INTERNATIONAL LABOUR

OFFICE

STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series L (Professional Workers) No. 1

ENGINEERS AND CHEMISTS
STATUS AND EMPLOYMENT
IN INDUSTRY

GENEVA
1924

CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION
I. T H E T I T L E

Methods of Acquiring the Title
Education
Practical Experience
Protection against Abuse of the Title
Protection of Certificated Engineers
Protection of Good Diplomas
Protection against Usurpation of the Title
Ordinary Law
Special Legislation
Action by the Parties Concerned
II.

EMPLOYMENT

Methods of Finding Employment
Unemployment
Migration
Emigration
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
Employment of Women
III.

CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT

Contract of Employment
Hours of Work
Remuneration
Salaries
Profit-Sharing
Patent Rights
IV.

INSURANCE AND PROVIDENT INSTITUTIONS

5
9

10
10
18
19
20
21
22
22
23
27
30

30
35
40
41
42
47
50

50
58
65
65
73
74
81

V. ORGANISATION AND DEMANDS OF THE PROFESSION

85

•GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX

89

INTRODUCTION

This report, which was prepared for the Committee on
Intellectual Co-operation of the League of Nations, is the
outcome of an enquiry originating as far back as 1921. In
the spring of that year a French organisation of engineers and
technicians requested the International Labour Office to
undertake a comparative enquiry into the position of technicians in different countries. This enquiry was successfully
conducted in a certain number of countries, but it soon became
evident that the term " technician " was too vague and indefinite and in many languages had no particular meaning. The
replies to a questionnaire on the subject could not be compared
with each other, since they referred to different classes of
workers. For this reason the enquiry was discontinued, after
the issue in 1922 of a provisional memorandum * which, in
spite of its defects, aroused considerable interest among those
to whom it referred. It would appear that the interest aroused
has not diminished since then, to judge by the proposals made
by the Association of American Engineering Societies at the
International Conference on the Scientific Organisation of
Work, held at Prague in August 1924.
Close co-operation has always existed between the International Labour Office and the International Committee on
Intellectual Co-operation of the League of Nations, since such
matters as the conditions of life and labour of intellectual
workers fall naturally within the competence of both bodies.
The representative of the Office on the International Committee has presented to the latter several reports, for example,
that on the Conditions of Life of Musicians a and when the
general investigation regarding technicians was discontinued,
it was thought desirable to take up the question again in another
1

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR O F F I C E : Memorandum

Technicians.
2

on the Posilion

of

Geneva, J u l y 1922. 26 p p . (roneod).

L E A G U E OF N A T I O N S , COMMITTEE ON INTELLECTUAL CO-OPERATION :

The Conditions of Life and Work of Musicians,
2 vols. 49 p p .

by William MARTIN.

— 6 —

form as part of the enquiry conducted by the Committee on
Intellectual Co-operation. In the light of past experience,
however, and of the matters with which the Committee was
chiefly occupied, it was decided to confine the enquiry to intellectual workers connected with industry.
As one of the objects of the International Labour Office is
to improve the conditions of life and labour of industrial
workers, those of them who have received a university training
are clearly included in this object. In most cases it is difficult
if not impossible to draw a clear line of demarcation between
classes of workers which are continually in contact with one
another. It would be a very defective method of investigation
to ignore altogether, among industrial workers, those who are
responsible for directing or for co-ordinating the work of others.
Engineers and chemists occupy a position where the work of
the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation
naturally meets that of the International Labour Office, and
this fact constitutes an explanation of this report.
For the reasons indicated above, it was decided to confine
the present enquiry, at all events temporarily, to engineers
and chemists. These two classes of workers are not, of course,
the only intellectual collaborators in industrial work ; the
variety of functions discharged by the latter, however, is such
that it would be impossible to deal with them all in a single
study.
Despite this limitation, the field of the enquiry is wide.
Engineers themselves occupy every kind of position, from that
of the probationer who has just left school to the head of a
large industrial undertaking or the managing director of a
great company, and from a public official strictly graded in
the civil service to a consultant engineer in an entirely independent position.
No endeavour will here be made to define the term "engineer",
which has so many different meanings according to language
and country. In English the term covers both working
mechanics and professional men who have passed through the
great engineering schools, and indicates no special qualifications. In some cases the term constitutes a title ; in others
it is merely the name of an occupation. An engineer, according
to a French correspondent, is " a person who, having received
an advanced scientific education of anjr kind, is required
either to draw up complete plans, or to superintend the execution

r—

1

—

of works, direct the installation and equipment of buildings
or machinery, execute, advise, or devise industrial improvements of a scientific character, or to organise work on scientific
and economical lines ". Another correspondent, who is president of an important association of engineers, gives an even
wider definition. " An engineer is a collaborator in industry
who has a more extensive general and technical education
than a worker or foreman. " The definition of a chemist or
a chemical engineer is just as difficult, and varies equally from
one country to another.
Despite these diversities, it appeared possible to attempt a
study of the position of engineers and chemists, provided that
the difficulties were borne in mind and that no effort was
made to give the terms an artificial and restrictive definition.
Information was sought in each country from persons who
regard themselves as engineers or chemists, leaving them
to adopt their own definition of the terms.
Such a method, of course, has one drawback : the replies
received are often determined by the special profession of the
correspondent, and are not always strictly comparable. But
this danger should not be exaggerated ; the different branches
of engineering are as a rule sufficiently closely allied to react
on each other, and a certain general standard of living and
of wages tends to prevail. Although they have received
widely different training and discharge very different functions,
engineers and chemists are nevertheless bound together by a
real community of interest which makes it possible to give
a general description of the conditions under which they
live and work.
In carrying out this enquiry the International Labour
Office adopted a new method, as the funds available were
insufficient to allow of investigations on the spot, involving
long journeys and personal conversations. Experience has
shown, on the other hand, that questionnaires sent automatically to a large number of associations seldom produce the
desired result ; if the questionnaires are short, too great latitude
is given to personal idiosyncrasies, and the replies received
cannot be compared ; if the questionnaires aim at completeness,
they are too long, and correspondents are apt to be discouraged.
It was therefore found preferable to communicate directly
with a limited number of individuals carefully selected in each
country, and by this method a greater number of replies was
secured.

— 8 —

Information has been received from 25 countries : Argentine,
Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chili, Czechoslovakia,
Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Panama, Peru,
Poland, Roumania, Spain, Switzerland, the United States and
Uruguay. The number of useful replies — i.e. those containing
detailed information — amounted to 64. The enumeration
of countries given above shows that the field covered was
sufficiently wide to provide a general view of the position of
engineers and chemists throughout the world. Unfortunately
some countries have failed to supply information, and this
detracts from the general nature of the enquiry.
Furthermore, in an enquiry of this character much necessarily
depends upon the particular branch of the profession in which
correspondents are engaged. It is impossible always to put
identical questions, and prudence must be exercised in comparing
the different replies. The points on which information was
particularly asked for each country and which are covered in
the present report were : (1) the meaning of the terms " engineer " and "chemist", methods of obtaining and protecting
these titles ; (2) facilities for finding employment, the extent
of unemployment, and the position of foreign chemists and
engineers ; (3) the contract of employment, including provisions
on business secrets and unfair competition, which are a special
feature of engineers' contracts ; (4) hours and conditions of
work ; (5) salaries, etc., including provisions respecting patent
rights — a matter of the greatest importance to professional
and technical workers in industry ; (6) insurance and similar
institutions, if any, open to such workers ; (7) problems of
professional organisation ; (8) any special complaints or desires
of engineers and chemists. .
Though by no means a complete account of the conditions
of life and work among intellectual workers connected with
industry, or even among engineers and chemists, the present
report may throw some light on certain problems of special
importance. One of the results of the enquiry may be to
improve the international and intellectual relations between
the workers to whom it refers, and this may be said to constitute its main object.

— 9—

I
The Title
The right to the title of engineer and the protection of this
title are problems in which engineers in many countries are
deeply interested. The problem is a difficult one for several
reasons. The terms " engineer " and " chemist " are not
strictly speaking titles, but rather the names of professions ;
in themselves they are very general and have little meaning.
In order to give them an exact meaning, it is necessary to qualify
the generic name by a word indicating the special occupation
carried on, such as electrical engineer, civil engineer, chemical
engineer, etc. Even with such qualifications the terms do not
indicate the possession of definite technical knowledge, but
merely the fact that the person using them is engaged in a profession presupposing such knowledge.
In any case all engineers appear to agree that it is impossible
to make the right to the title of engineer conditional upon
previous scientific training. We quote below the opinions
of three correspondents.
We do not agree that the title of engineer should be confined to pupils
of certain schools, especially as no school can provide complete training
for this profession. We will not recognise an official title of engineer
as conferring a legal status unless it can be acquired at any time during
a man's career, whatever his antecedents, on proof of his professional
ability, as much credit being given for experimental knowledge and
personal research as for academic attainments.
In my opinion it would be wrong to take diplomas solely into account,
for after less than a years' practical work a student who has merely
matriculated in science (bachelier es sciences) makes a better engineer
than a young man with little general education who has obtained a
diploma after taking a correspondence course for a few months.
Industry stands in need far more of practical and human qualities
than of theoretical knowledge. An engineer is always more or less a
leader of men ; he is rarely an office worker. Human worth of this
kind cannot be guaranteed by any certificate, even that of the " Ecole
Polytechnique ". Students fresh from an engineering school must
always undergo a period of probation during which their practical
capacities can be tested ; and energy, promptness, and decision are
often regarded as more valuable than abstract knowledge.

— 10 —

This being the case, it is extremely difficult to determine
what is the distinctive mark of an engineer, and what conditions
must be attached to the right to use the title. Some countries
have endeavoured to solve the problem ; in others it is untouched, while in others again it does not appear as yet to
have become acute.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING THE TITLE

As shown above, theoretical training is not the only avenue
to the title of engineer. At the present time, however, the
growing tendency in all spheres is for scientific instruction to
precede practical training, and higher technical education
must therefore be regarded as the normal method of training
engineers and chemists.
Education
The organisation of higher technical education, and of
secondary education in so far as it can provide for the training
of specialised technical workers, varies greatly in different
countries. Universities, which mainly train chemists and
teachers ; polytechnics, in the very varied senses in which this
word is used in different countries ; different kinds of technical
schools, owned either by the state or by private bodies, some
of university, others of secondary standard — all these exist
side by side, and their relations are so involved that it is difficult
to define their general characteristics. The following pages
therefore give merely a brief summary of the replies dealing
with the organisation of technical education in different countries.
One fact which must be noted, however, is the general tendency to adapt teaching to the needs of industry. Universities
for long regarded the production of teachers as their main
task ; to-day, however, in most countries they are endeavouring
to get into closer touch with industry, in order to meet its
needs. This has resulted in the creation of a large number
of technical institutions, either within the universities themselves or side by side with them, for the special .purpose of
training technical workers for industry.

— 11 - •

Austria
There are two technical collèges in Austria. That of Viennacomprises four sections : mechanical engineering (four years) ;
chemistry (four years) ; civil engineering (five years) ; and architecture
(five years). There are approximately 5,000 students attending
this school, while the Gratz college has about 2,500.
The Academy of Forestry is also entitled to grant the title of
engineer, as are certain higher-grade technical schools. To use the
title of engineer, it is necessary to have passed two state examinations
and to have obtained a diploma.
In the former Austrian Empire, military and naval officers could
use the title of engineer, even outside the army, if they had taken
special training courses (e.g. engineers, navy) and had passed certain
examinations. Under the transitional provisions of the Order of
14 March 1917, also, the Federal Minister of Commerce and Transport
may in exceptional cases grant the right to use the title of engineer.
Belgium
University degrees in engineering are granted by the technical
faculties of the state universities of Ghent and Liège, of the recognised
universities of Brussels and Louvain, and of the Mons School of Mines.
Admission to the engineering schools is conditional on passing examinations in general education and mathematics on the ¡completion of
the secondary school course. The period of study for the various
degrees varies from four to five years.
There are two so-called " statutory " engineering degrees, of mining
engineer and civil engineer, which entitle their holders to enter the
technical services of the state. There are also " academic " degrees.
The University of Brussels has ceased to train students for the
statutory degrees, and has drawn up a new advanced curriculum,
involving a great deal of practical work. The degrees granted by
the University of Brussels are those of civil engineer, electromechanical engineer, chemical engineer, and transport engineer.
A Bill has been introduced to abolish the two statutory degrees
and to regularise the degrees of the University of Brussels, which
has already created others corresponding more closely with the various
special branches of industry in Belgium.
Officers who have passed through the Military School (special
arms : engineers or artillery) often enter industry, where they are
regarded as engineers ; at the Free University of Brussels, however,
they are obliged to take a further two years' course before obtaining
any engineering degree.
The degree of chemical engineer is granted by certain Belgian
Universities. The State Institute of Agriculture at Gembloux also
grants diplomas in chemical engineering ; while the Meurisse Institute
confers a bachelor's degree (license) in chemistry. There is considerable confusion as to the exact meaning of the title of chemical
engineer. Students of (secondary) technical schools (écoles industrielles) have used this title on entering laboratories.
Various so-called " technical " institutions grant engineering
diplomas or certificates, although the training given is of no higher
grade than that of the technical schools.

— 12 —
Finland
The Technical College at Helsingfors does not directly confer the
title of engineer, but grants a diploma stating that the student has
passed an examination in mechanical or chemical engineering. The
College comprises five special sections modelled on those of the German
technical colleges.
The Abo Academy includes a chemical and technical faculty which
has been authorised since last year to hold examinations and to grant
degrees involving the same level of education as the corresponding
examinations at the Helsingfors College.
Below the technical colleges there are secondary technical schools
(technicum), which confer the title of " technician ". In principle
these schools are not allowed to employ the designation ' engineer '
in their certificates, but holders of these certificates often use it.
France
The organisation of technical education in France is of a special type,
being highly differentiated and decentralised, owing to the existence in
this sphere of a large number of institutions which are independent
of the state.
Engineering degrees are not granted directly by the universities,
but several universities, such as those of- Grenoble, Nancy, Toulouse,
Rennes, Caen, and Marseilles, have established technical institutes
which confer degrees in engineering and chemistry. It has been
found that purely academic degrees are less popular than those which
appear to lead up to industrial professions, and it is for this reason
that the universities have taken this step.
Some mention should be made of the specialised technical schools
and colleges.
The state schools include the following : the " Ecole Polytechnique ", which gives general training, to be supplemented by a course
at the Schools of Mines, Roads and Bridges, or Tobacco Manufacture
(Ecole des Tabacs) ; the St. Etienne School of Mines ; the School of
Arts and Crafts ; the Central School (Ecole centrale) ; the French
School of Papermaking at Grenoble ;• the French School of Tannery
at Lyon ; the Agricultural Institute ; the national schools of agriculture ; and the National School of Agricultural Industries.
There are a large number of private schools (i.e. not maintained
by the state), some of them of high standing. Certain of them are
recognised by the State, and the Under-Secretary of State for Technical Education gives scholarships to be held there. These schools
are : at Paris, the School of Public Works, the Breguet School, and
the School of Electricity and Industrial Engineering ; in the provinces,
the Marseilles School of Engineering and School of Industrial Electricity, the Northern Industrial Institute at Lille, the Rouen Chemical
Institute, the Eastern Technical School at Nancy, the Eastern College
of Spinning and Weaving at Epinal, the Municipal School for Foreign
Trade (Ecole municipale du Commerce extérieur et de Représentation)
at Lyons.

— 13 —
The Under-Secretary of State for Technical Education has also
established scholarships in certain schools not officially recognised
by the state, such as the Chartier School (electro-technical institute
with courses also in automobile and aeronautical engineering and in
aviation), the Scientia Technical School, the Municipal Technical
School for Girls at Lyons, the Jules Ferry Technical School at Versailles
The following private schools may also be noted, among others :
the College of Electricity, the Aeronautical School of Clignancourt,
the Special School of Engineering and Electricity, the Catholic College
of Agriculture at Angers, and the Agricultural Institute at Béauvais.
Certain schools give correspondence courses as well as ordinary
classes, e.g. the School of Public Works, while the " Ecole universelle"
gives correspondence courses only.
Obviously the value of the diplomas granted by these schools
varies considerably, but they are generally recognised as conferring
the title of engineer, at all events after a certain amount of practical
experience.
Germany
The universities and state institutions alone are empowered to
confer the title of certificated engineer or chemist. Students of private
institutions are required to pass the examination either of a university
or of a state technical college, the value of which lies in the fact that
only those chemists and engineers who have passed these examinations
are eligible for state appointments ; candidates for railway appointments must have special training.
The ordinary length of the course is four years, with, for certain
professions, such as that of electrical or mechanical engineer, one
additional year of practical work. This practical work is, as a rule,
so arranged that one-half of it is completed before beginning the
academic course, and the remainder prior to the examination.
Great Britain
Degrees in the various branches of science, including engineering,
mining, chemistry, etc., are granted by all British universities (18 in
number, including those of Ireland). The first degree (usually
Bachelor of Science) is obtained after a three or four years' course.
Higher degrees (Master and Doctor) are obtained after further study
or on presentation of a thesis representing an original contribution
to the science. Many universities, especially those in the industrial
districts, also offer diplomas in engineering which require a shorter
course of study. There are a number of technical colleges, independent
of the universities but of more or less the same academic standard,
which offer diploma courses or part of the training necessary for a
university degree. The value of the various degrees varies somewhat
according to the university conferring them, but all are accepted as
representing a sound training in engineering.
A number of universities and colleges offer part-time or evening
classes in engineering and other technical subjects, so that men already
employed in industry may qualify as professional engineers. A
special form of such part-time training is the " sandwich " course,

__ 11 _
in which the student each year spends about six months in college
and six months working in an industrial undertaking, thus acquiring
theoretical knowledge and practical experience concurrently. It
naturally takes longer to obtain an engineering degree or diploma by
part-time study than by a full-time course.
Greece
The National Polytechnic at Athens includes five faculties ; civil
engineering (four years) ; mechanical and electrical engineering (four
years) ; surveying (two years) ; architecture (four years) ; chemical
engineering (four years). There is also a compulsory preparatory
class for all students except those taking up chemistry. Candidates
for admission must hold a matriculation diploma or its equivalent.
They must pass an entrance examination in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and physics, unless they can produce certificates showing
that they have already passed an equivalent examination.
The Faculty of Science at the National University of Athens includes
a chemical section similar to that of the Polytechnic ; graduates
from this section also go into state or industrial employment.
Hungary
The Josef Royal Polytechnic at Budapest is the only college authorised to confer the title of engineer in Hungary. This college is of university standing and only accepts students who have matriculated. It
comprises four branches : civil engineering, architecture, mechanical
engineering, and chemistry. The course lasts for eight terms, with a
fixed syllabus of classes and practical work, and three examinations.
Those who have passed the third examination are authorised to use
the title of certificated engineer.
The Mining and Forestry College at Szopron grants the title of
mining engineer. It includes four faculties : mining, forestry, iron
and steel, and general metallurgy. It is organised on the same plan
as the universities, and the course of study lasts four years.
Chemists' diplomas are granted by the universities of Budapest,
Dobreczen, Szeged, and Pecz.
Italy
Engineers and architects' diplomas are granted by the engineering
schools at Turin, Milan, Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Rome, Naples, and
Palermo, and by the School of Architecture at Rome. There is a
movement among Italian engineers for reforming these schools by
concentrating them all under a single direction and enlarging the
curriculum on the side of general education.
Poland
Poland possesses two Polytechnics, at Warsaw and Lwow, which
grant degrees in road and bridge engineering, hydraulic engineering,
surveying, architecture, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
and chemical engineering. The Lwow Polytechnic also confers the
degrees of forestry and agricultural engineer. Both have the right
to confer the university degree of Doctor of Technical Sciences.

— 15 —

'

The Jagelions University at Cracow includes a Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry which confers the title of engineer. The University
of Poznan also has a Faculty of Forestry and Agriculture which
grants diplomas without the title of engineer.
The College of Rural Economy confers the degrees of agricultural
engineer, forestry engineer, horticultural engineer, and also that of
Doctor of Agriculture, Forestry, and Horticulture.
The School of Mines at Cracow grants the title of mining engineer
and metallurgical engineer under the same conditions as the two
Polytechnics.
There are numbers of secondary technical schools, schools of industrial arts, and special trade schools ; their courses of study lead up
to an examination on which a certificate of satisfactory technical
training is given. Pupils of these schools, however, are not entitled
to promotion to the rank of engineer.
Roumania
There are two Polytechnics, at Bucarest and Temesvar. The
first includes five sections : civil engineering, mechanical and electrical
engineering, mining, industrial engineering, and forestry. The
second only includes two : mechanical and electrical engineering and
mining. Students holding a matriculation certificate are admitted
after an entrance examination, and the course of study lasts four
years.
The degree of chemist or Bachelor of Chemical Science is granted
by the Universities of Bucharest, Jassy, Cluj, and Cnerowicz : the
course of studies lasts four years and candidates for admission must
hold a matriculation certificate.
The General Association of Roumanian Engineers recently passed
a resolution complaining of the inadequacy and confusion of secondary
technical education in Roumania.
Spain
Training in engineering is given in the following schools, which
are official institutions : the School of Road and Bridge Engineers
at Madrid ; the Central Schools for Industrial Engineers at Madrid,
Barcelona, and Bilbao ; and the Schools of Mines, Agriculture,
and Forestry at Madrid. There are also two military academies,
one for army engineers at Guadalajara, and one for naval engineers
at Ferrol.
The title of engineer is conferred after courses in special technical
schools, but chemists generally hold a degree in chemical science
from one of the universities.
A certain number of industrial schools controlled by the state
grant the title of mechanical technician, electrical technician, and
chemical technician, and these titles are in practice often converted
into that of engineer.
The Catholic Institute of Art and Industry grants engineering
certificates which are not officially recognised.

— 16 —
Switzerland
The Polytechnic at Zürich is the only college controlled by the
Federal Government. It grants the degrees of engineer and chemist,
and the training given is generally superior in these branches to that
given at the universities. There is an engineering school at Lausanne.
Most of the universities, such as those of Basle, Zürich, and Berne,
do not grant a special chemists' diploma, but only the degree of
Doctor of Science. The course of university studies for a chemist
lasts from three to four years.
There are also several Cantonal institutes known as " Technicum ",
notably at Winterthur, Berthoud, Bienne, Fribourg, Le Lode, and
Geneva.
United States
No less than 31 different engineering degrees and diplomas are
granted by various universities in the United States, and new ones
are constantly appearing. Their value varies greatly according to
the institution by which they are granted. Those of certain private
institutions, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, are
of much higher standard than those of some State universities.
The length of the course varies according to the degree and the
institution by which it is granted, and no general rule can be stated.
The degree of Bachelor of Science can be obtained by a four years'
course with some specialised study, while other degrees, such as
that of mechanical engineer, require a six or seven years' course.
Argentine
Higher technical education is given in the universities of Buenos
Ayres, La Plata, Cordoba, the Littoral, and Tucuman. The degrees
granted are those of civil engineer, mechanical engineer, industrial
engineer, hydraulic engineer, electrical engineer, architect, and surveyor. The course of study is six years for civil engineers, five years
for other engineers and for architects, and three years for surveyors.
The universities mentioned, as well as the National Technical
School at Buenos Ayres, are empowered to grant the degrees of Doctor
of Chemistry and chemical engineer, after courses of study which
generally last five years.
Brazil
The Polytechnic has for the last fifty years conferred the title of
industrial engineer, which implies instruction in chemistry. During
the last four years special three-year courses for chemists have been
instituted.
Chili
The following technical schools grant engineering diplomas :
(1) The School of Engineering attached to the University of
Chili offers courses of five years. On entering the School pupils
must hold a matriculation diploma in mathematics.
(2) The School of Architecture (Ingenieros-arquitectos) of the
University of Chili gives courses of five years. Pupils must hold
a matriculation diploma in arts.

— 17 —
(3) The School of Agricultural Engineering of the University of
Chili gives courses of four years.
(4) The School of Marine Engineering gives a five-year course. ,
(5) The State School for Mining Engineers is in the mining district
of Copiapo.
(6) The School of Engineering of the Catholic University grants
an engineering degree after a five-year course. This degree is not
accepted for employment as engineer by the state or for expert reports
required by law.
The degree of pharmaceutical chemist is conferred by the School
of Pharmacy of the University of Chili and the School of Chemistry
of the University of Concepción, after a five-year course of study ; a
matriculation diploma in arts is required for admission to either
school.
Ecuador
The Faculty of Science of the Central University of Quito grants
diplomas in chemistry and engineering. The courses of study last
four and six years respectively.
Panama
The School of Arts and Crafts gives elementary technical instruction.
The course of studies lasts four years, half of which is devoted to
theory and half to practical work.
The National Institute includes a surveying section which grants
a diploma after a two years' course ; holders of this can then obtain
the diploma of surveyor after one year's practical experience.
Peru
The School of Engineering at Lima grants diplomas in the following
branches : mining, civil engineering, industrial engineering, architecture and building, mechanical and electrical engineering.
The School of Agriculture trains agricultural engineers and veterinary surgeons.
Uruguay
Engineers' diplomas are granted by the School of Engineering
after a six-years' course of study made up of two years' preparatory
training and four years' secondary instruction.
Chemists' diplomas are granted by the Technical Institute of
Chemistry, which is not of university standing.
The foregoing will have shown t h e great diversity in technical
education. The meaning of t h e title " engineer " is m o s t
uncertain, b u t those of " chemical engineer " or " chemist "
are even more so. There are few professions which offer less
ground for generalisation.
I t is also very difficult t o give any indication of t h e cost of
training ; it varies enormously with the length of the course
and with t h e cost of living in each country. As a general

— 18 —

rule actual academic fees form a relatively small portion
of the cost of technical training ; in many countries special
facilities are granted to impecunious students.
Practical

Experience

As has already been shown, engineers themselves do not
regard technical education as the only method of becoming
an engineer. A resolution adopted by the French Society of
Civil Engineers expresses this idea as follows :
Persons who have not passed through any special school may, by
individual work and by their capacities and studies, acquire sufficient knowledge to act as engineers.

Except for associations composed exclusively of the former
students of certain schools, the majority of professional organisations therefore do not make the possession of a certificate
or diploma a necessary condition of membership, and they
have endeavoured to discover suitable criteria for admission
to membership.
For example, in France the Professional Union of Electrical
Engineers groups its members in four classes according to their
education. The first is composed of uncertificated engineers
with at least twelve years' practical experience in the electrical
trades, the second of certificated engineers from the special
electrical schools, who are not less than 25 years of age and have
not less than four years' practical experience, the third of
certificated students of schools giving general training for
industrial careers, such as the " Ecole Polytechnique ", the
" Ecole Centrale ", the " Ecole des Arts et Métiers ", etc.,
who are not less than 25 years of age and have not less than
six years' practical experience ; the fourth class consists of
certificated pupils of private schools, who must be at least
28 years of age and have eight years' practical experience.
This shows that even the most complete theoretical training
cannot take the place of practical experience, while experience
may compensate entirely for lack of theoretical training. The
Professional Union of French Chemical Engineers has similar
rules.
In Great Britain the qualifications of a professional engineer
are not strictly defined, but practical experience must always
supplement and may even take the place of technical training,
Engineers as a rule qualify in one of the three following ways :

— 19 —

(1) three years' college course followed by two years'
apprenticeship at a works ;
(2) partial technical training ; either (a) two years' college,
plus two or three years' shop training, with evening courses on
special subjects, or (b) five years' shop training, with anything
from two to five years' evening classes, or (c) no shop training,
but three to five years' evening classes ;
(3) no technical training, but five years' shop training
and experience.
It is estimated that about 60 per cent, of the men now entering the profession of electrical engineering have the training
mentioned under (1) above.
The Society of Technical Engineers admits to membership
" any engineer. . . whose qualifications are sufficient to secure
admission to one or other of the recognised engineering institutions ". These " recognised institutions " are those which set
the standard of the profession. There is one for each branch
of engineering, such as the Institutions of Civil Engineers,
Mechanical Engineers, Mining and Metallurgical Engineers,
Electrical Engineers, etc. Most of these require candidates
for membership (of which there are three or four grades) to
pass an examination and present evidence of practical experience.
Even in countries where the title of engineer is officially
protected by law, certain exceptions have had to be made in
favour of persons who can prove their ability to act as engineers although they have not had the required technical
training.
It is therefore very difficult to make any clear distinction
between certificated and uncertificated engineers. Some have
more theoretical training, others more practical experience.
The intermediate stages are innumerable, and it may be said
that in this profession education is merely the best training
for practical experience, while practical experience is merely
continued education.

P R O T E C T I O N AGAINST A B U S E OF T H E

TITLE

The above would seem to show that the titles of engineer
and chemist in themselves are of small value, at all events
for the initiated. Many engineers therefore attach little or
no importance to the legal protection of their title. When

— 20 —

the question arose in France of regulating the exercise of the
engineering profession with a view to protecting the title, the
most vehement protests came from certain organisations of
engineers themselves. They feared that the only result of
such an endeavour would be to protect the holders of certificates
of low standard, and to exclude from the profession persons
of real ability though not holders of diplomas.
Possible abuses of the title of engineer fall into three classes,
each of which calls for different methods of prevention. The
first type of abuse is the competition to which duly certificated
engineers are subject from those who have no diplomas, and
make no pretence of possessing them. The second is the
competition to which holders of good diplomas, only acquired
by thorough training, are subject from holders of worthless
diplomas which have been either bought or obtained after
inadequate training. The third abuse is the absolute usurpation of the title by persons who have no right to it.
Protection of Certificated Engineers
The first of these abuses can only be effectively prevented
by granting special privileges to holders of certain certificates
or to persons who have complied with certain formalities. In
several countries, for example, certain qualifications are required
of engineers and chemists called in as experts in matters involving points of law. Below are given examples of the position,
as far as it is known, in certain countries.
Austria
Since 1878 the titles of certificated engineer and certificated chemist
have been conferred on the results of a special examination and after
several years' practical experience. The advantages derived from
their possession, however, are generally regarded as insufficient by
the individuals concerned and application has very rarely been
made for them. Certain official positions can only be filled by
engineers holding state diplomas, and it is easier to obtain a post as
civil engineer or the management of certain undertakings carried
on under a state concession if the candidate possesses the title of
engineer.
Belgium
There are two " statutory " engineering degrees which admit their
holders to the state technical services, those of mining engineer and
of civil engineer. A Bill has, however, been introduced into Parliament for their abolition.

— 21 —
France
Students of the " Ecole Polytechnique " have a right, and in some
cases an obligation, to enter the military or civil administration.
The privileges enjoyed by these students have been the subject of
many protests from other engineers ; these were voiced at the first
" Semaine des Intellectuels français ", and in several resolutions
passed by the Federation of French Engineers' Unions.
Hungary
Under the Act of 1883, candidates for certain public offices must
have the right to use the title of engineer.
Spain
Technical posts of any importance in the various Ministries can
only be held by civil engineers who have passed through the official
schools. They may be members of the Institute of Civil Engineers,
a semi-official body in Madrid, and they have the exclusive enjoyment
of certain privileges, such as authorising the execution of works by
their signature, and preparing plans and documents in certain industries where this formality is required. To start a mining undertaking,
the signature of an engineer of the Madrid School is required ; if,
however, the undertaking is small, the signature of a mines assistant
(ayudante) is sufficient. The signature of an industrial engineer is
necessary for certain special installations, while for other industries
the signature of a civil or mining engineer is required. These special
functions are laid down in the Public Education Act, and by the Acts
establishing certain institutions ; but legislation on the subject is
in a state of confusion, and the practice of the courts is uncertain in
many "cases.
Chili
Persons applying for authorisation to construct canals, railways,
bridges, or to undertake any important public works, must hold the
title of engineer. The staff employed on the state railways, in the
public works department, and in the irrigation inspectorate, is exclusively composed of engineers who have graduated from the University
of Chili. Under the Code of Civil Procedure, anyone acting as expert
in the courts on questions concerning engineering must hold the
degree of civil engineer of the University of Chili.
Protection

of

Good

Diplomas

The prevention of the second t y p e of abuse requires rigorous
supervision of t h e entire system of private education (i.e. n o t
under the state), including the conditions of admission, curricula,
a n d final examinations. The commission appointed b y t h e
Professional Union of French Electrical Engineers has subm i t t e d a report on the subject in t h e following terms :
No official protection can be granted to titles confered by nonofficial schools unless the entrance conditions, curricula, examinations,

— 22 —

and conditions on which certificates are granted are approved by public
officials.
For students holding an engineers' diploma from a private school
which has been in existence for at least twenty years and is mentioned
in the Decree appended to the Act regulating the right to the title of
engineer, the conditions might be : 26 years of age and three years'
practical industrial experience, during two of which he was in a position
of responsibility.
It is clear that the private schools above mentioned should institute
entrance conditions providing an effective guarantee of good general
education.
With reference to certificated engineers, the conclusion is that the
protection of the title should only apply to engineering certificates
granted by schools where the diploma is signed by a Minister, and
subject to the condition that the engineer in question is at least 22
years of age.
Public opinion could hardly be reconciled to such strict
control in countries where this is a delicate matter, notably
in France, and this has proved an obstacle to the regulation
of t h e engineering profession.
Protection against

Usurpation

of the Title

Actual usurpation of the title, however, is the abuse generally
implied in speaking of the protection which is required. Such
protection may be provided by three different systems, which
m a y exist side b y side : (a) ordinary law, (£>) special legislation»
(c) action by t h e parties concerned.
Ordinary Law
In most countries usurpation of a title falls under t h e ordinary
criminal law on fraud, obtaining money by false pretences,
or unfair competition. W i t h o u t attempting an exhaustive
legislative study of t h e subject, the chief legal provisions in
certain countries m a y "be mentioned.
Finland
Titles are protected by the general provisions of the Penal Code
of 1889, particularly those in Chapter 36, which prescribe penalties
for forgery or falsification of public documents and for giving false
information to public officials. Apart from this there is no legal
protection of the title of engineer ; it is merely regarded as a professional designation and anyone can assume it without being entitled
to do so.
France
There are two penalties for usurping a title, according as the object
is merely to obtain an honorary distinction or to obtain money or

— 23 —

valuables. The former case is dealt with by Section 259 of the Penal
Code, which prescribes a fine of from 500 to 10,000 francs. In the
case of official titles, particularly those of the Central Engineering
School, the School of Mines, and the " Ecole Polytechnique ", the
Public Prosecutor is ipso ¡ado empowered to take action. In the
case of private titles or degrees, however, prosecution can only be
instituted if a charge is made by the injured party.
In the second case, which constitutes fraud, Section 405 of the Penal
Code provides penalties for any attempt to obtain money by making
use of a false title. It would not appear, however, that obtaining
employment by giving false information of this character is an act
which comes within this Section of the Code.
Great Britain
Any person who knowingly makes a false statement (e.g. as to
his possession of a university degree or other qualification) and thereby
obtains money or goods for himself or another person is liable to
criminal prosecution and to civil action.
Spain
Section 343 of the Penal Code provides that any person who usurps
the title of a degree or diploma and thereby exercises a public function
for which an official title is required shall be liable to imprisonment
varying from four months and one day to two years.
Switzerland
The position is by no means clear, as this matter is within the
competence of the Cantons. The courts have, however, generally
treated usurpation of university degrees as unfair competition.
Similar provisions doubtless exist in the penal codes of most
civilised countries. Their value is, however, restricted b y t h e
fact t h a t proceedings can generally only be instituted if it can
be proved t h a t pecuniary damage has been caused, and such
, proof is as a rule difficult to obtain. In some countries it has
therefore been found necessary to enact special legislation
for the protection of certificated engineers.
Special Legislation
In every country the laws on the practice of medicine regulate
t h e profession of chemist, in so far as this is synonymous with
t h a t of pharmacist, and to this extent only. A p a r t from this,
t h e only special laws, as far as is known, are those mentioned
below.
Austria
The title of engineer is protected in Austria by the Imperial Order
of 14 March 1917, which is equivalent to an Act. Illegal use of the
title of engineer may be punished under this Order by a fine not

— 24 —

exceeding 400,000 kronen, which may be increased to four million
kronen for a subsequent offence ; or by a month's imprisonment,
increased to six months on repetition of the offence. The title
protected is that conferred by the Technical Colleges, the School of
Mines, and the School of Agriculture. The transitional provision
mentioned above, by which the title of engineer may be granted by
the Federal Minister of Commerce and Transport, considerably
weakens the legal protection granted. Proceedings for contravention
of the Act, moreover, are only taken when a complaint is lodged.
In practice the provisions of this Act only apply to Austrians, as
it is exceedingly difficult to prove that foreigners are or are not entitled
to use the title of engineer.
Bulgaria
Bulgarian engineers, architects and chemists are obliged to go
abroad for their training, as there is no technical college in Bulgaria.
All foreign diplomas, however, must be recognised and approved by
the Minister of Education before their holders can practise in Bulgaria.
Titles thus approved are then protected by law, and unauthorised
assumption of them is prohibited.
France
The titles of agronomic engineer and agricultural engineer are
protected by Section 7 of the Act of 2 August 1918.
On 26 March 1924 the Chamber of Deputies agreed, on the proposal
of Mr. Liouville, to add to the first paragraph of Section 259 of the
Penal Code the following words :
Any person who uses a title attaching to a legally regulated
profession without fulfilling the necessary conditions for obtaining
that title shall be liable to the same penalties.
Mr. Liouville's original proposal also provided for regulating the
engineering profession, but this was dealt with separately by the
Chamber.
On 16 December 1922 the Council of Technical Education adopted
a resolution recommending the introduction of a Bill, under which
all engineering schools would be allowed to register the title by which
their graduates should be known, such title to indicate clearly the
level of education reached by its holder, and illicit use of the title
should be punishable as a criminal offence.
Since then a Bill for the regulation of the profession of engineer
has been drafted and was approved in 1923 by the Council of Technical
Education. Clause 1 of this Bill specifies the schools which shall in
future be entitled to grant diplomas in engineering as follows :
I. In future the following institutions only shall be empowered to grant a diploma in engineering :
(1) public technical schools ;
(2) private schools at which state engineer-probationers and
engineers attend lectures and practical classes, with the special
permission of the Under-Secretary of State for Technical Education ;

— 25 —
(3) technical institutes attached to universities, subject to
the approval of the Council of Technical Education ;
(4) private technical schools recognised by the state which
have been authorised to grant engineering diplomas and certificates under Section 35 of the Act of 25 July 1919, provided
they adopt minimum conditions of admission and a minimum
curriculum in each case.
Hungary
Engineers are protected by Act No. 17 of 1923. The title may
only be used by persons holding an engineering diploma granted by
the Royal Hungarian University of Technical Science of Budapest,
or a university diploma in chemical engineering, or those who have
been admitted to the Chamber of Engineers organised by the Act.
Unauthorised use of the title of engineer is an offence punishable by
the courts. Persons who have attended foreign engineering schools
must register their diplomas with the Polytechnic.
The Chamber of Engineers has only recently been created and has
not yet begun to work. Its regulations allow students of secondary
technical schools who are carrying on the profession of engineer to
use the title, provided they have at least eight years' practical experience. Persons without any theoretical technical training must have
had at least twelve years' practical experience, either as manager
of an undertaking or as an independent contractor. These provisions,
however, are merely provisional ; those for students of secondary
schools will lapse after twelve years, and those for engineers without
theoretical training after three years.
Italy
For some years the professional organisations of Italian engineers
have devoted almost all their attention and work to this question.
The Act of 24 June 1924 has satisfied their demands in general, but
it is difficult to estimate its precise value before the administrative
regulations to carry it into effect, now in preparation, have been issued.
A recent judgment of the Sienna Court of Appeal, however, applied
the Act by ruling that the usurpation of the title of engineer henceforth constitutes an offence, even in the absence of administrative
regulations.
The essential provision of the Act of 24 June 1923 is t h a t the titles
of engineer and architect may only be used by persons who have
taken a full course in an engineering or architectural school. An
official register of engineers and architects is to be kept in each
Province, and steps are also to be taken to register surveyors and
technicians. Registered engineers and architects are to form a
professional council (Consiglio dell'Ordine) which will have to supervise
the registers, protect the economic interests of members, and secure
observance of the rules of the profession. A special Commission,
composed of representatives of engineers and architects, is to draw
up regulations determining the conditions of registration and the
qualifications required for admission to these professions. Similar
regulations are to be issued for surveyors and technicians.

— 26 —

The Act also contains transitional provisions to deal with the
position of persons who are at present carrying on the profession of
engineer or architect without possessing all the necessary qualifications. Such persons may be entered on the new register on condition
that they are authorised by existing legislation to carry on their
profession and have had ten years' practical experience as a general
rule (five years in certain specified cases). Applications for registration under these provisions are to be submitted to a commission
especially appointed for the purpose. Persons who have no diploma,
but have been registered under the transitional provisions above
mentioned in virtue of long exercise of the profession, will not be
authorised to call themselves engineers or architects, but will have
the title of "persons qualified to carry on the profession of engineer",
etc.
The Italian engineers are taking the opportunity afforded by the
preparation of the administrative regulations to endeavour to remedy
certain defects in the Act by the insertion of favourable rules for the
delimitation of their profession from that of lower grades of technical
workers.
The Act will probably also apply to chemists, in so far as they
hold engineering diplomas. Other classes of chemists are protected
by an Act of 24 January 1923 concerning professions not regulated
by other legal provisions, which establishes an Order (Ordine) of
chemists and public registers on which chemists must be entered.
Poland
The Act of 21 September 1921 protects not only the title of engineer,
but also additions to the title indicating special qualifications, i.e.
compound titles such as civil engineer, chemical engineer, etc. Section
8 of the Act of 21 September 1922 runs as follows :
The title of engineer, with or without qualifications, shall
be legally protected under Section 36 of the Act of 13 July 1920
concerning higher educational establishments. It is forbidden
to confer an official title in which the word engineer occurs in
either the public services or in private undertakings or to use a
title of this kind, unless the person occupying the post in question
has the right under this Act to use the title of engineer.
Illegal use of the title of engineer is punishable by a fine not
exceeding 500,000 marks, unless such illegal use constitutes an
offence for which a heavier penalty is provided.
There are a large number of secondary technical schools, which
are not entitled to grant diplomas, but their students have contributed by their abilities to the advancement of technical science.
The Act of 21 September 1922 therefore does not entirely prevent
such students from acquiring the title of engineer. The councils of
faculty of the colleges are responsible for carrying out this Section
of the Act. Candidates must fulfil the following conditions : (1)
they must hold a certificate showing that they have completed a
secondary-school course ; (2) they must hold a certificate that they
have had five years' practical experience ; (3) they must produce
evidence of individual work which has contributed to the progress

— 27 —

of technical science. The councils of faculty, after examining the
application, fix the conditions on which the title of engineer may be
granted : for example, preparation of a plan or passing an examination.
The title of chemist is neither regulated nor protected, but that
of Doctor of Chemistry is.
The Act of 13 July 1920 indicates the conditions on which foreign
degrees and diplomas may be admitted as equivalent to Polish ones.
Application for such treatment may only be made to a school where
the special profession of the candidate is represented. The foreign
diploma must have been obtained at a school of equivalent standing
after a regular and complete course of study. Candidates must be
qualified for admission to a Polish college (i.e. hold a matriculation
certificate recognised in Poland), and must prove that they are
Polish subjects. Holders of titles thus recognised enjoy the same
protection as those who have acquired them in Poland.
Houmania
Proposals for the protection of the titles of engineer and chemist
have been made by the General Association of Roumanian Engineers,
but the Bill on the subject has not yet been passed.
United States
In some States, such as Missouri, there are Acts protecting certain
titles, among others that of engineer ; but the courts have shown
themselves averse to awarding damages unless the offender has endeavoured to carry on the profession or to derive pecuniary benefit
from it.
Argentine
The title of engineer is protected by various national Acts, while in
addition the provinces of Buenos Ayres, Cordoba, San Juan, Salta,
and Santa Fé have passed Acts and Decrees regulating the exercise
of the engineering profession within the limits of their territory.
Usurpation of the various engineering titles is punishable, underthe
Civil Code, on the first offence by a fine, and subsequently by
imprisonment. The National Association of Engineers and the
Chemists' Association have requested the National Congress to give
legislative protection to the professions of engineer and chemist, but
so far without success.
Ecuador
The exercise of the profession of engineer or chemist is protected
by law, but many foreign engineers carry on their profession with the
consent of the authorities.
Action by t h e Parties Concerned
Legal protection of t h e title of engineer, and in a few cases
t h a t of chemist, is not regarded as adequate by the parties
concerned. As was pointed out at t h e beginning of this report,

— 28 —
t h e names themselves have no very precise meaning, and have
therefore to be qualified and narrowed so t h a t t h e y cannot
be confused with others. Such designations as electrical
engineer and mechanical engineer are used, b u t these terms
v a r y from one country to another ; there is no international
usage in t h e m a t t e r .
Such general qualifications, moreover, are insufficient, and
t h e custom therefore prevails of adding t h e n a m e of t h e schools
where t h e title was obtained, the diploma conferring it, or t h e
b o d y of which t h e engineer is a member. When it has reached
this stage, a title no longer needs legal protection, as this is
sufficiently secured b y the very fact of specialisation and by
t h e control exercised b y those concerned, i.e. the engineering
associations and t h e schools granting diplomas, which in their
own interest t h e y wish t o prevent from deteriorating.
Belgium
To combat abuses arising from the vagueness of the term ' engineer'
the graduates of the universities of Liège, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent,
and Mons have formed professional associations, which authorise
their members to add to their names letters indicating the association
to which they belong, thus : A.LBr. (Association des Ingénieurs sortis
de l'Ecole Polytechnique de Bruxelles) ; A.I.Lg. (Liège) ; A.I.L.
(Louvain); A.I.G. (Ghent); A.I.M. (Mons). These constitute a
sufficient guarantee for anyone conversant with the position.
A Bill was recently introduced in the Belgian Chamber for the
purpose of reforming the various engineering degrees and giving
greater accuracy to the titles in use.
Denmark
The Society of Danish Engineers has little hope in the success of
its attempt to secure legal protection for engineering titles, and is at
present considering the adoption of registered initials which would
serve as a protection to its members.
Finland
Up to the present the engineers' organisations have not taken much
interest in this question, as their membership was very heterogeneous. A Finnish Engineers' Union has, however, been founded
recently, and only admits engineers holding the diploma of a technical
college. This association is endeavouring to popularise the title of
" certificated engineer " with a view to controlling its use.
France
Every technical school has an association of old students which
undertakes to find employment for its members and to protect them
generally. The alliance between old students of the same school is
of the closest, and engineers in high positions usually recruit their

— 29 —
assistants solely among old students of their own school. This
exclusiveness becomes more and more marked the lower the standing
of the school.
The title of chemist is not effectively protected by law, but the
military authorities have given the term a meaning which chemical
engineers consider unfavourable to their interests. During the war
chemical detachments were formed which included men employed
by chemical undertakings as warehousemen, accountants, carters,
etc. The Chemical Engineers' Union has begun a campaign for the
protection of the title in order to combat this use of the term, which
has apparently been accepted by the public authorities.
Great Britain
The terms " engineer " and "chemist " are not titles in Great
Britain but simply the names of professions. The possession of
university degrees is indicated by initials placed after the name,
such as B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science), B.Sc.(Met.) for metallurgy,
B.Sc.(Eng.) for engineering, etc. Similarly membership of the
great engineering institutions is indicated by initials, e.g. ; M.I.CE.,
M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E. Membership of such bodies is in itself
a guarantee of professional ability and a protection against usurpation.
If any such title is illicitly assumed, the body normally conferring
it can bring a civil action in the courts. British universities and
professional bodies have frequently done so.
Switzerland
Engineers and chemists are in the habit of adding to their professional title the name of the school where they were educated. This
appears to afford sufficient protection, and the question of prosecution
for illicit use of titles has hardly arisen.
United States
Initials indicating a specialised branch of engineering are widely
used, university degrees being indicated in this way.
M.E., for
instance, signifies mechanical engineer, C E . civil (sometimes also
electrical) engineer, M.S. master of science, Ph.D. doctor of philosophy (chemists).
The engineers' associations are extremely powerful and many of
them only admit members with certain diplomas. Membership of
one of these associations is therefore sufficient proof of ability.

— s o -

ll
Employment
METHODS OF FINDING EMPLOYMENT

The information received shows that for engineers, as for
intellectual workers in general, there are few organised facilities
for providing employment. The official employment exchanges
which have been set up in most countries generally make no
distinction between manual and non-manual workers. Intellectual workers can if they wish apply to these exchanges, but
in practice engineers cannot find suitable posts by this method.
Employers rarely apply to the official exchanges for this type
of worker, and none but subordinate and low-paid posts can be
filled satisfactorily in this way. The same may be said of
commercial employment agencies, which do practically nothing
for engineers.
Similarly little has been done to organise vocational guidance
for intellectual workers. Occasionally a public or private
vocational guidance office will undertake to advise applicants
as to their suitability for a career as engineers, but except in
Germany little definite provision has been made for this.
In practice engineers nearly always find employment through
personal connections, through their professors or instructors,
or through the engineers' associations ; the last method is the
one most frequently employed. The impossibility of finding
employment through public offices has led the professional
organisations to undertake the finding of employment for
their members. In certain countries, such as Austria, Germany,
and Switzerland, there is a mixed system, in which the professional organisations co-operate with the public employment
exchanges.
Austria
The General Austrian Employment Office for Engineers with a
Higher Education (Allgemeine Oesíerreichische Arbeüsnachweissielle
für Ingenieure mit Hochschulbildung) was founded by the Union of
Engineers in Private Employment (Gewerkschaft der Ingenieure im
Privatdienst) and the Austrian Association of Engineers and Architects

— 31 —
{Oesterreichischer Ingenieur- und Architektenverein). The office,
which is controlled by the Federal Government, is responsible for
checking the unemployment registers of engineers under the Unemployment Insurance Act. Although it is professional in character
and privileged, it is not compulsory to use it, nor is it limited to
members of the organisations concerned. The office draws up
monthly statistics of the situations filled, but as application to it
is voluntary the figures are of little value. On an average the office
finds employment for 60 to 80 engineers or chemists annually.
Czechoslovakia
The Mazaryk Academy of Work at Prague and the Psychotechnical
Institute of Pardubice undertake vocational guidance for intellectual
workers.
Denmark
The Society of Danish Engineers (Dansk Ingeniör-Förening) has
organised an employment office, but young engineers find employment
most readily through their professors.
Finland
There are no public or private employment exchanges, and the
engineers' associations do not assist their members to find employment.
The latter are therefore dependent upon the help of their professors,
their personal connections, and on advertisements in the technical
press.
France
There is no central organisation for finding employment for engineers. There are a variety of employment offices, which all suffer
from more or less the same difficulties : Department exchanges,
which are practically useless, friendly associations, which deal only
with their own members, university institutions, and trade unions,
which make real efforts to assist their members with comparatively
little result. As a matter of fact employment is obtained chiefly
through personal connections, and the posts notified to the various
employment exchanges are those which are least attractive. Certain
friendly associations, in which esprit de corps is strong, occasionally
succeed in obtaining very good posts for their members ; as a general
rule, however, there is great difficulty in finding employment. There
are too many engineers and too few vacancies.
Germany
The Federal Act of 22 June 1922 * uniting in a common plan the
system of employment exchanges throughout Germany, provides for
the creation of special technical sections for the intellectual professions
in connection with the State employment offices. These sections
are to undertake both vocational guidance and placing of intellectual
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

: Legislative Series, 1922, Ger. 3.

— 32 —

workers. On 12 February 1923 the president of the Federal Employment Department sent a circular to the State employment offices
requesting them to devote special attention to the placing ot intellectual workers. The Department also drew up general principles for
the vocational guidance of university students and similar classes of
worker, and these have been adopted by all the organisations concerned.
Apart from the public offices a number of professional bodies have
organised employment bureaux and work in close touch with the
official exchanges. There is a central employment Office for scientists with a university training {Zentralarbeitsnachweis für naturwissenschaftliche Akademiker), while the Association of Engineers
( Verein deutscher Ingenieure) has an employment bureau which works
in close touch with the Federal Employment Department. Most
of the employment work is done by advertisements in the press.
The Zeitschrift deutscher Architekten und Ingenieure publishes a
weekly summary of posts vacant and wanted. The Union of Technical
Employees and Officials (Bund Technischer Angestellten und Beamten)
also maintains employment offices attached to the official exchanges
in Berlin, Hamburg, Leipzic, Munich, Halle, and Nuremberg. These
will disappear as the organisation laid down in the Act of 1922 comes
into being.
Even before the war some of the universities had information
bureaux for their students, and in 1917 a Central Vocational Guidance
Office for University Students (Deutsche Zentralstelle für Berufsberatung der Akademiker) was established. In 1923 all thé organisations interested in this work co-operated to form a Joint Association
for Vocational Information for University Students (Deutsche Arbeitsgemeinschaft für akademische Berufskunde). This association is to
co-ordinate all information relative to vocational guidance collected
by the various offices and to prevent overlapping or function among
them.
Great Britain
The Society of Technical Engineers has an Appointments Bureau
which it is endeavouring to develop. Other organisations of nonmanual workers have established similar bureaux, but their chief
purpose is to provide their members with information on the employment situation. Employers often apply to these offices, except
when they require low-paid workers, who are more easily obtained
through the official employment exchanges. Private employment
agencies state that for the last two years they have given up handling
engineers' applications, as they were unable to find posts for them.
Appointments are mainly found through the technical press.
Hungary
The National Association of Engineers endeavours to find employment for its members, including chemists. Manufacturers and
contractors frequently apply to this Association when they require
skilled specialists. University professors also assist their students
in finding employment.

— 33 —

Italy
The National Association of Engineers (Associazione
nazionale
degli ingegneri) has established employment offices, which are only
open to its members, in most of the principal industrial towns. Its
efforts, however, have not had the results which were hoped.
The National Union of Fascist Engineers has not been very successful in finding employment for its members, who get little assistance,
moreover, from public or private employment exchanges or other
professional organisations.
The National Union of Chemists, which also has an employment
office, admits that it had not been particularly successful, owing to
the fact that the number of chemists is excessive in comparison with
the openings afforded by industry.
On the other hand, an interesting experiment has been made in
Italy for finding employment for engineers abroad ; this will be
dealt with later.
Netherlands
The State Vocational Guidance Office advises intellectual workers
also, and includes an employment exchange of which they can avail
themselves.
Norway
The Engineers' Association (Norske Ingeniörsförening) enjoys
special privileges conferred by the state, but its employment service
is only open to its own members.
Poland
The majority of Polish engineers' associations have started employment offices for their members. On leaving college engineers
and chemists apply to the offices of these associations, or to the
authorities of the college. In some cases, but more rarely, they
apply to the public employment exchanges. The most usual method
of obtaining employment is nevertheless through personal connections ; employers' associations also occasionally act as intermediaries.
Boumania
The General Association of Roumanian Engineers has established
an employment office, but it has not as yet done very much. Engineers generally obtain appointments through their professors or
through advertisements in the technical press.
Spain
Employment does not as yet appear to have become a serious
problem. Practically all Spanish engineers have hitherto found
employment under the state, passing regularly and automatically
into the public services on completion of their training. Those
who did not enter the service of the state generally found poststhrough their personal connections. At present, however, the state
does not employ as many engineers as formerly, and the lack of an
organised system of employment exchanges is beginning to be felt.

— 34 —

The Vocational Guidance Institute of Barcelona, and in a lesser
degree that of Madrid, have conducted investigations among secondary school pupils in order to ascertain whether they had the requisite
mental and physical abilities to take up training as engineers or
chemists. Young persons or their parents sometimes consult the
Institute to know if there are any special counter-indications making
it inadvisable to enter these professions.
Sweden
The Svenska Ternolog Förening and the Chalmers Ingeniörsjörening
at Gothenburg assist their members to find employment and charge
no fees.
Switzerland
A central employment office for engineers, architects, chemical
engineers, technicians, and auxiliary technical staff was set up at
Zurich early in 1923, under the name of the Swiss Technical Employment
Service (Service technique suisse de placement), by the Swiss Society
of Engineers and Architects, acting in conjunction with the Swiss
Union of Technicians, the Society of Former Polytechnic Students,
and the Friendly Association of Former Students of the Lausanne
Engineering School. The office is managed by a joint committee
and receives a government grant. Regulations were issued on 1 July
1923 for establishing a uniform procedure for employment exchange
work, which resulted in transforming this private institution into a
state employment service for technicians and engineers. It is open
both to Swiss citizens and to foreigners resident in Switzerland.
Apart from this office, engineers and chemists generally find employment through the associations of former students of the technical
colleges and the Association of Professional Chemists, with offices at
Berne. In most cases, however, employers apply direct to the
professors, and the latter have the most decisive voice in the making
of appointments.
United States
Engineers usually find employment through the bureaux of the
societies affiliated to the American Engineering Council and of the
American Association of Engineers ; the latter has its headquarters
at Chicago and a large number of branches throughout the United
States.
The American Engineering Council at one time took over the
employment bureaux maintained by the societies of which it is
composed ; experience showed, however, that such a central body
could not manage the bureaux as well as the specialised organisations,
and the latter have now resumed control. There are at present,
therefore, four employment offices belonging respectively to the
Societies of Civil Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and Electrical Engineers, but managed jointly
under the name of the Engineering Societies' Employment Service.
In 1921, 8,000 applications for employment and 6,165 notifications
of vacancies were received and 3,018 posts filled.

— 35 —

The employment service of the American Association of Engineers
is run on co-operative lines, and acts as an intermediary for all certificated engineers. It is entirely non-commercial and charges no
fees ; it has no connection with the Engineering Societies' Employment
Service.
Apart from these associations there are a very large number of
commercial agencies, two of which, Bixby at Buffalo, and the Business Men's Clearing House at Denver, specialise in placing engineers.
The other agencies do practically nothing in this line.
A few important industrial corporations, such as the Westinghouse
Electric Company and the Edison Electric Company, have private
employment bureaux and offer posts to young graduates at very
low wages in view of the experience to be gained by working in these
large undertakings. Finally, some of the universities maintain
special employment and vocational guidance offices for their pupils.
Chile
The institution of Architects, the Agricultural Association, and
more especially the Institute of Engineers incidentally assist their
members in finding employment. The State University also places
its students in employment.

UNEMPLOYMENT

Unemployment among engineers and chemists is dependent
on two factors : general industrial conditions and the number
of students turned out by technical colleges. There is unemployment both in those countries where too many engineers
have been trained, and also in those where there is industrial
depression. Engineers and chemists complain of unemployment
in Austria, Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. On the other
hand there does not seem to be much unemployment in Belgium,
Czechoslovakia, Greece, Roumania, Switzerland, or the United
States.
As a general rule, engineers appear to suffer rather less from
unemployment than other classes of industrial employees.
because they are retained longest when a factory stops working
and are the first to be engaged for preparatory work or
winding up.
There are several different kinds of unemployment, which
must be clearly distinguished. The first is absolute lack of
employment, i.e. unemployment strictly so called. It often
happens, however, that higher-grade technicians who are

— 36 —

unable to find a position in their own special branch accept
inferior or less highly paid work, or enter a t r a d e other t h a n
their own. This might be described as disguised unemployment;
t h e higher-grade engineer ¡at any rate can nearly always
avoid unemployment in t h e strict sense of t h e word b y accepting
inferior work. Such work, however, is less well paid and is
of less value to t h e c o m m u n i t y ; it therefore produces some
at least of t h e effects of unemployment.
Unemployment strictly so called, i.e. complete idleness,
chiefly affects t h e lower grades of engineers, particularly those
who have just entered t h e profession on leaving college, or those
of advanced age. Several organisations have emphasised t h e
difficult position of t h e latter.
Austria
The stagnation of industry has naturally resulted in unemployment
among engineers. The Austrian Engineers' and Architects' Union
in May 1924 stated that the following were known to be out of work :
83 civil engineers, 8 architects, 68 mechanical engineers, 15 electrical
engineers, 3 mining and metallurgical engineers, 3 agricultural engineers, 7 surveyors, and 14 chemists, making a total of 201. These
figures are, moreover, incomplete, as many unemployed engineers
do not register with the public employment exchanges.
Applications for employment are far in excess of vacancies, particularly among young and inexperienced engineers. Engineers who
trained during or immediately after the war are frequently not really
efficient and lack practical experience.
Belgium
There is little unemployment among Belgian engineers, and all
students graduating from the universities are easily absorbed by
industry. Cases of emigration are rare, and are not due to necessity.
Government departments find it increasingly difficult to obtain
engineers, as the best of these prefer to enter industry. At two
recent examinations held by the State Railways for universitytrained engineers there was only one candidate for 22 vacanciesiñ
one instance and one for 12 vacancies in the other.
Engineers who are prepared to leave the country could easily
obtain posts in the colonies. The University of Brussels, for example,
receives every year an average of 30 or 40 notifications of vacancies
for engineers from colonial firms, and it is impossible to fill most
of them.
There are a greater number of chemists available, but it is frequently
complained that they are inadequately trained.
Denmark
There is a considerable amount of unemployment, estimated at
8 per cent, of the total number of engineers.

— 37 —

Finland
Only a small number of the students of technical colleges succeed
in finding positions in Finnish industry. The reasons why unemployment is not more extensive is that many engineers are accepting
technical work of inferior grade, while others emigrate. Unemployment is now, however, on the increase. The paper industry is
the most affected, as a considerable number of supernumeraries were
engaged after the war.
France
There does not appear to be much unemployment among engineers
who have already occupied posts, but those just leaving college and
elderly men find it extremely difficult to obtain employment. There
is an excess of engineers of all classes, and the technical schools turn
out too many engineers, good or bad, for the requirements of French
industry. New schools are constantly being opened, aiming rather
at making profits than training efficient engineers, and take no trouble
to ascertain whether their students will be able to find employment
at the end of their course. In addition to this, a large number of
military officers from the technical arms of the service have entered
industry since the war. There is thus an ever-growing number of
engineers of all grades for a limited number of posts.
It would appear, nevertheless, that French industries could absorb
a larger number of engineers than they now employ. Some employers
are effecting economies in this, direction, preferring to engage one or
two engineers only from the " Polytechnique " or the " Ecole Centrale"
instead of employing several specialists.
Electrical engineers, because they are the most numerous, at all
events relatively, suffer most from unemployment.
As regards chemists, the Secretary of the French Chemical Engineers' Union estimates that there are 600 or 700 chemists leaving the
technical colleges every year, 300 more than are needed in view of the
immediate requirements and probable development of the chemical
industry. At present there are 4,000 chemical engineers in employment, and there is no prospect of increasing this number to more
than 6,000.
The extent of unemployment varies considerably among graduates
of the different schools. In the course of an enquiry undertaken
by the Journée industrielle, the Secretary of the Association of Old
Students of the " Ecole Centrale " stated that members of this
Association suffered very little from unemployment, although the
number of diplomas granted by the School had risen from an annual
average of 150, during the years 1870 to 1885, to 263 in 1919, 340 in
1920, 863 in 1921, and 746 in 1922. The ten largest electrical schools,
which only granted 98 diplomas in 1900, conferred 549 in 1920 and
934 in 1922.
Germany
Unemployment among intellectual workers in Germany was always
more prevalent than among other professions, even during the prosperous period from 1921 to 1922, and the situation has changed

— 38 —

considerably for the worse of late. The Central Employment Office
for scientists with a university training states that the employment
situation for chemists became very unfavourable in 1923, the number
of vacancies having decreased by 35 per cent., while applications
for employment had increased by 46 per cent. Among engineers
there where 74 applications for employment, of which only 62 could
be satisfied.
The main reason for this situation, apart from the present trade
depression in Germany, is the excessive number of students from the
technical colleges ; it rose from 12,000 in 1919 to 22,976 in 1920 and
25,556 in 1921. The increase continued in 1922 ; there were 8,306
students of mechanical engineering, as against 3,018 in 1914 ; 5,129
of electrical engineering, as against 1,307 ; 1,234 of mining engineering,
as against 576 ; and 3,311 of civil engineering, as against 2,767.
The excessive number of workers with a university education
naturally has an unfavourable effect upon wages and conditions of
work. As there is no shortage of labour in other professions, there
would appear to be no hope of improvement in the near future.
Great Britain
There appears to be a good deal of unemployment ; owing to trade
depression men out of work have great difficulty in finding fresh
employment, and it is always difficult to place highly specialised
engineers. A suggestion of the depression in the engineering trades
is conveyed by the fact that during the first nine months of 1923,
20,000 skilled mechanics (manual workers) were obliged to emigrate.
Hungary
Owing to the gravity of the economic situation in this country,
all intellectual workers, including engineers, suffer from unemployment.
In spite of the numerus clausus rule in the Polytechnic, too many
engineers are trained, and many of these have been obliged to enter
other trades or professions owing to the impossibility of obtaining
employment in their own. It is difficult to determine the exact
extent of unemployment, as it is not known how many engineers
are at present employed in trade or commerce and are awaiting an
improvement in the economic situation in order to return to their
technical work. From February to April 1924 the advertisements
of the Engineers' and Architects' Association Journal included 46
applications for employment and only 11 vacancies. The proportion
of civil engineers and architects unemployed is estimated at 70 per cent.
Greece

There is no unemployment among engineers, but chemists find it
extremely difficult to obtain employment, as the chemical industry
is very little developed in this country.
Netherlands
During 1922 the employment exchange attached to the Vocational
Guidance Office received 2,522 applications for employment from
young persons with a university e ducation and only 1,521 notifications

— 39 —
of vacancies for this class of worker. Of 38 chemists who completed their course at the Delft Technical College in 1923, only 20
succeeded in obtaining employment, eight of these in the College
itself. Of the 32 engineers who left this College in 1923, only 12 have
obtained employment, one as an assistant.
The Delft Association of Engineers estimated that there were 255
engineers unemployed in 1921 and 447 in 1922. The increase is much
more marked among uncertificated engineers than among those
with a college training. A certain number of these students held
state scholarships, which bound them to remain at the disposal of
the Minister of the Colonies on leaving college, but during the past
few years the Minister has not employed a single one of them, and
they are consequently out of work.
Poland
Unemployment is chiefly caused by the reduction in the number
of state employees, a result of the recent economy campaign, of the
temporary trade depression, and of the repatriation of many Poles
who formerly lived in Russia. No exact statement of the number
of unemployed can be made.
Roumania
There is no unemployment in Roumania. Owing to the increase
in the territory of this country, the development of its industry, the
exodus of German and Austrian engineers, and the small number of
students turned out by the colleges, there is an acute shortage of
engineers.
Spain
For many years unemployment was quite unknown among Spanish
engineers. It has appeared recently, but has not yet attained any
considerable proportions. It is impossible to give any statistics,
owing to the absence of employment exchanges, but it may be noted
that there were 25 applicants for three engineering posts in a railway
company at the beginning of the year. Some engineers think the
prospects of unemployment are so serious that the technical colleges
should be closed temporarily.
The causes of the present unemployment are that the technical
colleges are overcrowded, that the staff of the government departments is complete and is in fact being reduced, and that Spanish
industry, far from showing any signs of development, is in a state of
depression. Agricultural and forestry engineers are those most
affected.
Sweden
There is a considerable and increasing amount of unemployment
among professional engineers.
Switzerland
In spite of the difficult position of industry and general unemployment engineers and chemists do not complain of acute unemployment.

— 40 —

This isattributed to the fact that Swiss chemists receive such an
excellent education that they can easily find employment. Engineers,
however, point out that one result of the trade depression has been
to decrease the size and interest of the works undertaken and the
profits made.
The Swiss Union of Technicians, which includes technicians who
have received a secondary school education only, complains of unemployment. In 1922 its employment bureau received 472 applications
for employment, as against 15 notifications of vacancies, and 107
of its members are at present in receipt of unemployment benefit.
This state of affairs is attributed to the return of a large number of
Swiss engineers and technicians who were formerly employed abroad.
Contrary to what is noted in other countries, the number of students
in the Swiss technical colleges is decreasing.
United States
In 1921, when the previous enquiry was in progress, the American
engineers stated that there was a considerable amount of unemployment among them. The Western Society of Engineers estimated
there were at least two applications for every vacant post in the
railways, and that the proportion of unemployment was from 11 to
30 per cent, among railway engineers and about 25 per cent, among
engineers in industry.
Since that time, however, the situation appears to have improved.
The Secretary of the Mining and Metallurgical Society states that
he hardly knows of any engineer out of work. The American
Institute of Electrical Engineers states that conditions have improved
in many industries and that there is less unemployment than in 1921.
The American Society of Agricultural Engineers also states that
unemployment is far less general than in 1921, and that in this branch
at any rate there is very little unemployment.
Argentine
While it would be incorrect to state that there is a great deal
of unemployment among engineers in this country, the number of
persons holding the diploma of Argentine colleges is ample to
provide for the country's needs in respect of public works.
Chile
There is little unemployment at present among engineers, and the
development of the railway system, the great nitrate works, mining
enterprises, road making, public works, harbour works, the construction of canals, etc. amply suffice to employ all the engineers
graduating from the State University.
MIGRATION

I t is difficult t o make a full list of states which for engineers
and chemists are countries of emigration or of immigration.
Generally speaking, however, France, Spain, t h e Balkan states,

— 41 —

and, under normal conditions, Russia, were the European
countries of immigration, while outside Europe the LatinAmerican countries have always been the chief object of
emigration for engineers and chemists.

Emigration
Since the war it may be said that nearly all European states
have become countries of emigration for engineers and chemists.
In Italy the problem of employment became particularly
acute during the period immediately following the war. Owing
to demobilisation, the labour market was crowded with young
ex-officers, who suddenly found themselves without a livelihood and though holding diplomas had no practical experience.
This explains why the question of obtaining employment for
intellectual workers abroad was first taken up by the National
Ex-Service Men's Organisation (Opera nazionale per i Combattenti), which instituted 400 scholarships to assist business men
and intellectual workers in emigrating. This organisation
also instituted special courses to train emigrants for their work
in foreign countries. The same problem was also dealt with on
a wider basis, not confined to ex-Service men, by the Italian
Colonial Institute. Other institutions, such as the Agricultural
Institute of Florence, the Bonomelli Institute, and the Oriental
Institute of Naples, also took steps to encourage the emigration
of intellectual workers.
The most effective action taken so far, however, is that of
the Association of Italian Engineers and Architects, as a result
of which 50 young engineers and architects, very carefully
selected, were sent to the United States in February 1924 to
take up posts in large industrial undertakings. The agreements with the undertakings provided that these young
engineers should be given opportunities to familiarise themselves with all the main phases of industrial organisation,
beginning as ordinary labourers, and passing successively
through every department of the undertaking where they are
employed. This scheme was encouraged by the General
Emigration Department in Italy and by the Italian Ambassador
at Washington, himself an engineer.
The National Credit Institution for Italian Labour Abroad
(Istituto nazionale di Credito per il Lavoro italiano a l'Estero),

— 42 —

instituted by the Legislative Decree of 15 December 1923,
will also assist the emigration of technical workers by providing
funds for Italian firms abroad desirous of employing Italian
labour, and in general by financing any Italian undertaking
abroad.
The Minister of Education, Mr. Gentile, apparently wished
to conclude a reciprocity agreement with the United States
on university degrees and diplomas ; but this project had no
result, as under the United States Constitution such matters
are within the jurisdiction of the individual States.
In Spain the Institution for the Assistance of Engineers
and Workers Abroad (Patronato para ingenieros y obreros en
el extranjero), an official body, pays the travelling expenses
of engineers proceeding abroad, and also gives them a salary
for a year, varying between 600 and 800 pesetas a month, according to the country to which they have gone. The object
of these scholarships is to complete the education of the recipients and to assist the development of the national industries.
In Switzerland emigration is encouraged with a view to
diminishing unemployment ; this also applies to Great Britain,
where scholarships, particularly the Robert Blair Fellowship,
have been instituted for this purpose.
As a rule European engineers emigrate to America temporarily rather thanj permanently. They generally return
to their own country as soon as they are in a position to do so.
Immigration

and the Position of Foreigners

Many countries have taken steps to restrict and supervise
immigration very strictly. On the whole, however, no distinction is made between foreigners and nationals in employment,
though in some countries restrictions are placed on the admission
of foreigners to technical schools and colleges.
Official employment exchanges generally make no distinction
between foreigners and nationals, but as was shown they
mainly deal with lower-grade technical workers only. Foreign
engineers generally obtain posts through their personal connections or their consular representatives.
Austria
Foreigners are only admitted to the technical colleges if there are
vacancies after all applications from Austrians have been considered,
and have to pay ten times the ordinary fees.

— 43 —

Foreign engineers obtain posts mainly in special branches of the
profession, and being specialists are generally well paid.
Belgium
Foreigners can only obtain " academic " degrees in Belgium, as
the " statutory " degrees are granted solely to Belgian citizens. As a
general rule employers prefer to engage engineers with a Belgian
university degree, with the exception of those from certain foreign
institutions of recognised standing, such as the " Ecole Centrale "
and the " Ecole Polytechnique " of Paris, and the Zurich Polytechnic.
Bulgaria
Foreigners may be given state appointments only by special Parliamentary authorisation. This has frequently been done, the majority
of the engineers concerned being Russians, Czechs, and Austrians.
Finland
The number of foreigners in Finnish industry was fairly considerable forty years ago, but with the improvement in technical education
it has decreased and is at present small. Foreign engineers work
under the same conditions as Finns. There is a slight increase
in the number of foreign engineers at present, owing probably to the
economic situation in neighbouring countries.
Foreigners are only admitted to the Technical College if they are
conversant with the two national languages, and with the permission
of the Council of Ministers. Foreign students are few in number
owing to the lack of accommodation.
France
Engineers complain of competition from foreigners. It is impossible to give accurate figures, but the engineers' associations are frequently informed of cases in which the management of undertakings
or particularly good posts have been given to foreign engineers,
particularly Belgians or Swiss. The associations have endeavoured
to regulate the admission of foreign engineers to French undertakings
in order to encourage the employment of Frenchmen. They have
drawn attention to the strategic danger incurred by the employment
of foreign engineers, who may be in a position to obtain information
regarding mobilisation methods, military organisation, national
resources, and the weak points in the national defences.
They wish to go further than this, demanding that regulation shall
be extended to all branches of industry ; they propose that the employment of foreign engineers should be subject to government authorisation, which could be withdrawn at any moment. They even
suggest that the number of engineers from a given foreign country
permitted to work in France should not exceed the number of French
engineers employed in that country, and that foreign engineers should
never be given better posts in France than those occupied by French
engineers abroad ; a system of statistics, declarations, supervision,
and penalties to be instituted for this purpose.
So far, however, these proposals, which are not unanimously supported by all French engineers, have had no practical result. Most of

— 44 —

ithe foreign engineers employed in France, it may be noted, have not
come of their own initiative, but were requested to come because of
their special knowledge and capacities.
Germany
The collective agreements concluded by German salaried employees
contain no clauses restricting the employment of foreign engineers ;
German engineers, however, would certainly not welcome any influx
of foreign competitors and would probably endeavour to prevent it
should such an eventuality appear probable.
The number of foreigners at present employed in Germany is not
known, but as there is at present a super-abundance of German
technical workers the number of foreigners is probably on the
decrease. The position varies in the different special branches of
the profession. In the majority of cases it may be said that there
is no necessity to employ foreigners, as German engineers have adequate
technical qualifications. Foreigners are as a rule only employed on
special conditions or to meet special needs.
The number of foreign students in Germany is as a rule limited to
the number of places left vacant. During the period of currency
inflation the number of foreign students frequently exceeded the
maximum fixed, but at present is probably less than this.
Great Britain
Before the war some firms preferred to employ foreign engineers
because they would accept lower salaries. During the war certain
engineering associations excluded nationals of enemy states from
membership, but this did not apply to those who were naturalised
British subjects.
At present foreign engineers can only be engaged if the employer
obtains a special permit from the Ministry of Labour, which is extremely difficult. Permits are only granted for special work for which
a British engineer is not available. These regulations have, certainly
reduced the number of foreign engineers who would otherwise have
entered the country.
Greece
As the number of native engineers is insufficient to meet the requirements of the state, the Government is frequently compelled to
«ngage foreign engineers under special agreements.
Hungary
The admission of foreigners to the Hungarian colleges is only limited
by the fact that instruction is given in Hungarian, a language which
very few foreigners know.
Very few foreign engineers are employed in industry, and these are
generally specialists for kinds of work rare in Hungary or representatives of foreign firms. Their conditions of work are the same as
in their own country : in other words, as such cases are exceptional,
they enjoy more favourable conditions than Hungarians.

— 45 —
Italy
The number of foreign engineers employed in Italy is small, and;
they work under the same conditions as nationals.
Poland
Foreigners are admitted to schools and colleges on the same conditionsas Poles, but the latter enjoy priority if the number of places is limited.
Foreign diplomas and certificates must be registered and recognised.
There are no restrictions on the employment of foreigners in industry,.
except in undertakings carried on under government concessions,
which generally contain a preference clause in favour of nationalsSalaries are the same, except for certain specialised engineers who are
engaged for short periods at high salaries.
Bourn ania
Foreigners are admitted to Roumanian colleges on exactly the
same conditions as nationals. The immigration of chemists is themost important, as the number of Roumanian chemists is exceedingly
"small. Economic conditions since the war have not been favourable
to the development of the chemical industry, and the number of
foreigners employed in it is still comparatively small. They are
admitted to professional organisations on the same conditions as.
nationals.
Spain
The recognition of foreign engineering degrees involves a complicated procedure, which is becoming increasingly difficult. An application is addressed to the competent Ministry, which transmits it forinformation to the principal and faculty of the college for whose
degree or title application has been made. The council of the college
then reports to the Minister, after examining the curriculum of the
establishment where the applicant was educated and his academicdegrees. The Minister may then either grant the application or referthe matter back to the college, which then requires the candidate to •
pass an examination or draft a plan, according to the origin of the
degree presented. If the application is for the title of industrial
engineer, the Council of Public Education must also express its opinion..
Engineering schools have recently been placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Labour, and since this change took place
no applications for recognition of degrees have been addressed to the
Ministry. No one knows, therefore, what procedure would be followed..
Many foreign engineers are employed in Spain, particularly by the
companies worked with foreign capital. Most of the staff of the
Penarroya Company are French or Belgian ; those at Rio Tinto are
mainly British, those of the Brown Boveri Company Swiss, and thoseof the " E. G. " Germans. As a rule, British engineers work in
mines, Italians as civil engineers, Germans in the chemical and electrical industries, Belgians in mechanical engineering, and French
engineers in all branches. Working conditions are the same as for
Spaniards, except that in certain undertakings, such as mines, f o r eigners cannot act as managers, as the signature of a certificated.
Spanish engineer is necessary.

— 46 —

The excess of Spanish engineers available, the tendency to protect
nationals, the rising professional standard of the latter, the fact that
capital in some industries is passing more and more into Spanish
hands, have all contributed to decrease the number of foreign engineers employed, and Spanish engineers' unions are agitating against
the employment of foreigners.
Switzerland
Foreigners are admitted to Swiss colleges on the same conditions
a s nationals. Until recently the only exception was the Zurich
Polytechnic, which charged higher fees to foreigners. This year,
however, the fees were made uniform.
Before the war no distinction was made in Swiss industry between
nationals and foreigners, efficiency being the only criterion. At
present the number of foreign engineers in Switzerland is probably
small, as Swiss engineers can supply all the needs of industry. The
•Swiss Technicians' Union has begun a campaign against the admission
or employment of any large number of foreign engineers in Switzerland.
United States
Foreigners are admitted to practically all universities and colleges
-on the same conditions as American citizens. The State universities
form an exception, as no fees are charged to residents in the State
in which the university is situated, while students from other States
or from abroad have to pay small fees.
No distinction is made between Americans and foreigners as regards
-certificates or diplomas, and in conferring degrees American universities often give credit for education in other countries.
Apart from the general restrictions imposed by the immigration
laws, there are no special labour conditions or customs regulating
or restricting the employment of foreigners as engineers. Before
the war Germans were employed in large numbers, and even now
most large industrial concerns employ a fairly large proportion of
foreigners or persons who have only recently been naturalised. As a
result of the war, however, of the restrictions on immigration, and of
the increasing numbers of engineers trained by American universities,
the number of foreigners employed appears to be decreasing. The
agricultural engineers estimate that only about three or four per cent.
of their number are foreigners.
In certain States (Arizona, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada,
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Texas,
Virginia, and West Virginia) licenses to carry on certain technical
professions are not granted to foreigners. Opinion among American
engineers is divided on the subject of the engagement of Italians
through the Italian Embassy in Washington, but it is emphasised
that no special privileges have been granted and that they are only
temporarily employed in American industries.
No distinction is made in working conditions between foreign
engineers and nationals, where the former are in residence, except
in certain government services.

— 47 —

Argentine
There are but few native industrial engineers in this country, so
that the employment of foreign technical experts has been unavoidable. Usually foreign undertakings prefer to employ European or
North American engineers.
Although, however, these workers
have hitherto had ample opportunities of employment in the Republic
it would seem that the country is not at present in a position to offer
suitable openings to any further applicants of this class.
Chile
Hitherto few foreign engineers have been employed. Immigration
is not regarded as either necessary or desirable, Chilian engineers
having shown that they posses all the capacities needed for important
engineering works.
Ecuador
There are foreign engineers both in the public services and in the
employment of foreign firms manufacturing machinery and technical
plant. Employers in need of specialists for managing undertakings
generally engage foreign engineers.
Panama
Foreign engineers are employed in considerable numbers, particularly in public works. They mainly come from the United States
and Canada.
Peru
There are many foreign engineers in the country, as all the important
public works and industrial undertakings are in the hands of foreigners. For certain special classes or work, moreover, foreigners have
to be employed, as Peruvians have not yet specialised in these branches
of engineering.

EMPLOYMENT

OF

WOMEN

In no country have women as y e t t a k e n a prominent place
in the chemical and engineering professions, b u t t h e y do
i m p o r t a n t work, more especially in pure science, teaching, and
in laboratory work. The possibilities of development are
sufficiently interesting to justify a survey of t h e position in
certain countries.
There are no known cases of women engineers employed
in factories. They are generally held to lack t h e necessary
authority for directing workmen. A certain number of women
are, however, employed in draughtsmen's offices.
In t h e chemical industry, similarly, hardly a single case is known
of a woman being employed directly on manufacturing

— 48 —
processes. They are frequently employed in laboratories
and even more frequently as teachers of chemistry.
Conditions of employment are t h e same for women as for
men, b u t their prospects of promotion are limited by t h e fact
t h a t t h e y are not p u t in charge of manufacturing processes,
which shuts t h e m off from t h e best posts.
Austria
The number of women with the title of engineer is extremely small ;
there is no question of their competing seriously with men, particularly as they have so far occupied no managerial posts. Women
are mainly to be found in chemical laboratories and in architectural
drawing shops.
Belgium
The first woman engineer obtained her certificate in 1922, but a
considerable number of women have obtained the degree of Doctor
of Chemistry.
Finland
Women have obtained diplomas at the Technical College for many
years. During the last ten years there have been 25 of them, mainly
in the architectural department, some in chemistry, and very few
in civil or mechanical engineering. They have obtained posts in
architects' offices, in chemical laboratories, or as women factory
inspectors ; but no women has yet been employed directly on industrial
work.
France
Women do_not compete much with men. Nevertheless the number
of women students in an electrical school increased from 2 per cent.
of the total in 1919 to 30 per cent, in 1924. A few women are employed in the chemical industry, but very few in the electrical trades,
mechanical engineering, metallurgy, or public works.
Germany
The number of women holding engineers' and chemists' diplomas
is not large, but no precise figures are available.. More women are
employed in the chemical industry than in purely technical industries ;
they do not compete seriously with men. Conditions of employment
and the scientific qualifications required are the same for women as
for men.
Great Britain
The number of women engineers, though not as yet large, is by
no means. negligible. A Society of Women Engineers has been
founded and has already held two international conferences, the last
at Manchester. In 1922-1923, out of a total of 5,500 engineering
students in British universities, 17 were women. Working conditions
are the same as for men, but women are generally less highly paid.

— 49 —
Hungary
Two women obtained diplomas in engineering at the Polytechnic
School under the Karolyi régime ; since the fall of Bolshevism, however
they are no longer admitted as pupils.
United States
The Secretary of the Mining and Metallurgical Society states that
a large number of women are employed as laboratory assistants in
chemical and physical laboratories. They are employed on the same
conditions as men, with whom they compete seriously in these professions. It is held that they are superior to men in certain kinds
of work.

— 50 —

III
Conditions of

Employment

Technical workers, even highly specialised, do not form
a distinct and separate class ; they are generally assimilated
to other categories of workers. Those of them who are state
employees and are, to that extent, public officials, come under
civil service regulations. Those who are employed in the
offices or headquarters of undertakings work under the same
conditions as other office staff ; while those who are employed
in connection with manual workers share their working conditions.
The subsequent sections will deal in turn with the contract
of employment, hours of work and wages. These are the
matters which, to intellectual workers in general, appear of
the greatest importance. On the whole, working conditions
have improved since the war, owing to various causes, but
wages have fallen, at all events in comparison with the cost
of living. The demands of engineers and chemists are more
often connected with wages than with working conditions
strictly so called.

CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT

Engineers' agreements are subject to special legislative
regulation in a few countries only. Engineers and chemists
usually work on the basis of individual agreements concluded
with their employers under ordinary law. A few collective
agreements have been concluded, but this procedure has not
yet become general, as engineers' work is usually of an individual
character, and is not suited to uniform regulation. There are
certain special features in the contracts of engineers and
chemists, owing to the fact that they frequently hold posts of considerable responsibility and through their work are acquainted
with special processes or appliances which their employers
regard as secret. There is frequently included in engineers'

— 51 —

contracts, therefore, a so-called "competition clause" or its
equivalent, which prohibits the engineer, on the termination
of his contract, from entering the employment of a competing
firm, manufacturing competing products, or divulging the
trade secrets of his former employers.
Austria
The agreements of engineers employed in industry are regulated
by the Act of 11 May 1921 *, and those of engineers in agriculture or
forestry by that of 26 September 1923 '. Without going into the
details of these Acts, it may be stated that the provisions regarding
holidays, period of notice, and compensation for dismissal are more
favourable for engineers than for manual workers. Any disputes
must be submitted to joint conciliation boards.
The Act of 1921, for example, provides that the period of notice
of discharge must be six weeks during the first two years' service,
two months during the three subsequent years, three months during
the next ten, four months during the next ten, and five months after
twenty-five years' service. Notice may only be given at the end of
a quarter. More favourable conditions may always be laid down
either by individual or by collective agreement.
Collective agreements have been concluded in the metal industry,
notably between the Federation of Austrian Industries (Reichsverband
der Industriellen), and the Union of Salaried Employees in Industry
(Bund der Industrieangestellten). These agreements fix the initial
wages for young technicians. There is also a collective agreement
in the building trades, but it provides little if any protection for professional engineers. The latter are anxious to adopt the system of
agreements containing complete scales of salaries, as has been done in
Germany, but it will probably be some time before the change from
the present system can be effected.
Parties to an agreement are generally bound by the provisions of
the Act of 11 May 1921, but these are of such a general character that
they do not constitute an effective protection for engineers. Individual agreements are only used for the highest posts.
The prohibition of unfair competition is dealt with by Sections 36
and 37 of the above Act, which are as follows :
36 (1) Any agreement restricting the remunerative activities of the employee after the termination of his employment
(competition clause) shall be void if, at the date of the agreement,
the employee is a minor, or if his remuneration at the date of
the termination of the agreement is not more than 12,000 kronen.
(2) If his remuneration is higher, such an agreement shall
not be valid unless : (i) the restriction applies only to activities
in the employer's class of business and does not extend beyond ;
1

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

(English translation).
» Ibid., 1923, Aus. 2.

: Legislative Series, 1921, Aus. 1.-

— 52 —
(ü) the conditions as to the object, time, or place of such
restrictions are not such as to impede the advancement of the
employee unduly, regard being had to the business interests of
the employer in the enforcement of the restriction.
37 (1) If the employer is guilty of conduct justifying the
employee in leaving his employment prematurely or giving
notice to leave, his rights against the employee based on the
competition clause shall not be enforceable.
In practice, however, it is often found that the employee's right
to take employment in competing firms is restricted beyond the
above provisions, sometimes for as much as five years.
Belgium
The Act of 7 August 1922 1 provides that the period of notice shall
be at least three months in all cases where the monthly salary exceeds
250 francs, and six months after ten years' employment. These
periods are reduced by half if the employee gives notice.
Czechoslovakia
Sections 1151 and following of the Civil Code, as modified by the
Act of 1 April 1921 * contain provisions dealing with individual
agreements. These, however, do not apply to public employees,
and are generally of a subsidiary character, being only valid, that is,
in cases where labour conditions are not subject to special regulations.
The most important of these are contained in Sections 72 and following of the Industrial Code. There are also special Acts for mines s ,
higher-grade estate employees, and public works.
Denmark
There are no collective agreements for engineers and chemists, but
the Danish Engineers' Union (Ingeniörforbundei) has drawn up a
standard form of contract which is generally adopted. As regards
unfair competition, Section 11 of the Act of 20 March 1918 imposes
a penalty not exceeding 4,000 kroner or six months' imprisonment for
divulging trade secrets which can only have been learned as the result
of the position of trust held under the contract. Nevertheless, should
the secret be divulged more than three years after the termination
of the contract, it is not a criminal offence, though an action for
damages may be brought.
Section 26 of the Act of 8 May 1917 provides that, where a person
has bound himself by contract to pay a penalty if he does not fulfil
his obligations, such penalty may be reduced by the courts should
it appear unreasonable. Section 38 of the same Act states that if
a person has bound himself not to engage in a trade or business of a
certain kind, or to refrain from seeking employment in such business,
such stipulations shall not be binding if they go further, as regards
time, place, and other circumstances, than is necessary in order to
» Legislative Series, 1922, Bel. 2.
» Ibid., 1921, Cz. 2.
s Ibid., Cz. 3.

— 53 —

guard against competition, or if they unduly limit the opportunities
of obtaining employment open to the person thus bound. The
interest of the employer in the execution of the agreement
must also be taken into account. If a person employed by a
business or other undertaking has agreed that such obligations shall
apply after the termination of his employment, these shall be null
and void if he is dismissed without reasonable cause or resigns because
the employer's failure to fulfil his obligations gives reasonable cause
for such action.
Finland
The Act of 1 June 1922 on contracts of work l appears to apply
to engineers' agreements, which can in consequence only be concluded
either for three years or for an indefinite period. The period of notice
is the same for both parties, being 15 days in general, while it may not
exceed six months. A period of probation on engagement may be
stipulated, but may not exceed three months. The statutory annual
holiday is seven days.
There are no collective agreements between employers' and engineers' organisations or standard forms of agreement. Agreements,
which are purely individual, are only signed for the highest posts.
The clause regarding business secrets and competition is not much
in use, except in cases where a firm has given an employee opportunities of obtaining specialised knowledge of a given process, and it
is always limited in period.
France
In most cases there is no written agreement between the engineer
and his employer. Engineers are nearly always paid by the month,
and their only obligation is to continue to work as long as the salary
is paid. Long-period agreements are only concluded in the case of
the higher posts. Written agreements generally run for periods
varying between five and ten years. The usual period of notice is a
month, and there is a growing tendency, particularly in contracts
for an indefinite period, to make allowance for services rendered,
length of employment, and salary in this connection. The period
of notice for engineers is rarely less than three months, and in some
cases may extend to six months or a year ; compensation for dismissal
is, however, rare.
Negotiations with a view to the conclusion of a collective agreement
took place in 1919 between the President of the French Chemical
Engineers' Union (Syndicat professionnal des ingénieurs-chimistes)
and the President of the Chemical Products Employers' Association
(Chambre syndicale des produits chimiques). The employers did not
deny the ground for certain claims made by the Union, but refused
to bind themselves collectively in relation to the chemical engineers'
organisation. There was also some doubt whether the Act of 25 March
1919 permitted the Chemical Products Association to assume such
a collective obligation. The result of the negotiations was that by
1

Legislative Series, 1922, Fin. 1.

— 54 —

agreement the Association sent a recommendation to its twentyfour affiliated groups to the effect that the initial salary for chemists
should be 750 francs a month.
Although this letter does not
constitute either an agreement or an undertaking, its suggestion
has generally been followed. It has even had some influence on the
position in other industries, such as textiles and metallurgy, which
are not represented in the Association.
The competition clause, which was formerly not much in use in
France, is tending to become more general. The engineers' organisations continually protest against such an extension of obligations
expressed in general terms, as the practice of the courts is against it.
An employer may, however, prevent an employee from setting up a
business on his own account or entering the employment of a competitor in the same town or in the same branch of industry during a
specified period. It may be added that engineers believe, and sometimes state that they possess proof, that there are agreements between
employers in the same branch of industry or the same district which
prevent an employee on leaving one firm from obtaining employment
with a similar firm, even though he has not agreed to any limitation
on his right to seek employment.
Germany
Contracts of employment are not regulated by law, but collective
agreements are now recognised as legal contract of employment, and
can no longer be invalidated by individual agreements, as was formerly
the case. When, therefore, a collective agreement exists for a certain
industry, an employer is not free to modify it in accordance with his
individual wishes. Collective or standard agreements apply to technical workers and chemists only when they belong to a trade union
organisation ; there are no such agreements for intellectual workers
holding high positions. Probably the latter would in any case consider
it beneath their dignity to comply with the conditions of a collective
agreement.
The competition clause is permitted under Section 133 (/) of the
Industrial Code and Section 74 of the Commercial Code.
Great Britain
Engineers' contracts are generally of a uniform type, with slight
variations. Their organisations are at present endeavouring to secure
certain modifications in them.
A few collective agreements have been concluded, among others
by the Electric Power Engineers' Association, which represents about
four thousand professional engineers. This agreement provides for
a joint committee to fix salary scales in the electricity supply industry.
The Society of Technical Engineers is endeavouring to get similar
committees established in other branches of engineering.
Greece
The Act of 11 March 1920 concerning contracts of employment 1
requires at least 30 days' notice of dismissal
1

Legislative Series, 1920, Gr. 3-4.

— 55 —
Hungary
Agreements are generally purely individual ; it has been found
impossible to conclude any collective agreements, as there are no
organisations of employed engineers. Agreements are, however,
generally of a uniform type, particularly as some of their provisions,
such as those on the period of notice and the insurance of employees,
are prescribed by law. It would appear that the Order of 1 March
1920 concerning commercial employees' contracts of service 1, applies
to engineers ; it provides for six months' notice of discharge from
higher posts.
The Federation of Civil Engineers, the members of which are mainly
employers, fixes minimum wages monthly in accordance with the
fluctuations of the krone. Although these minimum rates are not
universally accepted, they nevertheless constitute a basis on which
salaries may be fixed. Engineers occupying important posts have
individual agreements, while a large number of engineers are employed
without any agreement at all, but on the conditions stated above.
Agreements generally prohibit engineers, on leaving one undertaking, from accepting employment in another manufacturing similar
articles. The efficacy of such provisions is, however, doubtful ;
should an employee be unable to obtain a post except with a firm
manufacturing similar products to those of the undertaking he has
just left, no court would prevent him from accepting such a post,
unless — as sometimes happens — his former employers were paying
him a salary while he was out of work.
Italy
Engineers' contracts are regulated by the Decree of 9 February
1919 on contracts of employment*. The organisations of salaried
employees have endeavoured to obtain a national collective agreement on the basis of this Decree, but they have so far been unsuccessful and have been forced to content themselves with partial collective
agreements.
A standard agreement, binding on all employers in Lombardy, was
concluded on 17 January 1921 between the Consortium of Engineering and Metallurgical Employers (Consorzio Lombardo fra industriali meccanici e metallurgici) and the Milan section of the National
Association of Engineers (Associazione nazionale degli ingegnieri).
This agreement fixes initial salaries, conditions of insurance, and
the amount of compensation to which technicians are entitled. A
committee of three arbitrators is instituted to settle all disputes
between employers and engineers. Engineers are entitled to one
month's notice for every year during which they have been employed
by one firm, with a maximum of one year and a minimum of three
months. If an agreement is cancelled by the employer before its
expiration, the employee is entitled to compensation amounting to
one year's salary for notice two years before the expiration of the
1

Legislative Series, 1920, Hung. 3.
* Ibid., 1919, Ital. 3.

— 56 —
agreement, ten month's salary for one year, and eight months salary
for termination less than a year before expiration.
The agreement of 17 January 1921 only binds parties who have
explicitly adhered to it and have accepted it as the basis of their
agreements. In practice it has rarely been applied, as its provisions
are generally regarded as too onerous for employers.
Other collective agreements have been concluded, notably in
Piedmont in the metallurgical and textile industries.
On 1 Janurary 1920 regulations, to which a standard agreement
was annexed, were agreed upon between the National Association
of Chemical Employers (Associazione nazionale degli industriali
chimici) and the Italian Union of Certificated Chemists (Unione
italiano fra Laureati in Chimica), but this agreement was not compulsory, and has remained a dead letter.
On 23 May 1921 the same organisations concluded a new agreement
which raised the salary scale, but reduced the length of holidays.
Its provisions were temporarily suspended in the dye industry owing
to the trade depression. As in the former case, the agreement
remained inoperative, although this does not mean that they have
never been adopted as the basis of individual agreements.
The National Union of Certificated Chemists, which is affiliated
to the Fascist corporations, is at present taking energetic action to
induce the Federation of Chemical Employers to place chemists'
contracts in this industry on a national basis.
Similarly, the National Union of Fascist Engineers (Sindacato
nazionale ingegneri fascisti) has drafted a standard agreement and
submitted it to the Government for approval. There is also a standard
agreement at Milan for employees in the chemical and pharmaceutical
industries, which would also apply to engineers in the absence of
restrictive clauses concerning them.
Cases of disputes on the interpretation of agreements may be laid
before the provincial arbitration committees instituted by the Decree
of 1 May 1916, confirmed by various subsequent Decrees. Appeal
from their decisions may be made to the Central Arbitration Commission at Rome.
Trade secrets and competition are covered by the general law on
unfair competition. Section 10 of the Decree of 9 February 1919 1
aims at preventing undue restrictions on an employee's actions during
the period following the termination of his contract, but this has not
prevented the conclusion of special agreements on the subject, especially among chemists. The agreement of 1 January 1920 contained
the following clause in this connection :
A certificated chemist is bound in all cases (i.e. by whichever
party the agreement has been terminated), if the firm so require,
to render no direct or indirect service to competing firms for
a period not exceeding two years ; in compensation for which
the firm shall continue to pay him half the monthly salary he
1

Legislative Series, 1919, Ital. 3.

— 57 —

last earned during the entire period stipulated. The firm shall
be entitled at any time to shorten or abolish this period on two
months' notice.
Poland
The period of notice for both parties is three months. There are
no stipulations regarding competition, and engineers leaving an undertaking are at perfect liberty to enter the employment of a competitor.
Roumania
There is no standard agreement. Contracts are purely individual,
and are concluded in agreement with the management of the undertaking, generally for a term of five years.
Switzerland
Collective agreements and standard agreements are practically
unknown in this country. Swiss engineers are usually engaged in
accordance with the provisions of the Federal Code of Obligations,
but individual contracts vary considerably from one undertaking
to another. The only exception to the generalisation made above
is a standard agreement in force in the big chemical works at Basle.
The period of notice is generally a fortnight during the first three months
of employment, one month during the first year, and two months
subsequently. The Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects has
also drafted a standard agreement, which is used as a basis for a large
number of individual agreements.
There are no fixed rules as to the duration and scope of the competition clause, which depend largely on the size of the works and the
trade secrets which the firm, rightly or wrongly, believes itself to
possess. Important firms desirous of securing strict observance of
this clause generally pay either a lump sum or a proportion of the
salary during the period of prohibition. As the competition clause
is not enforceable by law, chemists or engineers are no longer bound
to respect its provisions if the firm by whom they were employed
discontinues payment of the salary. It frequently occurs that,
without stating that they will not enter the service of a competing
firm, they bind themselves by contract not to manufacture competing
articles after leaving the firm or to divulge or make use of manufacturing processess, knowledge of which was obtained while in
its employment.
United States
Collective agreements have not become general in the United
States, though efforts have been made in this direction by architects'
organisations, hitherto with little result. There is a collective agreement
on the railways, while the American Association of Engineers made
a special arrangement with the employers regarding the period of
notice, as a result of the sudden dismissal of a hundred engineers.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers has adopted a Code
of Ethics, but this is not binding even on members. The American
Institute of Electrical Engineers also adopted a Code of Principles
of Professional Conduct in 1912 ; and it is thought in engineering

— 58 —

circles that the adoption of this code has led to an improvement in
engineering ethics. The adoption of a similar code is under discussion
in agriculture, but has not yet been carried into effect. Other associations, on the contrary, maintain that the adoption of ethical rules
of this kind tend rather to multiply offences.
Individual agreements are the rule both for engineers and chemists.
Provisions on trade secrets and competition are rare, and certain
engineering organisations are unaware of their existence. It appears
that the courts take account of them to some extent, but legal practice
in the matter is still obscure, as cases have also occurred where the courts
have annulled clauses of this nature. Their attitude appears to
depend on special circumstances, more especially on the kind of work
performed. The clause may be upheld in cases where real trade
secrets may be revealed.

HOURS

OF

WORK

For many reasons it would be difficult to make any clear
distinction in such matters as hours of labour, weekly rest,
night work, hygiene and safety conditions between manual
workers and those who direct and supervise them. With few
exceptions chemists or engineers cannot do their work without
the assistance of workers or at any rate laboratory boys ;
conversely, shifts would be disorganised if engineers worked
shorter hours than the workers of whom they are in charge.
Equal treatment is therefore a necessity, so much so that, even
when attempts have been made to introduce special regulations
on hours for intellectual workers, exceptions have had to be
allowed. The Latvian Act of 22 March 1922 \ for instance,
which institutes the principle of a 6-hour day for intellectual
workers, provides for exceptions where intellectual work is
inseparably connected with manual work.
If legislation makes no distinction between salaried employees and wage-earners, the hours of work are the same for
all. Where this is not done, engineers and chemists are usually
regarded as salaried employees. Apart from any distinction
between wage-earning and salaried employees, in nearly every
country, managers or persons in positions of responsibility are
excluded from the legislation on hours of work. The international Draft Convention on hours of labour adopted at Washington excludes from its application " persons holding positions
1

Legislative Series, 1922, Lat. 1.

— 59 —
of supervision or management ". In so far as engineers and
chemists occupy positions of this nature they are not subject
to any statutory limitation of their hours of work, as, for
example, in Belgium. As far as is known, in no country are
there any provisions regulating the hours of work of engineers
and chemists as such.
None of the collective agreements which have been examined
contain special regulations for the hours of engineers and
chemists. This also applies to annual holidays, though as a
general rule employees with a university education are more
favourable treated in this respect than manual workers.
Nevertheless, there is a double injustice in putting manual
workers and their immediate chiefs on the same footing as
regards hours of work. Engineers, if they wish to keep in
touch with, the latest developments in their profession, to
continue their studies, to solve any special difficulties arising
in the course of their work, or to follow scientific progress
generally, are compelled to work at home after the statutory
8-hour day. The manual worker is free when he leaves the
factory, but this is practically never true of the intellectual
worker.
In the second place the two classes do not really
receive the same treatment ; technical workers suffer from the
same limitations as manual workers, but do not enjoy the same
advantages. They are not paid for overtime or night work,
as their salaries are paid monthly. Conditions of hygiene and
safety, which for manual workers are subject to careful supervision and inspection, are frequently less strictly controlled
for the higher staff.
Austria
Although the working conditions of salaried employees are regulated
by the Act of 11 May 1921, the position of engineers and chemists
appears in practice to be much the same as that of manual workers,
though they are more favourably treated as regards holidays and
period of notice.
The Act of 17 December 1919 1, which established the principle
of the 8-hour day, applies both to salaried employees and wage earners.
In practice engineers employed in offices usually work one hour less
than those in factories. The weekly rest for engineers employed in
industry is regulated by the Act of 16 December 1875, while the
existence or otherwise of a Saturday half-holiday depends on the
provisions of collective agreements. Section 17 of the Act of 1921
regulates holidays, which vary, according to the nature of the
1

Legislative Series, 1920, Aus. 12-15.

— 60 —

employment, from 15 days to five weeks (after 25 years' service).
Under Section 18 the employer is responsible for taking due precautions for safety and hygiene. Night work for engineers is not subject
to any regulations. The provisions of the Act on hours of work
have been extented since 1924 to a number of undertakings to which
they did not previously apply.
Belgium
The Order of 28 February 1922 \ issued in pursuance of the EightHour Day Act of 14 June 1921, defines the classes of persons who are
considered as employed in a confidential capacity within the meaning
of the Act, and to whom, therefore, the statutory limitation of hours
of work does not apply. Engineers, principal chemists, heads of
laboratories, and their personal assistants are included in this list.
Bulgaria
Hours of work are fixed at 8 a day, with a compulsory Sunday rest.
Engineers and architects employed by the state are entitled to an
annual holiday of one month.
Czechoslovakia
The Circular of 21 March 1919 * defining the application of the
Eight-Hour Day Act on 19 December 1918 states that " the Act
regulates the hours of work of all workers, therefore it applies not
only to workmen in the narrower sense but to officials — to both
manual and professional workers, regardless of status. "
Denmark
Engineers generally work longer hours than wage earners, but
those employed in higher positions also have longer holidays.
Finland
Working hours are nominally the same as for manual workers, but
engineers in charge sometimes work much longer hours. Except
in cases of urgent necessity, engineers work by day ; only young
engineers, who do much the same work as foremen, have to work at
night on occasion. Holidays for wage earners are fixed by law at
one week a year ; those of engineers, however, depend on the terms
of their agreement, and vary in different undertakings from two to
four weeks a year.
France
The Eight-Hour A c t 3 applies, generally speaking, to engineers
as to other workers. This is notably the case in large factories,
where no account is taken of the individual work which an engineer
must do at home in order to improve his efficiency and keep in
touch with technical progress. The only exceptions occur in small
1
1
3

Legislative Series, 1923, Bel. 2.
Ibid., 1919, Cz. 3.
Ibid., 1919, Fr. 3.

— 61 —
undertakings where only one or two engineers are employed. In offices
the working week is generally from 38 to 40 hours. In the workshops, however, there are no fixed rules ; the necessity for executing
orders governs hours of work and even the weekly rest.
Annual holidays are fixed entirely at the discretion of the employer;
there are no regulations on the subject. Some engineers get 15 days'
paid holiday a year, this being the general rule in factories ; others,
however, only get a week, while many have no right to a holiday at
all. In offices three weeks' holiday is generally granted.
Germany
Section 12 of the Order of 18 March 1919 concerning the hours of
work of salaried employees excludes from the application of the Order
those occupying a post of responsibility, those in charge of at least
20 salaried or 50 wage-earning employees, and those whose annual
salary was over 7,000 marks per annum at the date of the promulgation of the Order. The last provision in practice excludes the majority
of intellectual workers employed in industry. Salaried employees
generally enjoy a 42-hour working week under collective agreements.
Great Britain
Certain engineers' organisations in Great Britain do not allow their
members to work more than 42 hours a week, and many of them are
aiming at a 38-hour week, though this has not yet been reached,
except in a few large undertakings. A fortnight's holiday is generally
given.
Hungary
There is no legislation in Hungary on hours of work, night work, or
holidays. Engineers are regarded as salaried employees ; their
working conditions are similar to those of other classes of employees,
but they are less clearly defined than those of wage-earning workers,
and contracts often have no clauses on hours of work, the weekly
rest-day, etc. Civil engineers, for instance, work practically the same
hours as manual workers, i.e. 8 to 10 per day, during the busy season
(roughly from 15 March to 15 November), while during the slack
season they work 7 to 8 hours a day in their offices, and receive no
extra pay for the longer hours. Not infrequently, also, they have to
work on Sunday morning or at night without extra pay.
The Saturday half-holiday is becoming more general, while two or
three weeks' paid holiday a year is usually granted. It should be
noted that Hungarian legislation contains no provisions on these
matters either for wage earners or salaried employees, but in practice
the working day of engineers employed in industry rarely exceeds
8 hours.
Italy
Working hours are the same for engineers as for wage-earning
workers. The chemists' collective agreement fixes them at 8 hours'
actual work per day. Engineers do not generally receive extra pay
for night work as wage earners do. The weekly rest, hygiene and
safety conditions are the same as for wage earners.

— 62 —

Engineers usually get from 10 to 20 days' paid holiday after two
years' employment, as against the wage earners' 6 days. The chemists '
collective agreement originally provided for 15 to 25 days' holiday
per annum, but the latter figure was subsequently reduced to 20.
The Legislative Decree of 15 March 1923 1 excepts the managing
staff of undertakings from the provisions for a statutory 8-hour
day. The administrative regulations in the Decree of 10 September
1923 a specify that managing staff shall mean persons in charge of
the technical or administrative management of the undertaking or
of a branch thereof who are directly responsible for the conduct of
the work, i.e. administrators, managers, technical or managing
directors, chief clerks (capi ufficio), and heads of sections (capi reparto)
who perform manual work in exceptional cases only.
Latvia
Section 2 of the Act of 24 March 1922 3 fixes the normal working
day for intellectual workers at 6 hours ; it also stipulates that hours
of work shall be the same for intellectual workers as for manual workers in so far as their work is inseparably connected. The Act does
not, however, define what constitutes intellectual work, and exludes
from its application " persons responsible for the direction or supervision of work or holding positions of trust. "
Netherlands
The provisions of the Eight-Hour Act of 21 July 1922* are not
applicable, according to Section 91, " to the work of persons exclusively or mainly responsible for the management of an undertaking
or of a department thereof or for scientific research or scientific
.supervision".
Poland
The Act of 16 May 1922 5 lays down that " every person employed
in intellectual work in commerce, industry, or an office shall be granted
a fortnight's continuous leave with pay after six months' continuous
employment, or one month's continuous leave with pay after one
years' such employment ".
Portugal
The provisions of Decree No. 5516° and the regulations issued under
it apply to the staff of industrial undertakings of whatever category,
excepting administrators, directors, managers, and higher officials.
i Legislative Series, 1923, It. 1.
» Ibid., It. 7.
3
Ibid., 1922, Lat. 1.
* Ibid., 1922, Neth. 1.
» Ibid., 1922, Pol. 2.
« Ibid., 1919, Por. 1.

— 63 —

Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom
The Act of 28 February 1922 1 for the protection of workers, which
constitutes a regular labour code, excludes from its application
" persons to whom duties of a relatively high grade are entrusted
(managers, book-keepers, cashiers, engineers, etc.) ".
Spain
The Royal Order of 15 January 1920 * provides for exemptions to
the 8-hour principle in the case of " directors, managers, and other
higher officials of undertakings, who, owing to the nature of their
duties, cannot be subject to a strict limitation of their hours of work".
In practice their hours of work are not generally the same as those
of wage earners, and those of engineers who are heads of factories
or undertakings are practically unlimited. In other cases it depends
on the nature of the manufacturing processes and their importance.
The hours of manual workers are practically never taken as basis
in fixing hours for engineers. In intermittent industries, such as
sugar refining, the wage-earning staff is only employed during the
season, which lasts three or four months ; technicians, on the other
hand, are regarded as permanent employees and take a long holiday
during the slack season. Engineers are covered by the provisions
of labour legislation on night work and the weekly rest. They
generally have 15 days' holiday a year.
Sweden
The Hours of Work Act of 22 June 1921 3 excludes from its application " foremen or other persons employed in a responsible position,
designers, book-keepers, and persons in similar positions ".
Switzerland
The Federal Act of 27 June 1919 4 concerning hours of work in
factories does not apply to persons occupying an important post in
the management. The Cantonal Act of Basle (Town) of 8 April 19205
which applies to all public and private employment in the Canton,
excludes directors and heads of departments of public administrations,
institutions, and undertakings, and agents and authorised representatives who actually manage undertakings or take part in management.
The Swiss Technicians' Union is endeavouring to secure the adoption
of the working conditions of Federal officials as the standard for all
technical employees in industry.
The works regulations of the firm of Brown-Boveri, at Baden, fix
the working week in the offices at 44 hours, but this may be extended
to 48 without extra pay. This is the usual arrangement. Annual
1

Legislative Series, 1922, S. C. S. 1.
* Ibid., 1920, Sp. 4-5.
s Ibid., 1921, Swe. 1.
* Ibid., 1919, Switz. 3.
5
Ibid., 1920, Switz. 2-3.

— 64 —

holidays are from one to two weeks for employees earning less than
200 francs a month, and two to three weeks for those with higher
salaries.
The standard agreement of the Swiss Technicians' Union, like that
of the Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects, provides for one
week's holiday after two years' employment and two weeks during
subsequent years. It contains no regulations regarding night work
but lays down that employees must be prepared to perform any
work necessary for the regular work of the undertaking.
United States
There is no special legislation on conditions of work for intellectual
workers employed in industry ; nor can it be said that any uniform
practice prevails, owing to the size of the country. Working conditions for engineers vary greatly in different industries, in different
undertakings, and in different States. Working hours vary from 7
to 10 per day in most cases, and night work is only done in cases of
necessity. The weekly rest day is a regular institution, except in
cases of force majeure, while holidays generally depend on personal
arrangements and vary between a fortnight and a month annually.
These conditions have not changed to any considerable extent since
1914.
The replies received from engineers state that their working day
is generally longer than that of manual workers. On the other hand,
owing to their position of responsibility, they generally have privileges which the former do not enjoy, in particular liberty. They work
a t night more frequently than manual workers and do not receive
extra pay. The Mining and Metallurgical Society of America estimates that engineers usually work an hour or half and hour less
than manual workers, except those who are in charge of a process.
In some electro-chemical works one electrical engineer is on night duty.
Argentine
In the Argentine, and generally speaking in most South American
countries for which information is available, working conditions in
factories are the same for all classes of workers. The majority of
engineers, however, occupy posts as managers, and are therefore not
subject to the same conditions as manual workers.
Uruguay
The Decree of 21 May 1920 \ completing the regulations for applying
the provisions of the Hours of Work Act, includes among the classes
of persons to whom its provisions do not apply directors or managers
of industrial and commercial undertakings and technical directors of
industrial services whose duties are incompatible with any regular
limitation of their hours of work.

1

Legislative Series, 1920, Ur. 3-5.

— 65 —

REMUNERATION

Attention has already been drawn to the importance which
to-day attaches to wage questions ; these play the most
important part in the conditions of employment of both
engineers and chemists.
The present chapter deals not only with salaries, properly
so called, but with other more indirect benefits which an
engineer or chemist may derive from his employment, more
especially a share in profits and patent rights on inventions
made by him. Clearly such benefits do not constitute part of
a legal salary ; but it is desirable to treat as a whole the financial position of intellectual workers employed in industry, and
not merely to offer a dry statement regarding the actual
salaries paid them by their employers.
Salaries
It is difficult to generalise about salaries, as the workers
under consideration occupy positions of widely varying character, some exercising functions of management, while others
are employed in a subordinate capacity ; some are employed
in large industrial concerns, others in small workshops ; some,
again, are at the beginning of their career, while others have
long experience behind them. It is important to note that
all engineers have to undergo probation ; during this period
a certificated engineer is paid no more than a manual worker
and must prove his ability, particularly his power of leadership.
Once he has done this, his position changes rapidly and
completely.
Any enquiries, even purely national in scope, regarding
engineers' salaries encounter these obstacles. It is sometimes
possible to calculate an average salary, but even this limited
result is beyond the scope of the present study, the available
information being neither extensive nor complete enough.
The replies received refer to periods and classes of workers
which differ too greatly to be comparable from one country
to another. In many cases, also, salaries are more or less
confidential, and neither employers nor employees are prepared to divulge exact information. Finally, nominal salaries differ
from real ones in countries where the currency is depreciated,

— 66 —

and therefore they ought to be recalculated in accordance with
the purchasing power of the currency at the date when the
figures where obtained. A German publication, Der Auslanddeutsche, for 1 July 1924 contains interesting figures regarding
engineers' salaries in various countries. It is not known,
however, on what basis they were compiled, and it is hardly
possible to quote them without certain explanations. For all
the above reasons, therefore, the following remarks will be
confined to a few general observations.
Comparisons are more possible for public officials, since their
salaries can be ascertained with some accuracy. Correspondents were generally asked to give figures of engineers' and
chemists' salaries and also some estimate of the relative changes
in these salaries and in workers' wages since 1924.
As was stated earlier, real salaries (i.e. measured in terms
of the purchasing power of money * ) have fallen almost everywhere. This is especially the case in countries with depreciated currencies, where salaries appear to tend towards the
very minimum of subsistence. Attempts, more or less effective,
have been made in most countries to increase salaries to
correspond with the cost of living. One result of this has been
in some cases that young engineers entering the profession now
gain the benefit of these increases and receive salaries on the
higher scale, while their seniors continue to receive the lower
rates.
Austria
Engineers' salaries are fixed almost entirely at the discretion of
employers, but partial regulations on the initial salaries of young
engineers are sometimes laid down by collective agreements. Beginners after eighteen months' experience, and in the most favourable
cases, only receive a salary equal to 80 per cent, of the pre-war amount.
Engineers with long practical experience are only receiving from
30 to 50 per cent, of their pre-war salaries, and the proportion is
relatively lower for those with longer experience. This is due to the
fact noted above that former salaries have not kept pace with the rise
in the cost of living, while those of younger engineers have been fixed
more recently on the basis of present conditions. Initial salaries
vary between 1,200,000 and 1,500,000 kronen per month, and rise
to 2 million after a year's employment. Engineers with from 10 to
1

On t h e definition of * real wages ' and methods of calculating them,

cf. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : Wage

Changes

in Various

Coun-

tries, 1914-1921. Studies and Reports, Series D (Wages and Hours),
No. 2. Geneva, 1922.

— 67 —
20 years' experience earn from 3 to 4 millions, equivalent to 300 or
400 gold kronen. To these should be added family allowances
varying from 25,000 kronen for one child to 70,000 kronen for four
children. Engineers employed by the state receive the salaries
fixed for the grade of public officials to which they belong.
It is practically impossible to give any figures for engineers working
independently. It is generally admitted, however, that their income
rarely exceeds the subsistence minimum, and amounts to about 30
or 40 per cent, of their earnings in 1913. It is stated that only one
consultant engineer in Vienna is at present able to afford a motor
car for his professional work.
Belgium
The salaries of railway engineers in 1913 and 1924 were as follows :
Grade

1913

19U

Francs

Francs

General inspectors and managers
12,000-14,400
25,000-29,000
Senior engineers in charge
9,000-12,000
19,000-25,000
Chief engineers
6,500-8,000
14,500-17,500
Engineers
3,100-5,500
8,000-13,000
Bulgaria
In 1913 engineers' and architects' salaries varied from 300 to 450
levas a month. In 1923, they varied from 1,010 to 1,720 levas, i.e.
they had increased by almost 300 per cent, in ten years. Over the
same period wages in general increased by about 3,000 per cent.
However, since the close of 1918 state employees have received
increases varying from 30 to 50 per cent, in view of the high cost of
living.
Czechoslovakia
Except for persons with special qualifications, engineers' salaries
are regulated by those paid to the corresponding category of public
officials.
Denmark
In industry the increase in engineers' salaries is practically the same
as that in wages, but in the public services the increase is smaller.
Finland
The initial salaries of young engineers are generally lower than
a skilled worker's wages. Since 1913 salaries have increased six or
eight times, while wages have risen from 9 to 11 times, which corresponds to the cost-of-living index number. There are considerable
differences between different industries, and engineers' salaries are
highest in the paper and textile industries, which are at present in
a flourishing condition.
France
Engineers and chemists receive very low initial salaries, this being
largely due to the fact that engineers often perform work which

— 68 —
does not require their technical qualifications ; in such cases they are
paid for the work they do, and not for the work they could do.
The professional unions have made considerable efforts to obtain a minimum initial salary, but have encountered an obstacle of
principle : if salaries are based on the subsistence minimum they
must be the same for all, and employers refuse to treat efficient and
inefficient, well and poorly educated engineers on the same footing.
If distinctions were made according to degrees and diplomas, this
would open the door to ambition and even more to jealousy.
In 1919 the unions affiliated to the Federation of French Engineers'
Unions fixed the initial salary for unmarried engineers at 600 francs
a month, which was increased to 750 in 1921 ; the employers' federations, however, have never accepted this figure, and have refused to
place students from the official schools and those from schools of
lower standing on the same footing.
The Chemists' Union has succeeded in obtaining, not, it is true, a
definite undertaking, but at least an expression of goodwill from the
employers, which has generally resulted in practice in the adoption
of 750 francs a month as basic salary.
After a few years' experience, engineers can easily earn much
higher, pay than manual workers ; during the first years, however,
their position is distinctly less favourable, and it is only after four or
five years' experience that an engineer from one of the principal
schools can earn the average wage of a skilled workman.
The Paris section of the Electrical Engineers' Union has adopted
a resolution recommending that engineers should be paid at least
800 francs a month at the age of 23,900 francs after two years' experience, and 1,200 francs after five years. These figures, however,
are not adopted in practice, and it is generally estimated that actual
salaries are about 10 to 15 per cent, below them.
The results of an important enquiry undertaken in 1919 by the
French Electrical Engineers' Union are of interest, although the
figures are slightly out of date and may therefore not be entirely
accurate. The figures given below are averages.
experience

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Annual salary
Francs

7,820
9,630
9,232
10,620
9,392
9,843
9,510
9,060
14,030
13,600

A curious fact is at once noticeable : the figures do not increase
regularly. This depends partly on the time at which the engineers
entered industrial employment ; the last comers benefited from the

— 69 —
increase in salaries, while the adjustment did not extend to their
seniors. Mechanical engineers, who are employed in an industry
that grew enormously during the war, are thought to be in the best
position.
A similar enquiry was conducted in 1921 for chemists. The following
figures show the proportion of chemists earning various salaries
Francs
Less than 9,000
9,000-12,000
12,000-15,000
15,000-18,000
18,000-24,000
Over 24,000
Incomplete answers

Per cent.
6.3
25.2
24.8
15.3
14.8
8.9
4.7

It should be noted that these figures refer to total remuneration,
i.e. lodging, heating, bonuses or shares in profits are sometimes
included.
Railway engineers begin at a salary of 7,000 francs, including all
allowances, with a 5 per cent, deduction for pensions, increasing to
8,200 francs on their first promotion. At 35 years of age a railway
engineer may become head of department at a salary of from 1,200
to 1,500 francs a month.
Unmarried mining engineers start at a salary of 800 francs, married
ones at 950 francs a month.
Generally speaking, there are neither basic salaries, average salaries,
nor maximum salaries in France. Salaries are governed by the law
of supply and demand, and are in general higher for chemists and
mechanical engineers than for electricians, the supply of the latter
being excessive. The following figures, indicating salaries which are
customary, may be quoted purely by way of illustration :
Monthly salary
Francs

Chief workshop engineer
Engineer draughtsman
Head of plans office
Chief engineer of a department,
in charge of several workshops
and offices

1,000-3,000
1,000-1,800
1,500-2,500
1,500-4,000

Great Britain
There are great inequalities in salaries, due not so much, as might
be imagined, to differences in individual qualifications as to the
relative strength of the various professional associations. Engineering
draughtsmen can obtain £7 or £8 a week, thanks to their very effective organisation ; architects' assistants, who have only recently
organised, earn very low salaries however great their personal efficiency, and are often obliged to accept £2 or £3 a week.

— 70 —

In 1923 the Society of Technical Engineers made an enquiry, the
results of which show that the average salaries for all staff engineers
at various ages were as follows :
Age

Annual

salary

£
150
195
240
285
325
365
400
430
460
485
505
520
535
545
555

22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50

The maximum average salary of an assistant engineer in electrical
manufacturing was only £400 a year. These salaries are fronTBO
to 100 per cent, higher than in 1923.
Greece
The position of engineers is generally favourable. They are the
best paid of all state officials, their salaries generally exceeding those
of other grades by 60 per cent, on an average. Chemists, however,
are less well paid, because there are more of them than can be absorbed
in industry.
Hungary
The Federation of Civil Engineers, an employers' organisation,
fixes minimum salaries periodically to correspond with the value of
the krone. Engineers are divided into three classes : beginners ;
those with some years' practical experience ; and those with more
than ten years' experience. A distinction is also made in each class
between engineers employed in offices and those in charge of manufacturing processes. The figures for 1924 are as follows :
ENGINEERS' SALARIES IN HUNGARY, 1 9 2 4

(In paper kronen; 000's omitted.)
Experience
Beginners
Some years' experience
Ten years' experience

1 January
Mini

1 RgrtatoM

1 March

Otilen

¡ Wufakipi

15 April
Officu

Wtrbkipi

1,700

514

550

1,000

1,250

1,400

795

830

1,700

2,100

2,300

1,000

1,370

2,300

2,800

3,100

4,500

— 71 —

The average salary is about 325 gold kronen a month. It is estimated that these figures represent about 30 to 50 per cent, of pre-war
salaries, whereas wages are about 70 per cent, of those prevailing in
1913. The present salaries of public officials are even lower, not
exceeding 15 or 20 per cent, of their former rates.

MONTHLY SALARIES OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS IN HUNGARY, 1 MARCH 1 9 2 4

Grade of
official
Fourth
Filth
Sixth
Seventh
Eighth
Ninth
Tenth

Pre-war
(gold kronen)
1,160
833
533
400
300
216
166

1 March 1924
(gold kronen)
133
107
80
67
55
45
37

Tears' service
30-32
25-26
20
15
10
3 - 4
1 - 2

These officials, like all Hungarian state employees, are entitled to
additional allowances in kind which represent about 10 gold kronen
a month for each member of the family. As in Austria, salaries
show a tendency to fall to the bare subsistence level.
Italy
Under the collective agreement for Lombardy, engineers must pass
through two probationary periods of six months each, during which
their total salary is 3,000 and 4,000 lire respectively. After these
periods a regular contract of employment is signed, and the salary
may not be lower than those paid during probation. These provisions
are not, however, always observed in practice, and it is estimated
that many engineers begin at salaries varying between 650 and 800
lire a month. Subsequent differences are so considerable that it is
impossible to give average figures. According to employers' statements, at any rate, the position of engineers does not appear to have
undergone any marked changes since 1913.
The collective agreement for chemists provides for an initial salary
during the probationary period of 500 to 600 lire a month, rising
subsequently to 750, 900, and 1,200 lire. Chemists occupying positions of responsibility may earn 1,200 to 1,500 lire a month. Under
the agreement of 23 May 1921, these figures were raised to 600 lire
during the probationary period, rising to 1,000, 1,500 and 1,800 lire
subsequently.
The Decree of 11 November 1923 regulating the grading and
salaries of state officials has given rise to. energetic protests from
engineers' organisations, which consider that their interests are
adversely affected by it.

— 72 —

Netherlands
The salaries of engineers employed by the municipality of Rotterdam
are from 4,100 to 6,300 florins a year for ordinary engineers ; 5,800
to 7,000 for first-class engineers ; and 6,500 to 7,500 for chief engineers.
Poland
It is estimated that average salaries are approximately 40 to 60
per cent, of the pre-war value, being equivalent to anything from 200
to 1,600 Swiss francs a month. Wages, on the other hand, are more
or less at their pre-war real value.
Boumania
Technicians in government services are paid ten times as much
as before the war, while the cost of living is 32 times as much. Public
officials' salaries vary from 4,000 to 9,000 lei per month, while in
industry wages are about three times as high, corresponding more or
less with the present cost of living.
The General Association of Roumanian Engineers recently submitted a memorandum to the Ministry of Finance, emphasising the
drawback for the public service of unduly low salaries.
Spain
The maximum increase in engineers' salaries is estimated at 100
per cent, and the minimum at 40 per cent., while manual workers'
wages have risen by anything from 80 to 500 per cent, (coopers).
Switzerland
Engineers' salaries have risen less than wages, but in a period of
unemployment like the present they are more stable and engineers
have therefore not complained to any great extent. Their initial
salary is usually about 20 per cent, higher than that of a wage earner.
The salaries paid to Federal officials are higher than those prevailing
in industry, at least in the lower grades, varying from 350 to 600
francs a month, as against 300 to 500. The Swiss Union of Technicians is endeavouring to get these salaries generally adopted. The
Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects has established standards
for calculating the fees of independent engineers.
United States
Salaries have risen, but less than the cost of living. It is more
difficult to convey a general idea of salaries in the United States than
in almost any other country. A beginner who wishes to obtain
training and experience may accept $ 1,000 a year, while the leading
mechanical engineer on a railway may earn $ 40,000 to / 50,000 a
year. An ordinary engineer may earn anything from $ 5,000 to
/25,000. The real salaries of public officials are estimated to be at
about 70 per cent, of their pre-war value.
Argentine
Wages have doubled in the last ten years, while engineers' salaries
have not increased to the same extent, and have even fallen in some
cases. The salaries of engineers teaching in colleges or universities
have increased during the last few years by about 40 per cent.

— 73 —

Brazil
The average salary of an engineer varies between the equivalent
of 600 and 1,600 gold francs a month.
Chili
Salaries have doubled since 1914 ; state engineers earn from 6,000
to 24,000 dollars a year according to their rank.
Ecuador
Salaries are 50 per cent, higher than in 1914, varying from 300 to
1,000 sucres l a month.
Peru
Foreign engineers are generally far better paid than nationals ;
the salaries of the latter have increased less than wages during recent
years.
Uruguay
It is estimated that workers' wages have since 1914 increased on
an average by 20 per cent. Engineers' salaries, however, have not
altered.
Profit

Sharing

Systems of profit sharing generally apply only to engineers
occupying higher positions, particularly to those employed
in commercial departments ; it rarely extends t o t h e manufacturing departments. Many engineers a t t a c h little importance
to t h e system, regarding it as a delusion and snare. They
consider t h a t prospective profits are always consciously or
unconsciously deducted from basic salaries ; t h e engineer t h u s
gains nothing and is compelled to share in t h e risks. An
equitable system of participation, in their opinion, should be
hased, not on profits, b u t on turnover.
Austria
Instances of profit sharing are rare and only affect engineers in
managerial positions. The share in profits is generally given in the
form of a commission, most frequently 2 per cent, of profits. Section
14 of the Act of 11 May 1921 regulates the method of calculating the
profits to be shared.
France
Percentage commissions are mainly paid to engineers employed
in commercial departments ; they are much rarer in the manufacturing departments. Shop managers are sometimes given a production
bonus, but the proportion this bears to salary varies considerably.
1

1 sucre = about 2 shillings at par.

— 74 —

Works managers receive either a minimum bonus guaranteed by their
contract which may be mcreased at the end of a successful business
year, or a percentage of profits varying from 1/s to 2 per cent.
Germany
Profit-sharing is not usual among professional engineers and there is
no systematic regulation of it. A special profit-sharing clause is
sometimes inserted in contracts of employment.
Great Britain
The system of profit sharing is by no means general, though it has
been tried in a few firms.
Italy
Profit sharing is fairly general for engineers in managerial positions.
The collective agreement for the chemical industry contains the
following provisions :
Where the dividends paid on capital exceed 6 per cent., sums
amounting to 3, 4, 5, . . . per cent, of their total annual salaries
shall be distributed to all certificated chemists with more than
two years' service in the undertaking, when the dividends paid
on capital amount to 7, 8 ,9, . . . per cent.
The distribution of these amounts among the various chemists
concerned is left to the discretion of the management.
If the undertaking, although under no obligation to issue a
balance sheet, desires to conform to the above provisions, net
profits shall be declared and a distribution effected as above.
In any case where the undertaking cannot or does not wish to
adopt the above system, chemists of more than two years' standing shall receive an annual premium equal to at least 50 per
cent, of their total monthly salaries, the distribution of this
amount being left to the discretion of the management.
Switzerland
~"~
Profit sharing is fairly general ; chemists in charge of manufacturing processes generally receive a share in the profits on that process.
Special premiums may be granted for improvements tending to
increase output or lower costs of production.
United States
The system is not widely practised, and technical employees very
rarely benefit by it.
Patent Rights
There are few, if any, amateur inventors ; a man can only
really invent if he has specialised in a profession and is
- thoroughly conversant with it. It is true that a few small manufacturers — of toys or domestic utensils, for instance — are also
inventors ; but they are not numerous and their inventions
are of small importance. In large-scale industries the employer

— 75 —

is very rarely also an inventor. Engineers and chemists, on
the other hand, are keenly interested in patent rights, as they
make most of the inventions in industry. They are anxious
to see a reform in the patent law ; too often they have abandoned any idea of making inventions, as they know they will
derive little if any profit from them. The information given
below refers only to inventions which can be patented ; in no
country is there any law providing financial remuneration for
purely scientific discoveries.
Austria
The inventor's rights of engineers are regulated by the Patents
Act of 11 January 1897, but Austrian engineers are dissatisfied with
the existing law and demand its amendment.
Denmark
The standard contract of employment drafted by the Danish
Engineers' Union contains the following provisions (Article 5) :
The undertaking shall have the sole right to utilise any invention which is made by the engineer during the term of his contract
and is within the scope of the operations of the undertaking or
closely related therto, provided that the undertaking makes a
claim to this effect within a period of
months after being
informed of the invention by the engineer, who must do so as
soon as possible.
If the undertaking demands a right or sole right to an invention, the engineer shall be entitled to compensation in accordance
with its financial importance and the circumstances in which
it was made.
The engineer shall have the right to be mentioned in any patent
on his invention taken out in accordance with the above as the
inventor or, in countries where this is impossible, as owner of
the patent.
Finland
Under Finnish law inventions made by engineers in the course of
their work are the property of their employer. In certain industries,
however, particularly in the paper industry, which is of great importance, special agreements have been made granting more favourable
terms to the employee.
France
French judicial practice, based in the Act of 1844, rules that an
engineer working for an employer is not entitled to take out a patent
himself in respect of an invention connected with the work on which
he is employed. In practice inventors have no rights in their own
inventions. Inventions made by engineers or chemists employed
in factories are the exclusive property of the employer, especially
in large firms. The following contract of employment in a large
company is typical.

— 76 —

Artide 11. During the entire period of Mr
's
employment with the
Company, he hereby undertakes
faithfully to serve the said Company to the best of his ability,
to devote all his time and activity to furthering its interests, and
to perform any work specified by the management of the said
Company within the stated time, and within the limits of the
district mentioned.
He further undertakes fully and unreservedly, and without
other remuneration than the regular salary mentioned in Article
III of the present agreement, to communicate to the said Company
all inventions, improvements, or designs made by him during
the term of this agreement, and to transfer the exclusive ownership therein to the said Company ; he undertakes for this purpose
to comply with all the necessary formalities to place the Company
in possession of the said inventions, improvements, or designs,
and in particular, whenever so requested by the Company, to
make application, whether in France or any other country, for
any patents or transfer of patents to the said Company, or to
their assigns or agents.
The
Company shall bear all expenses in connection with the deposit or transfer of patents, but Mr
hereby undertakes to give the said Company the fullest assistance in drawing up such applications and in preparing specifications
or claims, without special remuneration, and to furnish the
said Company, at its request, with any documents and to execute
any work or take any steps which the Company may judge
necessary for protecting its rights and interests.
He shall also, if the Company so request, make every effort
to induce his co-inventor, or any other party concerned, to
transfer his interests to the said Company on the most favourable terms.
There are a few cases, especially in smaller firms, where arrangements
are made for the engineer to share in the profits resulting from an
invention, but such cases are very rare. Large firms always raise
the objection that the engineer has the use of the firm's laboratories,
tools, files, notes, and documents, without which it would be impossible to make the invention or patent the improvement. It is also
•quite true that discoveries are often made because a problem has been
specifically raised either by a customer or by special circumstances.
These facts have led the Legal Committee of the Federation of
Electrical, Chemical, and Mechanical Engineers' Unions (Union
des syndicats d'ingénieurs électriciens, mécaniciens et chimistes)
to conclude that it is impossible to demand from employers an actual
share in the financial profits of patents. All that can be asked is
"that the inventor's name shall figure in the patent. This is only a
moral satisfaction, but it may have important material results in the
future.
Various proposals for a reform of existing patent legislation are
under consideration. The Union of Technicians in Industry,
Commerce, and Agriculture (U.S.T.I.C.A.) has adopted a resolution
to the effect that patents should only be applied for by the inventor
or by a group of persons which must include the inventor, as in
British legislation. The Federation of French Engineers' Unions

— 77 —

(Union des syndicats d'ingénieurs français) goes still further. It
proposes that patents shall be granted exclusively to the inventor,
and also that the sale of an invention before it has been made should
be prohibited.
' The transfer of an inventor's rights shall be null and void if it
occurs previous to invention.
This provision is a necessary corrective to the former, if the consequences which have arisen in the United States are to be avoided.
Property in inventions is at present nearly always reserved to
employers under the contract of employment. It is extremely rare
that any provision is made giving the employee any share in the
profits on the invention. Where there is no agreement the employer
takes out the patent in his own name, and the employee would certainly be dismissed were he to do so himself. The most liberal firms
do not go beyond inserting the inventor's name in the patent and
granting him a small royalty fixed at their own discretion.
Germany
There is no legislation safeguarding ownership of an invention
and disputes have almost always to be decided in a court of law.
An employer is certainly entitled to claim the sole right to any inventions made on his premises by his employees ; the majority of the
decisions given in the courts recognise this right, even in cases where
the work which led to the invention was done out of working hours
and was not effected on the employer's premises.
The question frequently arises whether inventions made undersimilar conditions but not on the employer's premises are also the
property of the latter. Decisions given in the courts in this respect
are by no means unanimous, and no definite ruling has ever been
laid down.
Great Britain
Although the Patents Act provides that patents must be taken
out by the inventor himself, agreements generally stipulate than an
employee must devote all his time to the interests of his employer
during working hours ; this signifies that inventions made during
these hours are deemed to be the employer's property. Engineers
are at present making great efforts to amend the standard agreement
on this point.
Hungary
Inventions or discoveries made by engineers or chemists only
become their property if made without using the resources of the
undertaking where they are employed, and if the industry carried
on in the undertakings in question is not affected by the invention.
Disputed cases are settled by the courts.
Italy
The collective agreement for the chemical industry contains the
following provisions dealing with the question of inventions :

— 78 —

1. If a certificated chemist, either by himself or with the help
•of others, has by his research and special work enabled an
undertaking to effect economies or derive other obvious and
«learly ascertainable benefits as compared with the preceding
year, and if their value is greater than his total annual salary,
he shall be entitled to receive an amount equal to 20 per cent.
of the saving effected during the first year, 15 per cent, during
the second year, and 10 per cent, during the third year. His
assistants who have contributed directly to such a result shall,
«ven if they are ordinary wage earners, be entitled to share in
this bonus.
I I : Dr
hereby undertakes to place all his time,
•special knowledge, and professional experience at the disposal
of the undertaking, in accordance with the instructions of his
immediate superiors.
Should he, in the course of his research work or experiments
(carried out either in the factory or in the laboratory), make
any genuine invention connected with the research and operations of the undertaking, for which a separate patent can be
taken out in America or Germany, the undertaking shall have
the exclusive right to utilise this invention on payment to the
inventor, in addition to the refund of all expenses involved in
obtaining the patent, of 10 per cent, of the net profits derived
therefrom by the management and of 20 per cent, of the royalties
paid by third parties until the patent expires.
Where the undertaking does not desire to utilise the invention,
Dr
shall be entitled freely to dispose of his patent
within six months of obtaining it, on payment to the undertaking
of 20 per cent, of the resulting net profits in recognition of his
indebtedness to the undertaking for the time and resources used
in making the discovery. It is understood that all steps necessary
for obtaining the patent shall be taken outside office hours.
The engineers' collective agreement provides that, if an engineer
makes an invention connected with the work of the undertaking, the
latter shall be entitled to take out an industrial patent for it on
payment of reasonable compensation to its employee. Should the
firm, however, fail to make use of this right within a period of six
months, the engineer is entitled to take out a patent in his own name.
He must in any case refrain from divulging the firm's trade secrets.
In practice, as is well known, these agreements have hardly ever
been observed. The majority of contracts contain provisions giving
the employer the right to use and patent in his own name all inventions made by engineers in his employ without payment of any special
compensation to the inventor.
Netherlands
The Dutch Patents Act contains the following provisions :
When an employee has, under the terms of his agreement,
undertaken to devote his professional knowledge to invention, the
employer shall be entitled to take out the patent for the employee.
If, however, the inventor is not deemed to be sufficiently
remunerated for the loss of the patent by the salary he receives,
the employer shall grant him compensation and the Patents
Office or the competent judicial authority shall be empowered

— 79 —
to determine the amount of such compensation. The Patents
Office may direct that a patent be taken out in the employee's
own name, if he is the sole inventor.
Poland
Inventions made by chemists and engineers generally become the
property of the firms which employ them. J n some cases an inventor
is given a share in the profits resulting from his invention, but there
is no general rule on this point.
Roumania
General practice varies, and it is a matter of agreement between
firms and their employees.
Sweden
Under Swedish law patents must be taken out in the inventor's
own name.
Switzerland
Inventions, discoveries or improvements in manufacture made by
a chemist or engineer remain the property of the firm by which he
is employed, but the inventor is generally given a share in the profits
resulting from his invention. The agreement signed by employees
of the firm of Brown, Boveri and Co., of Basle, contains the following
clauses :
Any improvement or invention suggested by the employee, and
arising out of his work with the firm of B. B. C , in so far as it
falls within the scope of the operations of the firm, shall ipso facto
constitute the intellectual property of the firm of B. B. C. The
firm is thereby entitled to apply in its own name for a patent
or for legal protection or to refrain from taking any steps to derive
profit therefrom. If the invention is of considerable economic
value, the employee shall be entitled to suitable remuneration,
under Section 343 of the Federal Code of Obligations.
The employee is entitled to contribute to technical journals,
but must obtain the firm's approval of the nature and scope of
such work and submit to it any articles or notes he intends to
publish.
United States
American patent law requires that patents must always be taken
out in the inventor's own name ; frequently, however, engineers
«mployed on research work and the development of new inventions
undertake by agreement to transfer the property in any inventions
they may make to their employers. This applies to nearly a third
of the patents granted in the United States. The fact that patents
are granted by name is not as effective a protection as is often thought
in Europe, particularly as engineers seldom have the necessary capital
to launch their own inventions.
On the other hand, the system is not always just towards the undertaking, as is shown by a case recently brought before the courts.
An engineer took out a patent for an important improvement in a

— 80 —

certain process of manufacture two months after leaving a firm's
employment, and subsequently sold it to a competing firm. His
former employers effected the same improvement, used it, and were
sued for infringement. The judge stated that he could give no relief
to the defendant, although he was convinced that the engineer had
discovered the new process while in the defendant company's employment.
The " Code of Principles of Professional Conduct " adopted by the
American Institute of Technical Engineers contains the following
provisions :
8. It is desirable that an engineer undertaking for others.
work in connection with which he may make improvements,
inventions, plans, designs, or other records, should enter into
an agreement regarding their ownership.
9. If an engineer uses information which is not common
knowledge or public property, but which he obtains from a client
or employer, the results in the form of plans, designs or other
records should not be regarded as his property, but the property
of his client or employer.
14. Designs, data, records and notes made by an employee
and referring exclusively to his employer's work should be
regarded as his employer's property.
Generally speaking, chemists complain more than engineers of
being deprived of the profits of their inventions.

— 81 —

IV
Insurance and Provident Institutions
Insurance legislation generally makes no distinction between
different classes of employees in undertakings subject to such
legislation, but in many countries there is a maximum limit
of earnings above which the legislation does not apply. There
are no special provisions for university-trained workers, though
in most countries there is a system of pensions for public
officials.
As the total number of Acts and regulations on social insurance
is from 250 to 300, it is obviously impossible here to attempt
any general description of them. A brief summary of the
replies received from various countries must therefore suffice.
Austria
There are no special institutions for technicians with a university
education. Engineers and chemists employed in industry, however,
are covered, like other employees, by the social insurance system.
Sickness insurance applies to all wage earners, whether employed
in industrial undertakings or in commercial offices. The regulations
of sickness insurance funds also provide for benefits to members of
the family.
Accident insurance is applicable to all wage earners in factories,
mines, quarries, transport, and other undertakings. It also covers
survivors of deceased workers. In cases of total incapacity for
work, the maximum compensation amounts to 700,000 kronen (70
gold kronen).
Unemployment insurance applies to all persons covered by sickness
insurance.
Public officials and employees whose work is mainly intellectual
are granted pensions ; these provide annuities in case of disablement
or old age for the insured person, and in case of death for his survivors.
All these insurance systems are compulsory, and take effect with the
entry to employment. The employer is responsible for notifying
the insurance institutions of the engagement of the worker. Austrian
legislation also provides for compensation for dismissal.
It should be noted that the value of all these systems of insurance
has been greatly decreased, and in some cases practically destroyed,
by the depreciation of the currency.

— 82 —

Czechoslovakia
The Act of 1 April 1923 provides that employees shall be entitled
in case of sickness to an allowance varying from 10 to 30 per cent.
of their wage.
Finland
Accident insurance is compulsory for wage earners but not for
engineers.
France
The Act of 10 April 1898 on industrial accidents applies to all
wage-earning and salaried employees and apprentices, irrespective
of grade. Nevertheless employees whose salaries exceed 4,500 francs
per annum benefit in full under the law in respect of this amount only ;
beyond this only 50 per cent, of salaries not exceeding 13,000 francs,
and 25 per cent, of higher salaries, is taken into account. Engineers
are demanding that these maxima should be abolished. Industrial
diseases contracted by intellectual workers in industry (e.g. diseases
of the eye) are not covered.
The Act of 5 April 1910 concerning workers' and peasants' old age
pensions provides for compulsory insurance of all wage earners whose
earnings are less than 10,000 francs per annum. The present social
insurance Bill, if passed, will confer certain benefits on engineers.
At present there are no special insurance institutions for engineers,
despite isolated attempts in this direction. In cases of sickness
engineers generally continue to receive their salary during the first
few months, but receive nothing while unemployed. Employers
insure their staff against accidents, and a few large firms and railway
companies have taken steps to provide pensions for engineers in their
employ by paying 50 per cent, of the necessary contributions. In
most cases, however, where undertakings grant pensions to their
staff, those who leave its employment lose all pension rights, which
tends to bind employees to their employer and to restrict their liberty.
Deductions from salaries usually amount to 3 or 5 per cent.
It should be noted in conclusion, though this is not insurance
strictly so called, that an increasing number of chemists and engineers
share in the operations of equalisation funds which provide family
allowances. About half the existing funds grant allowances irrespective of earnings, while the regulations of others fix a maximum
annual wage varying between 8,000 and 15,000 francs ; in only one
case is the maximum 24,000 francs.
Great Britain
Engineers and chemists, like other employees, receive compensation
for industrial accidents under the Workmen's Compensation Act
only if they earn less than £350 per year, and are compulsorily insured
against sickness, invalidity, and unemployment under the National
Insurance Acts only if their salary is less than £250 per year.
The Society of Technical Engineers has instituted an unemployment
insurance scheme, but it is not compulsory. Some other engineering
associations do the same ; a few of them include insurance contributions in the ordinary membership subscriptions, which makes insurance practically compulsory for members.

— 83 —

,A certain number of firms have superannuation schemes for their
staff, but engineers would like to see the system made compulsory.
Its chief defect at present is that it tends to bind engineers to the
firm by which they are employed. Engineers also demand compensation for dismissal, which is only provided for in a very small number
of agreements.
Hungary
Accident and sickness insurance are compulsory for all employees,
including engineers, but only if their salary is below a certain maximum. Some employers require their engineers to insure themselves
against accident at their own expense.
Italy
The Act of 31 January 1904 on industrial accidents applies to all
persons working outside their own homes, including those who superintend work, though not taking part in it directly, provided that
their regular earnings do not exceed 20 lire per day.
All employees whose regular earnings do not exceed 350 lire per
month come under the sickness and old-age insurance Act of 21 April
1909. Engineers and chemists are thus in practice excluded from its
application.
The Fascist Corporation of the Liberal Professions (Corporazione
liberi professionisti) has drafted a scheme for compulsory insurance
of engineers, under which they would pay annual contributions of
300 lire until the age of 60. A fund would also be constituted by
means of an indirect tax on all works, plans, designs, competitions,
tenders, etc.
There is as yet no legislation on sickness insurance. Engineers
and chemists employed by large undertakings (e.g. Fiat, Pirelli)
usually participate in the system of insurance established for the
staff.
Most collective agreements contain provisions dealing with the
subject. The collective agreement for Lombardy provides that
engineers shall be insured with the National Insurance Institute, half
the annual premium being paid by the undertaking and half by the
engineer. At the age of 60 the beneficiary may choose between an
annuity of 6,000 lire or the capital sum. In cases of sickness, engineers
are entitled to full pay for four months after seven years' service.
The agreement for the chemical industry provides that full salary
shall continue to be paid in cases of disability resulting from an industrial accident. Employers must insure chemists against death or
permanent invalidity ; in the latter case, the employer's obligations
were reduced by the agreement of 23 May 1921 to a total payment
of five annuities.
Sweden
The Act of 17 June 1916 on industrial accidents applies to all
workers, whatever their employment, unless specially exempted.
-Engineers and chemists are consequently insured against accident,
except where they work at home or on premises chosen by themselves,

— 84 —

or where their annual salary exceeds 9,000 kronor. The old age and
invalidity insurance Act of 13 June 1913 applies to all Swedish workers,
both male and female, between the ages of 16 and 66.
Switzerland
The compulsory accident insurance Act applies to all workers and
employees employed in undertakings covered by the Factory Act.
The maximum daily earnings taken into account in calculating
benefits are 20 francs, benefits amounting to 80 per cent, of earnings,
i.e. 16 francs at most.
Sickness insurance is organised by independent insurance funds
supervised by the Federal authorities, from which they receive grants.
This branch of insurance is so extensively developed that most undertakings employing more than 50 persons have organised their own
fund, to which all the staff as a rule belong.
The insured at present number about 900,000, and of recent years
intellectual workers are more and more coming into the system. Old
age insurance has not yet been organised, and if instituted will probably apply to manual workers only.
The Federal Order of 16 December 1919 allotted a sum of 1,500,000
francs out of the unemployment funds for the execution of certain
works (such as gauging, geological research, preparing plans for
utilising natural resources, etc.) in order to provide employment on
work of national utility for unemployed intellectual workers.
The staff regulations of a large Swiss undertaking mention superannuation pensions, invalidity pensions, and pensions for widows
and orphans. Superannuation pensions are paid to employees on
attaining the age of 60, if they have been in the firm's employment
for at least ten consecutive years ; their amount varies between 20
and 40 per cent, of the salary at the date of superannuation according
to the number of years' service. Invalidity pensions are paid in
cases of partial or total incapacity for work occurring before the
age of 60. Widows' pensions amount to from 14 to 28 per cent, of
the salary last earned by the deceased according to the number of
years' service, increased by 1 or 2 per cent, of salary for each orphan
under 18.
In case of sickness, employees receive full pay for one month during
the first years' service, for two months during subsequent years, and
for three months after ten years' employment, receiving thereafter
half salary for an additional one or two months, according to the
number of years of service.
The Swiss Technicians' Union has established a sickness fund, a
free loans fund, and an unemployment fund, which is maintained by
voluntary contributions.
United States
There are no special insurance institutions for engineers and chemists
but a large number of undertakings have insurance funds for their
staff. In some States engineers come under the Workmen's Compensation Acts. The American Association of Engineers has a system
of mutual insurance against unemployment for its members.

— 85 —

V
Organisation and Demands of the Profession
It is impossible here to give a complete list of engineers'
associations in all countries ; they are very numerous,
and their number is continually increasing under the pressure
of economic conditions. It may be of interest, however, to
consider some of the problems of organisation in the engineering
profession.
Engineers' organisations may be of several different types.
In some countries the labour movement has sought to attract
the intellectual workers of industry into its ranks ; in others
it has either refused to admit them, or has at least declined
to enter into any close association with them.
In Austrian and Germany the engineers' organisations are
linked up with those of salaried employees in private employment.
The German Union of Technical Employees and Officials
(Bund technischer Angestellten und Beamten — "BUTAB") is very
tenacious on this point, and denies that intellectual workers
can organise in any way without also defending the general
interests of salaried employees.
In France the General Confederation of Labour has not
sought the affiliation of intellectual workers ; the Union of
Industrial, Commercial and Agricultural Technicians (Union
Syndicale des Techniciens de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de
l'Agriculture — " USTICA") is an independent body, but its
attitude is closely akin to that of the labour movement. In
Great Britain a few engineers' organisations, such as the Electric
Power Engineers' Association, have co-operated with the workers' trade unions in strikes, but this is not usual. In Italy¿
again, the National Union of Fascist Engineers (Sindacato
nazionale fascista ingegnieri) is affiliated to the Fascist
trade union organisations (corporazioni).
A number of organisations are of a mixed character, making
no distinction between salaried engineers and employers.
This is the case, for example, in the Swiss Society of Engineers
and Architects (Société suisse d'Ingénieurs et des Architectes).

— 86 —

The Swiss Technicians' Union (Union suisse des Techniciens)
has decided to withdraw from the Swiss Federation of Salaried
Employees' Unions for the very purpose of preserving its
mixed character. Certain more or less denominational organisations, such as the Social Union of Catholic Engineers (Union
sociale d'Ingénieurs catholiques) in France, are of a similar
type. It is, in fact, not always possible to distinguish between
employer and employee. The Federation öf French Engineers'
Unions (Union des Syndicats d'Ingénieurs français), which
includes unions of electrical, chemical, and mechanical engineers, regards itself mainly as an organisation of employees,
but does not require the resignation of those of its members
who may become employers.
In certain countries, as, for example, Argentine and Hungary,
the only engineers' associations are those of employers.
Of recent years the " third-party " type of organisation has
appeared in Great Britain. Such bodies, though formed to
protect the interests of their members, remain independent
of both employers and workers. The French representative of this type is the Confederation of Intellectual Workers
(Confédération des Travailleurs intellectuels), to which the
Federation of French Engineers' Unions is affiliated. The
Austrian Association of Engineers and Architects (Ingenieureünd Architekten-Verein), too, is affiliated to the Federation of
Intellectual Workers (Bund der geistigen Arbeiter). There
are also separate associations not affiliated to any federation,
such as the Association of German Engineers ( Verein deutscher
Ingenieure), the British Society of Technical Engineers x, the
National Association of Italian Engineers (Associazione degli
Ingegnieri italiani) and all the engineers' societies in the United
States. In France, again, the National Federation of French
Engineers (Fédération nationale des ingénieurs français), recently
founded, is affiliated to the Confederation of Intelligence and
Production (Confédération de l'Intelligence et de la Production
française), which aims at organising each occupation vertically,
i.e. at including all those engaged in it in whatever position.
Organisations of an official character have been formed in
Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. The Chamber òf
1

The British engineering institutions mentioned on an earlier page
are not protective societies, but exist primarily for the advancement
öf technical science.

— 87 —

Hungarian Engineers was established under Act No. 17 of 1924
to ensure discipline among engineers, to watch over professional
ethics and conduct, and to keep engineers in touch with the
regular working of the national economy. In Austria there
is a chamber of engineers in each of the States of the Confederation.
In the international sphere it may be noted that the Association of American Engineering Societies presented a series of
proposals to the International Conference on the Scientific
Organisation of Work, held at Prague in August 1924, with
the object of creating a " World's Federation of Engineers ".
A similar effort has been made by the 'USTICA', but it was
opposed by the international organisations of salaried employees,
which regarded it as setting up competition with them.
Correspondents were requested, in replying to the questions
put to them, to mention any special complaints or desires of
engineers and chemists in their country. Below are given
some of these.
Austria
Austrian engineers generally attribute the evils from which they
suffer to the fact that their title is insufficiently protected. They
wish to have the right to use the title of engineer restricted to men
trained at a technical college. They also ask that the technical
qualifications of contractors should be given more weight in accepting
tenders for public works. They fail to understand why, when certain
industries which are in no sense dangerous can be carried on in Austria
only by persons producing certificates of ability, undertakings
sometimes employing thousands of workers are handed over to persons
who are not required to give any proof of their professional qualifications.
France
The chief desires of French engineers appear to be: (1) to obtain
adequate protection of their title, which implies some limitation of
the number of engineers and of students in engineering schools ; (2)
an improvement in the existing patent law to ensure that inventors
shall profit from their inventions ; (3) the suppression or limitation
of the privileges enjoyed by students of the " Ecole Polytechnique "
and the opening of all posts to any certificated engineer.
Italy
Engineers, having succeeded in obtaining the protection of their
title for which they had long struggled, are at present concentrating
their attention on restricting the number of students in technical
schools.

— 88 —

Roumania
The General Congress of Roumanian Engineers recently submitted
a memorandum to the Government asking for protection of the title
of engineer and of the exercise of the profession, an increase in salaries,
particularly for state employees, the development of secondary
technical education, and finally the organisation of a statutory body
representing the profession.
United States
The most frequent complaint is that engineers do not profit by
their inventions, owing to the large capital needed to float them.
In addition the initial salaries paid to engineers are thought to be too
low as compared with those of manual workers.

It is not the object of the present report to draw any general
conclusions, as it covers only a few countries and a few professions. To obtain any accurate idea of the general position
of engineers and chemists, it would be necessary to compare
it in each country with that of manual workers and also of
other intellectual workers. In comparison with intellectual
workers working independently, engineers are probably fairly
well off, as they benefit by the organisation of industry. In
comparison with manual workers, on the other hand, engineers,
even where they earn higher salaries, enjoy less protection, less
security, and fewer contractual guarantees.
They have consequently been led to enquire whether the
tendency to place them on the same footing as manual workers
is really in their own interest. The present tendency is to
emphasise the special character of the profession and to claim
legislative protection which would not class them wrongly
with other classes of workers whose interests are entirely
different.

— 89 —

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX
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Page
BRAZIL

ARGENTINE

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation . .
Unemployment
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners . . . .
Hours of Work
Salaries
Organisation

16
27
40
47
64
72
86

AUSTRIA

Education
11
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
20
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation.. 23
Methods of Finding Employment
30
Unemployment
36
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners . . . .
42
E m p l o y m e n t of W o m e n . 48
Contract of Employment. 51
Hours of Work
59
Salaries
66
Profit Sharing
73
P a t e n t Rights
75
Insurance and Provident
Rights
81
Organisation
85-86
Demands of the Profession
87
BELGIUM

Education
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
Protection against Usurpation of t h e Title.
Action by the Parties
Concerned
Unemployment
Immigration and the position of Foreigners . . . .
Employment of Women.
Contract of Employment
Hours of Work
Salaries

11
20

28
36

Education
Salaries

16
73

BULGARIA

Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation..
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
Hours of Work
Salaries

24
43
60
67

CHILI

Education
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
Methods of Finding E m ployment
Unemployment
. Immigration and the Position of Foreigners . . . .
Salaries

16
21
35
40
47
73

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Methods of Finding E m ployment
Contract of Employment
Hours of Work
Salaries
Insurance and ' Provident
Institutions
Organisation

30
52
60
67
82
86

DENMARK

Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Action by the Parties
Concerned
Methods of Finding Employment
Unemployment
Contract of E m p l o y m e n t
Hours of Work
Salaries
P a t e n t Rights

28
31
36
52
60
67
75

ECUADOR

43
48
52
60
67

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation .

17
27

— 90 —
Page
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners . . . . 47
Salaries
73
FINLAND

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Ordinary Law
Action by the Parties
Concerned
Methods of Finding E m ployment
Unemployment
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
Employment of W o m e n .
Contract of Employment.
Hours of Work
Salaries
P a t e n t Rights
Insurance and Provident
Institutions

12
22
28
31
37
43
48
53
60
67
75
82

FRANCE

Education
12
Practical Experience . . . .
18
Protection against Abuse
of the Title
20
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
21
Protection of Good Diplomas
21
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Ordinary Law
22
Special Legislation.. 24
Action by the Parties
Concerned
28
Methods of Finding E m ployment
31
Unemployment
37
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
43
Employment of W o m e n . 48
Contract of Employment. 53
Hours of Work
60
Salaries
67
Profit Sharing
73
P a t e n t Rights
75
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
82
Organisation
85-86
Demands of the Profession
87
GERMANY

Education
Methods of Finding
ployment
Unemployment

13
Em31
37

Page
Immigration and t h e Position of Foreigners
44
Employment of W o m e n . 48
Contract of Employment. 48
Hours of Work
61
Salaries
6&
Profit Sharing
74
P a t e n t Rights
77
Organisation
85-86
GREAT BRITAIN

Education
13
Practical Experience
18
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Ordinary Law
23
Action by the Parties
Concerned
29
Methods of Finding E m ployment
32
Unemployment
38
Emigration
42
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
44
Employment of W o m e n . 48
Contract of Employment. 54
Hours of Work
61
Salaries
69
Profit Sharing
74
P a t e n t Rights
77
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
82
Organisation
85-86
GREECE

Education
Unemployment
Immigration and t h e Position of Foreigners
Contract of Employment.
Salaries

14
38
44
54
70

HUNGARY

Education
14
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
21
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation.. 25
Methods of Finding E m ployment
32
Unemployment
38
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
44
Employment of W o m e n . . 49
Contract of Employment. 55
Hours of Work
61
Salaries
70
Patent Rights
77
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
83
Organisation
86-87

- ^ 91 —
Pago

Page
PORTUGAL

ITALY

Education
14
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation.. 25
Methods of Finding E m ployment
33
Emigration
41
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
45
Contract of Employment. 55
Hours of Work
61
Salaries
71
Profit Sharing
74
P a t e n t Rights
77
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
83
Organisation
85-86
Demands of the Profession
87
LATVIA

Hours of Work

62

NETHERLANDS

Methods of Finding Employment
Unemployment
Hours of Work
Salaries
P a t e n t Rights

33
38
62
72
78
33

PANAMA

Education
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners

17
47

PERU

Education
Immigration and t h e Position of Foreigners
Salaries

17
47
73

POLAND

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation..
Methods of Finding Employment
Unemployment
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
Contract of Employment.
Hours of Work
Salaries
P a t e n t Rights

62

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation..
Methods of Finding E m ployment
Unemployment
Immigration and t h e Position of Foreigners
Contract of Employment.
Salaries
P a t e n t Rights
._..
Demands of the Profession

14
26
33
39
45
57
62
72
79

15
27
33
39
45
57
72
79
88

RUSSIA

Unemployment
Migration
SERB-CROAT-SLOVENE

35
41
KINGDOM

Hours of Work

NORWAY

Methods of Finding Employment

Hours of Work
ROUMANIA

63

SPAIN

Education
Protection of Certificated
Engineers
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Ordinary Law
Methods of Finding Employment
Unemployment
Emigration
Immigration and t h e Position of Foreigners
Hours of Work
Salaries

15
21
23
33
39
42
45
63
72

SWEDEN

Methods of Finding E m ployment
Unemployment
Hours of Work
P a t e n t Rights
Insurance and Provident
Institutions

34
39
63
79
83

SWITZERLAND

Protection against Usurpation of t h e Title.
Ordinary Law
Action by t h e Parties
Concerned
Methods of Finding E m ployment
Unemployment
Emigration

23
29
34
39
42

Page
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
46
Contract of Employment. .57
Hours of Work
63
Salaries
72
Profit Sharing
74
Patent Rights
79
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
84
Organisation
85-86
UNITED STATES

Education
Protection against Usurpation of the Title.
Special Legislation..
Action by the Parties
Concerned
Methods of Finding Employment

16
27

Page
Unemployment
40
Emigration
42
Immigration and the Position of Foreigners
46
Employment of Women . 49
Contract of Employment. 57
Hours of Work
64
Salaries
72
Profit Sharing
74
Patent Rights
79
Insurance and Provident
Institutions
84
Organisation
86-87
Demands of the Profession 88
URUGUAY

29
34

Education
Hours of Work
Salaries

17
64
73