish machinery within the Secretariat for the provision at their request of expert advice and assistance to Governments :
Resolves—
I. That the Executive Secretary should enter into negotiations
through the appropriate channels with the specialised agencies
concerned, with a view to the establishment of an office or other
suitable machinery for the following purposes :
(1) collecting and placing at the disposal of member and associate
member countries information concerning existing facilities
for the training of technical and administrative personnel and
exchange of trainees with Asia and the Far East and the facilities available in countries outside the region for nationals
of the region ;
(2) studying the measures which might be taken to extend and
promote such facilities within the. region ; and the manner in
which ECAFE could assist and co-operate in promoting them ;
(3) facilitating contact between those countries needing training
facilities and the countries, institutions or organisations able
to provide them ;
(4) facilitating the provision of expert assistance through the Secretariat or through Governments, specialised agencies, professional associations, or otherwise ;
(5) making studies of the financial and other aspects of technical
training and expert assistance ;

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159

II. That, meanwhile, the Secretariat should continue the collection of the data necessary to perform these functions so that there
need be no unnecessary delay, and should explore the extent to
which member and associate member Governments would desire
to avail themselves of ECAFE's assistance ;
III. That the Executive Secretary should report the results
of his negotiations under paragraph I and the progress made in
respect of paragraph II to the next session of the Commission.

B. Resolution on Technical Training and Use of Expert Assistance
(Third Session, Ootacamund, June 1948)
The Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East,
Recalling its request to the Executive Secretary to enter into
negotiations with specialised agencies with a view to the establishment of an office or other suitable machinery for carrying out a
programme for the promotion of technical training facilities within
the region, the exchange of trainees both within and without the
region, and the use of expert assistance by Governments ;
Noting the interest expressed by Governments in the region in
response to enquiries of the Executive Secretary in securing and
providing opportunities for training ;
Noting with interest the decisions of the Governing Body of the
International Labour Office at its 104th Session to undertake at
the request of the Economic Commission for Europe a practical
programme in manpower problems, including technical training,
which is to be extended to other regions ; and bearing in mind the
competence and long experience of the I.L.O. in these fields ;
Noting the activities of UNESCO and other organisations with
regard to exchange of persons and administration of fellowships ;
Noting further the close relation between technical training,
working conditions and social welfare,
Resolves—
I. That the efforts of the Executive Secretary in close collaboration with the specialised agencies concerned be renewed and expedited in order that machinery be established to carry out the programme in resolution E/CN. 11/70 1 ;
II. That, pending formal agreement on the machinery to which
paragraph I refers, the Secretariat create a working section t o —
(a) actively pursue its efforts to secure opportunities for technical
training and the use of expert assistance within countries of the
region and abroad ;

The 1947 resolution, reproduced under A above.

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(b) continue to disseminate information to member and associate
member Governments, in particular issue as quickly as possible
a summary of information collected so far ;
(c) recommend to them that they encourage trainees to take advantage of exchange opportunities ; and
fd) give due attention to those conditions of work and social welfare.
which have a direct bearing on technical training.