INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series D (Wages and Hours of Work) No. 18

WAGES AND HOUES OF WOEK
IN THE

COAL-MINING INDUSTEY

/

PREFACE

On 28 April 1925, the Committee of the International Miners'
Federation, at a meeting held in Brussels to consider the economic
difficulties with which certain coal-producing countries were
already faced, adopted a resolution in which it declared t h a t
the causes of these difficulties arose to a great extent from the
competition and commercial rivalry prevalent in the coal
markets. It placed on record that the differences in the working
conditions existing in the various coal-producing countries
served to sharpen and to embitter this state of competition and
rivalry. Consequently, in its opinion it was necessary to pursue
energetically the standardisation of working conditions of miners
on an international basis. But, as it was not in possession of
complete information, it realised that it was necessary to undertake an enquiry in the principal coal-producing countries
dealing with hours of work, annual holidays, and wages paid by
the employers to different categories of miners 1. The resolution
added :
1

The full t e x t of this resolution is as follows :
"Whereas in certain coal-producing countries economic difficulties
are such as to lead to continually increasing unemployment among
miners and the lowering of their standard of living ;
"Whereas these economic difficulties arise very largely from competition and commercial rivalry in t h e international coal m a r k e t ;
"Whereas this competition and commercial rivalry is more acute a n d
embittered by reason of the differences in the working conditions existing
in the principal coal-producing countries ;
"The Committee decides t h a t efforts should be made to secure t h e
standardisation of working conditions of miners on an international
basis.
"Since t h e Committee desires to be fully informed before i t formulates
definite and concrete proposals, it decides to organise, in agreement
with the National Miners' Federations, an international investigation
in the principal coal-producing countries. This investigation shall deal
with hours of work, annual holidays, and wages paid by employers t o
the various categories of mining workers.
" I n order t h a t the proposed investigation should be as thorough a s
possible and t h a t the enquiry may be completed with t h e least possible
delay, the Committee also decides to appeal to t h e International L a b o u r
Office for assistance and the co-operation of the means of investigation
a t its disposal."

VI

—

In order that the proposed investigation should be as thorough as
possible and that the enquiry may be completed with the least possible
delay, the Committee also decides to appeal to the International Labour
Office for assistance and the co-operation of the means of investigation
at its disposal.

On 2 June 1925, this resolution was submitted to the Seventh
Session of the International Labour Conference by Mr. Mertens,
the Belgian workers' delegate, and the Conference adopted the
following resolution :
. . Whereas it is one of the functions of the International Labour
Office as defined by Part XIII of the Treaty of Peace to collect all
information upon hours of work, wages, and annual holidays ;
And whereas there would be a special value in an international comparative investigation of all the documents already collected by the great
public mines administrations, which documents could be still further
supplemented by those of the employers' and workers' organisations :
The Conference requests the Governing Body to consider the conditions
under which this investigation could be initiated and carried out by the
International Labour Office.

In the following October, the Governing Body of the International Labour Office, in its turn, asked the Office to proceed
with this enquiry with a view to publishing all the comparable
statistics which it might be able to collect relating to hours of
work, paid holidays, and wages of miners in most of the coalproducing countries of the world.
To emphasise the importance which it attached to this enquiry,
the Governing Body appointed from among its members a
Committee whose task was to follow closely the work of the
Office and, if need be, to give its opinion on the execution and the
result of this work, leaving to the Office, however, full responsibility for its undertaking. This Committee, composed of six
members, was formed by MR. WOLFE and MR. SOKAL, representing the government members of the Governing Body, MR.
LAMBERT-RIBOT and SIR JAMES LITHGOW, representing the
employers' group, MR. JOUHAUX and MR. POULTON, representing
the workers' group. It was understood that during the Sessions
of the Committee, these members could be assisted by experts.
Thus it was not in this case one of those Committees of
outside experts called in by the International Labour Office
to assist it in those technical studies which need such assistance.
The International Labour Office retained full control over its
enquiry and full responsibility for it. Through the medium
of the Committee of the Governing Body, it kept the latter informed of the progress of work as opportunity offered. It
received, in conditions fully safeguarding its independence,

VII

criticisms from the members of the Committee assisted by the
experts chosen by them, which would be of use in the continuation of its work. But this Committee was, as it were, an internal
committee of the International Labour Office ; the latter had
recourse to no external authority to alienate any part of its
responsibility, which was completely and entirely preserved.
At this point it is desirable to mention briefly the underlying
causes of the enquiry which the Office was requested to undertake, and whose results are here published, to indicate the different
stages through which it passed, and to describe shortly its essential character and the scope of the results which may be
expected of it.i
The underlying cause of the resolutions of the Committee of
the International Miners' Federation and of the International
Labour Conference is only too obviously the coal crisis from
which the world has been suffering for several years ; but it
is necessary to point out how the examination of the causes of
the crisis led in the minds of certain people concerned, and
especially in the minds of the workers, to the conclusion that
the conditions of work in the coal-mines lay at the root of the
crisis.
From an examination of pre-war and post-war statistics, it
appears that the coal production of the present time is approximately equal to that of 1913, the last normal year of the pre-war
period. It is even the case, in favour of the present period, that
the distribution of this production is slightly less unequal;
in 1913 the three great coal-producing countries of the world—
the United States, Great Britain, and Germany—represented
82 per cent, of the world production ; to-day they only represent
77 per cent. However, the French production, thanks to
the intelligent reconstruction of the mines of the Northern
Departments, is continually increasing ; the production of the
Netherlands, formerly almost non-existent, is also continually
developing, and above all, overseas, the mines of Australia,
South Africa, India, and indeed China are beginning to take
a more important place in the statistics.
Hence the monopoly of the former producers is losing its
rigidity and its power ; the pits are becoming more scattered.
It follows that the former holders of a quasi-monopoly suffer
restrictions in their exports and, in particular, as they are obliged
to reduce their exports of coal to the overseas mining countries,

— VIII

they are led to seek markets to which they have better access
nearer home. Such is more especially the case with Great
Britain and Germany, whose endeavours to gain or retain the
European buyers are becoming more bitter. In this restricted
field of competition the two exporting countries come into
collision, but they also come into conflict with the producing
countries of the Continent.
This fierce competition, moreover, coincides with a certain
number of phenomena which tend to diminish, at least temporarily, the consumption of coal. In the first place, the results
of the industrial crisis, which does not exist in all countries
to the same extent but is everywhere active or latent, are that
the industries of the whole world, which are producing less taking
all in all, require less fuel. Further, whereas before the war one
could say that coal was the only source of energy which the
great industries used to a considerable extent, to-day such is
no longer the case. Oil is in demand as fuel for tractive motors ;
more than a third of the world's shipping is now propelled by
oil. Electricity plays a rôle of first importance as the source of
power in textile spinning and weaving mills and in the electrometallurgic industries. Finally, economical methods necessitated
by more than four years of war have been continued and even
perfected during the peace ; industries have sought and found
processes which will give the same output with a diminished
consumption of fuel. Hence an overproduction of coal, which
is not in fact the result of an increase of production but of a
reduction of consumption, due in part to incidental causes, but
also. in part to causes which appear to be really permanent.
Hence the keenness of the competition for the capture or the
keeping of markets, and the combative measures—certain of
which, "dumping" for example, are deplorable—which the States
concerned have been obliged to adopt.
From this ruinous competition was bound to arise the idea
of an agreement between the producing countries for the purpose
of sharing markets equitably and rationally, and also no doubt
to eliminate the overproduction of a commodity for which the
consumer was not so eager as formerly. To increase production
in a restricted market would be to risk strengthening the rivalry.
Is it wise in present conditions, when 50 or 100 million tons
of coal are taken from the soil each year without being able
to find a purchaser, to increase still more this unsaleable stock
by an intensified production ? To some the remedy appears

— IX

—

in a reasonable restriction of production, perhaps in the closing
down of old mines which are carried on at a loss, but especially in
some kind of standardisation of working conditions in the
coal-mines, that is to say, in equalisation of hours of work—as
far as possible an equalisation downwards so that the miners
bring less coal to the pithead than they do at present, and also
so that this diminution may be everywhere equal. It is this
idea which is found in the proceedings of the Royal Commission
on the Coal Industry in Great Britain, whose report (1926)
says : "If a common level of working hours, through the intervention of the International Labour Office or otherwise, could
be agreed upon, it might be advisable to accept it, even if it
meant some small increase here to meet part-way a decrease
elsewhere." 1
The same considerations apply to wages. It is well known that
the remuneration of human labour is a very considerable factor
in the cost of coal production. Estimates vary according to
the source ; but it may be said without fear of grave error that
wages represent, according to- the country, from 45 to 76 per
cent, of the cost price of coal. The share of wages in the cost
price is here far greater than in any manufacturing industry. It
is thus quite evident that in these conditions competition can
be benefited in certain countries by very low wages, which
means that it is at the expense of the standard of living of
the workers that the economic triumph of the nation to which
they belong can be achieved. Hence the importance of endeavouring to determine the possibilities of a standardisation of
wages, considered from the following two points of view.
In the first place, the point of view of the worker, that is to
say, the worker's standard of living. It is here a question of
determining an average wage which would enable the miners
of all countries to have the same purchasing power and consequently to live everywhere in the same conditions.
Secondly, the point of view of the employers. It is here a
question of seeking to establish a wage per ton which, taking
into account differences in the natural conditions in the various
mines, in their economic position and their technical conditions,
would enable an average wage to be found which would not be
disadvantageous to any mining country as far as international
competition is concerned.
1

Page 178.

X

Some have considered these ideas to be Utopian. Others, on
the contrary, firmly maintain that they are sound and capableof realisation. But, above all, it is necessary to know if the differences existing in the various mining countries in the hours of
work, or in conditions of remuneration, are so wide that they
create, as it were, irreconcilable antagonisms, or are already somoderate that the means of reducing them to a common measure
may reasonably be considered. Hence the idea, which the
International Miners' Federation wisely suggested, of an international comparative enquiry. Hence, also, the factors of the
enquiry which, at the request of the Federation, the International Labour Office has endeavoured to collect, and to
elaborate in a manner capable of rendering them comparable,.
or at least as comparable as possible.
In order to conduct the enquiry in all security, it was necessary, in the first place, to decide on the methods to be adopted,
that is to say, to assign a clear and precise definition to each
of the data and then to draw up the rules which would render
the statistics to be furnished by the Governments comparable,,
if, as had to be anticipated, they were not comparable in the
first place.
In effect, the difficulty of agreeing on a definition of hours of
work and of wages is great where miners working underground
are concerned. What was t h e duration which was to be determined and compared ? The legal hours of attendance in the
mine or the hours of attendance underground or the actual period
of work, that is to say, the time spent by the worker at the coalface, after deducting rest periods ? With regard to wages, which
were those which had to be compared to give satisfaction tothe suggested enquiry of the International Miners' Federation ?
Wages per hour, wages per day, or wages per year ? Or, further,,
nominal wages in the currency of the country, or gold wages,.
or real wages, or wages per ton ?
A.nd, in the second place, once the choice had fallen on one
or other of these factors, it was necessary to decide on the method
which would ensure that in all districts each of them would be
understood in the same way. The differences in the methods;
applied in thejvarious mining countries for the calculation of
the hours of work of the underground worker were soon
noticed and it is only after a long series of investigations that
it has been possible to establish a common measure for the various.

— XI

—

terms used for indicating the length of a shift. Similarly, in the
case of wages, it was soon perceived that under the various terms
enumerated above, different conceptions existed in different
countries. For one region, for example, money wages were
supplied in which allowances in kind, such as free housing, free
coal, or coal at reduced prices, were not included ; elsewhere, on
the other hand, these elements were included in the estimates of
the workers' earnings. The same considerations apply to insurance contributions. The figures furnished by the Governments
only took into account the contributions paid by the workers,
but certain experts affirmed that the employers' contributions
should be taken into consideration.
All these questions (and only the most important have been
indicated) had to be studied and settled by the Office for the
purpose of determining the methods to be employed. The
explanation of the methods will be found in Part One of this
survey, in the form in which it was established, first provisionally,
and then, after consultation with Governments, the organisations concerned, and the Committee of the Governing Body,
definitively.
Having thus fixed upon a method, which being approved by
all should be understood by all, having a sure foundation for
carrying out the enquiry, the Office passed to the second stage
of the work, which was the collection of information. It proceeded
with meticulous prudence. For this purpose, the Office addressed
itself, as it constitutionally should, to the Governments of the
countries concerned. But, whenever it appeared that the information communicated by the Governments might be challenged
by the workers' organisations, because it seemed to be furnished
exclusively by the employers, or vice versa, the attention of the
Governments concerned was drawn to the matter, and if they
maintained their original figures, the reservations made by those
concerned have been expressly indicated in our survey whenever
this precaution seemed legitimate. Once the data were assembled,
they were co-ordinated, that is to say, in cases where the Governments had not taken the trouble to do so themselves, they were
whenever possible made to conform to the definitions which
had been adopted and are defined in the methodological study.
Naturally, great difficulties in the work of examining and

— XII

co-ordinating this documentary information have often been
encountered. However, the Office may claim to have attained
the maximum of co-ordination and comparability possible with
the statistics supplied, of which some are incomplete and others
insufficiently exact.
After the figures had been rendered comparable, the results
were communicated to the Governments, to the organisations
concerned, and to the Committee of the Governing Body, as
was done after the collection of the original information, and
it is only after having carried out all these consultations, whose
results were taken into account in so far as was judged consistent
with the interests of truth, that it was decided to] publish the
results of the enquiry.
If, even in the preface of this publication, the minute details,
which some will perhaps find excessive, of the method adopted
are thus emphasised, it is for the purpose of endeavouring to
give to those who may consult it an idea of the extreme difficulties encountered in bringing it to a successful conclusion. Mining
statistics are, among all industrial statistics, those which appear
to be the most richly endowed with trustworthy material,
which appear to be the most uniform and the simplest, and
which appear to lend themselves most readily to an international comparison. And yet it is at the cost of long and minute
labour that the Office has succeeded in extracting a certain
number of data which are relatively comparable. This experience
enables the difficulty of the work in connection with the international enquiry to be appreciated.
What are the essential characteristics of this enquiry ?
In the first place, it claims to furnish -statistics which, if
not entirely comparable, are at least as comparable as the
uncertainty and lack of precision of present statistics allow.
It is necesssary to emphasise the relative comparability. In
the second part of this report the essential results of the enquiry
are given in tabular form. They are even summarised in a
concluding chapter, at least in so far as they are really comparable.
E u t the reader must be warned against the danger of hasty
perusal and unjustified generalisation. The figures which appear
in the tables must not be read and cannot be utilised except
in the light of the abundant notes and comments added to
the tables, otherwise the figures might be given an absolute

— XIII

—

authority which, in many ways, they do not deserve. The same
observation applies to the summary, however prudent and however carefully expressed it may be, which is given in the concluding chapter. The simple perusal of the tables and conclusions
may produce a general effect on a hurried reader who wishes
to acquire an approximate idea of the work. But, in truth,
it is impossible to make any profound study in the matter,
and especially to draw any practical conclusions without a
thorough scrutiny of the report, which, in spite of a desire to
be brief, simple and clear, could not be simplified or abbreviated
to any great extent without failing to render justice to the matter
which was entrusted to the Office and to the intentions of those
who had so entrusted it.
It will be noticed, moreover, that having had in the first place
the intention of undertaking an investigation universal in space
and very extensive in time, the Office was forced to restrict
itself to considering, at least as far as the comparative study
was concerned, only the principal coal-producing countries of
Europe, and those only for the year 1925.
Statistics which could be reduced to a common basis have
not, in fact, been received from certain oversea countries.
Certain of these countries have not even replied. However, for
those which have replied, and for those which, like the United
States, have already published certain of the information
desired, the statistics have been summarised in a copious appendix
(Appendix V) ; but it must be emphasised that these figures are
not in any way comparable with those which have been utilised
in the body of the report concerning the principal coal-producing
countries of Europe, because in the form in which they were
submitted it was impossible to utilise them and to reduce them
to terms of the basic data adopted for the enquiry. It is therefore
only in respect of the principal coal-producing countries of
Europe (with the exception of Russia) dealt with in the body
of the report that these figures may be used for any approximately accurate comparison.
With regard to the limitation of our enquiry to the year 1925,
it was imposed upon us by the three following facts. In the first
place, whatever interest a comparison between the pre-war and
post-war situations might have presented, it has not been possible to take the figures previous to 1914 into account, because
they were not at all comparable, in the extent to which they
could be supplied, with those which obtained for 1925. Secondly,

—

XIV

—

our enquiry dealt principally with the year 1925 because at the
time at which the method had been determined, that is to say,
towards the middle of 1926, the figures for 1925 were the most
recent. Finally, the year 1926 was an exceptional one in consequence of the great coal stoppage in Great Britain ; and as for
1927, complete and trustworthy documents are not yet available.
Consequently, the report only gives comparable statistics
for a year which is already relatively remote, although in certain
of the countries taken into consideration, the conditions of
labour have been substantially modified since. In this respect,
too, the Office has endeavoured to remedy the defect by giving in
another appendix (Appendix IV) the statistics which it has
been possible to compile for the year 1926, and even for 1927, for
the countries considered in the main enquiry. But here again,
it must be emphasised that these figures, furnished, as it were,
in the crude state, and without being made comparable as were
those for 1925, must not be compared with the latter.
What is to be expected of the survey which is now being
published ?
In the first place, no doubt, that the International Miners'
Federation and all those who are interested in the mining question
will find, if not all the information desired, at least as much as
can be assembled and presented in a comparable form in the
present state of knowledge. To what extent the Federation will
be able to use it for its purpose, it is impossible to say. But the
International Labour Office may claim that by the thoroughness
of its methods and the soundness of its results this survey is a
sure starting point for more extensively developed and more
fruitful researches.
But such a study exceeds, if one may say so, the scope which
was assigned to it by its promoters themselves. The difficulties—
which will no doubt be even better understood after the perusal
of the following pages—of an enquiry of this kind have been
already mentioned. Unless one proceeds with the greatest
prudence and with the assistance of a method arrived at after
mature consideration, there is a risk of arriving at false conclusions and hasty generalisations. The method laid down may be
used, with the necessary modifications, for the study of hours
of work and wages in other industries. With regard to the coalmining industry itself, it is possible (and it is the earnest hope
of the International Labour Office that this will be the case)

XV

t h a t it will incite the Governments concerned to use it as a
basis in the future for the compilation of their statistics on an
international and comparable foundation. It might be asked
whether the method which we have laid down in this way
might not form the subject of a discussion at a future Conference of labour statisticians specialising in mining statistics.
This investigation might be considered as a beginning. It
would be eminently desirable, now that the methods have been
tested and already applied to the statistics of one year, that
in the future, if not every year, at least periodically, an enquiry
on the same subject might be repeated ; in this manner, the
evolution of the essential conditions of labour in the coal-mines
of various countries would be outlined in a series of periodic
monographs. Doubtless if investigations and publications along
these lines were continued, they might, at the same time, be
extended to countries which, for reasons mentioned, remain
outside the scope of the present report. In brief, the Office
would proceed in this respect as it has already proceeded with
success in the case of migration statistics. To show by means of
permanent enquiries, periodically published, the changes and
differences in the working conditions of different classes of
workers is surely one of the most important duties laid upon
the International Labour Office.
Finally, this study is, only a part of a vaster study. The
mining crisis mentioned at the beginning of this preface is a
profound crisis, and one which concerns, directly or indirectly,
all the countries of the world. This enquiry, if one may say so,
is only an element in a more extensive enquiry which perhaps
will one day be undertaken, which would not only relate to
hours of work and wages of miners, but to all other working and
living conditions, extending to questions of safety in the mines
and insurance. And even an enquiry into working conditions
completed in this way would be merely one of the fundamental
factors of an exhaustive enquiry into the social and economic
conditions attending the production and marketing of coal.
Be that as it may, the International Labour Office emerges
from this difficult task with the conviction which it has always
had, but which this new experience has still further strengthened, that any international agreement, any Convention,
must rest on a scientific knowledge of the problem which it
aims at solving, that this scientific knowledge is difficult to
obtain, but that it may be done by dint of patience and objec-

— XVI • —

tive methods. Above all, the close investigations of the working
conditions of the miners in the various coal-producing countries.
still further fortifies the conviction that if one day in the mining
realm international agreements are instituted between merchants
or between producers, they cannot be realised without taking
into consideration the situation of the miners.

CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE

v

P A R T ONE
Methods of Compiling Statistics of Hours of Labour
and Wages in the Coal Industry
INPRODUCTION

1

CHAPTER I : Classification of Mine-Workers

5

CHAPTER II : Methods of Calculating the Hours of Labour . . . .

13

CHAPTER I I I : Methods of Statistics of Wages

34

PART TWO
Results of the Enquiry into Hours of Labour and Wages
in the European Coal Industry in 1925
INTRODUCTION

59

CHAPTER I : Hours of Work in the Europena Coal Industry
A. D a t a
B. Conclusions

in 1925

64
64
71

CHAPTER II : Wages in the European Coal Industry in 1925 . . .
A. Composition of the Total Wages Bill.
B. Distribution of Total Wages Bill among Different Classes
of Workers
C. Manshifts (Days) Worked
D. Manshifts (Days) Lost
E. Number of Workers Employed
F. Comparison of Average Earnings Expressed in Terms
of Gold
G. Comparison of the Average Purchasing Power of Average
Earnings
H. Total and Average Output of Coal
I.
Comparison of the Average Labour Cost per Ton of Coal

74
75

120
130
137

CONCLUSION : Summary

143

of the Results

85
88
93
97
103

XVIII

APPENDIXES
PAQE

A P P E N D I X I : Methods of Calculation, and Limitation, of Hours
of W o r k in 1925 in European Countries
Belgium
Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Great B r i t a i n
Netherlands
Poland
Saar

157
157
158
159
161
162
163
165
166

A P P E N D I X II : Methods of Compiling Statistics of Wages in the
Coal-Mining Industry in E u r o p e a n Countries . . . .
Belgium .
Czechoslovakia
F r a n c e and t h e Saar
Germany
Great B r i t a i n
Netherlands
Poland

167
167
169
171 172
175
176
178

A P P E N D I X I I I : Method Employed for Calculating
Purchasing Power of Average Earnings

181

Relative

A P P E N D I X IV : Changes in Hours of Labour a n d Wages in t h e
Coal I n d u s t r y of European Countries from 1925 to 1927 . .
Introductory N o t e .

p 31
185
185

A.

Hours of Work
Germany
Great B r i t a i n
Poland

186
186
188
189

B.

Wages
Belgium
Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Great B r i t a i n
Netherlands
Poland
Saar Territory

189
189
194
198
201
209
213
217
222

XIX
PAGE

A P P E N D I X V : Hours of Labour and Wages in the Coal Industry
of Non-European Countries
Preliminary Note

228
228

A.

Hours of Labour
Canada
India
Japan
Union of South Africa
United States

229
229
231
232
235
235

B.

Statistics of Wages
Canada
India
Japan
Union of South Africa
United States of America

242
242
249
250
257
261

PAKT OM

METHODS OF COMPILING STATISTICS
OF HOURS OF LABOUR AND WAGES
IN THE COAL INDUSTRY

INTRODUCTION
§ 1. In undertaking an international enquiry into the
conditions of labour in the coal-mining industry, attention is
chiefly concentrated on two connected problems, viz. the
problem of hours of labour and the problem of wages.
There are no other problems which concern both the welfare of
the workers and the interests of the employers as closely as these.
The question of the reduction of hours has long been one of the
principal labour problems discussed in the coal industry ; and
although it has been settled, to a greater or less extent, in many
countries by legislation, it has remained in others, as recent
events have amply shown, a matter of primary importance.
The wages problem, although of more recent origin, has
gradually become as momentous, and even dominant ; being
more sensible to industrial fluctuations, more directly connected
with economic competition, and more likely to provoke social
strife, wages, without doubt, form the crucial point in the
satisfactory regulation of labour conditions existing in the coal
industry at the present time. A third problem, that of holidays
with pay, is apparently of minor importance and may
conveniently be dealt with as a part of the problem of wages.
Since the hours of labour and wages determine, to a great
extent, both the standard of living of the workers and also
the production costs and the competitive capacity of the industry,
i

— 2 —
international comparisons on these subjects have always been
recognised as useful. They are of outstanding interest in the
case of the coal-mining industry. Not only is this trade one of
the basic factors of modern industry, but the coal industry
of the different countries is eminently interdependent. Consequently, the differences in the labour conditions prevailing in the
various coal-producing countries have accentuated the economic
competition in the international coal market, and, inversely,.
the international rivalry has created-, in certain coal-producing
countries, economic difficulties which, in turn, have affected
adversely the conditions of labour. The recent years of the
"coal crisis" have thus rendered an international enquiry into
the working conditions of the coal industry particularly desirable.
The establishment of international comparisons on the subject
of hours of labour and wages has proved a particularly difficult
task. To the ordinary problems of these statistics, the special
conditions of the coal industry add others, which are peculiar
to this trade. In order, therefore, to avoid superficial and misleading conclusions, and to construct a rational and uniform
basis for comparisons, it will be necessary to analyse carefully
the methods of compiling statistics of hours of labour and wages.
The purpose of the following chapters is to study these problems
on general and theoretical lines 1 .
At the outset, it will be convenient to determine the character
and object of the statistics concerned.
§ 2. The particular and rather complicated character of
the labour conditions in coal-mining is ultimately due to the
fact that the industry is dependent, much more than manufacturing industries, on natural conditions. These natural conditions vary enormously from coal-field to coal-field, and even
from mine t o mine. The coal-seams vary from place to place
in respect of thickness, jointing, inclination, and frequency
of faults ; t h e pits vary in depth ; the roofs and floors of
the roadways vary in firmness and dryness ; the work-places
vary in their size, lay-out, distance from the shaft to the
face ; and the coal itself varies in quality. Nor are these
geological factors the only causes of variety. The use of machinery
and explosives, the methods of ownership, the scope of mining.
legislation, the concentration of the mines in large undertakings,
1

The methods employed in the statistics of various countries aresummarised in Appendixes I (hours) and II (wages).

— 3 —
the combination of coal-mining with other industries, and,
finally, the distance from the market, all these circumstances
influence, in a varying degree, the' technical and economic
conditions under which the mines are working. As a consequence,
the number of units of labour required to produce a given
quantity of coal is bound to vary almost indefinitely from coalfield to coal-field and from country to country.
It would seem, therefore, that in fixing the conditions of
labour, particularly wages, allowance is to be made for the
natural and economic difficulties with which coal-mining is
confronted. The price of coal competing in the same market is
not in direct relation to the relative labour cost of production, to
labour conditions prevailing in any particular district or country,
and to other similar factors. "Competitive equality" of the
coal industry then requires that hours of labour and wages are
regulated in such a manner that the cost of production and
transport of coal of a similar quality would be approximately
equal. Natural and economic conditions vary, price is uniform ;
hence, other things being equal, different wages are paid for
similar work in the various coal-fields and countries. Although
it would be impossible in practice to adapt labour conditions to
the natural and economic conditions, it has undoubtedly tended
to influence the mine-owners' point of view in the regulation
of the conditions of labour in the coal trade.
On the other hand, however, these factors are to some extent
counterbalanced by other tendencies. The regulation of labour
conditions is also influenced by the standard of living which
the workers have reached. Work in the coal-mines, requiring
more than usually hard effort, engendering a very high degree of
occupational risk, performed by workers and teams independent
of each other, has created among the miners a particular
"natural craft" which has developed powerful industrial organisations. Their influence has made itself felt both in collective
bargaining with the employers and in the activities of the State,
which has intervened effectively in the regulation of the
conditions of work of mining by means of limiting hours of
work, enforcing safety regulations, fixing minimum wages,
instituting conciliation boards, etc. These developments have
tended to bring about a standardisation of labour conditions
in coal-mining, and to modify the "competitive equality" in
the direction of fixing in each country a more or less equal
standard of labour for the different employers.

_

4 —

§ 3. The above general considerations may be sufficient to
indicate the principal causes which underlie the complex questions relating to the hours of work and wages in the coal industry,
and which render the international comparisons of these labour
conditions extremely difficult.
The statistics of hours and wages are, however, not directly
concerned with these questions. The study of the circumstances
which have determined the hours of work and wages, as they
are in actual practice, is beyond the scope of the statistics.
The various economic and social factors upon which the actual
state of things depend are taken for granted : the statistics
record, but do not explain, the existing variations and differences.
Nor do they explain the consequences which might emerge
from the existing conditions ; it is for the institutions and
organisations concerned with the trade to draw the practical
conclusions. The real object of the statistical study is confined
to the devising of correct and uniform methods with a view
to the determination of the average hours and the average
wages ; and also to establishing inter-regional and international
comparisons of the data obtained on the basis of these methods.
In order to comply with this object, three main statistical
problems are t o be examined and solved. There is first the question, important in view of the varying natural conditions, of an
adequate classification of mine-workers, a preliminary question
which is common to both of the other matters. Secondly, the
methods of determining, on a uniform basis, the hours of labour
are to be analysed. The third problem is that of statistics of
wages, considered, on the one hand, as an element in the
standard of living of the workers, and on the other, as a factor
in the labour cost of production.

CHAPTER I

CLASSIFICATION OF MINE-WORKERS

§ 1. The general object of the classification of workers
evidently is to show the structure of the "human factor" engaged
in the productive process ; in statistics relating to conditions
of labour the task of the classification is to provide an adequate
basis for the comparison of wages. In the coal industry such a
classification is all the more necessary as the operations involved
are extremely numerous and varied. The working of the mine
requires, in fact, the employment of many crafts other than
mining properly so called ; the nature of the work varies from
simple manual processes to the utilisation of highly developed
machines. Average hours or average wages of all mine-workers
in any district or country would have little real significance ;
hours of Work and wages are determined by different factors,
and are established by different methods, for the different
groups of workers.
The principal criterion of the classification of mine-workers is
the personal occupation. By personal occupation is meant
"speciality of work", or work connected with one of the numerous
tasks involved in coal-mining. Apart from this classification,
and subsidiary to it, there are classifications according to other
criteria, especially sex and age, which are of importance mainly
from a social point of view.
§ 2. Prior to any detailed classification of occupations,
however, there is one general distinction based on the place of
work, which is observed in all statistics relating to labour in
coal-mines. This distinction is that between underground and
surface work. The particular characteristics of labour conditions
in coal-mines which have been indicated above, apply mainly
to underground workers ; the tasks involved in surface work are

— 6 —
to a great extent comparable with those in other industries
rather than with the work underground in the mine. The nature
of the work of these two groups is indeed so different that any
statistics concerning mine-workers must start from this distinction. It is, for the reason of its obvious simplicity, the only
classification which is similar in the statistics of the several
countries. International comparison of the conditions of underground and surface work is feasible in the sense that these two
terms mean the same thing everywhere ; and for some statistical purposes it may be considered sufficient. As regards hours
of work, more detailed classification, although desirable, is not
indispensable : hours of labour are fixed by legislation or by
collective agreement with a view to the equalisation of the daily
and weekly period of work for all underground and surface
workers, whatever their occupation. However, this general
equality is confined to the ordinary length of the shift or to the
"hours of attendance" ; owing to the different natural conditions,
the "hours of actual work", or the period which the worker is
at his place of work, are bound to vary to some extent for the
different categories of underground workers. The case is more
obvious as regards wages. As has been pointed out, wages present
much greater variations than hours, and these variations are due
not only to different natural conditions, but also to different
kinds of work done in the mine, and arc particularly conspicuous
as between occupations. It seems, therefore, necessary to carry
the classification beyond the primary distinction between underground and surface workers.
§ 3. The basis for the occupational classification of underground workers may be obtained from a broad view of the
different operations involved in coal-mining.
The first general group of tasks — and the most important —
is "work at the face". Different methods are used for mining
coal, and a particular difference is due to the use of explosives
and machines. However, while these save labour and increase
efficiency, they cannot be employed everywhere, since natural
conditions still render the hand-pick method more practicable, or
inevitable in numerous places ; it may be also that aversion to
new methods sometimes restricts the introduction of machines
in coal-mining. The extent of the use of explosives or machinery
thus varies considerably from coal-field to coal-field, and the
aggregate amount of coal obtained by hand-cutting and by

— 7 —
machine-cutting varies in the different countries *. After the
coal has been broken up, it is loaded or filled into "trucks" or
"tubs". The loading, again, may be effected either by hand or
l>y mechanical "conveyers". Finally, work at the face requires
""timbering", that is to say, putting in props of timber to support
the roof when necessary, and "stone driving", i.e. cutting away
the stone and earth—operations which are necessary for ensuring
safety and possibility of further cutting of coal.
Connected with this latter kind of operation, but independent
of the work at the face properly so called, is the work of planning and repairing roads in order to open new coal-seams. This
"work requires the setting up of new timber to support roofs,
"ripping" the roof, floor, and sides of roads, taking down parts
of roofs, "digging" up floors, etc.
Another class of operations underground is that connected
writh the transport of coal to the surface. The tubs loaded and
filled at the face are pushed by hand or drawn by ponies to sidings,
where they are coupled and drawn either by horses or mechanical
means to the shaft bottom. From there the tubs are hauled to
the surface.
Beside the above three main kinds of work, there are in the
mine several "auxiliary tasks", viz. : the general supervision
of the work ; the supervision required by the safety regulations
of the different arrangements, such as timbering, tram lines,
machinery, cages ; the work connected with ventilation, lighting,
pumping of water, etc.
It will be seen that coal-mining involves numerous operations
other than coal-getting properly so called, and it is extremely
difficult to arrange them into a clear system of grades. The
difficulty lies in the fact that the division of labour has been
developed to a different degree and depends on different geological conditions and local customs in the various coal-fields
and countries. The methods of payment of wages are dependent
on these diverse systems of work, and the level of wages is largely
influenced by these methods.
The most obvious and necessary distinction would be that
between hewers (abatieurs, Hauer) or coal-getters properly so
called and other underground workers. Hewers form in all
coal-fields the basic occupation, both from the point of view of
the skill required, and that of the number engaged, which,
1

In the United States, two-thirds of the total amount of coal produced is cut by machines ; in Great Britain, only one-seventh.

— 8 —
however, varies enormously, according to the natural conditions
and according as the assistants of hewers are included or not.
Moreover, from the point of view of the method of remuneration,
hewers also form a separate group, for they are mostly employed
upon piece-work basis, while other workers are largely employed
upon time-work basis ; exceptions are, however, to be found in
both groups. If then the class called "hewers" really represented
workers doing everywhere the same kind of work, it should be
taken as the basis for the comparative study of labour conditions
in coal-mining. In fact, however, this is not possible. How far the
work of hewers actually extends, and where the work of other
occupations begins, is difficult, if not impossible, to establish
as a general rule. In certain districts hewers perform not only
the operations connected with actual coal-getting, but also those
of loading, filling, timbering, and stone driving, not only at the
face but on roads cut in order to promote access to a new coalseam or to a different part of the same seam ; in this case they
have other semi-skilled or unskilled labourers under their
control. In other cases, again, especially where the employment
of machines has pushed the division of labour farther, a hewer's
task is confined to actual coal-getting only, and other work
is performed by skilled and semi-skilled craftsmen. Hence a
"hewer" does not mean the same thing in different countries
and districts.
The various other occupations connected with the work at
the face form a very heterogeneous group. They perform, as a
rule, loading, timbering, stone driving, etc. The most important
of these occupations, found in the terminology of the various
statistics, are as follows : putters, fillers, trammers, drawers,
pushers, reddsrnen, drillers, trunkmen, timbermen, stonemen,
-rippers, brushers. All these are skilled or semi-skilled occupations, but are assisted by unskilled labourers. A discussion of
the differences existing in the various districts as regards the
number of operations done by special craftsmen would lead too
far. A small special group may, however, be distinguished from
others, namely, the group of "deputies", "firemen", "examiners",
etc., who are responsible for the safety of mines. But even this
group is not perfectly uniform ; for instance, timbering at the
face, usually done by the coal-getter, or by a special timberman,
is sometimes done by the "fireman" or "deputy" 1. As a rule,
1

In the Northumberland and Durham districts of England.

— 9 —
these are regarded as under-foremen or officials, and they are
not directly connected with the work at the face.
The remaining occupations consist of semi-skilled or unskilled
workers, mainly concerned with transport, haulage, and various
machines. The number of these occupations is large, and
includes, for instance, pony putters, hauliers, men engaged in
mechanical haulage, engine-men, onsetters, rollingwaymen,
blacksmiths, pumpmen, motormen, masons, etc.
To attempt a comprehensive classification of all these numerous occupations would be a very difficult task. The remarks
made above in respect of hewers apply here too : a given occupational term does not actually cover the same kind of work in
different districts. As a matter of fact, there hardly exists any
detailed occupational classification of underground workers
which would be applicable to more than one or a few connected
coal-fields.
To try to reduce the various occupations into a few distinct
groups would be equally difficult. Some such attempts at
grouping have, in point of fact, been made. The following
classification made in the statistics of wages published in Great
Britain may serve as an example * :
I, II. Coal-getters (distinguished according to the method of
wage payment).
III.
Putters, fillers, hauliers, and trammers.
IV.
Timbermen, stonemen, brushers, and rippers.
V.
Deputies, firemen, and examiners.
VI.
Other underground workers.
All these groups, however, are composed differently for
different coal-fields, especially classes III, IV, and VI, which
are extremely heterogeneous and hardly afford any reliable
comparison ; this classification has, therefore, not been generally
accepted in Great Britain. The same remarks apply, also, to
other similar attempts at grouping.
§ 4. The group of surface workers is, as pointed out above,
of less importance than that of underground workers. Their
case is, from the point of view of statistical classification,
somewhat simpler ; but here, too, the number of crafts is
considerable.
1
F I N L A Y A. GIBSON : A Compilation of Statistics of the
Industry of the United Kingdom, p. 140. Cardiff, 1922.

Coal-Mining

— 10 —
The operations performed on the surface of a mine are largely
analogous to work in a factory. There are cages by which coal
is hoisted from the shaft to the surface, weighing machines,
unloading machines, machines for sorting and washing coal,
boiler rooms, power plants, blacksmiths' shops, machine shops
for the maintenance and repair of locomotives, cars, tools and
machines, railroads, etc. These different plants and shops
require, of course, a number of different crafts on the surface.
It is needless to enter into a detailed description of these various
occupations. The British classification mentioned in the preceding section groups these above-ground workers as followsx :
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

Winding enginemen.
Enginemen other than winding enginemen.
Stokers and boilermen.
Pitheadmen.
Persons on or about screens.
Tradesmen (i.e. mechanics, joiners, blacksmiths, and
other skilled workers).
Other surface labour.

This list shows the principal classes of surface workers in
coal-mines. But the above brief classification is obtained by
sacrificing to some extent the clearness of the terms. Classes
VI and VII especially are extremely composite and do not
provide a basis for any trustworthy comparison so far as wages
are concerned. Moreover, even this classification has not been
taken into general use in Great Britain. The observations made
above in the case of underground workers thus arjDly also to
surface workers.
§ 5. The above brief review of occupations of coal-mining
shows that at present statistics relating to labour conditions in
this industry are greatly handicapped by lack of adequate
occupational classification. Such classification, while particularly
important in view of the great variety of occupations, is extremely difficult to obtain, owing to different natural conditions
and different local customs and usages which cause variations
in the division of labour, in the terminology employed, and in
the real meaning of the several occupations, even when these
are designated by the same term. The fact is, as has been pointed
1

FINLAY

A.

GIBSON,

loc.

cit.

— 11 —
out above, that no existing classification fulfils the requirements
of a standard classification.
In these conditions, it would be desirable to select a few basic
occupations which, while not characterised by the same "speciality of work", may nevertheless be taken as representative of
important and distinct groups of mine-workers.. For the purposes
of international labour statistics, the principal point of interest
is related to the labour conditions (hours and wages) of workers
of a given "industrial position", rather than the conditions of
"Workers engaged in a specified job. A classification of mineworkers in some typical industrial groups would in any case
render better results- than comparisons relating to the whole
of underground and surface workers, to which the present mine
statistics are mainly confined.
§ 6. Statistics concerning labour conditions require, apart
from the occupational classification, a further distinction of
workers according to sex and age. Coal-mining being known
as one of the heaviest and most hazardous industries, the
extent to which female and juvenile labour is employed in it
presents great interest. As a matter of fact, the employment of
women in coal-mining was one of the most conspicuous social
evils in early industrialism ; at present, however, the use of
female labour underground is legally prohibited in most countries. Similarly, children were previously generally employed
to the detriment of their health, but modern legislation has
gradually fixed a minimum age of admission to employment in
coal-mines. Juvenile labour is, however, still very general ;
boys are often employed underground as assistants to skilled
workers. Above ground both juvenile and female labour is
employed in various occupations. In order to elucidate the
extent of this part of coal-mine labour, it would be desirable that
the statistics distinguish between male and female as well as
between adult and juvenile workers.
It is to be noted in this connection that the term "juvenile
worker' ' is defined in a different way in the different countries.
The age limit varies, in fact, from 16 to 21 years. In view of the
definition of the juvenile worker given in the Washington
Draft Convention concerning the night work of young persons
employed in industry, it would be desirable that all countries
indicated separately the number of workers under 18 years of
age. So long as this is not done, an adequate international

— 12 —
comparison would require the classification of juveniles into
two or three age groups, e.g. workers under 16, those between
16 and 18, and those between 18 and 21 years of age.
In the case of wage statistics, however, such standard classification would in some cases be misleading. Wages are not paid
in direct function of the age, but in relation to the task performed
by the worker. In certain cases adults whose efficiency is below
the normal level are employed as "juveniles" ; in other cases,
workers below the general age limit may receive adult wages.
Thus the real problem of comparison is the difference, not between wages received by workers under and above a fixed age
limit, but between "juvenile rates of pay." and "adult rates of
pay' ', the age limit being different in different periods, different
occupations, and different countries.

CHAPTER II

METHODS OF CALCULATING T H E
OF LABOUR

HOURS

§ 1. For certain categories of workers employed in coalmines the hours of work problem has certain special features of
its own. The hours of surface workers may in most cases be
considered similar to any other workers employed in industry,
but the position is different for underground workers, who
work under special conditions. The exact determination of
their working hours is difficult, and when international
comparisons are to be made, the obstacles to be overcome,
if not insuperable, are at least very serious, and for the
following reasons.
In the first place, as has been shown, there is great variety
in underground work, and to each form of work there is a corresponding special class of worker.
Secondly, the working day of ' the miner is divided into
several stages. On reaching the pit-head each worker checks
in and is then at the disposal of the undertaking. He puts
on his working clothes, goes to the opening of the shaft, and,
after more or less of a wait, enters the cage which takes him
down to his work (in some mines the level is reached by a
gallery). He finally arrives at his working place either by foot
or by some form of mechanical transport. At the working
face he makes the necessary preparations and begins to work.
His work may be interrupted for meals or breaks, or because
the conditions of working require it, e.g. blasting, waiting for
tubs, materials or tools. At a given time he stops work and
returns to the surface in the same manner as he left. He takes
possibly a bath, dresses, checks out, and ceases to be at the
disposal of the undertaking.

— 14 —
The miner's working day therefore comprises :
(a) a period at the surface at the beginning and end of the
day;
(b) a period underground made up of (i) the time needed to
go from the surface to the working face and back, in
which time a distinction may be made between the
descent, the journey from the shaft bottom to the working
face, the return journey to the shaft, and the ascent,
and (ii) a period of work at the working face interrupted
by breaks.
Finally, work in mines is carried out by shifts of workers,
and its duration may be calculated for the whole shift or for each
worker taken individually.
It follows that the difficulties of determining and comparing
the hours of underground workers are due to :
(a) the many categories of workers,
(b) the several stages in the working day, and
(c) the need of calculating the hours of work for a shift and
not for one worker.
An examination of these various factors gives results which
differ widely not only from country to country but from coalfield to coal-field and from mine to mine, owing to differences in
the equipment of the undertakings, the number of workers in
each shift, the distance of the working face from the shaft, etc.
§ 2. If the object of the statistics is to be fulfilled and hours
of work in coal-mines are to be compared internationally,
factors that can give data offering the maximum of accuracy
must be defined, in spite of differences of regulation, terminology,
custom and method of working. This involves, first, considering the groups of workers in the mines, then on this basis
making distinctions according to the categories of workers, and
finally defining hours of work and the units of measurement
to be used.
§ 3. With respect to the groups of workers, it should be
observed t h a t when the employment of women and young
persons is allowed in mines, their hours are usually subject
to special regulations. These particular cases will not be
considered here, and we shall examine only the hours of work

— 15 —
of adult male workers. Even for the latter, however, the
term "miner" has been seen to be very wide if it is taken to
cover all workers employed in a coal-mine. In spite of the
distinctions established in the previous chapter, only two
special groups will be distinguished here — surface workers
and underground workers.
Owing to the many different kinds of work carried out aboveground there are many categories of surface workers. From
the point of view of determination of hours of work, however,
there is much similarity between these different forms of work,
despite their diversity and particular nature. For this reason
the enquiry will cover surface workers in general.
For underground workers, on the other hand, the question is
whether the different categories should be distinguished, or
only a typical category examined : the workers engaged in
hewing for instance, or all employed at the working face ? The
last group has been chosen for the present enquiry, as it makes
it possible to extend the investigation to the largest number
of workers employed in almost identical conditions. The
distinction between the different categories of underground
workers would take us too far. The results obtained would no
doubt give interesting information, but would have little
practical importance.
There are, no doubt, several exceptions in the case of hewers.
As a rule, instead of keeping to fixed hours, they sometimes
work more, sometimes less than other underground workers.
They may be the first to descend and the last to ascend,
etc. But it is impossible to take these special cases into
account in an international comparison, which cannot lead to
practical results unless it is pursued on more or less systematic
lines.
In view of the particular conditions of work inside the mine,
it is also necessary to define for underground workers the particular place at which their hours of work are to be determined.
Two distinctions are called for :
(a) the interior of the mine itself where the worker spends
the greater part of the day, so that it is of most interest
from his point of view ;
(b) the place of work where activity in the mine is concentrated, and which from the point of view of output is of
most interest to the undertaking.

— 16 —
The inside of the mine comprises all that part of the undertaking which is situated underground.
The working-place is the place where the worker engages in
his particular occupation. This may be near the shaft if he
is a eager, or a t the working face or stall of he is a hewer or
loader, or it may be the roads between these two points if he is
a haulier or labourer. The place of greatest interest, and the
only one to be considered here as it covers the largest numbers
of workers and is directly connected with the problem of
output, is the working face, the furthest point within the mine,
•whose distance from the shaft varies with the state of the
undertaking.
§ 4. The idea of hours of work in coal-mines is complex and
may be considered from different points of view. The tendencies
of the present economic system favour the standardisation of
hours of work not only for all workers in an undertaking, but
also for all workers employed in one branch or even in competing
branches of an industry. The conception of hours of work is
thus governed by factors applying to all workers in respect of
their occupation (for instance, the time from when the worker
enters the undertaking to when he leaves it). All the work
performed in an undertaking is not alike. Even if, as is proper,
individual exceptions due to special circumstances are left out
of account, the present system of division of labour in industry
still means that the so-called "work" period includes periods
during which the worker is not directly engaged in production.
Undoubtedly it is the object of economic management to reduce
such periods to a minimum, and in the large majority of industries they have become very small and even insignificant. In
certain industries, however, the technical processes themselves
make such periods unavoidable.
The coal-mining industry is one in which this problem arises.
At the present day a coal-mine covers a wide area and employs
many workers. For this reason a distinction may be made
hetween the definition of hours of work for the two groups
of workers already specified, surface workers and underground
workers at the face.
For surface workers, the reasons already put forward suggest
that it will be sufficient to determine the working day, or period
during which they are at the disposal of the undertaking, and
the hours of actual work less breaks.

— 17 —
For underground workers, the brief description of the workingday already given enables a distinction to be made between
"various aspects of the idea of hours of work. These will now be
•examined and only those chosen which are of real importance
to the worker or the undertaking, while at the same time lending
themselves to international comparison, that is to say, those
capable of evaluation with the least degree of uncertainty.
(a) There is first the total period spent in the mine, which
begins when the worker checks in on entering and ends when
he checks out on leaving. It is, in fact, the period during which
he is at the disposal of the undertaking. This period is very
important from the social point of view, and is of particular
interest to the worker as largely determining the amount of
his spare time. On the other hand, it is difficult to estimate,
and it varies very much from place to place. It may include the
time spent by the worker on operations before the descent or
after the ascent 1 , or it may not. On the other hand, it will
include the varying time spent by the worker in going from the
timekeeper's office to the pithead. There are, in fact, many
kinds of special cases, and it may be added that this period is
very seldom fixed by regulations, for these as a rule determine
only the length of the shift.
(b) The length of the shift (in French : durée du poste ; in
German : Schichtzeit) is the usual measure of the hours of work
of underground workers in coal-mines. It is a part of the total
period spent in the undertaking, calculated sometimes for each
worker individually, sometimes for the whole shift collectively.
In the first case (individual calculation) it represents approximately the period spent by the worker underground and therefore
-corresponds to the period from when he leaves the surface to
descend until he returns after the ascent (from bank to bank).
In the second case, that of collective calculation, the length of
the shift is determined in various ways according to the method
of allowing for the descent and ascent. It will be shown later
that it is possible to relate the collective length of shift to the
individual shift, and therefore to determine the length of time
spent by the worker in the mine.
This measure of the miner's hours of work is very important
to him, for it corresponds exactly to his working day as fixed
1
The time spent in changing clothes and bathing varies considerably,
imd may make an appreciable addition to the length of the shift.

2

— 18 —
by regulations. This is, in fact, the reason why it may be
determined very accurately, as its elements are given by the
regulations.
(c) The length of the shift, or time spent in the mine, is not
necessarily equal to the hours of actual work at the place of work,
i.e. the period during which the hewer, for instance, is working a t
the face (in French : chantier d'abatage ; in German : vor Ort).
As a rule, the hours of work at the face correspond to the length
of the shift less (i) the time needed for the worker to go from the
surface to his place of work and back, and (ii) all breaks' and.
stops.
This period is of great interest to the undertaking, as being an
important factor in production, and it should therefore be
given consideration. The question is whether it can be determined with precision. To do so, all the factors of which it i&
made up should be exactly estimated. These factors, as already
explained, are the period spent in the mine, travelling time,.
breaks and stops. Three of these, the time spent in the mine,.
travelling time and breaks, may be determined exactly, but the
loss of time inherent in the very conditions of the undertaking,.
such as that due to preparatory work, blasting, waiting for trucks,.
material, etc., varies from place to place, nor can it be strictly
determined. This is an essentially variable factor which cannot.
be determined in practice and does not satisfy the demands of
statistics. Hence it becomes necessary to abandon the idea
of calculating the actual hours of work at the face and to retain
only those factors which can be exactly estimated, namely, the
time spent in the mine, travelling time underground, and breaks.
The time spent in the mine less travelling a time will be described.
here as the time spent at the face. If the breaks are deducted,
the basis of estimation will then be what will be called the
time spent at face less breaks.
Obviously this period does not represent the hours of actual
work at the face. If the time spent in the mine is denoted by
X, the time spent at the face less breaks by Y, the travelling
time by a, and the breaks by b, the following formula is obtained :
Y = X — (a + b)
1

In certain mines the travelling time, particularly the time spent on
returning to the shaft may be. prolonged by the practice of delaying
the ascent until all the workers have been collected at the bottom of
the shaft. These are exceptional cases, however, limited to mines^
where the ascent is not organised on rational lines and the system is
merely traditional.

— 19 —
To obtain exactly the hours of actual work at face, which
may be called A, Y would have to be reduced by a period Z,
representing the various losses of time which, as already
explained, vary with the undertaking. The formula would then
be :
A = Y —Z
or
A = X — (a + b + Z)
As Z is very variable and difficult to calculate, it will be left
out of account here, and only the relatively fixed and comparable
figure Y (time spent at face less breaks) will be retained,
no attempt being made to define A (hours of actual work at
face).
To sum up, three calculations may be admitted in theory :
that of the total time spent in the mine, that of the length of
the shift, and that of the actual hours of work at face. In practice, however, these three calculations are not of equal importance
for purposes of international comparison, nor is it equally easy
to determine them with exactitude. The present study will
therefore relate only to two factors : the time spent in the
mine, and the time spent at face less breaks. The latter gives
an approximation to the "actual hours of work at face", which
cannot be determined exactly.
§ 5. It is finally necessary to determine the units of time
best suited for measuring hours of work.
The usual measure of the hours of underground workers
is admittedly the shift. As a rule, in industry, the measure
of a worker's hours is his working day, and the regulations of
the various countries on this point are fairly uniform. In
mines, calculations based on the shift serve the same purpose
as those based on the working day in other industries. But in
mining too, the working day also constitutes a measure of
hours of work, sometimes combined with the shift. For instance,
according to the German Ordinance of 21 December 1923,
"the length of the shift shall be deemed to be the statutory
working day in coal-mines".
It might be pointed out that the length of the shift and the
working day are not identical. The worker may, for instance,
work overtime in excess of the shift and in countries in which
several shifts are worked, he may even work more than one

— 20 —
shift a day (in French : poste supplémentaire ; in German :
Nebenschicht). In both cases the working day will be longer
than the shift. If extra shifts are worked, the statistics add
them to the normal shifts worked in the period under consideration. If overtime is worked, the statistics show the amount
of overtime reduced to the equivalent number of normal shifts.
In neither case is the amount of overtime per day shown. It
should be added that in the coal-mines of certain countries (for
instance, France, Belgium) such extra shifts are the exception,
affecting as a rule only a relatively small proportion of the total
number of workers, so that nominally the workers work only
for the normal length of the shift. There are other countries,
on the contrary, where overtime is regularly worked and may
be equivalent to several shifts a month. These will be taken
into account and added to the manshift.
It is equally unjustifiable to distinguish between the working
day and the shift in cases of short time, for in coal-mines the
introduction of short-time does not usually mean a reduction
of the shift in such a way that the working day becomes shorter
than the normal shift, but shifts are withdrawn instead.
Since for the purpose of this comparative study it is necessary
t o know in the first place the average hours of work, and since
this period is equally well expressed by the working day and
the length of the shift, the identity of the two ideas may be
accepted. Thus the terms "working day" and "length of the
shift" (in French : journée de travail ; in German : Schichtzeit)
will be taken to mean the same thing.
The working day or shift thus taken as a measure of the
miner's hours of work is not the only one acceptable. The
working week may also be used. This measure has the advantage
of throwing light on cases in which the working week is regularly
reduced because by custom or regulation all the working days
of the week are not worked, or on certain days (as a rule, Saturday) the shift is generally shortened. Obviously such cases
should not be left out of account, for the situation is altogether
different if the miners work 48 hours a week or 44 hours or
less.
The normal working week should therefore be calculated in
terms of the working day, that is to say, the average working
day should be multiplied by the number of working days in a
week, account being taken of any regular reduction in the length
of the shift on a given day.

— 21 —
On the other hand, it is considered unnecessary here to use
the working week for calculating an average working day. No
doubt it would be possible in cases of an eight-hour working day
with a six-hour day on Saturdays, to calculate the working day as
j - = 7 hours and 40 minutes, which would be a relatively
exact average. But in doing so the nominal length of the other
days of the week would be placed in the background and the
enquiry would be based on a figure less representative of the
facts. From an international point of view such cases are
exceptions, and it seems more expedient to keep to the working
day or the shift as recorded for the different countries, with
a reference to the length of the working week calculated as
indicated above.
§ 6. Most countries have now compulsory regulations for
all wage-earners in the matter of hours of work. It follows t h a t
a distinction must be made between the period during which the
worker should work, or statutory hours of work, and the period
during which he actually works, or actual hours of work. The
statutory hours cannot be left out of account altogether here,
as their determination and the comparisons to which they
lead are interesting in themselves, and in particular they
indirectly facilitate the study of actual hours.
Hours of work may be fixed either by official regulations or
by collective agreements. In the first case, the official regulations may be in the form of an Act, Order or Decree, and according to the end in view will be general or apply specially to
mining undertakings and coal-mines, or solely to one class of
workers, for instance, underground workers. When hours of
work are governed by an Act, the regulation usually applies to
the whole country, that is to say, to all employers and all workers.
When they are governed by a collective agreement, the regulation as a rule applies to a more limited area, most often the mining
district, and covers only the contracting parties.
The provisions of laws, like those of collective agreements,
may apply to all the principal forms of hours of work. They
may cover surface workers and underground workers, fix the
working day and the working week, the length of the shift and
the manner in which it is calculated, the last a very important
point in practice.
The actual hours of work may be determined from statistics,
but if the latter are insufficient, or compiled in different ways,

— 22 —
making comparison impossible, the statutory hours should
serve as the basis for determining actual hours of work. The
regulation of hours of work is, in fact, of capital importance.
Obviously there may be a difference between the statutory
and actual hours of work. The statutory hours may either not
be worked in full or be exceeded (in certain cases illegally).
It will be remembered, however, that in modern industrial
States regulations are adopted not by one party alone, but after
negotiations and mutual concession between the interested
bodies, whether it is a case of concluding collective agreements or
enacting legislation. Thus in practice it may be admitted, especially in countries where inspection is effective, that statutory
and actual hours of work are the same. Both legislation and
collective agreements, where these exist, are therefore used in
determining actual hours of work.
Moreover, the texts of laws and collective agreements define
the expressions "length of the shift" and "working day". The
precise significance of the expressions used in order to estimate
the hours of work, can therefore be determined for each country
or district so that only figures based on the same interpretations
may be compared.
The determination of the working day of surface workers does
not as a rule raise any difficulties. Undoubtedly the fact that
the hours of work include breaks in some countries and not in
others may lead to confusion. It is not necessary to repeat
that the comparison must be solely of hours of work excluding
breaks, which should therefore be deducted where possible.
§ 7. For underground workers it has been assumed so far
that their working day or length of shift corresponds approximately to the period spent underground., This may vary from
country to country and from district to district, according to
the method adopted for measuring it.
The length of the shift may be calculated for each worker
taken individually or for a group of workers (shift, or part of a
shift) taken as a whole.
In the first case (individual calculation) the shift begins as
a rule when the worker enters the cage to descend and ends when.
he leaves it at the completion of his work (from bank to bank).
If the shift does not exclude the descent or ascent of the worker,
the time spent on this operation may be considered negligible,
as will be shown below.

— 23 —
In the second case (collective calculation) there are two alternatives. Either the group in question comprises only workers
descending and ascending in the same cage, or else it comprises
workers using several different cages.
The first of these alternatives may be taken as equivalent
to the case when the hours of work are calculated for the individual worker. For if a certain number of workers regularly
travel together in the same cage it is in practice almost indifferent
whether the length of the shift is calculated for each individual
worker or for all of them together. Even if the cage has several
decks, the time spent in loading and unloading and in the
descent and ascent is so short that it may be neglected. For
purposes of theoretical accuracy, however, this factor should
also be taken into account, as will be discussed under § 13.
The most frequent case is the calculation of the length of
the shift for a group of workers representing several cage-loads.
This case corresponds as a rule to the collective calculation of
length of the shift for the whole shift. In this case the length
of the shift may be determined in three ways :
(a) It may be counted from the time the first worker of
the shift enters the cage to descend until the time the
last worker leaves it on ascending.
(b) It may be counted from the time the first worker
of the shift enters the cage to descend until the time the
first worker ascends, or, which comes to the same thing
for the present purpose, from the time the last worker
of the shift descends to the time the last worker leaves the
cage on ascending.
(c) Finally, it may be taken from the time the last worker
descends to the time the first worker ascends.
In the first of these cases the total length of the shift includes
jboth the descent and ascent of the whole.group of workers;
in the second it includes only one winding time, the descent
•or ascent ; in the third, it excludes both descent and ascent.
Clearly, if the length of the shift is nominally eight hours, the
term "eight hours" will mean something different in each, of the
three cases, in spite of the apparent uniformity.
§ 8. The length of the shift calculated individually (which,
as explained, corresponds to the length of the shift calculated
for a single cage load) may now be compared with that

— 24 —
calculated collectively for the whole shift, representing several cageloads. If the time needed for the loading and unloading,
descent and ascent of a single cage is considered negligible asin the previous case, the following results will be obtained for
each of the three cases mentioned above.
(a) If the length of the shift is calculated for the whole shift
from when the first worker enters the cage to descend until the last
worker leaves it on ascending, the period from the time a particular
"worker enters the cage to descend until he leaves it on ascending;
on the completion of his work, represents only a part of the
total length of the shift. There are two possibilities : either the
•workers enter and leave in the same order, or they do not. In
the first case it is obvious that the time from when any workerenters the cage to descend until he leaves it on ascending, is
less than that from when the first worker in the shift entera
until the last worker leaves. In the second case, it may be
supposed that the first worker entering the cage is not necessarily
the first worker to leave it, and may even be the last, and
conversely that the last worker to enter may be the first toleave. This gives the notion of an individual minimum period,.
measured from the time the last worker enters the cage to>
descend until he leaves it on ascending, being the first to do so,.
as also of an individual maximum period, measured from when
the first worker of the shift enters the cage to descend until he
leaves it on ascending, being the last to do so. Only this.
individual maximum is equal to the length of the shift calculated.
for the whole body of workers. It may be added that these
theoretical possibilities can have no practical influence on this
enquiry, the object of which is to compare the average length
of the shifts. For if the workers come up in the same order asthey go down this average is a part of the actual length of the
shift for the whole shift. If the order is not fixed, the averagelength is represented by the arithmetical mean of the minimum
and maximum periods mentioned above, and this mean corresponds also to the actual length of the shift when a fixed order
is observed.
It follows from the above that a length of shift which, calculated for the whole shift, is eight hours including the two winding
times, will not mean the same thing as a shift of eight hours.
calculated individually for each worker from bank to bank.
If the length of shift for the whole shift taken collectively is.

— 25 —
to be eight hours, the length for each worker in the shift individually will be less than eight hours, and the difference between
the two will be equal to the time spent in winding by the other
workers of the shift.
This may be made clear by an illustration. Suppose t h a t
the shift calculated collectively, including the descent and
ascent of the whole shift, begins at 6 a.m. and ends at 2 p.m.,.
the first worker will enter the cage to descend at 6 a.m. but on
ascending he must leave it early enough for the last worker of the
shift to be able to leave exactly at 2 p.m., i.e. the first worker
must leave sufficiently before 2 p.m. to allow time for the whole
shift to leave. Similarly, the last worker to enter the cage
would enter it at such a time after 6 a.m. as to have allowed
all the other workers to descend. Finally, if we consider the
case of a worker in the middle of a shift, he will enter the cage
sufficiently after 6 a.m. to allow the workers preceding him toenter before him, and leave sufficiently before 2 p.m. to allow
the workers following him to leave. These two periods added
together correspond to the time spent by the shift either on
descending or ascending, which, as already explained, comes t a
the same thing.
It may thus be said that the length of shift calculated for
the individual worker from bank to bank, is equal to the length
of shift of the whole shift taken collectively from the beginning
of the descent until the end of the ascent, less one windingtime.
(b) The next case is that when the length of shift is calculated
for the whole shift, either from when the descent begins until the
ascent begins, or from when the descent ends until the ascent ends.
In other words, in this case the length of the shift is measured
from the time when the first worker enters the cage to descend,
until the first worker enters the cage on ascending or (which
comes to the same thing), from when the last worker descends
until the last worker ascends. The discussion of the previous
case will show that here the length of the shift for the whole
shift taken collectively corresponds to the average length of the
shift for each worker taken individually. It does not matter
whether the period is measured by the time the worker enters the
cage on descending and ascending or by the time he leaves it,
in view of the fact that the actual time of descent and ascent
of the cage is considered negligible.

— 26 —
Thus the length of the shift for the whole shift calculated
from when the first cage descends until the first cage ascends or
conversely, i.e. the collective length of the shift comprising
one winding-time is equal to the average length of the shift
{of each worker taken individually) from bank to bank.
(c) The third case is that in which the length of the shift
begins when the last worker enters the cage to descend, and ends
when the first worker leaves it on ascending. Thus it includes
neither descent nor ascent. The previous argument shows that
in this case the average length of manshift, i.e. for each worker
taken individually, is greater than the length of the shift calculated collectively, the difference being equal to one windingtime. The only exception would be the extreme case when the
last worker to enter the cage on descending is the first to leave
it on ascending.
To return to the illustration already used in the first case, it
may be assumed that the collective shift begins at 6 a.m. and
ends at 2 p.m., the last worker descending at 6 a.m., and the
first ascending a t 2 p.m. Then the first worker to enter the
cage must do so sufficiently before 6 a.m. to enable the last
worker to enter at 6 a.m., that is to say, to allow for the time
needed for winding the whole shift ; and on leaving the last
worker to ascend will leave the cage sufficiently long after 2
p.m. to have enabled the whole shift to be wound up before him.
If it is assumed that the first worker to enter the cage to descend
is also the first to leave it on ascending—the average case—it
will be clear that the length of the man-shift from bank to
bank will be equal to that of the shift calculated collectively,
plus one winding-time.
Without discussing in further detail the theoretical relation
between the length of the shift calculated for an individual
worker, and that calculated collectively for a certain group of
workers which is smaller than the total shift of workers, it
may be stated that the above considerations concerning the
relation between the lengths of the shift calculated individually
and collectively for the whole shift, apply here also, subject
only to the remark that the time to be added to, or deducted
from, the collective period will be shorter than for the whole
shift in proportion as the group is smaller than the shift.
§ 9. The different methods of calculating the hours of work
for underground miners, have been discussed in detail. In the

— 27- —

light of these definitions, it will be comparatively easy to relate
these methods of calculation to each other. But if these data for
the working day are to be compared, a common unit for the
terms "length of the shift" or "working day" is needed, to which
the various interpretations of the terms in use in different countries and different mining districts must be reduced by the methods
indicated above. Now, the purpose of this enquiry is to compare
the average hours of work of miners, and this average should
therefore be adopted as a common unit. It should be understood
that the data to be supplied relate to the average length of a
shift, i.e. of a shift calculated for a worker individually from the
time he enters the cage to descend until the time he leaves it
on ascending, his actual time spent on descending and ascending
being considered negligible. In cases where the hours of work
of underground miners are calculated on different bases, the
preceding considerations will give the means of relating the
period to the unit adopted here, provided that in each particular
case the winding-time is known. It will then be sufficient to
subtract or add this time according as the total length of the
shift for the country or district in question includes or excludes
both descent and ascent.
The figure adopted for the time of descent or ascent will be
only an average, and therefore approximate. The regulations
often provide for a maximum winding-time but this varies from
one mine to another, depending as it does, among other factors,
on the number of workers, and also on the degree of technical
advancement of the mine. For if in certain mines the workers
can use simultaneously several shafts and several cages with
many decks, the time spent on descending and ascending will
be much shorter than in other mines without such conveniences,
even if the number of workers employed is much smaller.
These methods will make it possible to obtain comparable
data on the length of the shift or the working day of underground
miners.
§ 10. The time spent at the face, less breaks, corresponds, as
already explained, to the period spent in the mine, or the length
of the shift, reduced to a common unit, less travelling time and
breaks. The method to be used for determining the principal
factor has just been explained. The interpretation of the terms
"travelling time" and "breaks" remains.

— .28 —

The time needed by an underground miner to enter the mine,
go to his stall, and then return from his stall to the shaft and
ascend to the surface \ constitutes the time spent on the underground journey, or travelling time, and must be deducted from
the length of the shift as defined, if it is proposed to obtain the
time spent at the face. Now this time is variable. Sometimes
the vein worked by the miner is only a few minutes away from
the shaft, sometimes it is several miles away, and both cases
may occur in one and the same mine. In one case, there may
be mechanical means of transport for all or part of the journey
from the shaft to the stall (electric railways, paddy mail, etc.),
in another, the journey must be made on foot. All these
factors influence the time spent on the journey, to be deducted
from the length of manshift, in order to determine the time
spent at the face ; and it therefore becomes necessary to
calculate an average period corresponding to the category of
workers considered.
§ 11. The time spent at the face includes breaks, and here,
too, there are wide differences. Certain regulations provide
for fixed breaks, during which work is suspended for the whole
mine or for certain categories of workers. It is easy to deduct
such periods. In others no provision is made for fixed breaks,
but the worker does in fact interrupt his work to rest, for meals,
etc. Sometimes an arrangement is made to have these interruptions at the times when the worker would in any case be bound
to stop working. This holds, for instance, in undertakings
where blasting is used, and where the workers are compelled
to stop after each explosion until the fumes have been dissipated.
As a rule, the inspectors' regulations prescribe that explosions
must be followed by a stop in the work. But in this case, in
accordance with the distinction made between breaks properly
so called, and the stops inherent in the conditions of the undertaking, such losses of time can be taken into account only in
so far as they correspond to the normal period of the breaks.
properly so called.
§ 12. Thus the time spent in descending and ascending, which
is considered negligible here, the time needed for going from
the shaft to the working place and back, and breaks, all of
1
As already stated, the time spent on the actual descent and ascent
is considered negligible for the purpose of this enquiry.

— 29 —
which periods are calculated individually, must be deducted
from the length of the shift calculated individually, in order to
obtain the time spent at the face less breaks. For these three
periods, an average estimate must be obtained, applying either
to the -whole country under consideration or at least to each
important mining district. Only in exceptional cases is it
possible, owing to the smallness of the mining district concerned,
to estimate them exactly by definite investigation and calculation. Generally, it is necessary to approximate. In districts
where a fixed break is prescribed, only this should be taken
into consideration, otherwise an approximation must be used
and an average break per worker be indicated.
It is necessary to ascertain, however, whether the length
of the shift or working day as fixed includes breaks or not. If
not, there is obviously no occasion to make any further deduction.
As a result of all these inevitable approximations, the data
concerning the time spent at the face less breaks are less valuable
than those on the length of the shift or the working day. It
may be assumed, however, that the errors due to such approximations will be similar and of a similar order of magnitude for
all the countries covered by the enquiry. There will thus be a
certain equality between the degree of error. As an international
comparison can be only relatively exact, comparisons of the
data concerning the time spent at the face less breaks may be
permitted, provided that to obtain these data does not meet
with insurmountable difficulty in certain districts.
§ 13. It may be interesting from the theoretical point of
view to carry this method of calculation somewhat further, and
to deduce mathematically exact rules and establish formulae.
In the first place it should be noted that, save in altogether
exceptional circumstances, the worker never goes about alone.
He enters the cage, or one of the decks of the cage, with other
workers. Hence the time spent on loading and unloading the
cage, which has so far been considered negligible, is not entirely
so. The actual winding of the cage also takes some time. So
far the time spent on these operations has been considered
negligible because it seemed of an order of magnitude which,
in practice, did not involve appreciable error *.
1
In point of fact, these operations take from four to six minutes,
according to t h e size and number of decks of t h e cage. In exceptional
cases, the figure m a y be higher.

— 30 —
It would, nevertheless, be interesting to know the effect of
the relation between the lengths of the shift taken collectively
and individually already indicated, if a value, however small, is
attached to the time spent on a descent or ascent, and on loading
and unloading. For this purpose, we may take the average
worker in the middle of the descending or ascending group, and
in the middle of the group entering one and the same cage. If
it is remembered that the length of the shift or of the shift
taken as a whole (reduced to a common unit) is the time from
when the worker enters the cage to descend to when he leaves
after the ascent, it will be clear that when he enters the cage,
half of the group which enters with him have still to do so before
the descent can begin, and when he has arrived at the bottom,
he will similarly have to wait until half of the group have left
the cage before he himself can leave. The same applies to the
ascent ; in other words, the time from when the worker enters
the cage to descend until he leaves it after the descent, comprises
the time needed for half a loading, the time of the descent properly
speaking, and the time for half an unloading. If the times of
loading and unloading are considered equal, the total period
comprises one loading (or unloading) operation and the actual
descent. The same applies to the time from when the worker
enters the cage to ascend until he leaves it after the ascent.
To simplify the explanations below, the terms "descent" and
"ascent" will be taken in a wide sense so as to include, with the
actual descent and ascent of the cage, also the time needed for a
loading (or an unloading).
As regards the collective descent or ascent, it may be recalled
that this includes the time from when the first worker of the
group enters the cage to descend or ascend to when the last
worker of the group leaves after the descent or ascent has been
completed.
Once the time spent on loading and unloading is taken into
account, there is no longer occasion to consider separately the
case of a group of workers who descend together in one journey
of the cage, and that of a group of workers whose transport
involves several j ourneys for the cage. In both cases, the calculation is collective. In the first, the waiting time before the
average worker enters or leaves the cage will comprise only
the time for half a loading or unloading. In the second, it will
also include the time needed for the journeys of the cage effected
before that in which the average worker takes part.

— 31 —
§ 14. It remains to examine the relation between the length
of the shift calculated for a group of workers and that calculated
individually according as the collective shift includes both
winding-times, or only one of these, or excludes them both.
(a) In the case when the collective shift includes both windingtimes, the average worker will in theory be in the middle of the
shaft half-way through the descent. He will therefore have left
the surface a certain time after the beginning of the collective
shift equal to half the time of the collective descent plus half
the individual descent, that is to say the time from when he
entered the cage to when he passes the middle of the shaft.
On the return, half-way through the collective ascent this
same worker will in theory be in the middle of the shaft. He
will, therefore, arrive at the surface a certain time before the
end of the shift, equal to half the time of the collective ascent
plus half the individual ascent, that is to say the time from when
he passes the middle of the shaft to when he leaves the cage.
Thus the time spent in the mine is equal to the length of the
shift less half the time of the collective descent plus half the
individual descent on the one hand, and less half the time of
the collective ascent plus half the individual ascent on the other
hand ; that is to say it is equal to the length of the shift less the
time of a collective journey (winding-time) plus the time of an
individual journey.
If the length of a shift comprising both descent and ascent
which begins at A o'clock and ends a t B o'clock is denoted by P x ;
the period of the collective descent (or ascent), that is to say, the
winding-time for the collective journey, T ; the time spent on
the individual descent (or ascent), that is to say, on an individual
journey, t; and the length of the individual shift or the
whole shift reduced to a common unit X, the following results
are obtained :
T

(1) At the middle of the collective descent, i.e. at A -f- -»
o'clock, the average worker will be at the middle of the
shaft, and he will therefore have entered the cage a t
T
t
A + -K — -O o'clock ;
T
(2) At the middle of the collective ascent, i.e. at B — -^
o'clock, this same worker will be at the middle of the
T
t
shaft and will leave the cage at B — "5 + "2 •

— 32 —
His individual shift X is measured by the time from when he
•enters the cage, i.e. A + -» — -» o'clock, until he leaves it,
T

/

T

í

i.e. B — "2 + "2 • fr *s therefore equal to B — -» + -s ~~
{A + ^ — 1). Therefore X = B — | + -| - A - -^ +{
= B — A — T + f, and as B — A = P l s therefore :
X = P x — T + t.
(b) If the length of the collective shift includes only one
winding-time, a similar line of reasoning will show that the
length of the shift of the average worker is equal to that of the
collective shift plus the time of an individual journey. If in this
•case the length of the collective shift is called P 2 , we have the
following result : X = P 2 + t.
(c) Finally, if the length of the collective shift includes
neither of the winding-times, the length of the shift of the average
worker is equal to that of the collective shift plus one
winding-time plus an individual journey.
If in this case P 3 represents the length of the collective shift,
t h e n X = P 3 + T.+ t.
To sum up, if the length of the collective shift includes both
winding-times, X = P x — T -f- t.
If the length of the collective shift includes only one windingtime, X = P 2 + t.
If the length of the collective shift excludes both windingtimes, X = P 3 + T -f t.
§ 15. These formulae may be combined with that given for
the calculation of the time spent at the face, less breaks.
The value of Y (the time spent at face less breaks) is given by
the following formulae, in which a, representing the time from
hank to bank, consists of t, the individual descent, s the time
from the bottom of the shaft to the working face and also the
time from the working face back again to the shaft, t the
individual ascent (therefore a = It -\- 2s), and in which b
represents t h e breaks.
If the length of the shift includes both descent and ascent,
Y = P X — T + / — 2t — 2s — b =P1 — T — t — 2s — b.
If the length of the shift includes only the descent (or ascent),
T == P 2 + t — 21 — 2s — b = P 2 — t — 2s — b.

— 33 —
If the length of the shift includes neither descent nor ascent,
•Y = p 3 + T + í — 2i — 2s — b = P 2 + T — f — 2s — fc.
These formulae have many advantages. They are mathematically exact and take into account all the factors which are
-clearly defined and separated. The only risk of error lies in their
-determination. In every case, whether the calculation is
individual or collective, they enable the length of the shift
reduced to a common unit, or the time spent in the mine, and
the time spent at the face less breaks to be exactly determined.
The results obtained are perfectly comparable.
As there is no difficulty in using the formulae, the various
administrative bodies concerned may easily employ them in
preparing their statistics.

CHAPTER III
METHODS OF STATISTICS OF WAGES

§ 1. The statistics of wages involve, in the first place, the
calculation of average wages. The method employed for this
calculation consists, in its broad lines, in a simple operation of
division. The dividend is the total wages bill of workers employed
in a given district or country during a given period. The divisor
may be chosen differently according to the various objects in
view : it may be the total number of hours or days worked
during the period under review ; or the total number of workers
employed ; or also the quantity of output in the period.
In the statistics relating to coal-mining, the determination of
these different elements gives rise to a series of rather complicated
problems. The composition of wages, the number of days
worked and workers employed, and even the total output of
coal produced, all may be conceived and calculated differently.
In order to obtain uniformity and thus to render comparisons
possible, it will be necessary to examine in detail each of these
different elements of the wage statistics.
§ 2. The first problem to be analysed is the composition of
the wages bill of coal-mining undertakings. As a consequence
of the particular conditions of work and the variety of occupations found in coal-mining, the methods of wage payment are
also different from those commonly prevailing in most other
industries. The usual system of employment on the time-work
basis is not practicable in the case of most underground workers,.
since the workplaces are scattered over a large area and an
efficient supervision of the work is difficult. Hence the dominant
method of payment underground is the payment of piece-rates,.
although time-rates also are to be found.
Hewers and allied occupations are, as a rule, employed directly
by the mine-owners on the piece-work basis. It may be noted

— 35 —
that hewers do not always work alone and independently of
each other. In some districts and countries they themselves
employ an assistant to whom they give a share of their own
earnings ora day-wage ; the wages of these assistants are included
in the hewer's gross earnings and are deducted from these
either by the mine-owner or, especially in the case of boys, by
the coal-getters who themselves pay their assistants. In other
districts and countries, again, hewers are working in teams,
the total wages of which are paid by the employer and then
shared among the miners themselves according to the function of
each member of the team. Apart from hewers, loaders, and their
assistants, other occupations, e.g. men engaged in making and
repairing roads, are generally—though not invariably—
employed on the piece-work basis.
The wages of these groups of workers are fixed by schedules
of rates (called "price-lists" in England). These piece-rates
are extremely complicated. In their determination allowance
is made for, or, in mining terminology, "consideration" is
given to, the numerous different operations with which the
underground workers are charged, and also to the different
natural conditions which have been indicated above 1. For this
reason, the pay-sheets of underground workers employed on
piece-work contain a very large number of different entries
which are far from being similar in the various districts and
countries.
Time-wages are sometimes paid to hewers, either to certain
specific classes of them, or for certain kinds of work performed
by them beside actual coal-getting ; a considerable part of
their labourers are also in receipt of time-wages. The importance
of this circumstance is shown by the fact that it is customary
to divide coal-getters, and also their assistants, into two groups,
according as they are employed on a piece-or time-rate basis.
Employment on the time-rate basis is the ordinary system for
the certain superior and auxiliary crafts underground, such
as foremen, engineers, men charged with the supervision of the
safety and lighting arrangements, workers engaged in transport
and haulage of coal, etc. ; and the same applies to the majority
of surface workers. In general, it may be said that the employees
receiving time-wages comprise, on the one hand, certain superior
classes and, on the other hand, the bulk of unskilled labour
1

Cf. Chapter I, § 3, pp. 14-16.

— 36 —
employed in and about the mine. The proportional number of
these workers in any mine depends largely on the favourable
•or unfavourable conditions of mining. The larger their number,
the heavier is the wages bill to be borne by the output, and the
less favourable are, consequently, the conditions of the workers
•concerned.
The very condition of the payment of time-wages is that the
work is more or less standardised and can be supervised. Timerates do not vary when the kind of work or the natural conditions
•change. They often show an approach to the principle that
workers doing similar work are to receive a similar rate of pay.
This does not, however, apply to all districts nor to all groups :
the varying natural conditions may exercise a certain influence
•on the variety of the wages of workers on time-wages. On the
other hand, however, the composition of time-wages is rather
simple as compared with the piece-rates.
§ 3. However, although there is a marked difference in the
•establishment of piece-rates and in that of time-rates, there are
some common features in their composition. Differences are to
l e found in details ; but the broad groups of items are approximately similar. It is therefore unnecessary to examine the
composition of piece- and time-rates separately on the basis of
pay-sheets. A clear survey will be obtained by passing under
review the general features of the total wages bill which, as
experience from statistics published in the various countries
shows, are similar for practically all the groups of workers and
all districts.
The term "wages" is here preliminarily taken in the largest
sense, including income of any nature which workers draw
from their employment in the mine, whether in cash or in kind.
In calculating the wages bill of mine workers in this sense, four
different groups of items are to be taken into account, namely :
(i) Money wages paid on account of work done ;
(ii) Deductions from these money wages ;
(in) Allowances of various kinds, including payments for
holidays, and
(iv) Advantages drawn from schemes of social insurance.
§ 4. The first and most important group of items is formed
hy wages in money. By "wages in money' ' are here understood
wages paid in direct function of the amount of work done. They

— 37 —
are usually based on standard rates of wages. When, as is the case
in several districts, the "basis rates" have been fixed years, or
even decades, ago, and a given percentage increase, determined
according to various methods, is added to them, then standard
rates mean current rates, that is to say, the basis rates plus any
increases.
These standard rates comprise a number of items, especially in
the case of hewers and other skilled workers who are paid
piece-rates. Two different aspects are here to be distinguished,
viz. work directly productive of coal and work incidental thereto.
The largest single item involved in the cost of coal is the wage
paid for the actual getting of coal (including loading) ; the rates
of these wages are fixed per ton of coal cut, loaded, and weighed
at the pithead ; but it is to be observed that they are sometimes
also fixed per tram, tub, or mine-car. The variety of these rates
will appear from the fact that the amount of "yardage" or the
capacity of the tram, etc., is different as between mines or
even in the same mine. As has been pointed out above, the
standard rates per ton of coal produced reflect to a more or less
extent the variations in the natural conditions and the methods
of work in the different districts.
Further to rates fixed for the getting of coal, the standard
rates of wages include other items paid for work not directly
productive of coal, the so-called "dead work". In order to
meet unequalities arising out of adverse natural conditions,
special rates are commonly paid for work connected with
unremunerative or "abnormal" places which involve some extra
work due to difficult conditions, handling of hard substances,
etc. These rates are fixed per square or cubic yard or- metre, or
also per mine-car, tram, or tub. These complications arising
in the case of underground workers do not, of course, apply to
workers employed on the time-work basis.
Finally, it should be noted that the standard rates include
both rates paid for work done during the normal hours of work
and for that performed during overtime or supplementary
shifts. This distinction, important in the calculation of average
earnings per time unit, will be considered later.
§ 5. Before proceeding to an examination of further component parts of mine-workers' wages, it is necessary to consider
a peculiar group of items called deductions. In all coal-mining
districts the employers are entitled to deduct certain sums from

— 38 —
the workers' money wages as defined above. There are
different kinds of deductions which, from the point of view
of statistics of wages, are to be clearly distinguished. The three
principal groups are workmen's contributions to social insurance,
"occupational charges", and various penalties.
(a) In most coal-producing countries, \ and especially in
all European coal-mining districts, workers defray contributions
to voluntary or compulsory schemes of social insurance. When
they are compelled to contribute, the system of "prior deduction"
(précompte) is often employed, that is, the employer deducts
from the gross wages of each worker the contributions due by
the worker and effects the payment on his behalf to the insurance
institution. The actual amount of these deductions naturally
varies with the structure of compulsory social insurance, which
presents great differences as between the different countries.
The principal fact to be noted in this connection is that these
payments are made with a view to meeting, by a method which
is financially the most advantageous to the miners as a group,
the cost of certain risks to which they are exposed on account
of their work. Although, then, the benefit which the individual
worker will draw of this amount will depend on the occurrence
of certain definite events (sickness, invalidity, unemployment,
etc.), it is clear that it forms a part of their money wages.
(b) Practically everywhere the employers are further entitled
to make deductions for so-called occupational charges, that
is to say, charges for powder and other explosives, checkweighing
lighting materials, tools, sharpening of tools, etc. The reason for
this is to be found in historic conditions : the miner has since
olden times been supposed to furnish his own tools and working
equipment, and when at the present time the employer has
taken over the duty of furnishing them, he deducts their cost
from the miner's wages. The practice of deductions, however,
varies. In some districts explosives and tools are now supplied
by the mine-owner free of charge and workers only have to pay
for the deterioration or loss of tools. In some countries, again,
the law forbids the employer to make deductions for tools, while
those for explosives are authorised. Whether the deductions
for occupational charges actually cover the cost of these materials
or not is an open question which need not be discussed in this
connection. As a matter of course, this item should be excluded
from the money wages of the mine-workers.

— 39 —
(c) A third class of deduction are penalties for various types
of misconduct and inefficiency, e.g. for loading dirty coal or
for violating the labour contract in some way. The definition
of "dirty" coal is subject to different interpretations, and so are
also the other reasons for penalties. In principle, it is difficult to
state whether this item should be included in the money wages
to be taken into account in the statistics of wages, or excluded
from the same. Some penalties no doubt are based on the fault
of the mine-worker and are comparable with fines that any
person may be compelled to pay from his income in virtue of
existing orders or rules of contract ; other penalties may not be
of this kind but are simply based on occasional inefficiency which,
in the nature of the case, diminish wages. In practice the question is of small importance, and it seems, therefore, most convenient to put the penalties on the same standing as deductions
for occupational charges, that is to say, to exclude them from
the money wages of the mine-workers.
What may here be called mine-workers' "gross money wages" is
the sum of wages paid for work done plus an amount corresponding
to contributions to social insurance. The "net money wages"
include the wages based on standard rates less any deductions
"whether made for social insurance or for occupational charges
•and penalties. It is the amount paid on account of work done
and placed at the disposal of the workers for their consumption
during the period following the pay-day.
§ 6. Apart from money wages paid on the basis of work itself,
additional payments are made in most districts and countries.
These items are independent of the work done in the sense that
they are not fixed, and do not vary, in direct relation with the
efficiency or hours of labour of the worker. On the other hand,
however, the period during which the worker has been in the
service of the mine, the grade of the worker, and similar
considerations generally are taken into account in determining
the amount of the allowances in each individual case. Three
different groups of allowances must be distinguished, viz.
-allowances in cash, allowances in kind, and payments for
holidays.
(a) Allowances in cash were, before the war, of minor
importance, but have since attained a considerable degree
of development. The principal form of these payments is the
family allowance, which plays an important part in the system

— 40 —
of wages of certain countries. Bonuses for the high cost of
living, which are usually included in current rates of wages,,
may sometimes appear as a separate item, especially when
they are variable and when in their determination regard is
had to considerations other than work done, e.g. family responsibilities. More exceptional are allowances paid for clothing,.
good attendance, etc.
(6) Allowances in kind form a regular feature in the composition of coal-miners' wages. The most general and important
of these are housing accommodation and the provision of
household coal. The housing accommodation, with or without
land, may be given free of charge or at a reduced rate,.
and the coal may similarly be granted gratuitously or at a
reduced price. If the lodging and the coal are granted free of
charge, then they generally do not appear in the miner's paysheet, but as they are really payments in kind they are to be
added to the other supplementary payments. If, on the other
hand, the lodgipg is let by the employer at a reduced rate and
the coal sold at a reduced price, then the price actually paid by
the worker may be deducted by the employer from the mineworker's wages and may thus appear in the pay-sheet like the
deductions of insurance premiums. The supplementary payment to be taken into account in the calculation of workers'
wages is in this case formed by the difference between the
commercial and the reduced price. In practice it may often
be difficult to ascertain the exact money value of these items.
(c) A special payment, which in principle is not an "allowance", is the payment for holidays. The payments for holidays
are fixed by law or by collective agreement in most, although
not in all, coal-producing countries in Europe. This item
naturally includes both payments for legal or contractual
holidays as well as compensation for such holidays from which
the workers have not actually benefited.
§ 7. Finally, workers draw in numerous cases a material
advantage from various schemes of workmen's compensation for
industrial accidents and of social insurance against industrial
accidents, sickness, invalidity, old age, death, and unemployment. The question whether these advantages should in principle be counted in the aggregate wages of mine-workers is
somewhat controversial. It is sometimes held that in common
practice this item is not a part of wages properly so called

— 41 — •
but is comprised, in the accounts of the mining undertakings,
as "cost of production other than wages". On the other hand,
however, the essential purpose of the social services concerned is,
according to the modern conception, to secure to the workersthe means of maintenance in cases of loss or reduction of their
earning capacity or earning possibility, cases which [are inherent
in industrial work and must be provided for in any adequate
wage system : in the absence of collective methods of meeting
these risks, wages of individual workers would have to be
increased by an amount which would enable them to maintain
themselves when unable to earn full wages. Hence the advantages.
which the workers draw from these schemes form really a
supplement to their wages. And if this is so, it is correct t o
allow for this item in the statistics.
The question presents, however, further difficulties, both
theoretical and practical. It would seem natural, at first sight,
to represent the "advantages" concerned, by the benefits actually
accruing to the workers from workmen's compensation and
social insurance. If this would be done, of course, workers*
contributions, mentioned above should be deducted from.
money wages in order to avoid double counting. This method,
however, is not easily applicable in practice, since detailed
statistics showing the benefits paid to the Workers employed in
the coal industry are lacking in some important countries, and
since such statistics as exist have a different scope from those
relating to wages. Moreover, the method concerned is open t a
criticism from the point of view of principle. It may be questioned,
indeed, whether the total of advantages drawn from social
insurance schemes are to be counted as an element in wages.
The financial resources of the schemes of workmen's compensation and social insurance are secured by varied systems : the
charges of industrial accident compensation and insurance are in
most countries borne by the employers alone, those of other
schemes are shared between employers and workers, and those of
still others are apportioned between employers, workers, and the
public finances (the State and communes). If now by wages are
understood payments made by the industry to labour, it is clear
that subsidies to social insurance from public funds should be
altogether disregarded 1 . It would then be incorrect to take into
1
It is true that any industrial undertaking pays, by way of taxes, a
part of the subsidies granted by the State or communes to social insurance.
These subsidies thus represent a charge to industry, due to the
employment of labour. In practice, howewer, it is impossible to value
their amount.

— 42 —
account the total of benefits actually paid to workers, since some
benefits include such subsidies. Therefore, the only method left
is to estimate the sum of contributions paid out of the funds of
the industry. This sum is bound to be considerably higher than
the corresponding part of benefits, since it includes payments
for the cost of administration, the reserve funds, and sometimes
•even the prevention of risks. But as these expenses are incidental
to any scheme of social insurance, the sum of contributions
may be taken as representative of the advantage furnished
hy the industry to the workers by medium of social insurance.
In practice, the sum of contributions concerned is divided
between those paid by the workmen and those paid by the employers. The former are to be allowed for, as pointed out above,
in the calculation of the gross and net money wages of the
"workers. The latter item of contributions, therefore, is to be
added to the total wages bill. Its total amount can, as a rule,
he ascertained from the undertakings which supply the statistical
material ; but, owing to certain financial systems of social
insurance, this information is sometimes only approximate or
«ven defective. This reservation should always be borne in
mind when comparing advantages which workers draw from
social insurance.
The above considerations are naturally subject to the acceptance of the general idea of social insurance as a complement
to workers' wages ; and it may be well to repeat that this question is still an open one.
§ 8. The preceding paragraphs embody an attempt to
analyse the composition of the aggregate wages of coal-mine
workers. It is realised that this survey includes not only what
the word "wages" suggests prima facie, but every possible
source of wages and advantages which the workers receive by
reason of their participation in the productive activity of the
mine.
As a matter of fact, three different conceptions of wages may
be construed, for the purposes of the statistics of wages, from
the above data. In the first place, the term "wages" may be
taken in the somewhat loose sense in which it is commonly
used With reference to manufacturing industries, as meaning
the amount of money received by the worker on account of
his services. In this sense the term wages only covers earnings
in money (gains en espèces; Bar verdienst), i.e. what has been

— 43 —
called above "net money wages" plus allowances in cash.
This method would, however, lead to unsatisfactory results,
especially from an international point of view. The remuneration
of workers in the coal industry diners in many respects from
the system common in most manufacturing industries. Although
the money wages form the principal item, their composition
is more than usually complicated ; and although the remarks
made above in respect of advantages provided by schemes of
social insurance would be applicable to any industry, it is to
be remembered that social insurance has developed in coalmining earlier than in most other industries and along special
lines. Above all, the various deductions, supplementary payments, and allowances constitute in all coal-mining districts and
countries quite a peculiar feature which influences the general
level of wages to a considerable extent, and in a very varying
degree in the different countries.
A second conception of wages is represented by the term
wages for normal work done (salaire à raison du travail normal;
Leistungslohn).
This notion represents the total amount
paid to the workers in virtue of the standard rates fixed
in collective agreements, and the wages based thereon render
possible the control of the working of such agreements in
practice. It includes wages in cash or in kind, on the basis
of time-or piece-rates, paid for work done during the normal
shift, as well as workers' insurance premiums. On the other
hand, it excludes not only amounts deducted for occupational
charges and penalties and all payments independent of the work
done, but also all extra payments for supplementary work
which may either be done in overtime hours or supplementary
shifts. Wages for normal work done are less useful for
international comparisons than for national purposes, since
the object of international comparison of wages is to compare
all elements in the standard of living of the mine-workers and
in the labour cost of production of coal in various countries.
Moreover, the wages for normal work done cannot, in practice,
be ascertained for most countries.
For these reasons it is proposed to adopt as a standard a
third conception of wages which may be called the calculated
actual earnings (gains effectifs; Gesamlverdienst) of the mineworkers. By this is meant here the whole amount of wages and
other advantages received by the workers by reason of their
employment in and about the mines. It includes the items as

_ 44 —
defined in the preceding paragraphs, viz. : net money wages,
i.e. money wages excluding deductions for occupational charges
and penalties ; workers' contributions towards expenses of
social insurance ; various allowances in cash and in kind ; and
payments for holidays. As regards, finally, employers' contributions towards schemes of workers' compensation and social
insurance, it seems convenient, in order to do justice to the
different conceptions which prevail, to calculate the sum
total of "actual earnings", both including and excluding this
element.
This notion of the total wages bill will be used in the
determination of workers' standard of living, and the same
conception will be also taken as basis in determining, from
the employers' point of view, the total labour cost of production
of coal.
§ 9. A comparison of the total wages bills of the different
districts and countries would, of course, be meaningless ; comparisons can only be made as between average wages of the
coal-mine workers. The first important category of averages
is that calculated for a given period of time. There are three
principal measures of time in terms of which the average
earnings may be expressed, viz. (i) the hour, (ii) the day or
manshift, and (iii) a longer calendar period, e.g. a year. It should
be noted, however, that these different averages have not the
same bearing in the statistics of earnings. While the hourly
and daily averages indicate what are the payments made for
a given unit of work done, the yearly averages bring the earnings
into relation with consumption. The objects of the statistics
of earnings will evidently not be fully served unless all these
different averages are calculated.
The calculation of the daily and hourly averages, on the
one hand, and of the yearly averages, on the other, give rise
to several statistical problems. These problems have been solved
in the national statistics in an extremely variable manner, but
it is needless to enter into details in this connection 1. "What is
necessary here is to arrive at some sort of standard definition
of each average to which the national statistics may be adjusted
with a view to international comparisons.
1
The methods employed in the statistics of various countries are
discussed in Appendix II.

— 45 —
§ 10. It will be convenient to examine at the outset the
daily averages, for the statistics of earnings usually take the
day or the shift as the principal time measure. Since the term
"day" may lead to some confusion, it is preferable to take as
basis the shift.
The work done by one worker during a shift is called the
"manshift" {poste; Einzelarbeiislag). The average earnings of
a worker are expressed as per manshift (durée de l'équipe; Schicht).
These averages are computed simply by dividing the aggregate
amount of wages constituting the workers' actual earnings during
a period by the total number of manshifts accomplished by all
workers employed during the same period. It is now necessary to
consider the calculation of the aggregate number of manshifts for a
given calendar period, e.g. one year. There are two alternative
methods of computing this number.
The simpler method consists in recording the number of manshifts without taking into account their length ; in this case
the number of manshifts is equal to the total of the days of
attendance of the workers. The fact that the length of the
shift is disregarded obviously is of no consequence, provided
this length is invariable during the period under review.
When, on the other hand, the shift is not of uniform length,
considerable variations are apt to arise from the fact that during
certain days or periods some crafts work only part of the day
or, per contra, work overtime. It is, therefore, necessary to
take as basis the ordinary or normal manshift, comprising the
regular hours of labour only, and to record separately the hours
worked, short-time, or overtime. The number of manshifts will
then be constituted as follows :
(a) the number of normal manshifts, i.e. those comprising
the ordinary number of hours, plus
(b) the number of supplementary manshifts, i.e. those
accomplished, in addition to normal manshifts, by the workers
who are working more than one shift per day, plus
(c) the number of overtime manshifts, which is obtained by
adding the number of hours worked overtime during the period
under review and dividing this by the number of hours comprised
in a normal manshift, so as to express overtime in terms of
"normal manshifts" ; plus, finally,
(d) the number of short-time (week-end) manshifts, which
is ascertained by adding together the number of hours comprised

— 46 —

in the short shift and dividing this by the number of hours
of the normal manshift ; this item is of importance, especially as regards manshifts worked on Saturdays, when these
are considerably shorter than ordinary man-days 1.
The difference between results as to average earnings arrived
at on the basis of these two methods is obvious. It is to
be remembered that, in the calculation of the average earnings,
the dividend (amount of actual earnings) includes, according
to the definition given above, also payments for overtime.
If the divisor (number of manshifts) does not allow for overtime, as is the case when a manshift is taken as equal to a day
of attendance, the result (average earning per manshift) will
not be statistically correct. Full accuracy is only obtained if
the divisor allows, further to normal manshifts, for overtime
manshifts. As, moreover, overtime is usually paid at a higher
rate than work during the ordinary shift, the latter method
is to be considered as more satisfactory. The same applies,
mutatis mutandis, to short-time.
How far an appreciable error is introduced in the calculation
of average earnings by neglecting the definition of the length
of manshift, depends on the actual occurrence of work overtime
and short-time. If no overtime or short-time is worked, then,
of course, the employment of the simpler method would give
satisfactory results ; but, if the length of the shift is irregular,
the more overtime and the less short-time is worked the higher
will be average earnings calculated according to that method
as compared with the average arrived at by the more detailed
process.
§ 11. As a measure of time in terms of which the average
earnings are expressed, the shift is not altogether satisfactory.
Owing to the fact that the number of hours worked during a
shift varies as between different occupations, districts, and
countries, the shift does not constitute a uniform basis for
comparisons. Therefore, it seems clear that the only correct
measure of time is the hour.
However, as indicated in Chapter II, even to determine the
hours of work meets with certain difficulties. In the case of
underground workers, whether employed on piece-work or timework, the total time spent in the mine differs in a considerable
1

Short-time manshifts may also be counted as normal manshifts ; in
this case the number of hours lost on account of short-time (expressed in
terms of manshifts of ordinary length) should be deducted from the total.

— 47 —
and varying extent from the time actually spent in work :
the time taken in descending and ascending, the time needed
for going from the shaft to the stall and back, and breaks, vary
widely according to the natural conditions and the habits of
the mine-workers. Therefore, it appears necessary to take into
account three different conceptions of hours of work, viz. :
(i) hours of attendance, including travelling time and breaks ;
(ii) hours of attendance, including travelling time, but excluding
breaks ; and (iii) hours at face.
If exact information is obtained as to these three factors, the
calculation of the average earnings per hour can be made on the
basis of average earnings per day or per manshift. The latter
averages are simply divided by the average number of hours
comprised in the day or in the shift. The average earnings per
hour thus complement the daily averages, and their accuracy
depends for the most part on the kind of information available
for the calculation of average earnings per day or manshift»
and for the hours of work.
§ 12. When the earnings are to be studied in their relation
to consumption, the question is what amount is placed by the
mine industry at the disposal of the workers during a given
period. From this point of view, the day and the hour evidently
do not form adequate periods. It is necessary to take as a
further time unit a longer calendar period, e.g. a year.
The basic measure of time in terms of which mine-workers'
earnings are expressed evidently is the "year of consumption",
which represents the period during which the workers consume
the earnings at their disposal. This period naturally comprises
Sundays, holidays, etc., as well as working days.
The calculation of average earnings, however, only covers
days of productive activity which exclude not only Sundays
and holidays, but also such weekdays on which the mines have
been idle. The difference may be considerable, for mines not
infrequently are closed on some days of the week, or during
some weeks of the year.
These different conceptions of the year are introduced in
the statistics of wages through the calculation of average yearly
earnings. These averages are, of course, ascertained by relating
the aggregate sum of earnings to the total number of workers
employed during the year. An additional unit of calculation,
namely, the number of workers, must therefore be determined.

— 48 —
The simplest method of calculating this number is obviously
t o record the number of workers registered at a given date, say,
31 December of the year under review. In view of the fact that
the number of workers employed varies more or less regularly
according to the season and the state of the market, this method
must be considered as wholly inadequate.
There
(i)
(ii)
These

are left two other methods, namely :
the calculation of the average number of workers, and
the calculation of the number of full-time workers.
will be considered in turn.

§ 13. The average number of workers employed may be
obtained by recording the actual number of workers once or
twice a month or on each pay-day, and by calculating an arithmetic average of the figures so obtained. If these selected
days are really representative of the whole period, this method
will lead to correct results ; but as a matter of fact the intensity
of production in coal-mining is rather variable. This fact is
taken into account in the methods which consist in recording
the number of manshifts during the year and dividing the sum
by the number of working days. It is, however, to be noted
that in this calculation both the dividend (the number of manshifts) and the divisor (the number of working days) may be
ascertained according to different methods.
The methods of recording the number of manshifts worked
have already been examined 1 .
If the length of the shift
is regular and invariable during the period under review, the
number of manshifts is equal to that of days of attendance,
and does not raise any difficulties ; if, on the other hand, overtime or short-time is worked, the correct way to calculate the
total number of manshifts is that based on the ordinary or
normal manshift, of definite length, so as to add to the normal
manshifts, the hours worked in supplementary shifts, overtime,
and short-time, expressed in terms of manshifts of normal length.
In calculating the average number of workers, however, the
problem has another aspect. In the first place, it is indifferent,
from this point of view, whether the statistics take into account
the length of the shift or not ; the number of days of attendance
"will be sufficient. In the second place, if the total number of
1

Part One, Chapter II.

— 49 —
manshifts is calculated on the basis of the normal manshift as
explained above, it is essential to eliminate the overtime and
supplementary manshifts, because they are worked by the same
workers as the ordinary or normal manshifts ; only normal
manshifts are to be counted. It follows that, if the statistics
calculate separately the number of normal and overtime manshifts, but the latter cannot be distinguished and deducted
Jrom the total, an error is introduced in the calculation of the
average number of workers.
If no time were lost for any reason, and the mines were
-winding coal every day on which work can ordinarily be done, the
number of normal manshifts worked would provide an adequate
basis for the calculation of the average number of workers.
As was already pointed out, however, this is not the case. In
a long calendar period the number of manshifts worked may
not cover the whole possible working time. Now, when mineTvorkers lose some manshifts, their earnings are necessarily
reduced ; on the other hand, the object which the calculation
of average yearly earnings has in view is precisely to ascertain
the amount of wages placed by the mines at the disposal of the
workers for the whole year. Consequently, it is necessary
to allow for the time lost ; and owing to the importance of this
factor in coal-mines, special attention is to be given to the
methods of calculating the time lost.
In the first place, the dividend — the number of manshifts —
may be modified by taking into account the number of manshifts lost. By this is meant manshifts occurring on ordinary
working days (weekdays) during which workers regularly
employed have not actually worked. The most important
basis of classification of these manshifts seems to be the operation
or otherwise of the mine. Starting from this criteria the following classification is arrived at :
(i)

Manshifts lost when the mines were idle owing to
technical obstacles, industrial disputes, transport difficulties, or want of trade ;

(ii)

Manshifts lost when the mines were operating ; this
time lost, again, may arise from two kinds of circumstances : (a) from mine-workers' voluntary absence,
including absence on account of holidays with pay ;
(b) from mine-workers' involuntary absence on account
of accidents, sickness, etc.
4

— 50 —
Incidentally, it may be noted that the lost-time is sometimes
classified according to fault. Lost-time in group (i) in the
above classification is generally caused by the establishment,.
with one important exception, viz. strikes ; group (ii) could be
referred to as including cases where the fault of lost-time falls.
upon individual workers, except so far as industrial accidents
and diseases are imputable to defective measures of prevention.
Since it is, as a rule, difficult to establish the responsibilityfor disputes, accidents, etc., and this, moreover, is of no.
significance in this connection, these distinctions have not
been adopted in the above classification.
If the number of manshifts worked and that of manshifts lost
(as defined above) are added together, the sum covers the
whole working time of the year. Consequently, in the calculation of the average number of workers, the divisor should be
the total number of possible working days of the year, i.e..
excluding Sundays and public holidays.
While this method is very clear in theory, it is less so in
practice. In fact, how can the number of manshifts lost when
the mines are idle be determined ? For that purpose, an average
number of workers employed on the mine should already be
given, while this number is precisely the unknown quantity
searched ; and, furthermore, the assumption is to be made
that the average number would have remained unchanged
during the period. Therefore, it may be advisable to take into
account in the dividend (the number of manshifts) only time
lost when the mine was operating, and to allow for the other
part of lost-time in the divisor (the number of working days)..
This latter number may be determined as the number of days
of productive activity, thus excluding days on which mines
have been idle. The number of "days of productive activity",.
or of days on which the mines have been actually operating,
may also be ascertained according to different methods It
may include either days on which mines wound coal ("coal
winding days" ; jours d'extraction) or those days plus days
on which mines were open but no coal Was raised. In practice,.
however, this difference will not be very considerable. Another
problem arises from the fact that days on which mines were
operating only part of the normal hours (e.g. Saturdays) may
be calculated, for the sake of simplicity, as full days. But if
parts of days are taken as full working days, the time lost on
account of the reduction of the day's work is neglected in the-.

— 51 —
calculation, since this fraction of time lost is taken into account
neither in the number of manshifts lost (the dividend) nor
in the number of working days (the divisor) ; this method is,
therefore, likely to introduce an error in the calculation. Finally,
it should be noted that since in a given country the number
of days worked by the different mines varies, which again
raises some divergencies in the statistics, it is necessary to
calculate an average of days when mines were operating for a
district or a country. The most adequate method of calculating
this average is to weight the number of days worked in each mine
by the number of manshifts worked in the same.
It may now be well to summarise the three principal methods
of calculating the average number of workers.
(i) The simplest method consists of dividing the number
of normal manshifts by the number of actual days worked. In
this case there is a discrepancy between the logical basis of
the dividend and the divisor ; the former includes only such
manshifts as have been actually worked, whereas the manshifts
lost when the mine was operating are left out of account ;
the divisor, however, includes all days on which the mine was
operating ; and thus implies that all manshifts which could
be accomplished on the days during which the mine was operating are really worked. Therefore, the average number
of workers calculated according to this method tends to be
too low.
(ii) A more exact method devised for this calculation consists
of adding to the number of normal manshifts, in the dividend,
the number of all manshifts lost ; and adding to the number
of actual days worked, in the divisor, the number of days when
the mines were idle ; the average number of workers is thus
obtained by dividing the number of normal plus lost manshifts
by the number of possible working days. This calculation is,
however, open to criticism. The number of manshifts lost
when the mines were idle is necessary for the calculation ;
but it can only be obtained by assuming an average number of
Workers for the coal-winding days ; and the number of manshifts
lost when the miners were idle is simply the product of this
average number and the number of idle days.
(iii) Therefore, the best method of calculating the average
number of workers is to divide the sum of normal manshifts

— 52 —
and manshifts lost when the mines were operating, by the
number of days on which the mines were operating. The three
figures required for this calculation can be, and actually are,
in many countries, ascertained.
§ 14. The number of full-time workers (unités ouvrières;
Vollarbeiter) is the second main consideration which may be
used to calculate annual earnings. This number serves to show
what the actual number of workers would have been if each
worker had been regularly and constantly employed on the
maximum number of working days, lost time being left out
of consideration. It is a fiction to which the actual state of
things approaches in a greater or less degree.
The calculation of the number of full-time workers is therefore
based on a stable element, namely, the time necessary to perform
the normal amount of work. This element may be expressed in
three different forms, viz. the number of wage periods per annum,
the number of working days, and the number of manshifts
which could have been worked, (i.e. shifts worked plus shifts
lost). It follows therefore that there are three different methods
available for calculating the number of full-time workers.
(i) The first and most simple method of establishing this
figure is, like the corresponding calculation of the average
number of workers, based on the number of workers on the
colliery books on pay-days. The number of full-time workers
may then be ascertained by adding together the numbers of
registered workers and by dividing the total obtained by the
number of wage periods included in a regular year.
(ii) A second method is to divide the number of manshifts
worked by the annual number of working days. This latter
figure is, of course, not strictly invariable, as the total number
of holidays officially sanctioned or agreed upon does not exactly
tally for the various districts, although such differences are
.generally very small.
(iii) The third system presupposes the calculation of
the average number of workers, this figure being multiplied
by the number of manshifts (days) worked and the result
divided by the total number of manshifts worked plus
manshifts lost.

— 53 —
The number of manshifts actually included in the last two
methods may theoretically include either the number of regular
manshifts only, or the total number of regular supplementary
and overtime manshifts such as they have been already defined.
In compiling wage statistics, the object of which is to establish
the average wage of the individual worker, it is, however, advisable not to include supplementary and overtime manshifts as
these are performed by the workers employed on regular manshifts, often with a view to making up for time lost by workers
temporarily absent.
It is manifest that the result obtained by employing the first
of the methods mentioned (i) is only approximate. This method
presupposes, in fact, that the number of workers has remained
unchanged during the different wage periods, and that, consequently, all the possible manshifts between two pay-days have
been worked, while, on the other hand, it is the number of
manshifts actually worked which forms the basis of the other two
methods.
Further, the two latter methods give analogous results when the
number of manshifts does not include supplementary and overtime manshifts as already defined. These two methods of calculation may be aptly illustrated by the following formulae.
Suppose that
Average number of workpeople employed . = a
Number of manshifts worked
= m
Number of manshifts lost
= n
Number of possible working days
= d
Then, according to method (ii) the number of full-time
workers is — > while according to method (iii) it is
, which
d
m+ n
m+n
is equivalent to m -.
a
But, as
may be considered as equivalent to the number
a
of possible working days, that is to say, d, the result is the same
as that obtained by the other method.
This, however, no longer holds if the number of supplementary and overtime manshifts is added to the number of normal
shifts, as the extra manshifts increase m and m + n and consequently the result of the calculation in both cases, but in different proportions, as may easily be seen by means of the formulae
given above.

— 54 —
On considering the relative merits of the three methods for
calculating the number of full-time workers, the most satisfactory would appear to be method (ii) which consists in dividing
the number of normal manshifts by the number of possible
working days, as it is superior to method (i) from the point of
view of accuracy and to method (iii) on account of its simplicity.
§ 15. It is obvious that the average number of workers
and the number of full-time workers, obtained by the methods
described above, must agree, provided that no manshifts or
days have been lost for any reasons whatsoever. The differences
observed in the results obtained when manshifts are lost may
be brought out by giving an example taken from existing
statistics. The figures available for Great Britain for 1925 show
the following :
BRITISH

GOAL-MINING
Number
of
days

Days on which
wound coal
Days on which
were idle .

pits
. .
pits
. .

252.8

STATISTICS

FOR

Number of manshifts
Regular

Overtime and
reduced

Lost

245,388,000

15,587,000

21,141,000
46,919,000

46.8

T o t a l possible working days . . . 299.6

1925

245,388,000

15,587,000

68,060,000

The average number of workers, which is based on the average
of the weekly figures on the colliery books, is given as 1,040,500.
When the average number of workers is calculated according
to the first method, consisting in the division of the total of
normal, overtime and week-end manshifts by the number of
coal-winding days (§ 13, (i)), the result is as follows :
(245,388,000 + 15,587,000) 4- 252.8 = 1,032,338 (1)
In using the third method (§ 13, (iii)), which is given before
the more complicated second method, the number of overtime
and week-end manshifts is ignored, but the number of manshifts
lost on working days is added to the dividend, the calculation
then giving the following result :
(245,388,000 + 21,141,000) ~ 252.8 = 1,054, 308 (2)

— 55 —
Finally, if the second method (§ 13, (ii)) be employed, it is
«essential, first of all, to fix the number of manshifts lost when
t h e mines were not operating, and then divide the sum of
manshifts worked and lost by the total possible working days.
The average number of workers obtained by this method then
"works out as follows :
(245,388,000 + 68,060,000) -j- 299.6 = 1,046,222 (3)
It should be pointed out that, as result No. (2) is based on figures
relating to days on which pits wound coal, it may be used to
calculate the number of manshifts lost when the mines were idle.
Logically it may indeed be admitted that the proportion between manshifts worked and lost would be the same in the
period when the mines were idle as when they were working.
The number of manshifts lost as a result of the non-working
of the mines will then be 1,054,308 x 46.8 = 49,341,614
(instead of 46,919,000). Now, it is obvious that if this figure
be utilised to calculate the average number of workers in accordance with method (ii), the result will be exactly the same as
that obtained by using method (iii).
As regards the calculation of full-time workers, two different
methods, based on the statistics included in the foregoing table,
may be used.
If the method (§ 14, (ii)) of dividing the number of normal
manshifts by the number of working days is used, the following
result is obtained :
245,388,000 ~ 299.6 = 819,052 (4)
With the other method (§ 14, (iii)), which is based on the total
number of manshifts worked and lost, the result is :
(245,388,000 + 15,587,000) x 1,040,500 ~
(245,388,000 + 15,587,000 + 68,060,000) = 825,275 (5)
It will thus be seen that the number of full-time workers is
considerably less than the average number of workers calculated
according to all the methods set forth above.
§16. The average earnings per year may be obtained by
•dividing the aggregate amount of the workers' earnings by
the average number of workers calculated according to one
of the above-mentioned methods. The average earnings calculated on the basis of methods in which account is taken of lost
manshifts, are intended to show the "actual earnings" of
an average worker. It is clear from the foregoing discussion

— 56 —
that even if the hourly or daily earnings in two districts or
countries are the same, the yearly averages computed on these
bases may differ widely among themselves according to the.
regularity of the employment. The averages computed on the
basis of the number of full-time workers, again, aim at showing,
what the earnings of a normal worker regularly employed on
normal time would be, i.e. the "potential earnings" While
averages computed on this basis are comparable as between
different districts and countries, they are, in all cases of irregularemployment, higher than the average actual earnings. The
calculation of the average yearly earnings per full-time worker
adds, in fact, little to the information obtained by calculating.
average earnings per hour or manshift.
§17. When the average earnings of mine-workers havebeen calculated, according to as uniform methods as possible,.
the question of their comparison arises.
The inter-regional comparisons within a country can be made;
directly, as the currency in which the earnings are expressed is
the same, and, although there might be variations in the price
level and the habits of expenditure as between different coalfields, these differences are relatively small.
The international comparisons are much more complicated..
The method to be employed depends on the object in view. If
the problem is to find out the comparative cost of a unit of work,.
then it is necessary to convert the averages, by the ruling rates
of exchange, into terms of a common monetary unit. The
comparison of earnings so obtained is of interest mainly from
the point of view of the international commerce.
But this method is wholly inadequate for a study of the
standard of living of the workers. What is important from this
point of view is to compare the earnings in terms of goods
and services purchasable by the money, or "nominal" earningsAs a matter of fact, a given amount of money received as earnings
has its real significance only in relation to the prices of the
commodities upon which workers' wages are usually spent ;,
and the differences in these prices are actually very marked as
between different countries. The comparison then consists in
finding the relation of the average earnings of mine-workers to
the internal prices of commodities in each country during the
period under review. This relation gives what is called t h e
real earnings of the mine-Workers.

— 57 —
The compilation of the statistics of real earnings, i.e. of the
relative purchasing power of average earnings, involves several
problems which are not particular to the statistics of wages in
the coal industry and Which therefore are omitted from the
present discussion x.
§ 18. The principal question of wages, from the point of
view of the mine-owners, is the "labour cost" as part of the
total costs of production of coal.
It should be observed at the outset that the question concerning the proportion of total cost of production of coal represented
by the labour cost would involve the examination of payments for
supplies, for overhead costs, etc. It therefore is beyond the
scope of the statistics of wages.
The main problem to be discussed in this connection is
that concerning the average labour cost per ton of coal. The
calculation of this average requires two series of data, viz. the
aggregate amount of labour cost, and the aggregate tonnage
of coal produced.
The amount of "labour cost" may be taken as being equal
to what was called above the amount of "actual earnings", since
the total payments made to the workers will represent the cost
of labour in the balance sheet of the employer.
On the other hand, the quantities of coal produced may be
ascertained according to different methods. In the first place»
it may be noted that the simple term "ton of coal" does not
always mean the same measure. The metric ton (1,000 kg.)
and the British ton (2,240 lbs.) are different, as are also the
gross or "long ton", equal to the British ton, and the net or "short
ton" of 2,000 lbs. used in American and Canadian statistics.
Moreover, the ton of coal represents in reality very different
things. It is affected by the quality of coal raised, its freedom
from impurities and other similar factors ; and it is practically
impossible to make allowance for these factors in the statistics.
Finally, it is to be observed that the quantity of coal is, in many
countries, to a large extent only estimated.
In the second place, in calculating the quantity of output
of coal, the different uses of coal must be taken into consideration..
Two different notions are to be noted. When coal has been
raised, it is washed, and what is left is called (a) the tonnage of
The method is explained in Appendix III.

— 58 —
saleable coal (tonnage du charbon produit) ; this quantity
of coal is distributed in different directions, one part being
coal not actually for sale, as it is consumed either by the mine
itself or by workers who receive coal free or at reduced rates,
while the remaining part, finally, represents the quantity of
(b) commercially disposable coal (tonnage du charbon vendable),
i.e. coal actually sold plus stocks. Both of these notions should
be taken as bases in computing the average cost of labour.
If the statistics are confined to the calculation of the average
cost of labour per ton of coal, the method of computing the
average will be simple. Given the total earnings during the
period considered and the total amount of coal produced during
the same period, the average is obtained by dividing the former
figure by the latter.
§ 19. The "labour cost" of production of coal is not only
a question of wages paid per ton of coal, but also of wages in
relation to efficiency.
The efficiency, again, is best measured by calculating the
output of coal per unit of labour. Two different units of labour
may be here taken into account, viz. the day or manshift, and
the average or full-time worker employed per year. Given
the tonnage of coal produced, the total number of days or
manshifts worked, and the average number of workers or the
number of full-time workers, it will be easy to calculate, for
each district or country (a) the average output per day or
manshift, and (b) the average output per year per worker or
full-time worker. The comparability of these averages will, of
course, depend on the uniformity of the methods employed in
calculating the basic figures which have been examined above.
The comparison between the average wages per ton of coal
and the average output of coal per day or per worker will be
of great interest, especially in order to study in which direction
the level of wages is influenced by the efficiency. The statistics,
of course, throw no light upon the question whether the efficiency
itself is determined by favourable or unfavourable natural
conditions, or by efficient or inefficient methods of management and work, or by other circumstances.

PAßT TWO

RESULTS OF THE ENQUIRY INTO
HOURS OF LABOUR AND WAGES IN THE
EUROPEAN COAL INDUSTRY IN 1925

INTRODUCTION
§ 1. In order to arrive at a comprehensive and comparative
survey of the conditions of labour in the world's coal industry, it
would be necessary to cover all the chief coal-producing countries
in the world and a considerable period of time.
The plan of the present enquiry was, as a matter of fact,
drawn on these extensive lines. The International Labour
Office prepared, with the assistance of experts and after close
examination of all material published hereto, a series of tables
and documents, on the basis of which information was asked on
the hours of labour and wages in the coal industry before the
war, as well as from the year 1919 to 1925. These tables and
documents were despatched, in the beginning of 1926, to the
competent government offices of the principal coal-producing
countries of the world, viz. 1 :
European

Germany
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Russia
Saar Territory
Czechoslovakia

Non-European

South Africa
Canada
United States
India
Japan

1
The countries are arranged in alphabetical order as determined by
their French names.

— 60 —
The work which the Governments were asked to undertake
was both long and difficult. In many cases the statistics were
not immediately available and special enquiries had to be made.
Further delays were caused by the consultation of the employers'
and workers' organisations as well as by the outbreak of the
long coal stoppage in Great Britain in May 1926. Not until
the end of 1927 were replies received from all countries mentioned
in the above list, except Russia, Canada, and the United States.
§ 2. The replies received, however, are in some respects
defective and differ from the standard scheme devised by the
International Labour Office. Owing to these flaws, the scope
of the present report is limited in two directions.
In the first place, certain material data are lacking for several
countries, or are of such a character that comparisons with
other countries are impossible. For this reason the main part
of the report refers to the European coal industry alone, and
furthermore, only to those European countries from which
comparable information has been secured. The significance
of this limitation will be illustrated by the following tables
where the total output of coal has been taken as the criterion
of the importance of the different coalfields 1. The first table
shows the place of Europe as a whole in the world production
of coal.
WORLD PRODUCTION OF COAL, 1 9 0 9 - 1 9 1 3 AND 1925
(Metric Tons — 000's Omitted)
Continents

North America
Central and South America

The World

Average, 1909-1913

1925

6,878
476,208
1,433
49,502
551,543
12,070
1,097,634

12,492
539,405
1,850
80,500
538,688
14,868
1,187,803

It will be seen from the above figures that Europe produced,
before the war, not more than 50 per cent, of the world's total
output of coal, and that this proportion has declined after the
war, being only 45 per cent, in 1925.
1
The figures are drawn from statistics contained in : LEAGUE O F
NATIONS : International Economic Conference. Documentation.
Memorandum on Coal. Vol. I, Annex IV, p. 43, Geneva, 1927.

— 61 —
The following table refers to the distribution of the European
coal production among the different countries, with percentages
showing the relative part of each country in the total output
in 1925.
EUROPEAN PRODUCTION OF COAL, 1909-1913 AND 1925
(Metric Tons — 000's

Omitted)

Absolute figures
Countries
A v e r a g e , 1909-1913

Saar Territory (a). . . .
Czechoslovakia (a). . . .
Other countries (a) . . .
Total

121,118
23,260
3,861
41,848 (c)
273,905
1,498
35,922
23,765 (c)
11,500 (c)
13,085
1,781
551,543

1925

132,729
23,133
5,925
47,046
248,067
6,849
29,081
17,637
12,990
12,754
2,477
538,688

Percentage to
total European
production,
1925

24.6
4.3
1.1
8.7
46.0
1.3
5.4
3.3
2.4
2.4
0.5
100.0

(a) Post-war territory. (6) U.S.S.R., including Asiatic Russia, (c) Estimate.

The countries covered by the present enquiry, viz. Germany,
Belgium, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Poland, the Saar
Territory, and Czechoslovakia, thus are the most important
coal-producing countries of Europe, and represented, in 1925,
about 95 per cent, of the total European output. It should,
however, be noted that the relative importance of the different
countries, from the point of view of the international coal market,
is very unequal. Compared with Great Britain, Germany, and
(to a less extent) France, other countries appear to have only
secondary importance ; the Saar, Czechoslovakia, and the
Netherlands, taken together, furnish not more than 6 per cent.
of the European coal supply.
As regards extra-European countries, official information
has been received from India, Japan, and South Africa, but as
this material is comparable neither with that supplied for
European countries nor among these non-European countries,
it is dealt with separately in an appendix. On the other hand,
in view of the importance of the United States as the greatest

— 62 —
producer of coal, it has appeared convenient to give, in the
same connection, such information as has been found in the
various official publications of this country ; and similar information is given for Canada 1 .
A second, and still more important flaw is the limited period
for which material has been received. Information as to
conditions of work in coal-mines before the war, and the first
years following the war, has been supplied from two countries
only (Germany and Czechoslovakia) and even in these cases
the pre-war statistics are not comparable with those given for
the post-war period. The only year for which approximately
comparable information has been obtained from all European
countries, is 1925 ; and the following chapters are therefore
confined to the situation in this single year.
As a matter of course, this limited scope necessarily reduces
the value of the present enquiry for several reasons. In the
first place, it is now impossible to draw any conclusions as to
the development which has taken place since the pre-war
period, a question which is of outstanding interest for many
quarters. Secondly, even an adequate survey of post-war
conditions of labour is extremely difficult to obtain on the basis
of figures relating to one year only, since this year (and, in fact,
any of the post-war years) cannot be considered as wholly
representative of this period in all countries. And, finally, it
is to be noted that the labour conditions have undergone important changes in several countries since 1925.
In the nature of the case, it has not been possible to remedy
the lack of material for the period prior to 1925. Nor has it
been found practicable to extend the international enquiry
beyond that year. For, apart from the fact that the year 1926
was abnormal on account of the great British coal stoppage
and the violent oscillations in the exchange rates and purchasing
power of money in several European countries, the collection
for this year of supplementary information on the same extensive
lines as that secured for 1925 had certainly led to further delays,
and even met with insurmountable difficulties ; and this applies,
of course, with increased force to the year 1927, for which
statistics will not be available until a considerable period after
the publication of the present report. An attempt has been
made to indicate simply the general trend of development of
1

See Appendix V.

— 63 —
the rregulation of hours of labour and wages in individual
countries since 1925 on the basis of the available official statistics
which are not comparable among themselves 1.
Finally, it is to be pointed out that the present enquiry refers
to conditions of labour in the coal industry (bituminous and
anthracite), and thus excludes lignite mines, which, as a matter
of fact, are much less important than coal-mines 2.
On
the other hand, the supervising staff and salaried employees
of the coal mines are left outside the scope of the enquiry.
§ 3. The material which has been at the disposal of the
International Labour Office is thus limited in scope ; but it
may be considered as fairly representative of the conditions
of labour prevailing in the European coal industry in 1925.
The next task of the International Labour Office has been
to analyse in detail the comparability of the data obtained from
the different countries, and then to effect such comparisons as
the material permits. The results arrived at in the analysis
of the methods in Part One are taken as basis, and the material
available is adjusted to the theoretical scheme in order to
render it, as far as practicable, internationally comparable.
This task is carried out in the following chapters concerning
respectively hours of labour and wages. It should be noted
that the question of holidays with pay which is mentioned
in the original Resolution of the International Labour Conference,
is dealt with in connection with the statistics of wages. A final
chapter will summarise the results arrived at in the enquiry.

1

See Appendix IV.
The lignite industry is almost entirely confined to Europe and
particularly t o Germany. The t o t a l European o u t p u t in 1925 was 177,861
thousands of metric tons (of which 139,790 thousand tons in Germany) ;
but, in order to compare the economic importance of this o u t p u t with
t h a t of coal, lignite should be converted into terms of coal at the r a t e
2

of 2 : 9.

Cf. L E A G U E O F N A T I O N S , op. cit.,

pp. 44-45.

CHAPTER I

» O U R S OF W O R K IN T H E EUROPEAN COAL INDUSTRY
IN 1925

A. — DATA

§ 1. Statistics concerning underground and surface workers
received from various Governments, together with their notes
•on the subject, are given below in tabular form.
The Governments were requested to compile these statistics
by the method laid down in Chapter II of Part One of this
study.
§ 2. Table I, page 66, showing the hours of work of underground workers, comprises four series of columns corresponding
to :
(1) countries and districts ;
(2) statutory hours of work ;
(3) hours of work reduced to a common unit ;
(4) length of time spent at the face, less breaks.
A careful examination of the table shows the various operations that affect the calculation of the above factors.
(1) Column 1 gives the country, or the districts in a country,
in which the enquiry was made.
(2) The statutory length of the shift, which depends upon
legislation or upon collective agreements, is set forth in columns
2 to 5.

— 65 —
(3) With regard to the determination of the hours of work
reduced to a common unit, it may be necessary, according to the
manner in which the length of the shift is calculated, to know
the collective winding time (descent or ascent) (columns 6 and 7).
In such a case the winding time (descent or ascent) must be
added to or deducted from, as the case may be, the figure given
in column 2 or 3, as is explained for each country in Appendix I.
When the length of the shift is calculated per individual,
or if the length of the shift only includes one winding time
(descent or ascent), the figures in column 6 do not affect these
calculations.
(4) Column 8 shows the weekly hours of work obtained
by multiplying the hours indicated in column 7 by six, and by
taking into account, where necessary, the shorter Saturday
working hours. This calculation is based upon the supposition
that each working day corresponds to a shift, whereas in reality
the number of shifts worked in a week may be higher or lower
than the number of working days. This also applies to the
figures in column 14.
(5) The length of the shift, reduced to a common unit
(column 7) forms the basis for the calculation of the time spent
a t the face, less breaks.
The following factors must then be taken into account :
(o) Travelling time underground (to the face, column 9, and
from the face, column 10) ;
(b) The length of the breaks (column 11).
In order to simplify these calculations, column 12 gives the
total of columns 9, 10 and 11, from which it is sufficient to deduct
the total in column 7 in order to obtain the length of time spent
at the face, less breaks (column 13). Column 14 indicates the
time spent at the face, per week.
§ 3. Table 11, page 69, concerning the working hours of surface
workers, includes three series of columns, corresponding to :
(1) the countries or districts ;
(2) the statutory hours of work ;
(3) the actual hours of work.
5

TABLE I.

HOURS OF W O R K FOR U N D E R G R O U N D

Statutory hours of work

Average
collective
Week
Day or shift
winding
time
Collective (descent
Collective
Legis- agreements Legis- agreements or ascent)
lation
lation
or arbitral
or arbitral
awards
awards
6
4 |
5
2
3

Country
and district

1

Germany :
Whole country1 8
Ruhr
8
8
Upper Silesia.. 8
Lower Silesia . 8
Free State of
Saxony
8

4

5

7+1
7 + 1.30'
7.30' + 1
7 +1

Hours of work

Average trav
time underg

to a common unit
Day
or shift

7

'

Week

To the face

8

9

3

2

—
—

7+1

th

1

2

8
8.30'
8.30'
8

48
51
51
48

8

48

7

10

Great Britain ..

8

—

48

—

8

__

—

—

7

—

—

6' to 10' 7.50'to 7.65'' 47 to 47.30'' 20' to 30'' 20'
7.50''
47'
16'
30'

—

7.44'

46.24'

27'
11

7.30'

40.45'to 45

—

8.10'

47

45'
35'13

8.30'

8

46

10'

Upper Silesia.. 8
Dombrowa and!
Cracow coal- > 8
fields
)
Czechoslovakia.. 8.30'

8

—

25'

8

48

32'

25'

8

46

32'

8

48

46+2

35'

7.25'

44.30'

30'

Saar19

7.30'

—

—

—

7.30'

45

'—

8 is

4613

15

—

46
17

* For the meth od of calculation of hours of work, reduced tp a common unit, coun

— 67 —
Notes to Table I
The importance of the various coalfields is shown in the following
table, which gives the number of full-time underground workers (Vollarbeiter) employed in 1925 :
Ruhr
284,391
Aachen
12,500 (approximately)
Upper Silesia
28,477
Lower Silesia
19,700
Free State of Saxony . .
15,909
2
The German Government states in its memorandum that no official
statistics are available concerning the average winding time (ascent or
descent), the underground travelling time and breaks, and consequently
the average time spent at the face, less breaks, is not given. Saxony
is the only district for which the length of the breaks and the average
length of time spent at the face less breaks are given.
With regard to this, the Prussian Government states in a letter
accompanying the memorandum that it has only used the officially
compiled figures, whereas the Government of Saxony has used approximate average figures for the length of the breaks and the length of time
spent at the face, less breaks. The letter adds that, in view of the different
conditions under which the mining undertakings are run, it is very
difficult, with regard to the Prussian coalfields, to supply even approximately average figures. Also the employers' and workers' organisations
concerned have been consulted. The difficulties in connection with a
single
coalfield, such as in Saxony, are less.
3
The figures in this column have been taken from the statistics
published in the Zeitschrift für Berg- Hütten- u. Salinenwesen, 1925,
Second Statistical Returns.
4
In conformity with the National Agreement, this period is calculated
for each worker individually from the time when he enters the cage to
descend until the time when he leaves it after ascending. In Saxony this
period is calculated from the time when the descent begins until the
time when the ascent begins.
5
In conformity with the arbitral awards pronounced and made compulsory by the public authority upon the expiration of the overtime
agreement of the Ruhr (Mehrarbeitsabkommen) of 29 November 1923,
this period is calculated for each worker individually, from the time when
he begins the descent to the time when he begins the ascent.
6
This figure corresponds to the difference between the figures in column
7 and in column 13.
7
The Belgian Government gives the range for these various periods,
and adds the following explanation :
"In order to indicate the various hours of work shown in the table by
means of an average figure for each instead of by the limits within which
they vary, it would be necessary to calculate a weighted average, taking
into account the data concerning each place and the number of workers
employed at each. In order to compute this average, average calculations of time would be required that have not been made for 1924 and
1925. Without these figures it would be unwise to rely upon an
arithmetic mean between the figures which are a result of estimates that
have been used to compile the figures mentioned in the table. For this
reason only extreme limits have been given, within which the working
hours in question vary. It would appear, however, that the weighted
average for the travelling time underground, plus breaks, as a whole, is
about 1 hour 30 minutes, and that the average actual hours of work are
6 hours 20 minutes."
8
The average travelling time underground, from the face, is given
as 31 minutes — somewhat longer than the travelling time to the face,
27 minutes. This is due to the fact that, when going to the face, the
1

— 68 —
workers set out as soon as they leave the cage, whereas when returning it is impossible that each worker should arrive at the cage from
the face at the exact moment of his ascent.
In order that the collective ascent of a shift shall finish at the statutory hour, it is necessary that the workers leave the face a little sooner
than would be necessary for the actual journey. A difference between
the travelling time to and from the face corresponds in fact to what
actually happens.
9
The 29 minutes for the average length of the break, calculated
collectively, constitutes an average of 20 minutes in the Lorraine coalfields and 30 minutes in the others.
10
The figures in columns 2, 6, 7, 8. and 13 are those of the Royal
Commission on the Coal Industry (1925) (Vol. I, pp. 166-171).
11
"The lower figure represents 11 days a fortnight, with Saturday
one hour less than an ordinary weekday. This is the general practice
in Northumberland. The higher figure represents six full days a week,
as is worked in South Wales. The hours in Scotland, Yorkshire, and
Lancashire for the most part lie between these two extremes." (Royal
Commission on the Coal Industry, p. 170.)
12
The British Government gives an approximate total figure for the
average travelling time underground, plus breaks. This figure includes an
average waiting time at the bottom of the pit in order to allow the workers
of a shift to collect before the ascent begins. However, the British
Government states that the length of this average wait is not known
and is not easy to determine. It considers, however, that the figure of
1 hour 45 minutes is the most accurate that can be given, although only
approximate.
13
These figures have been compiled by the method used for the
"collective calculation", including the collective winding time (ascent
or descent). (See Appendix I, Netherlands.)
The Government of the Netherlands has supplied further data that
is given in the table, concerning which the following is to be observed :
It has been shown in the theoretical analysis that it was not absolutely accurate, when calculating per cage, to disregard the time taken in
loading and unloading the cage to descend or ascend. This period has
been disregarded in view of the approximate nature of certain figures
in the enquiry. However, the Government of the Netherlands thinks it
is necessary to show this loss of time in the statistics, and fixes this
period at ten minutes for all operations connected with the descent and at
ten minutes for all operations connected with the ascent. The Government therefore adds to the statutory length of a shift calculated per cage
or per worker the time required for all the operations connected with
the ascent of the cage—that is to say, ten minutes. The hours of work
reduced to a common unit are thus fixed at 8 hours 10 minutes. This
calculation is undoubtedly accurate. However, it has not been thought
possible to mention these figures in the international comparison without
drawing attention to the fact that the other countries that have also
calculated the length of the shift by cage, and have disregarded this
factor, can no longer be compared under the same conditions. It should
be noted that the figure of 45 minutes, given by the Dutch Government
for each of the underground travelling times, to the face and from the
face, includes ten minutes corresponding respectively to operations
connected with the descent and those connected with the ascent.
14
These figures were compiled by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (Mines Department) and theMinstry of Labour and Social "Welfare.
15
This calculation is based on the figures supplied by the Ministry
of Industry and Commerce (Mines Department) and the Ministry of
Labour and Social Welfare.
16
The calculation of customary breaks has been checked by the Ministry
of Industry and Commerce (Mines Department) and the Ministry of
Labour and Social Welfare.

— 69 —
17

The total working time for a week is 46 hours, with a permanent
undertaking on the part of the workers to work two hours longer on
Saturday in consideration of special overtime pay (that is to say, 48
hours total working time).
18
The second figure is obtained exclusively from the data taken into
account in the enquiry. The first figure supplied by the Government of
Czechoslovakia takes into account an average period of waiting of 17
minutes at the bottom of the pit. That is deducted from the length of time
spent at the face. In the Czechoslovak coalfields the ascent does not
begin until all the workers have collected at the bottom of the pit. They
are therefore obliged to leave the face on an average 17 minutes earlier
than if they left the face in time to arrive at the bottom of the pit at the
approximate time of their ascent. (See Theoretical Analysis, Part I,
Chapter II, note 1, p. 18).
19
These figures are supplied by the Director-General of the French
State Mines of the Saar (Mines domaniales françaises).
TABLE

II.

HOURS OF W O R K OF SURFACE

WORKERS

Statutory hours of work
Actual hours of work
D a y or shift

Week

Country and district
Legislation

Collective
agreements
or arbitral
awards

Legislation

Collective
agreements
or arbitral
awards

Day

Week

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Germany : 1
Whole country.
Ruhr
Aachen . . . .
Upper Silesia .
Lower Silesia .
Free State of
Saxony . . .

8
8
8
8
8

8 22 10 3s
8 2 10 4
8 10 5
82
9

8

82

58-59
58-59
60-58
55.30'-53
54-48

8 2a 10 33
8 10
8 a2 10 45
8
9
9.30' 6
2
8
9

58-59
58-59
60-58
55.30'-53
54-48

Belgium

8

—

48

—

—

8

8

—

—

—

7.59' 9

47.54'

Great Britain

—

—

—-

46.30'

7.45' 1 0

46.30'

Netherlands . . .

—

8

—

—

8

48

8

8

—

8

48

8

46

. . . .

Poland : l l
Upper Silesia .
Dombrowa
and Cracow
coal-fields . .

—

9"

8

7

46

Czechoslovakia. .

8

—

48

—

7.45'

46.30'

Saar12

—

8

—

—

7.45'

46.30'

— 70 —
Notes to Table

II

1

In completion of the figures shown in this table, t h e German Governm e n t sent the following information concerning t h e various working
hours and the percentage of surface workers (with the exclusion of
women and children) employed during these hours, for each of the
districts under consideration.
The Zeitschrift für Berg- Hütten- u. Salinenwesen, 1925, Second Statistical Return, is given as the source of this information :
( 10 hours for 7 3 . 2 % full time workers {Vollarbeiter).
Ruhr . . .
9
„
8.5%
( 8 J>
„ 18.1%
Aachen . . . 1 1 0
„ 99.0%
i 8 5?
„
1-0%
( io
„ 65.2%
Upper Silesia
J?
9 /
„
4.4%
8i 2»
„
1-6%
( 8
„ 29.2%
( io
) 9i,'?,<
» 36.1%
Lower Silesia
9
„
9.1%
I 8 3>
„ 23.0%
10 ? ?
„ 31.8%
9
Free State of
„
1.4%
Saxony .
8 JÎ
„ 80.1%
„ 18.5%
I t should be added t h a t in 1925 the number of full-time workers
corresponding to surface workers (adults, both sexes), with the exclusion
of those occupied in subsidiary establishments, was as follows :
Ruhr
67,434
Aachen
3,100 (approximately)
Upper Silesia
10,415
Lower Silesia
8,300
,,
Free S t a t e of Saxony . . . .
5,639
2
In conformity with t h e National Agreement.
3
In conformity with t h e arbitral awards pronounced and made compulsory by t h e public authorities upon t h e expiration of t h e overtime
agreement ; however, t h e working week comprises 58 hours in coalfields where there are two shifts engaged in production and 59 hours
where only one shift is engaged in production.
4
In conformity with the arbitral awards pronounced and made compulsory by t h e public authorities upon t h e expiration of the overtime
agreement ; however, the S a t u r d a y working day comprises eight hours
in undertakings where production is not continuous.
5
In conformity with t h e arbitral awards pronounced and made
compulsory by t h e public authorities upon the expiration of the overtime agreement ; however, the working day comprises 9 hours 30 minutes
for five days of t h e week and 8 hours for one day in undertakings with
continued production, and 9 hours for five days and 8 hours for one
day in undertakings where there is not continued production.

1

6
In conformity" with t h e arbitral awards pronounced and made compulsory by the public authorities upon the expiration of the overtime
agreement ; however, t h e working day comprises 8 hours for firemen.
7
Figures established upon a basis of t h e d a t a in notes 3, 4, 5 and 6.
8
Since Belgium does not give the actual length of the working day, no
figure for Belgium appears in this column.
9
The average working hours are indicated as 7 hours 59 minutes instead
of 8 hours, in view of t h e fact t h a t in certain coalfields and for certain
local reasons t h e actual working hours are somewhat less t h a n 8 hours.

— 71 —
10
This figure is taken from the report of the Royal Commission on
the Coal Industry (1925) (Vol. I, p. 171).
11
These figures were compiled by the Ministry of Labour and Social
Welfare and the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (Mines Department).
12
This figure was supplied by the Director-General of the French State
Mines of the Sarr (Mines domaniales françaises).

B . — CONCLUSIONS

§ 4. The statistics enable a more accurate international
comparison of the hours of work in coal mines to be made than
has hitherto been possible.
The various conclusions that may be drawn from these statistics are given below.
§ 5. With the exception of the surface workers in Great
Britain and in the Netherlands, the working hours of adult
workers employed in mines are fixed by legislation in all the
countries from which information has been received. Hours of
work are also regulated in Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Poland (Upper Silesia), in Czechoslovakia, and in the
Saar, by collective agreements that give a more accurate idea
of the facts, since they are the result of direct agreement between
the persons concerned.
The statutory shift for underground workers is in general
8 hours, with the exception of Great Britain x where it is 7 hours.
In the Netherlands and in Poland (Dombrowa and Cracow)
the working day is reduced to 6 hours on Saturday, thus limiting the working week to 46 hours. Judging by these figures,
the hours of work seem to be more or less uniform.
§ 6. Greater differences appear when these figures are
reduced to the basis for international comparison. With regard
to the three countries under consideration, Belgium, France,
and Czechoslovakia, it is necessary to deduct the collective winding
time (ascent or descent). In Great Britain, however, this winding time must be added. In Germany, the Netherlands, Poland
and the Saar, the statutory unit of measure is the same as the
international basis.
The international comparison of these figures shows that
the shift as defined above is less than 8 hours in Belgium,
1
Changes that have been made since 1925 in the working hours of
underground and surface workers are indicated in Appendix IV.

— 72 —
Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, and the Saar; is 8 hours
in the German coalfields of the Ruhr, Lower Silesia, Saxony, in
the Netherlands, and in Poland; and it is more than 8 hours in
Aachen and in the Upper Silesian districts in Germany.
The length of the working week, established on the basis of
the definition used for the shift, is less than 48 hours everywhere except in Polish Upper Silesia and in Germany, where it
reaches 48 hours, and even exceeds this period (51 hours) in
Aachen and in German Upper Silesia.
The average winding time (ascent or descent) for the whole
shift is different in each country, and varies between five minutes
(some Belgian coalfields) and 35 minutes (Czechoslovakia).
' The figures for Poland have a purely documentary interest in
view of the fact that they are not used for the calculation of the
shift reduced to a common unit. Generally speaking, the average
winding time (ascent or descent) in the various countries under
consideration is less as the number of workers ascending or
descending collectively is lower, particularly in Belgium where the
staff is subdivided by categories or in cage loads. The winding
time is reduced to a minimum.
§ 7. The travelling time underground works out at about
60 minutes. No figures are available in this connection for
Germany and Great Britain (90 minutes in the Netherlands
according to the basis for calculation used by the Dutch Government). With the exception of this country, the various figures
shown in the table are more or less similar.
In all the countries, the statutory breaks are included in the
working hours. The average length of the breaks varies between
30 and 40 minutes. In Belgium the workers have longer breaks
than those in other European countries ; the Belgium Government, however, states that it "has taken the definition of breaks
as given by the International Labour Office into consideration".
It will be seen from a study of the figures for travelling underground and breaks, that the total time lost in the various
countries is generally the same. The time lost is on an average
about 40 minutes, although it reaches two hours in the Netherlands.
The second important factor to be determined, the length
of time spent at the face less breaks, corresponds on the whole
to the actual period during which the worker works for the
undertaking. This period is approximately 6 hours 10 minutes

— 73 —

to 6 hours 20 minutes. The shortest periods occur in Great
Britain and in Czechoslovakia.
§ 8. The statutory working hours for surface workers consist
of 8 hours in every country except Germany, where they are
higher on account of the overtime worked in accordance with
arbitral awards made compulsory by the public authorities,
and in Great Britain where they are less (7 hours 45 minutes).
In Poland (Dombrowa and Cracow) and in Great Britain, the
working week is less than 48 hours on account of shorter hours
on Saturday. Finally, in Germany and Great Britain, the Netherlands and Poland, the actual working hours correspond to the
statutory working hours. In France they are very slightly
less (7 hours 59 minutes instead of 8 hours), and also in
Czechoslovakia and in the Saar (7 hours 45 minutes instead of
8 hours).

CHAPTER II
WAGES IN T H E EUROPEAN COAL INDUSTRY

IN 1925

§ 1. In the following sections, the information received
from the various Governments concerning wages in the coal
industry is analysed and compared.
Following the order of presentation adopted in the study
ói the principles and methods of wage statistics, the first sections
(A - E) are designed to present the basic data of the statistics.
Their main object is to state to what extent the wage data
actually are furnished in conformity with the standard
method outlined ; in other words, how far the information
relating to the total earnings, their distribution among the
various groups of workers, the number of manshifts (days)
worked and lost, and that of workers employed is comparable.
Each group of data available for the various countries is summarised in one table, and percentages are calculated showing the
relation which the different items bear to the total in each
country : the differences in these percentages will throw light
upon the differences prevailing in the industry in the various
countries concerned.
The next sections (F and G) give the average earnings per
time unit (day, hour, and year) calculated from the basic data.
The comparison is effected on two different lines. On the one
hand, the average wages given in the original data in the national
currencies, are first converted to a common basis, the gold
franc (approximately equal to the Swiss franc) being chosen
as the most convenient basis ; the results are then expressed
in terms of "relative numbers", which illustrate the comparative
level of "gold earnings" in the various countries. On the
other hand, the relative purchasing power of average earnings
are calculated in terms of retail prices. The resulting index
numbers of comparative "real earnings", although affording
only approximate conclusions, are of particular interest in the
study of the miner's standard of living.

— 75 —
The labour cost of production of coal is dealt with in the
concluding sections. To the basic data mentioned above is
here added the total output of coal, completed by a calculation
of the average output. The labour cost of coal is then computed
on the basis of the total wages bill and the total output, and
converted to the gold franc basis for the purpose of international
comparison.
Information on these lines is available only for the country as
a whole in the case of France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands ;
and for the principal coal-fields, as well as for the whole country,
in respect of Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. In the
case of Germany, information not being available for the
whole country, data are given separately for the two principal
coal districts, viz., the Ruhr
(Niederrheinisch-Westfälischer
Steinkohlenbezirk) and Upper Silesia (Oberschlesischer Steinkohlen^bezirk), which supplied, in 1925, about 79 and 11 per cent.
respectively of the total German output of coal, as well as
for a third district, the Free State of Saxony, representing 3 per
cent, of the total output of the Reich 1. The Saar territory is
dealt with as an independent coal district.
It should be observed, finally, that the figures refer, as a
rule, to coalmining undertakings proper, and exclude ancillary
establishments. In the case of Germany, however, it has been
impossible to carry out this principle consistently : whereas
figures which exclude ancillary establishments have been obtained for the Ruhr district and for the Upper Silesian
district (except as regards the different items included in the
total wages bill), all figures for Saxony include the ancillary
establishments 2.
A. — COMPOSITION OF THE TOTAL WAGES BILL

§ 2. The basis adopted for the international comparisons
of mine-workers' wages is the total wages bill. This is composed
of the aggregate actual earnings, i.e. "money wages", plus other
advantages which the workers receive by reason of their employment in and about the mine. The fact that this conception
1
Saxony is the fourth coal district of Germany from the point of view
•of output. The third is Lower Silesia (4.2 per cent, of total output
•of Germany in 1925).
2
It should be noted that the "ancillary establishments" are on the
surface ; hence the figures relating to underground workers are comparable with those given for other districts.

— 76 —

of wages covers several different elements of income to the workers
which are not always considered as wages in the ordinary sense
of the term may call for some criticism. Account may be
taken of the objections by setting forth separately money
wages in the restricted sense of the word, and the aggregate
actual earnings as defined in the present enquiry. The main
concern of the statistics is, however, with the latter element,
for it would not be correct, from an international point of view,
to limit the statistics to the bare money wages, and omit the
allowances and benefits which constitute in all countries a
particular feature in the miner's earnings, and which influence
to a considerable and varying extent the level of wages.
In general, the statistics of the various countries contain
data which lend themselves to international comparisons on
these lines. There are, however, certain flaws and divergencies
which will be considered below.
§ 3. The money wages taken into account in the statistics
do not consist of "gross money wages" as they appear.in the pay
books, since allowance must be made for the various deductions.
The position of the different groups of deductions, however,
is not identical. Amounts corresponding to various kinds
of occupational charges, which are usually deducted from the
gross wages, cannot be considered as a part of wages ; while
contributions of workers towards social insurance, which also
are usually deducted from the gross wages, really form a part
of wages. The actual money wages of the workers thus include
the sum left when all deductions are made, i.e. "net money
wages", plus the sum of workmen's contributions.
It is to
be noted t h a t money wages in this sense do not include allowances in cash granted for reasons other than work done ; these
are considered later as a separate item in total actual earnings.
The degree in which the figures relating to net money wages
are comparable will appear after considering, first, the gross
money wages and the deductions made therefrom in the
statistics of the different countries.
The amount of gross money wages is apparently recorded
according to similar principles in the different countries 1.
1

The British statistics include in the money wages allowances to make
up "subsistence wages" for low-paid workers. This item, provided for
in the National Wage Agreement of June 1924, clauses 6 and 7, in force
during 1925, forms an integral part of the miners' wages, and cannot
be separated from the total of money wages.

— 77 —
Deductions for so-called occupational charges include amounts
deducted, on the one hand, for explosives, lighting materials,
tools, sharpening of tools, etc., and, on the other, for penalties.
The practice adopted in the different statistics in respect to
this item varies to some extent. In Germany, this item does
not appear in pay-sheets at all, as tools are supplied by the
establishments free of charge, and the price of explosives does
not enter into the wage cost of production ; in Poland, tools
and carbide are supplied, as in Germany, free of charge \ while
charges for explosives are deducted from the total money wages ;
in Czechoslovakia, the law authorises the employer to deduct
expenditure for explosives, but not that for lighting materials
and tools ; expenditure for explosives is deducted .from the
total money wages ; the deductions for penalties (which are,
in fact, very small) are paid into the Social Insurance Fund.
In all countries except Germany occupational charges thus
form a special item in the pay-sheets. Information was asked
on this point in order to make sure that all statistics of wages
will allow for it and deduct it according to similar principles.
As a matter of fact, two different methods are employed. A
total corresponding to gross wages may first be established,
and an amount corresponding to deductions for occupational
charges may then be given separately and be deducted from the
total of aggregate earnings ; the British statistics have followed
this method. The statistics of most countries, however, give
the amount of net wages, i.e., they deduct the amount corresponding to occupational charges already from the money
wages. For the purpose of international comparisons, it will
therefore be necessary to apply the latter method throughout
the statistics. Deductions for occupational charges are thus
left outside the statistics relating to money wages.
The total amount of deductions for occupational charges and
the percentage they bear to the total earnings for the two
countries which have supplied the information is as follows :
Great Britain.. €1,096,000, or 0.7 per cent, of the total earnings.
Poland...
32,117 zloty, or 0.02 „

The amounts representing workers' contributions to social
insurance are given separately in the statistics of all countries.
This item varies considerably from country to country owing
1
In Germany and Poland the worker is, however, obliged to pay for
deterioration and loss of tools.

— 80 —
same accuracy as the items expressed in money. Thus the
statistics available for Great Britain indicate that the amount
concerned is calculated from a special return obtained by the
Mining Association for March 1926, adjustment being made for
the variations in 1925 in the number of workers employed,
quantity of coal supplied, and in the price of coal. Allowances
in kind other than coal include principally housing accommodation free of charge or at reduced rate. As regards Poland, the
data furnished give, on the one hand, the difference between
the normal rent of a flat, including lighting and water, and the
rent paid by the workers ; and, on the other hand, payments
effected in view of the maintenance of schools, child welfare
institutions, and medical relief.
In short, the data relating to allowances in cash and in kind
are compiled according to similar statistical principles ; but the
original data are necessarily only approximate and usually
based on information furnished by employers' organisations
with which trade unions have not agreed in all countries 1.
The different degree of accuracy of the estimate in the various
countries constitutes a source of error, which should be taken
into account in the international comparisons.
§ 5. A special place has been reserved to payments for holidays,
including compensation for such holidays to which workers
have been entitled but by which they have not actually benefited.
The inclusion of the latter item in the total of actual earnings
has been objected to by the German miners' organisations on
account of the fact that the compensation for holidays not
actually taken is not compulsory under the national agreement ;
but in view of the fact that such compensation, when actually
granted, should logically be placed on the same footing as
payment for holidays, it is correct to include this item in the
account concerned, as is actually done in the official German
statistics.
It goes without saying that this item does not appear in
the, statistics relating to countries where no holidays with pay
are granted, i.e. in the statistics of Belgium, France, and Great
Britain. The data which are available may, in general, be
considered as comparable with one another.
1
The Miners' Federation of Great Britain, particularly, has advanced
doubts as to the basis on which the amount of allowances in kind have
been estimated.

— 81 —
§ 6. The difficulties which arise from the contributions
towards expenses of workmen's compensation and social insurance from others than workmen themselves, have been discussed
in detail above 1 . It was pointed out that the question
whether this item should properly be considered as an element
of wages is open. It was further observed that, even if this
question is answered in the affirmative, other difficulties subsist.
Thus the method which consists in computing the benefits paid
instead of contributions has proved defective. Similarly, it
is impracticable—and perhaps incorrect in principle—to take
into account subsidies paid from public funds. If then the
advantage drawn from social insurance schemes (apart from
workers' own contributions which are on a different footing)
is to be counted, it seems convenient to limit it to the payments
made by the industry to the workers it employs, i.e. to employers'
contributions. But even this method has met with difficulties.
Employers' contributions are not usually included in the
wage statistics, and therefore the figures are in part only
estimations.
In view of these difficulties, the aggregate amounts of actual
earnings are calculated in two ways, viz. by adding up (a) all
items considered above, except employers' contributions, and
(b) the same items plus employers' contributions. Therefore,
in each case in which the total wages bill enters, two series of
calculations must be established.
The actual data relating to the contributions employers
defray in the different countries have, of course, a very different
meaning in practice : the remarks made above on the divergency
of the schemes of social insurance and their financial organisation
apply also in this case. The scope of the schemes to which
employers are obliged, by the law, to contribute, may be
indicated as follows :
(i) All schemes to which workmen contribute, mentioned
above (§3).
(ii)

1

Workmen's compensation for industrial accidents in
Belgium, France, and Great Britain, as well as
compulsory accident insurance in Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, the Saar Territory, Czechoslovakia ;
some of these schemes cover also, to a varying extent,

Cf. Part One, Chapter III, § 7.
6

— 82 —

(iii)

occupational diseases ; and employers are responsible
for their entire cost 1 .
Compulsory insurance against invalidity and old age
in the Netherlands ; employers being responsible
for a part of the cost (the other part being on the
charge of public funds) %.

Information is lacking as to the amount of the contributions
that employers pay in German Upper Silesia, the Saar Territory,
and the individual coal districts in Czechoslovakia.
§ 7. After having defined the comparability of the existing
wage data, a first general survey of figures relating to the composition of the aggregate actual earnings may be given. Table I
shows the composition of total earnings as defined in the preceding paragraphs, and expressed in national currency.
It should be noted that the German statistics do not give
any totals for the whole Empire ; the figures refer to the principal districts, which account for about 93 per cent, of the
total production. The British figures relate to about 97 per
cent, of the coal-mining industry of this country.
IMPORTANCE OF " N E T

MONEY W A G E S "

AND OTHER

ELEMENTS

OF EARNINGS

(In Percentages of Total Actual Earnings)

Country and district

Great Britain
Germany—Ruhr. . . .
,,
—Saxony . . .
„
—Upper Silesia
France
Poland
1

Total earnings excluding
employers' contributions
= 100

Total earnings, including
employers' contributions
= 100

Net money

Net money

Other items

90.1
88.0
78.6
73.9
73.1

12.0
21.4
26.1
26.9

93.9
91.7.
86.7
82.6
82.6
80.7
78.7
77.3
77.0
70.0

Other items

6.1
8.3

13.3
17.4
17.4
19.3
21.3
22.7
23.0
30.0

—

73.8
67.9
—

62.5

9.9

—

26.2
32.1
—.
37.5

From the point of view of the financial charges, "workmen's
compensation" which is usually accompanied by voluntary insurance,
and compulsory insurance, are on the same footing. Therefore, the
general term, "employers' contributions to social insurance" will be
taken to cover also workmen's compensation.
2
In certain cases, however, also the insured persons themselves pay
contributions.

— 83 —

T A B L E I . — COMPOSITION OF T H E TOTAL W A G E S BILL I N T H E E U R O P E A N
COAL I N D U S T R Y ,
(National

Currency

I925

— 000's

Omitted)

lilowaocts

Country, district
aid n i t
of currency

«e
none;
wages

Workmen'!
insurance
contributions

Payment!

In kind
in cask

for
holidays

Frei
coal

Olttar

Total actual
Employers'
earnings
contributions
excluding
to social
employers'
insurance>
contributions

Germany (R.M.) :

655,806 77,316 30,917
Ruhr
Upper Silesia (a)
55,732
7,562 2,228
Saxony (a) . .
769
37,055
4,175
Belgium (Fr.) :
Charleroi . . .
391,621 9,006 3,365
Liège
301,857
6,206 4,440
Couchant de Mons 270,476
5,894 2,468
Whole country. 1,266,041 29,691 14,095
France ( F r . ) . . 1,828,043 106,699 87,534
Great Britain (£)
133,177
2,855
38,168
2,606 1,984
Netherlands(Gulden)
Poland (Zloty):
91,038 12,389 8,821
Silesia
27,749
1,845 3,683
Dombrowa. . .
126,271 14,776 13,338
Whole country.
427,764 40,148 54,733
Saar (Fr). . . .
Czechoslovakia (Kc)
347,197 35,036 14,977
Ostrava-Karvina
93,960
7,096 4,602
Kladno- Rakovnik
519,022 49,152 24,485
Whole country.

11,500
2,112
1,669

18,307
1,428
1,188

793,846 94,136
69,061 —
44,856 5,801

12,445
4,668
13,971
4,346
11,255
3,664
50.869 20,594
63,317 237,613
4,286
1,546
328
313

— 330,820 15,147
— 293,757 13,049
— 1,381,290 58,055
— 2,323,206 154,934
— 141,864 5,935

421,105 17,578

8,431
2,820
11,720
22,210

6,440
2,339
9,072
490

3,587 130,706 16,631
1,323
39,759 3,818
5,297 180,474 21,477
10,065 555,400
—

39,139
8,510
53,937

10,938
193
11,237

7,339 454,626
3,354 116,715 —
13,640 671,473 92,489

637

44,036

4,498

(a) Including ancillary establishments ; in Upper Silesia, the total actual earnings excluding these
establishments are R.M. 67,562,000 and this figure has been used in the calculation of averages. For
Saxony, the corresponding total is not available.

— 84 —
Table I serves to indicate the differences prevailing in the
relative importance of the different items in the total amount
of actual earnings. The principal result in this respect is
• illustrated by the table on page 82, where countries are arranged
in the descending order of the percentage of net money wages.
These considerable differences show, first, that the conception
of "total actual earnings" taken as basis of the present enquiry
is justified : the different kinds of allowances paid in addition
t o net money wages represent an extremely variable and, in
many cases, an important part of the total earnings received
by the mine-workers on account of their employment.
This will be seen more clearly in the following table where
the heading "other items" has been analysed in detail. The
total actual earnings are taken as equal to 100, as in the previous table (page 82), and the percentages represented by the
different elements other than "net money wages" have been
calculated. The totals correspond to the column "other items"
in the preceding table (page 82).
IMPORTANCE

OF

THE

DIFFERENT

ELEMENTS

OF

EARNINGS

OTHER THAN M O N E Y W A G E S

(In Percentages of Total Actual
M r « and district
'

Great Britain
Belgium
Netherlands
Germany—Euhr. . . .
„
—Saxony. . .
„
—Upper Silesia
France
Czechoslovakia
Saar
Poland

Workmen's
w
insurance
anes
_ . - • • •
contributions

Allowances
in
in
money

A. Total Earnings,
2.0
—
2.1
1.0
6.0
4.5
9.7
9.3
10.9

Free

or cheap
or
cheap
coali

Earnings)
Other
allowances
allowances
•
i • É
in
kind

excluding
3.0
3.7
0.7

Ewuiuiare
Employers'
,..'..

nsi R i m h ti Ti n n o

contributions

Total
«rainas
other than
wages

employers' contributions = 100
— jÍ —
1.1
—
6.1
1.5
—
—
8.3
1.4
— ' 13.3
0.7
1.4
—

1.5
3.7
3.1

4.0
1.7
3.2

Payments
-'—
tor
tor
. .- .
holidays

2.2
2.7
2.1

—
—

17.4
17.4
19.3

Germany—Ruhr . . . .
„
—Saxony . . .

21.3
3.8
10.2
2.7
—
22.7
3.6
1.7
2.0
8.1
23.0
9.9
0.1
4.0
1.8
—
30.0
7.4
5.0
6.5
2.9
—
B. Total Earnings, including employers' contributions = 100
2.9
1.9
1.1
4.0
9.9
2.1
1.0
3.5
1.4
4.0
12.0
5.4
4.1
0.6
9.3
1.3
0.7
21.4
26.1
8.7
3.5
1.3
10.6
2.0
8.2
26.9
1.5
3.3
2.4
11.5

France
Czechoslovakia
Poland

4.3
6.4
7.3

. . . .

Great Britain
Belgium
Netherlands

4.6
7.3
7.7
8.2

3.5
3.2
6.6

2.6
7.1
5.8

9.6
1.5
4.5

1.8
2.6

6.2
12.1
10.7

26.2
32.1
37.5

— 85 —
Certain percentages shown in the above table no doubt
represent real differences in the composition of earnings. Thus
the high proportion of workmen's contributions in Germany*
Poland, the Saar, and Czechoslovakia is due to the fact that
compulsory and contributory social insurance in these countries
has a particularly Wide scope and is, to a very great extent,
in the charge of workers themselves. Similarly, the conspicuously high percentage of allowances in kind other than coal
in France is explained by the building activity especially in
the mining regions of Northern France.
On the other hand, it is obvious that a low percentage of
any item does not necessarily mean that the absolute amount
of this item is low as compared with that paid in another case.
This remark applies particularly to allowances in kind (coal) :
in countries where total actual earnings are comparatively low,
these allowances are bound to represent a higher proportion
in the total, since their absolute value is to some extent
determined by the international market and therefore tends to
be approximately equal in the different countries.
Finally, employers' contributions to social insurance deserve
particular attention. It is seen from the latter table that the
percentage representing this item is, on the one hand, rather
considerable, as a rule higher than any other single item (except
in France, where allowances in kind are exceptionally important);
and, on the other hand, very variable as between the
different countries and districts, ranging from 4 per cent, in Great
Britain and Belgium to 12 per cent, in Czechoslovakia 1. It
is therefore clear, as both of the above tables indicate, that the
exclusion or inclusion of employers' contributions is bound to
make a real difference in the results of the comparative wage
statistics.
B. — DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL WAGES BILL AMONG DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES OF WORKERS

§ 8. In order to obtain comprehensive statistics of mineworkers' wages, it is necessary to distribute the total amount
of actual earnings according to different categories of the workers,
as distinguished (Ö) by sex and age, and (b) by the nature of
the Work under and above ground.
1

These variations are in part due to, and to some extent counterbalanced by, the subsidies from public funds which are left outside
the scope of the present statistics.

— 86 —
As regards Belgium, no information as to the distribution
of total earnings according to any of these criteria has been
secured. In regard to the other countries, more or less different
methods have been employed.
It should be first mentioned that all countries have taken
as basis of distribution the amount of total earnings as given
in Table I, except Dutch statistics, which give only the total
of net money wages, workmen's contributions, and allowances
in cash. The method employed in the British figures is based
on the results shown by the special Return of the Mining Association relating to March 1926.
The distribution of total earnings by different sex and age
groups is not made in the French statistics, and is given in
the statistics of other countries only in an incomplete manner.
The statistics of Great Britain, Germany (Prussia), the Saar,
and Czechoslovakia give the distribution by adults and juveniles
for men, but not for women ; they cannot therefore give the
totals for adults and juveniles. In the Netherlands, no women
are employed in mines, and therefore the totals for adult and
juvenile men also represent the respective totals. The Polish
statistics, again, distinguish, on the one hand, the earnings of
male and female workers—omitting the age distribution of
male workers which is given for the other countries mentioned—
and, on the other hand, the earnings of adults and juveniles of
both sexes taken together. Apart from these differences, it
must be remembered that the age-limit of juvenile workers
varies from country to country, being 16 years in Germany and in
Czechoslovakia, similarly 16 years in Polish Silesia, but 18 years
in the Dombrowa-Cracow district of Poland, and 21 years in
Great Britain. The figures obtained thus hardly permit of
any comparison. And even if these statistics were more complete,
they would not show the difference between "juvenile wages"
and "adult wages' ' which, as pointed out above 1, are independent
of any fixed age-limit.
A somewhat better result has been obtained in regard to the
distribution of total earnings among hewers, underground
workers and above-ground workers. All countries (except
Belgium) have supplied these figures. A few divergencies
of minor importance are to be noted. Thus the British statistics
make it clear t h a t hewers comprise piece-work and day-Wage
1

Cf. Part One, Chapter I, § 6.

— 87 —
coal-getters and contractors and their helpers, except those
under 21 years of age, who are included with other workers
employed below ground. The German (Prussian) statistics
exclude from the group of hewers the supervisory timbermen
{Reparaturhauer) who are old experienced hewers, but are
counted among other underground workers.
However, attention should be drawn to the fact that the
figures obtained are not intrinsically comparable. This applies
particularly to those relating to hewers. As has been pointed
out above in the theoretical part 1 , and as will be seen later on,
the category of hewers does not include workers having the
same functions, or doing the same kind of work, in the different
countries and districts. On the other hand, the groups of
"underground workers" and "surface workers" are very heterogeneous, and their composition varies considerably from country
to country.
§ 9. It follows from the above that the summary table
concerning the distribution of total earnings among different
categories of workers can be given only in a restricted form.
The distribution of total earnings among male and female workers
and among adults and juveniles is omitted, as it cannot be
usefully employed for the calculation of average earnings ;
only the distribution by categories of hewers and other underground workers, as well as by those of all underground and all
surface workers is given.
DISTRIBUTION

OF

THE

TOTAL

EARNINGS

AMONG

DIFFERENT

CATEGORIES O F W O R K E R S

(In Percentages of the Total Actual Earnings)
Underground workers
Countries and districts
Hewers 1 Other |

Germany — R u h r . . .
Great Britain
Czechoslovakia
G e r m a n y — U p p e r Silesia
„
— Saxony . .

1

Cf Part One, Chapter I, § 3.

52
46
40
34
26
23
35
40
23

32
38
38
43
51
54
40
35
46

All

84
84
78
77
77
77
75
75
69

Surface
workers

Underground and
surface
workers

16
16
22
23
23
23
25
25
31

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

.

— 88 —
In order to show more clearly the results of Table II, the
percentages of the total amount of actual earnings accruing to
these main categories of workers are given in the table on page 87.
The countries (and districts) are given in the descending order
as determined by the percentage of all underground workers'
earnings. The percentages are not likely to vary much according
as account is or is not taken of employers' contributions to social
insurance. An outstanding feature of these figures is that the
portion of aggregate actual earnings accruing to hewers varies
considerably (from over one-half to less than one-fourth), while the
portion accruing to all underground workers taken together is
sensibly more equal, being about 70-80 per cent, of the total
wages bill. This seems to prove the remark made above that
the category of "hewers" does not mean exactly the same thing
in the different countries and districts.
C. — MANSHIFTS (DAYS) WORKED

§ 10. The number of manshifts worked forms the necessary
basis of the calculation of average earnings per manshift and
per hour, and, in so far as it is utilised for ascertaining the
average number of workers, of the calculation of average annual
earnings. It is, therefore, very desirable that this basic measure
should be computed according to uniform principles for the
different countries.
The result of the theoretical examination of the different
methods was that the most satisfactory procedure would be to
ascertain (a) the number of "normal manshifts", i.e. those
comprising the legal or statutory number of hours, plus (b) the
number of "overtime" shifts and (c) that of "supplementary
manshifts", i.e. the hours worked overtime and in addition to the
normal shift, converted to manshifts of ordinary length, plus (d)
the number of "short-time manshifts", i.e. the hours comprised
in short shifts (especially on week-ends) converted to manshifts
of ordinary length. In practice, short-time shifts may be*
for the sake of convenience, counted as normal manshifts, and
item (d) may be neglected ; the possible number of hours
lost from normal manshifts on account of short time, expressed
in terms of manshifts of ordinary length, should then be
deducted from the total 1.
1
Hours of work underground are reported to be generally reduced at
week-ends only in certain districts of Great Britain, the Netherlands,
and Poland (Dombrowa).

— 89 —

TABLE II.

—

DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL WAGES BILL AMONG

DIFFERENT

CATEGORIES OF W O R K E R S I N T H E E U R O P E A N COAL I N D U S T R Y ,

1925

(National Currency— 000's Omitted)
Total actual earnings, wcloding employer!'
contributions to social insurance
Countrj. district
and unit of currencf

Underground workers
Hsvreri

Olners

Total

Surface
workers
Total

Total actual earnings, including taiployere'
contributions to social insurance
Underground workers
. Hewers

|

Otters

Total

Surface
workers
Total

Germany ( R.M.) :

Ruhr
418,612 245,515 664,127 129,719 465,901 277,416 743,317 144,665
61,721 (a)17,340
36,122
Upper Silesia . . 15,599
33,667 (a)ll,289
17,832
15,736
Belgium (Fr.) . .
France ( F r . ) . . . 602,158 1,181,320 1,783,478 539,728 642,126 1,261,018 1,903,144 574,996
Great Britain (£). 65,811
52,901 118,712 23,152 68,564
55,114 123,678 24,121
Netherlands (¿>)
(Gulden) . 14,591
18,497
33,088
9,671
Poland (Zloty) :
93,572 37,134 34,536
62,935
70,943 103,479 41,858
30,637
Dombrowa . . .
18,289
24,607 15,152
26,970 16,607
16,687
8,681
7,920
Whole country . 41,635
93,343 139,954 61,997
83,350 124,985 55,489 46,611
Saar(Fr.) . . . . 222,267 194,351 416,618 138,782
Czechoslov.(Kc):
Ostrava-Karvina 191,439 173,225 364,664 89,962
Kladno-Rakovnik 40,886
43,740
84,626 32,089
Whole country 270,168 253,319 523,477 147,996 307,154 288,464 595,618 168,344
(a) Including ancillary establishments. Total actual earnings of surface workers, excluding
these establishments, were R.M. 15,841,000 in Upper Silesia, and this figure has been used in the
calculation of averages. Corresponding figure is not available for Saxony.
(b) Excluding allowances in kind, payments for holidays, as well as employers' contributions.

— 90 —
Information on these lines is available for Germany (Prussia)
and Great Britain only. The British figures relating to normal
manshifts are based on an estimate, arrived at by deducting
from the total number of manshifts, as given in the regular
mining statistics, the number of overtime manshifts, as estimated
by the Mining Association of Great Britain. Also the Polish
statistics received make a distinction between normal manshifts,
on the one hand, and overtime and supplementary manshifts,.
on the other, but do not allow for short-time, a fact which,
however, is of minor importance and hardly affects the general
comparability of the figures with those given for Germany and
Great Britain. The data obtained for other countries and districts are less complete. Thus, Germany (Saxony), the Saar
district, and Czechoslovakia only give the aggregate number
of normal, overtime, and supplementary manshifts, but do not
give separately the number of normal manshifts.
On the other hand, the statistics of Belgium, France, and
Netherlands do not calculate the number of manshifts at all,
but give simply the number of days of attendance (journées
de presence) or days worked.
The difference between these methods of calculating the number of manshifts and days, and its implications as to average
wages, have been sufficiently discussed above 1. Provided that
overtime is not worked in any appreciable degree (short-time
may be neglected in this connection), the total number of
manshifts and the days of attendance mean the same thing.
Now, it is understood that in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, practically no overtime or supplementary shifts were
worked in 1925, and were worked to a rather small extent in
the Saar Territory and Czechoslovakia. Consequently, the
data available for these countries, although ascertained according
to different methods, may be considered as roughly comparable
among themselves and with those given for the other countries.
In the case of Saxony, however, the number of manshifts cannot
be taken as representing at the same time the number of days
worked.
§ 11. For the sake of clearness, it seems advisable to divide
Table III relating t o manshifts and days worked in two parts.
The first part gives the total number of manshifts (i.e. normal
1

Cf. Part One, Chapter III, § 11.

— 91

TABLE I I I .

NUMBER O F MANSHIFTS AND DAYS W O R K E D

I N T H E E U R O P E A N COAL I N D U S T R Y , 1 9 2 5

(000's Omitted)
Total number of dajs normal manshifts
worked

Total number of manshifts worked

faii.'rj and district

By underground Wirkers
Hewers 1 Others

Germany :
49.574 38,725
Ruhr
Upper Silesia. . . 1J994 7,039
2,207 2,868
Belgium (a):
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France (6)
Great Britain. . . .
Netherlands (b). . .
Poland :
Dombrowa. . . .
Whole countiy . .
Czechoslovakia (c) :
Ostrava-Karvina .
Kladno-Rakovnik.
Whole country .

Total

surface
workers

underground
and surface
workers

Bj underground workers
Hewers

88,299 21,783 110,082 4 8 , 5 3 1
9,033 3,344 12,377 1,913
5,075 (a)2,004 (a) 7,079

Otters

Total

3,321
855
5.074

14,373
4,095
19,743
13,868

7,083 21,456 3,431
923
3,333 7,428
11,252 30,995 4,772
5,435 19,303

4,321
7,642 2,244
1,128
1,983
935
6,505 11,579 4,052

Bjundarground and
surface
workers

37,614 86,145 20,426 106,571
6,573 8,486 3,104 11,690
(o)8,662

1,983
7,813 9,796
1,436
6,788 8,224
1,635
5,586 7,221
6,497 26,597 33,094
18,040 40,734 58,774
206,076 54,899 260,975 87,897 105,211 193,108
2,349
3,771 6,120
3,459 10,914
938 3,157
4,819 14,924
6,589 7,279

surface
workers

5,325 15,121
3,504 11.728
3,082 10,303
15,824 48,918
24,507 83,281
52,280 245,388
2,381
8,501

10,484 13,915 6,579 20,494
3.034 3,957 3,006 6,963
14,359 19,131 10,369 29,500

9,886
2,918
15,631

(a) Including ancillary establishments.
(ft) The number of days worked is practically equal to that of manshifts worked.
(c) The number of manshifts worked is nearly equal to that of days worked.

— 92 —
plus overtime, supplementary, and, if available, short-time
manshifts) ; and the second, the number of days of attendance
which corresponds to that of the total number of manshifts,
less overtime, supplementary and short-time manshifts, i.e.
the number of normal manshifts. It follows from the above
review that Belgium, France, and the Netherlands do not
figure in the first part, as Germany (Saxony), the Saar Territory,
and Czechoslovakia do not appear in the second.
Finally, it should be noted that the number of manshifts
(days) is given separately for hewers, other underground workers
and surface workers, as the data concerning the wages bill.
In the case of Great Britain, however, separate figures relating
to the manshifts worked by hewers and other underground
workers are not given because this classification is established
on a different basis in the statistics of manshifts and in those
of days.
An examination of the. table shows, in the first place, that
there is a difference between the number of all manshifts and
that of days worked in Germany, Great Britain, and Poland,
which give both figures. This difference is highest in Upper
Silesia where the former number (for all workers) exceeds the
latter by €.9 per cent., and in Great Britain, where the corresponding percentage is 6.4.
The relative importance of work performed by the different
categories of mine-workers will be seen from the table on
page 93. For the sake of simplicity, the percentages relating
to manshifts and days are given together : these percentages
are in fact likely to be much the same whether calculated on the
basis of manshifts or days. The order of countries and districts
is as determined by the percentage of manshifts (days) Worked
by all underground workers.
In general, the differences in the percentages of manshifts
(days) worked b y the different categories of workers are similar
to those shown in regard to the distribution of total earnings.
It should, however, be noted that the portion of the aggregate
earnings accruing to hewers is somewhat higher than the proportion of manshifts (days) worked by them. This simply
indicates that hewers are paid more per manshift (day) than
other workers ; and this question will be examined in detail
in a subsequent section.

— 93 —
IMPORTANCE OF T H E MANSHIFTS (DAYS) W O R K E D BY D I F F E R E N T
CATEGORIES OF W O R K E R S

(In Percentages of Total Manshifts (Days) Worked)
Surface
workers

Underground
and
surface
workers

Underground workers
Country and districts

Germany—Ruhr . .
Great Britain . . .
Czechoslovakia . .
Germany—Saxony .
„
—Upper
Silesia.
Netherlands....

Hewers

Others

AH

45
36
32
32

35
43
42
42

80
79
74
74

20
21
26
26

100
100
100
100

16
28
34
22
13
16

57
44
' 38
49
54
4S

73
72
72
71
67
64

27
28
28
29
33
36

100
100
100
100
100
100

D. — MANSHIFTS (DAYS) LOST

§ 12. The number of manshifts and days lost is required
for the calculation of average annual earnings where the average
number of workers is calculated by allowing for this item.
Moreover, this number is of interest as throwing light upon the
conditions of labour in the coal industry in which the time lost,
for various reasons, often represents a more important element
than in manufacturing industries.
Manshifts or days lost have been divided into two chief groups,
distinguished according as (i) the mines were operating or (ii)
were idle ; time lost when the mines were working is subdivided
according as the absence of miners is (a) voluntary or (b) involuntary. The number of shifts lost on days when the mines were
operating is recorded in colliery books. The number lost when
the mines were not working is usually based upon the average
number of days when the mine was not working multiplied by
the average number of workers regularly employed, allowance
being made for any manshifts worked on those days ; hence
this number is necessarily only an estimate.
The classification of time lost is different in the German
statistics, which give data relating to (i) time lost owing to
"personal grounds", i.e., on account of sickness, holidays,
voluntary absence of workers, as well as strikes and lockouts,
and (ii) time lost "due to the establishment", i.e. owing to
want of trade and wagons, as well as on account of breakdowns.

— 94 —
The principal difference arises from the classification of time
lost due to strikes and lockouts : even when they affect the
•whole establishment, the time lost on account of them is counted
as due to "personal causes" in the German statistics. Apart
from this point, group (0) may be taken as representing time
lost when mines were working, and group (b) as representing
time lost when mines were idle K On the other hand, no distinction between voluntary and involuntary absenteeism of
workers can be made on the basis of statistics for Germany
(Prussia).
Again, the Czechoslovakian statistics give a series of headings
which can be conveniently arranged under the three main
titles adopted above : time lost on account of paid holidays
and absence without motive is classed as "voluntary absence" ;
sickness and other absence is taken as "involuntary absence" ;
want of trade and transport difficulties, as Well as strikes and
lockouts as representing time lost when the mine was idle.
The Netherlands, finally, do not furnish any information as
to shifts lost when the mines were not operating.
Other countries and districts—Belgium, France, Great Britain,
and the Saar—have followed the standard classification mentioned above. In Great Britain, however, the division between
voluntary and involuntary absence is based on an estimate,
involuntary absence being taken as representing 4 1 / a per cent,
of the total of manshifts which could have been worked when
the mines were working 2.
The information secured, therefore, is not quite complete,
and is not based on entirely uniform methods : but the differences
are generally of secondary importance and, with the reservations
made above, rough comparisons may be attempted. The
main difference arises from the fact that, manshifts lost on
account of strikes and lockouts are classed differently in the
German statistics than in other statistics. In fact, it would
be better to establish a special group for this kind of time
lost, but this is not possible on the basis of information
available *.
1
2

Cf. Part One, Chapter III, § 13.
This figure was adopted by the Royal Commission on the Coal
Industry (1925). The Miners' Federation of Great Britain, on the
other hand, maintains that thisfigureshould be higher.
* This question, it may be noted, is of little direct importance for the:
present enquiry.

— 95 —
§ 13. A summary of figures secured from the different
countries is presented in Table IV (page 96). There is evidently
no need to make a distinction between manshifts and days of
attendance in this table. The figures are given separately for
underground and surface workers.
The Belgian figures have been furnished by employers, the
official statistics containing no information as to this point ;
moreover, in these statistics, separate figures do not exist for
time lost under and above ground.
Since the proportion of time lost will influence both the
calculated average number of workers, as well as the level of
average annual earnings, it will be of interest to compare the
proportion which the number of manshifts (days) lost bears to
the total of manshifts (days) worked and lost in the different
countries. These percentages, which refer to the total of mine
workers, are as follows :
IMPORTANCE OF TIME LOST, 1925
(Jn Percentages of Total of Manshifts (Days) Worked and Lost)
Manshifts (days) lost
Country and district

„

—Upper Silesia . . .

France
Belgium .

When
When
mines were mines were
idle
working

6.5
7.1
8.8
10.4
9.7
12.1
9.0
8.8
6.3
6.9

(a) Less than 0.1 per cent.

15.0
12.5
11.1
3.5
3.5
(a)
0.2
(b)
1.5
0.3

(b) Figure not

Total

21.7
19.6
19.9
13.9
13.2
12.1
9.2
(b)
7.8
7.2
available.

Total of
manshifts
(days)
worked
and lost

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

It should be noted that these figures refer to one year only,
which was an exceptional year in some countries, and should
not be taken as representative of general conditions in the
mining industry of different countries.
The differences between the various countries as to the relative
importance of time lost are striking. About one-fifth of the
working time was lost in 1925 in Czechoslovakia, Great Britain,
and Poland. In the western coal-fields of Continental Europe,

— 96 —

TABLE IV.

N U M B E R OF MANSHIFTS (DAYS) LOST IN T H E E U R O P E A N
COAL I N D U S T R Y ,
(000's

Omitted)

Distribution of manshifts
lost, by causes
Country and district

Germany :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia (o) .
Saxony (a). . . .
Belgium :
Charleroi
Liège
Couchant de Mous
Whole Country . .
France
Great Britain. . . .
Netherlands . . . .
Poland :
Silesia
Dombrowa . . .
"Whole Country . .
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina .
Kladno-Rakovnik.
1 Whole Country . .

1925

Distribution of manshifts lost,
by categories of workers

When the mine was
Underground
working, owing to When
the mine
Volun- Involun- was not
working Hewers Others
tarytary
Total
absence absence

12,380

4,270

1,292

464
3

307

610

758
733
156

392
407
323

1,917
3,461
8,446

1,402
4,836
12,695

294

523

1,087

1,065

3,038

538

291

662

1,769

158
184
339
781
132
46,919

(&)

1,475
1,025

4,076

407
289
117
489

626
121
893

1,662

65

445

2,421

—
—

—
—

—

—
—
—

14,662
1,341

705

Above
ground

2,488
415
215

,
.—

—
2,119

—
—
__
—
—
—
952
192

1,346

4,375

—
—
—
—
—
—

—
—
—
6,494 1,935
56,305 11,755

677

140

3,744
1,001
5,226

1,446
490
2,094

—

1,253

2,205

316

508

1,802

3,148

(a) Including ancillary establishments, (b) Figure not available.

372
175
655

— 97 —
t h e relative amount of time lost was less than one-tenth. The
German coal fields are, in this respect-, in an intermediate position.
With regard to the distribution of the time lost among the
two principal classes, too; marked differences are shown. In
-Great Britain, Czechoslovakia, and Poland the loss of time was
mainly due to commercial or technical difficulties which necessitated the closing down of mines ; about two-thirds of total
time lost were due to these causes. Conversely, the absenteeism
-(voluntary and involuntary) of workers was the main source
of time lost in other countries, where indeed the proportion
of this loss in general was considerably smaller. The number
of manshifts (days) lost owing to the non-operation of the
mines was quite negligible in France, the Saar, and Saxony.
Table IV affords further conclusions in respect of the relative
importance of the different kinds of workers' absenteeism.
"Though this question is not immediately relevant to the present
enquiry, it may be worth while to observe that involuntary
.absence of workers appeared generally to be more frequent
than their voluntary absenteeism. The contrary was true,
however, in the case of Belgium and Poland.
E.

— NUMBER OF WORKERS EMPLOYED

§ 14. The number of workers employed in and about the
mines is the divisor by which the total wages bill is divided
in order to get the average annual earnings. As has been
pointed out, two different methods of calculation of this divisor
may be employed for this purpose, giving respectively (i)
the average number of workers, and (ii) the number of fulltime workers.
In view of the primary object of the enquiry which is to
throw light on the conditions of work of coal-mines, stress
should be laid on the average number of workers, which alone
can give the number of persons really in receipt of wages from
the mine and can relate earnings to consumption. The number
of full-time workers shows what the number of workers would
have been if all workers had been regularly employed all the
time. The adequate method will therefore be to take as basis
the average number of workers ; but the number of full-time
workers is also given for the sake of comparison.
It is clear that the average number of workers and the number
•of full-time workers agree when no overtime is worked, and when
7

— 98 —
the mine is operating and all workers are present, every day
on which work can ordinarily be done. In all other cases the
latter number is bound to be lower than the former.
The information furnished by the "different countries is very
heterogeneous. Both figures are calculated in the existing
statistics of Germany ; while the statistics of other countries
only give one number of workers. Secondly, these figures
have been calculated according to different methods. Thus*
the average number of workers available for Great Britain
is simply an arithmetic average of the number of workers a t
certain pay-days on the colliery books ; the Saar and Polish
statistics are based on a similar method. The statistics of
Belgium, France, and the Netherlands obtain the average
number of workers by dividing the total number of days of
attendance actually worked by the average number of days on
which mines were operating. Again, in the German statistics,
the sum of normal manshifts (excluding overtime and supplementary manshifts) worked, plus manshifts lost, is divided by
the number of possible working days of the year. Finally,
the Czechoslovakian statistics do not give a true average number
at all, but calculate a kind of number of full-time workers.
It is clear that these different methods of calculation will give
results which are not altogether comparable. A recalculation
of these basic numbers according to uniform principles will,
therefore, be necessary.
The most satisfactory result is obtained by a method which
allows for the lost time, as shown in the theoretical discussion 1 .
If the number of days on which pits were open is unknown,
then the German method, which includes the number of manshifts lost in the dividend and takes the number of possible
working days as the divisor, will prove most adequate. It is
largely for this purpose that the number of manshifts (days)
lost has been ascertained.
The relevant calculations have been effected according to
these principles. As a matter of fact, the average number of
coal-winding days for the whole country or district has been
given only exceptionally ; on the other hand, the number of
possible working days is either known or, if not known, may be

1

Cf. Part One, Chapter III, § 13.

— 99 —
taken as equal to 300 *. Therefore, it has seemed advisable
to employ the method which consists in the division of the
total of normal manshifts (days) worked and those lost, by the
number of the possible working days of the year. The figures
given for Germany are based on this method, and similar calculations are made for Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Poland,
the Saar, and Czechoslovakia, since the necessary elements are
available. The average number for Great Britain, however, is
that given by the Mines Department, i.e. calculated on the
basis of colliery books 2.
§ 15. The number of full-Lime workers, too, has been ascertained in statistics which employ this measure, according tosomewhat different methods. In Germany, this number is
calculated, for each undertaking, by dividing the number of
normal manshifts worked (excluding overtime and supplementary manshifts) by the number of possible working days ; the
average number of possible working days, neccessary when the
calculation refers to a district, is obtained by dividing the
sum of normal manshifts worked in the district by the sum of
full-time workers as calculated for each undertaking. In
British statistics, again, the number of full-time workers has been
obtained by multiplying the average number of persons employed,
as recorded from the colliery books, by the number of all manshifts worked, and dividing this product by the number of
manshifts which "could have been worked" (i.e. manshifts
worked plus manshifts lost). The two methods will lead in
practice to nearly the same results, provided that the number of
"normal manshifts" worked is utilised in both ; but the results
will be different in the converse case, i.e. if overtime is worked
and the number of "overtime manshifts" is taken into account
in the British method.
1
The number of "possible working days of the year" is given for
Germany, Ruhr: 303, Upper Silesia : 298, Saxony: 302; and Czechoslovakia : 310. In France, the number of "coal-winding days" is given :
301.2 for underground, 301.6 for surface, and 301.3 for all workers;
and may in this case be taken as approximately equal to the number
of possible working days. This latter number is assumed in all other
cases to be equal to 300.
2
If the average number is calculated for Great Britain according to
the same method (in principle more adequate) as for other countries,
the result does not differ much from that given in the statistics of the
Mines Department.

— 100 —

T A B L E V.

AVERAGE N U M B E R OF W O R K E R S AND N U M B E R O F FULL-TIME
W O R K E R S I N T H E E U R O P E A N COAL I N D U S T R Y , 1 9 2 5

Average uumber ol workers
Country and district

Underground
Hewers Others j Total

Above
ground

Number of full-time workers

Under
Under
Underground
Above and
and
ground above
above Hewers Others Total
ground
ground

Germany :
187,334 145,460 332,794 75,647 408,441 160,216 124,175 284,391 67,434 351,825
Ruhr. . . .
7,425 25,552 32,977 11,738
44.715 6,418 22,059 28,477 10,415 38,892
Upper Silesia
7,919 10,322 18,241 («)6,873 (a) 25,114 6,966 8,943 15,909 («)6,162 (a)22,071
Saxony . . .
Belgium :
54,763 6,610 26,043 32,653 17,750 50,403
Charleroi . .
43,507 4,787 22,627 27,414 11,680 39,094
Liège . . . .
37,070 5,450 18,620 24,070 10,273 34,343
Couchant de Mons
176,727 21,657 88,657 110,314 52,747 163,061
Whole country
66,930 149,766 216,696 87,670 304,366 58,497 136,636 195,133 81,257 276,390
France
Great Britain . . 403,200 439,400 842,600 197,900 1,040,500 308,000 353,000 661,000 163,300 824,300
22,657 8,403
Netherlands. . . ,
31,060 7,827 12,570 20,397 7,937 28,334
Poland :
14,753 44,110 58,863 26,752
85,615 11,437 34,946 46,383 21,930 68,313
Silesia . . . .
3,842 12,629 16,471 11,616
28,087 3,066 10,080 13,146 9,987 23,133
Dombrowa . .
20,498 60,619 81,117 41,493 122,610 15,890 47,822 63,712 34,521 98,233
Whole country
69,333 21,963 24,263 46,226 18,117 64,343
Saar
,
Czechoslovakia:
13,782 17,983 31,765 8,436
40,201 10,713 13,939 24.652 7,239 31,891
Ostrava-Karvina
11,618 2,758 3,639 6397 3,016
9,413
3,376 4,658 8,034 3.584
Kladno-Rakovnik
62.693 16,368 20,984 37,352 13,071 50,423
20,711 26,797 47,508 15,185
Whole country.
(a) Including ancillary establishments.

— 101 —
The number of full-time workers given in the Czechoslovakian
statistics represents a different thing ; it is calculated simply by
adding up the numbers of workers as recorded in colliery books
at each pay-day (every two weeks) and by dividing the sum by
the number of pay-days included in the year (26), whatever the
actual working time of the mines. The figure arrived at, in
cases when one or several days are not worked during a pay
period, does not correspond exactly to the number of full-time
workers as understood in the present report 1 .
In order to render the statistics as comparable as possible,
the number of full-time workers has been calculated in all cases
according to a simple uniform method, that is to say, by dividing
the number of normal manshifts, or days, worked, by the
number of the possible working days of the year. It is to
be observed that although the number of normal manshifts is
lacking for Saxony, the number of full-time workers, computed
according to the indicated method, has been supplied, and that
in the case of the Saar and Czechoslovakia where little, if any,
overtime has been worked in 1925, the number of manshifts
can be taken as representing fairly the number of days worked.
The number of possible working days is, in each case, the same
as that used in the calculation of the average number of workers.
§ 16. The results of the figures obtained as to the number
of workers employed in and about the mines are given in Table
V. The average number of workers is given separately from the
number of full-time workers ; and several of the calculations
have been made by the International Labour Office on the lines
explained above. Both numbers are computed for the different
categories of workers (hewers, other underground workers, all
underground workers and surface workers) for all countries
except for Belgium and the Saar district, which give the number
of days lost only for the total of workers, and for which the
average number therefore can be shown only for all mine
workers ; further, the average number of hewers is not available
for the Netherlands.
As may be expected, the number of full-time workers
is lower than the average number in all countries. This
difference is, however, not the same in the various countries and
districts, as will be seen from the following figures :
1

Cf. Part I, Chapter III, § 14.

— 102 —
N U M B E R OF

FULL-TIME

WORKERS

AS

A

PERCENTAGE

O F T H E AVERAGE NUMBER O F W O R K E R S

Saar
Belgium
Netherlands
France
Germany : Saxony
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Czechoslovakia
Poland
Great B r i t a i n

92.8
92.3
91.2
90.8
87.1
87.0
86.1
80.4
80.1
79.2

'

The number of full-time workers thus is about 10 per cent.
or more below the average number in most countries ; even 20
per cent, less in Great Britain, Poland and Czechoslovakia,
which is explained by the peculiar circumstances of 1925 involving
a large time loss. It follows that if the calculation of wages is
based on the full-time worker, the average annual earnings
will be considerably higher than if the "average worker" is
taken as basis.
It goes without saying that the percentages of the total of
mine-workers, represented by the various categories of workers
under and above ground, are generally similar to those found
in preceding sections, since the numbers of workers employed
are calculated on the basis of the number of manshifts (days)
worked and lost. These percentages, calculated on the basis
of the average number of workers where possible will be seen
in the following table, where countries are arranged in the
descending order of the percentage of all underground workers.
IMPORTANCE OF D I F F E R E N T CATEGORIES OF M I N E W O R K E R S , 1 9 2 5

(In Percentages of all

Mine-Workers)

Underground workers
Country and district
Hewers 1 Others

Germany : R u h r
Great Britain .
Czechoslovakia
Germany :
Upper Silesia

All

UnderSurface 1 ground and
surface
workers
workers

. .
. .
. .

46
39
33

35
42
43

81
81
76

19
19
24

100
100
100

. .

17
32
22
28
34
13
17

57
42
50
. 44
38
55
49

74
74
72
72
72
68
66

26
26
28
28
28
32
34

100
100
100
100
100
100
100

France
Netherlands (a) . .
Saar (a).
. . . . .
Belgium (a) . . . .
Poland

(a) Percentages based on the number of full-time workers, because the average number
is partly unknown.

— 103 —
It appears clearly that the "hewer" cannot represent the
same category of workers in the different statistics. Apart
from this, marked differences are to be noticed in the proportional numbers of underground and surface workers in the
various countries. It is difficult to say, however, by what
natural, economic and technical factors these differences are
caused. The fact itself no doubt has some bearing upon the
level of wages and the labour cost of production.
F . — COMPARISON

OF

AVERAGE EARNINGS
TERMS OF GOLD

EXPRESSED

IN

§ 17. The average earnings obtained on the basis of elements
which have been passed under review above, are expressed in
the national currency of each country. They are, of course,
incomparable among themselves.
In order to render them comparable they might be expressed
in terms of gold, which is the common measure of value in the
world's economy. Thus average earnings expressed in terms
•of gold will show the purchasing power of these wages in the
international market.
The comparisons which will be made on this basis are subject
to important reservations. In the first place, in countries
where the national currency has not been stable in relation to
gold throughout the year 1925, the total wages bill (on which
the calculations of average earnings are based) is expressed in
terms of a monetary unit, the value of which has changed during
the period considered ; this flaw is corrected only partly by
taking into account the average gold value of the national
monetary unit i. Secondly—and this is a more important
point—average earnings expressed in terms of gold will indicate
the cost of labour per a time unit ; but they do not provide
.a true index of workers' standard of living. For workers are
using their earnings for buying, in their own country, commodities and services the prices of which, expressed in terms of gold,
are not identical in the different countries. Therefore, it is
indispensable to calculate and compare average earnings in
terms of the prices of commodities, i.e. their internal purchasing
power. Nevertheless, it is of interest to compute the average
earnings in terms of gold as showing the discrepancy between
the international and internal value of the wages.
1

This will be more obvious when wages are compared over several
years.

— 104 —
Average earnings may be most suitably "expressed in terms.
of gold" by converting them to the basis of the gold franc.
The conversion of the national currencies to "gold francs"'
has been effected with reference to the cost of the dollar, which.
is assumed to represent gold : the cost at par of 100 dollars in
francs (518.26), multiplied by 100, is divided by the product of
the cost at par of the dollar in the national currency concerned,
and the percentage which the cost of the dollar was, on averagein 1925, of its cost at par in the same currency 1 ; the result.
gives the value of 100 units of the national currency in "gold
francs". For instance, the conversion of the Reichsmark is.
effected as follows :
, H „„
518.26 x 100
R . M . 1 0 0 = 4 1979 x l O O X ^
n l

.no
123

,,„
00
-33 g°ld francs-

The gold franc values of the different currencies utilised are
shown in the following calculations 2 :
Gold francs

Germany
R.M. 100 =
Belgium
Francs 100 =
France a n d t h e Saar Territory Francs 100 =
Great B r i t a i n
£1 =
Netherlands
Guldens 100 =
Poland
Zloty 100 =
Czechoslovakia
Kc. 100 =

123.33
24.67
24.71
25.02
208.09
92.00
15.37

§ 18. Average earnings are calculated for (a) hewers ; (b)
other underground workers ; (c) all underground workers, i.e.
the total of (a) and (b) ; (d) surface workers ; and (e) all mineworkers taken together
It has been repeatedly pointed out above that a gross average
for all mine-workers would have little real significance, owing
to the large variety of crafts employed in mines. In theory,
it would be convenient to base the international comparisons.
mainly on the average earnings of a definite groups of workers,.
viz. hewers ; in practice, however, this would be misleading.
The natural conditions and the methods of work are so different
in the various countries (and even in the various coal-fieldsof the same country), that the data relating to the number
of manshifts (days) worked and lost by hewers, and the number
1

This percentage is calculated on t h e basis of t h e New York rate of
exchange of each currency. See LEAGUE OF NATIONS : Monthly Bulletin
of Statistics, Table X I V ("Value of Gold").
2
These rates correspond approximately, though not exactly, to the-.
rates in Swiss francs.

— 105 —

of hewers, are not comparable. It appears that the work done
by "hewers" is different in different countries ; and what is
comprised under "hewers" in one country is included under
"other underground workers" in another country. The group
of "all underground workers", although very general and
heterogeneous, seems to provide a more suitable basis for
international comparisons than the group of hewers. As
regards surface workers, their work is entirely different from
that of underground workers, and their average earnings
evidently are of minor importance in an enquiry into the
wages in the coal-mining industry.
It may be very instructive to calculate separately the average
earnings of an adult male underground worker for all countries.
But it has been seen in the preceding analysis that this is
also impossible owing to the considerable differences in the
statistics of the various countries.
§ 19. The basic time measure to which earnings are to be
related is the manshift or day. The average earnings per manshift
(day) are calculated by dividing the aggregate earnings by the
total number of manshifts (day). Both the dividend and the
divisor may be chosen according to different principles.
The total wages bill, corresponding to "total actual earnings",
is taken as the dividend. For reasons set forth above \ this
amount is calculated in two ways, viz. (a) excluding employers'
contributions to social insurance, and (b) including the same.
As has been mentioned above, the amount of employers'contributions is not known for Germany (Upper Silesia), and the Saar
Territory, for the different districts of Czechoslovakia, nor
for the different categories of workers in Germany (Saxony).
Moreover, the distribution of the aggregate actual earnings
among the different categories of workers is not available for
Belgium and the Netherlands.
The divisors, again, are both (i) the total number of manshifts,
including supplementary and overtime manshifts, and (ii) the
total number of days of attendance, corresponding to that of
"normal manshifts". In principle, both these numbers should
be taken into consideration in each case. This distinction is
made for reasons of principle and method, as well as for the
sake of actual comparison, as the figures will be influenced to
a not inconsiderable degree by the different methods employed.
1

Cf. Part One, Chapter III, § 7, and also § 6 of this chapter.

— 106 —
As a matter of fact, however, both the number of manshifts and
that of days of attendance are available for three countries only,
viz. Germany (Prussia), Great Britain, and Poland ; for Germany
{Saxony) and Czechoslovakia, the number of days of attendance
is lacking, and for Belgium, France, and the Netherlands the
number of manshifts. This would tend, other things being equal,
to render the averages given for the three last-named countries
too high as compared with the averages for the districts of
Saxony, the Saar, and Czechoslovakia. In practice, however,
this point is of little, if any, importance, owing to the fact that
in all the countries concerned (except Saxony) a day is practically
•equivalent to a shift 1 .
The averages given for the different categories of workers
in Belgium and the Netherlands are only approximate. It
will be remembered that Belgium has not furnished information
as to the distribution of the total wages bill among the various
categories of workers ; however, these statistics give the average
money wages per day (excluding allowances and similar payments) for hewers, all underground workers, and all mineworkers. On the other hand, the Netherlands show, for the
different categories of workers, only the sum of net money wages,
workmen's contributions and allowances in cash (excluding
allowances in kind, payments for holidays, etc.), and from these
data average money wages per day can be calculated for each
category. It will now be easy to ascertain the ratio by which
average "actual earnings" of all mine-workers (calculated on
the basis of data in Tables I and III) exceed their average
"'money wages" (calculated from data furnished by the Belgian
and Dutch statistics). In order to render figures given for
Belgium and the Netherlands comparable with the others,
it has been assumed that the ratio which the unknown items
of earnings, bear to the money wages is the same for each category
of workers as for the total of workers ; average actual earnings
are thus obtained by increasing the average money wages by a
given ratio (9.5 to 11.3 per cent, for the different coal-fields
of Belgium ; 13.5 per cent, in the case of the Netherlands).
Table.VI (pages 108-109), where the results of the above
calculations are presented, is divided into two main sections :
(A) average earnings, excluding employers' contributions to
social insurance, per manshift (day), and (B) average earnings,
1

Cf§ 10 of this chapter.

— 107 —
including employers' contributions, per manshift (day). Both
tables are further subdivided into two sections, giving the
averages in national currency and in gold francs respectively.
The first point to which attention should be drawn is the
difference between the averages computed per manshift and
those calculated per day of attendance. The average per day
for all mine-workers is 7 per cent, higher than the average per
manshift in Great Britain and in German Upper Silesia and
5 per cent, higher in Poland.
In order to facilitate the comparison of the averages obtained
for the various countries and districts, the table below gives the
figures showing the average earnings expressed in terms of
gold francs converted to relative numbers. That is to say,
the highest average earnings are taken as basis equal to 100,
and the average earnings in other countries and districts are
related to this basis so as to express them in terms of relative
numbers. The highest average earnings, as will appear from
Table VI, are as a matter of fact those received in Great Britain.
RELATIVE LEVELS OF AVERAGE EARNINGS ( E X P R E S S E D IN GOLD)
PER MANSHIFT AND P E R DAY

(Base : Great Britain

=

100)

Manshift basis
Underground
workers

Country and district

Day basis

Surface
All
workers workers

Under- Surface
ground workers
workers

All
workers

(A) Excluding Employers' Contributions

Great Britain . .
Netherlands . .
Germany, R u h r .
Germany, Saxony
Saar
Germany :
Upper Silesia .
Czechoslovakia .

.
.
.
.

100
—
64
57
52

100
—
70
66
60

100
:
66
58
52

100
75
62
—
—

100
79
71
—
—

100
74
63
57
—

.
.

49
48
—
—
40

56
53
—
—
43

50
49
—
—
39

49
—
50
49
39

57
—
49
49
45

50
—
48
48
39

100
80
66

100
83
75

100
79
68
62

50
50
42

50
49
48

49
48
42

(B) Including Employers' Contributions

Great Britain . .
Netherlands . .
Germany, R u h r .
Germany, Saxony
Czechoslovakia .
France
Belgium
. . . .
Poland

100
—
69

100
—
75

52
—
—
43

58
—
—
46

100
—
70
62
53
—
—
42

— 108
TABLE V I .

AVERAGE EARNINGS P E R MANSHIFT AND PER DAY
I N THE E U R O P E A N GOAL I N D U S T R Y , 1 9 2 5

( A ) E X C L U D I N G E M P L O Y E R S ' C O N T R I B U T I O N S TO SOCIAL

Per manshift
Country, district
and unit
of currency

INSURANCE

Per day

Underground
Underground
Under
Under
Wor- Above
Above and
and
Workers ground
He- Others kers ground above
underabove
underwers
ground Hewers Others ground
ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings in National Currency

Germany ( E . M.) :
8 44
Euhr
Upper Silesia . 7.82
7 13
Belgium (Fr.) :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
. . . .
Couchant de
Mons. . . .
Whole country
France (Fr.) . .
Great Britain . .
Netherlands (Gulden) . . . .
Poland (Zloty) :
Silesia . . . . 8.8
Dombrowa . . 8.4
Whole country 8.6
Saar ( F r . ) . . . . 33.7
Czechoslovakia
(Kc):
Os trava- Karvina 57.64
KladnoEakovnik. . 47.82
Wliole country 53.24

6.34
5.13
6.22

7.52
5.73
6.66

5.96
4.74
5.63

7.21
5.46
6.34

8.63
8.16

6.53
5.50

34.25
34.97

lls.6d. 8s. 5d. lOs.lOd.

5.77
5.29
5.58
26.70

6.51
6.01
6.33
30.04

5.24
4.55
4.93
25.53

6.09
5.35
5.82
28.77

40.09

47.72

40.09

45.99

38.78
38.94

42.68
45.21

34.32
36.52

40.00
42.96

7.71
6.09

6.35
5.10

7.45
5.83
6.73

31.25
31.04

21.59
21.68

27.85
28.21

31.14
22.38 28.51
31.18
22.09 28.24
30.34
22.02 27.90
12s.4d. 8s.l0d. lls.7d.

33.58
34.45
33.38
15s.Od.

29.00
10s. I d .

6.40

5.05

5.57

4.18

5.18

8.93
8.58
8.72

6.00
5.60
5.80

6.72
6.22
6.53

5.64
5.04
5.35

6.38
5.71
6.12

9.51
7.51

7.83
6.29

9.19
7.19
• 8.30

8.45
8.63

7.71
7.66

5.33
5.32

6.87
6.96

8.28
8.50
8.25
18.77
13.32

7.17
12.61
10.51

7.68
7.69
7.50
15.43
11.59

5.52
5.45
5.44
11.05
8.70

7.03
6.97
6.89
14.49
10.78

8.22
7.89
8.02

5.52
5.06
5.34

6.18
5.72
6.01

5.19
4.64
4.92

5.87
5.25
5.63

(ii) Average Earnings in Gold Francs
Germany :
Euhr
10.41
Upper Silesia . 9.64
Saxony . . . . 8.79
Belgium :
Charleroi . . .
Couchant de
Mons . . .
Whole country
France
Great Britain . .
Netherlands . . .
Polands :
Silesia . . . . 8.15
Dombrowa . . 7.76
Whole country 7.95
8 33
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina 8.56
KladnoEakovnik. . 7.35
Whole country. 8.18

7.82
6.33
7.67

9.27
7.07
8.21

7.35
5.85
6.94

8.89
6.73
7.82

14.39

10.53

13.55

5.31
4.87
5.13
6.60

5.99
5.33
5.82
7.42

4.82
4.19
4.54
6.31

5.60
4.92
5.35
7.11

6.16

7.33

6.16

7.07

5.96
5.99

6.56
6.95

5.27
5.61

6.15
6.60

10.64
10.06

8.05
6.78

— 109 —
TABLE V I .

AVERAGE EARNINGS P E R MANSHIFT AND P E R D A Y
IN THE E U R O P E A N GOAL I N D U S T R Y ,

(B) INCLUDING

EMPLOYERS'

1925

CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL

Per day

Per manshift
Country, district
and unit
of currency

INSURANCE

Underground
Underground
Under
Under
Above and
Wor- Above
and
Workers ground
He- Others kers ground
underabove
above Hewers Others
underwers
ground
ground
ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings in National Currency

Germanv (R.M.) :
8.42
6.64
Ruhr'
9 40 7.16
Upper Silesia . .
Saxony
Belgium"(Fr.) :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France (Fr.) . . .
12s.0d. 8s.9d.
Great Britain . . .
Netherlands (Guld.)
Poland (Zloty) :
7.34
9 98 6.50
5.91
Dombrowa . . . 9.25 5.79
6.59
4.98
Whole country . 9.67 6.25
5.51
7.09
Saar (Fr.)
. . . .
Czechoslovakia (Kc)
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country . 60.53 44.34 51.44 41.55

8.07

9.60

8.63

7.38

7.08

7.60

7.16

lls.4d.
6.87
5.87
6.52

8.33

29.01
22.49
29.50
22.56
29.78
23.37
29.42
23.02
29.75
23.46
9s.3d. 12s.ld.
5.71
4.61

35.69
36.56
35.07
35.90
35.59
15s .7d.
7.05

30.96
10s.6d.
5.56

32.55
32.45
32.51
32.49
32.38
12s.l0d.
6.14

10.07
9.41
9.77

6.77
6.03
6.50

7.58
6.82
7.32

6.36
5.52
5.98

7.19
6.26
6.85

10.64

8.73

10.27

48.87

(ii) Average Earnings in Gold Francs
Germany :
11 59
Ruhr
Upper Silesia . .
Saxony
Belgium :
Charleroi . . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .

8.83

8.19

9.95

11.84

9.10

8.83

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .
Poland :
918
Dombrowa . . . 8.51
Whole country . 8.90
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country . 9.30

10.38

15.01 10.95

14.18

5.98
5.33
5.75

6.75
6.06
6.52

5.44
4.58
5.07

6.32
5.40
6.00

6.82

7.81

6.39

7.51

9.37
8.80
9.02
8.65
8.86
8.79
19.49
14.67
9.26
8.66
8.99

7.65
13.14
11.55

8.03
8.01
8.02
8.02
8.00
16.05
12.78

5.55
5.57
5.77
5.68
5.80
11.57
9.59

7.16
7.28
7.35
7.26
7.35
15.12
11.88

6.23
5.55
5.98

6.97
6.27
6.73

5.85
5.08
5.50

6.61
5.76
6.30

— na —
The relative numbers are computed separately for earnings,
(A) excluding and (B) including employers' contributions to social
insurance ; further (i) on the manshift basis, and (ii) on the day
(or "normal manshift") basis, and finally for the main categories
of workers. As regards the last-named division, it is to be
noted that the total number of manshifts worked by hewers in
Great Britain is not known, and consequently relative numbers
cannot be calculated for this category of workers ; this defect
is, however, as shown above, of minor importance.
It will be observed at the outset that the proportion of the
total wages bill, represented by employers' contributions is,
in Great Britain, smaller than in any other country (being
equal to that in Belgium l ) and consequently the relative numbers
calculated for other countries appear higher under (B) where
the item concerned is included in the average earnings. This
increase in the relative level of wages, due to the inclusion of
employers' contributions, varies from 1 to 5 per cent. Again,
owing to the fact that the total number of manshifts worked
in the basic country exceeds that of days of attendance more
than elsewhere (except in German Upper Silesia), the relative
numbers of other countries are, in general, somewhat higher as
calculated per manshift than as computed per day. The
difference due to this, however, is of little importance.
As regards, finally, earnings received by the main groups of
workers, it will be seen that, as a rule, relative numbers for
countries other than Great Britain referring to surface workersare higher than those relative to other groups of workers.
This indicates that, while the earnings of underground workers
exceed those of surface workers by about one-third in Great
Britain, the difference is smaller in other countries ; only Belgium
and France show the same proportion as the base country. It
appears, however, that this fact has little bearing upon the
relative level of all mine-workers' earnings, which generally
is similar to that obtained for underground workers.
According to these figures, the countries may be grouped, in
respect of the level of average (gold franc) earnings of mineworkers, in the following rough manner. Earnings in Great
Britain are considerably higher than those in. the Continental
countries. Among the latter, the Netherlands and the Ruhr
district of Germany form a class apart, the earnings in these
1

Cf. § 7 of this chapter.

— Ill —
districts attaining about three-fourths and two-thirds respectively of the British level. The Saxony district of Germany is
in an intermediate position between the Ruhr and the group
of Belgium, France, the Saar, German Upper Silesia, and Czechoslovakia, in which coal-fields the level of earnings is nearly equal
and approximately one-half of the level in Great Britain.
Finally, the level of earnings in Poland is decidedly lower than
in any other country, being less than two-fifths of the British
level of earnings.
§ 20. The average earnings per hour of work are calculated
simply by dividing the amount of average earnings per manshift
or per day of attendance by the number of actual hours worked.
In so far as the hours worked are substantially different in
different countries, this calculation will usefully complete the
international comparisons based on the average per manshift or
day.
The average hours of labour used as basis of the calculations
of average hourly earnings are those given above in the chapter
concerning hours of labour 1. It is to be noted that three
different concepts may be taken into consideration in respect of
hours of work underground, viz. (i) hours of attendance (i.e.
hours including travelling time and breaks) ; (ii) hours of attendance, excluding breaks, and (iii) hours at face. The two latter
are not available for Germany, and the Saar ; the hours of
attendance, excluding breaks, are not given for Great Britain.
The hours of work above ground refer to the length of
effective work, excluding breaks. These hours have not been
obtained for the Saar territory.
It is, moreover, to be noted that the average number of
hours refer, in general, to the shift and not to the day. For
countries in which no other basic figure than the amount of
average earnings per day of attendance is available, viz. Belgium,
France, and the Netherlands, the averages are calculated as
per day ; as it is known that overtime and supplementary shifts
•See Part Two, Chapter I, Tables I and II (with notes). It should be
added that, in the case of Poland, Dombrowa, the hours as indicated in
Table I are not used as such, since somewhat shorter hours are worked
underground at week-ends, and a daily average based on the weekly
hours must be calculated. The hours arrived at are then as follows :
Hours of attendance, 7 hours 40 minutes in Dombrowa, 7 hours 54
minutes in Poland as a whole ; the same, excluding breaks, 7 hours
2 minutes and 7 hours 15 minutes respectively ; hours at face, 5 hours
58 minutes and 6 hours 10 minutes respectively.

— 112 —
TABLE V I I . —

AVERAGE H O U R L Y E A R N I N G S
COAL I N D U S T R Y ,

(A) EXCLUDING

EMPLOYERS'

IN T H E EUROPEAN

1925

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO S O C I A L

INSURANCE

Per hour, /underground
Country, district
and unit of
currency

Hour of attendance
Hour of attendance
Hour at face
(including travelling
(excluding breaks)
time and breaks)
Workers
|
(Workers
(Workers
Hewers Others under- Hewers Others! under- Hewers Othersl underI
1 ground
1 ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings in National Currency

Germany (R.M.) :
Ruhr . . . .
Upper Silesia .
Saxony. . . .
Belgium "(Fr.) :
Charleroi . .
Liège . . . .
Couchant de Mons
Whole country
France (Fr.) :
Great Britain . .
Netherknds(Gulden)
Poland (Zloty):
Silesia . . . .
Dambrowa . .
Whole country
Saar (Fr.) :
Czechoslovakia (Kc.)
0 s trava- Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

1.06
0.92
0.89

0.79
0.60
0.78

4.37
4.47
4.29
4.40
4.32

0.94
0.67
0.83

0.93

0.81

0.87

1.14

1.00

3.99
3.96
3.98
3.98
3.75
3.92
— is.6y2d.

4.78
4.88
4.68
4.80
4.60

—
—
—

4.00

4.36
4.33
4.34
4.35
4.18

5.41
5.52
5.30
5.44
5.32

—

—

—

—

4.94
4.90
4.92
4.93
4.62
4.83
— 2s. Od.

0.78

0.62

0.68

0.83

0.66

0.73

1.04

1.11
1.10
1.09

0.72
0.69
0.71

0.81
0.78
0.80

1.21
1.20
1.19

0.79
0.75
0.77

0.89
0.85
0.87

1.41
1.41
1.40

0.92
0.89
0.90

1.04
1.01
1.03

4.50

3.56

4.01

7.77
6.45
7.18

5.41
5.23
5.25

6.43
5.75
6.10

8.33
6.91
7.70

5.80
5.61
5.63

6.90
6.17
6.54

9.74
8.08
9.00

6.78
6.55
6.58

8.06
7.21
7.64

—
—
—

1.07

—
—
—

0.82

.90

(ii) Average Earnings in Gold Francs

Germany :
Ruhr . . . .
Upper Silesia .
Saxony. . . .
Belgium :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France
. . . . .
Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .
Poland :
Silesia
Dombrowa . . .
Whole country .
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava. Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

1.31
1.13
1.10

0.97
0.74
0.96

1.08
1.10
1.06
1.09
1.07

—
—
—

1.1G
0.83
1.02

1.15

1.00

1.07

1.41

1.23

1.31

1.18
1.20
1.15
1.18
1.14

—
—
—

0.99

1.08
1.07
1.07
1.07
1.03

1.33
1.36
1.31
1.34
1.31

—

1.73 ' 1.37

—

1.62

2.16

1.22
1.21
1.21
1.22
1.14
1.19
— • 2.50
1.71 1.87

1.62

1.29

0.98
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.97
1.93
1.42

1.02
1.01
1.00
1.11

0.66
0.63
0.65
0,88

0.75
0.72
0.74
0.99

1.11
1.10
1.09

0.73
0.69
0.71

0.82
0.78
0.80

1.30
1.30
1.29

0.85
0.82
0.83

0.96
0.93
0.95

1.19
0.99
1.10

0.83
0.80
0.81

0.99
0.88
0.94

1.28
1.06
1.18

0.89
0.86
0.87

1.06
0.95
1.00

1.50
1.24
1.38

1.04
1.01
1.01

1.24
1.11
1.17

0.93

—

—

—

—
—
—

113
TARLE VII.

AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN T H E

EUROPEAN

COAL I N D U S T R Y , 1 9 2 5
(B). INCLUDING E M P L O Y E R S ' CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL I N S U R A N C E

Per hour underground
Country, district
and unit of
currency

Germany (R.M.) :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia. .
Belgium
(Fr.):
Charleroi . . .
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France
(Fr.) :
Great Britain
Netherlands
(Gulden) .
Poland
(Zloty):
Dombrowa . . .
Whole country .
Saar
(Fr.) :
Czechoslovakia (Kc)
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

Hour of attendance
. per
Hour of attendance
hour
Hour at face
(including travelling
(excluding breaks)
at
and breaks)
Workers
Workers
Workers
Hewers Others under- Hewers Others under- Hewers Others underground
ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings in National Currency

1.05

1.18

0.90

4.56
4.67
4.48
4.68
4.60

4.16
4.14
4.15
4.15
4.19
4.01
l8.7i/td.

0.86

0.68

1.25
1.21
1.22

8.16

0.66

4.27

4.54
4.53
4.53
4.53
4.47

5.64
5.78
5.54
5.67
5.67

4.93

0.92

0.72

0.80

1.14

0.90

1.00

0.58

0.92
0.86
0.90

1.36
1.32
1.33

0.89
0.82
0.86

1.00.
0.94
0.98

1.59
1.55
1.57

1.04
0.97
1.01

1.17
1.10
1.15

0.74
0.67
0.70

6.94

8.75

6.41

7.44

10.23

7.49

8.69

5.36

4.98
5.10
4.89
5.01
4.91

0.75

0.81
0.76
0.79

5.98

5.14
2.81
5.13
2.82
5.14
2.92
5.13
2.88
5.16
2.94
2s.ld. H.l%d.

(ii) Average Earnings ¡n Gold Francs

Germany :
1.46

1.11

1.29

0.81

Upper Silesia . .
Belgium :
Charleroi

1.12
1.15
1.11
1.13
1.14

0.99

1.79

Dombrowa . . .
Whole country .
Czechoslovakia :
Osfaava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

. . .

Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .
Poland :

1.23
1.26
1.21
1.24
1.21

1.42

1.03
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.04
2.01
1.56

1.15
1.11
1.12

0.75
0.70
0.73

1.25

0.92

1.06

1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.10

1.39
1.43
1.37
1.40
1.40

1.22

1.91

1.50

1.66

2,37

0.85
0.79
0.83

1.25
1.21
1.22

0.82
0.75
0.79

0.92
0.86
0.90

1.05

1.34

0.99 . 1.13

1.67

1.27
1.27
1.27
1.27
1.28
2.61
2.08

0.69
0.70
0.72
0.71
0.73
1.41
1.21

1.46
1.43
1.44

0.96
0.89
0.93

1.08
1.01
1.06

0.68
0.62
0.64

1.57

1.15

1.32

0.82
8

— 114 —
have hardly been worked in these countries in 1925, no appreciable error is introduced by this factor in the averages
concerned.
Table VII (pages 112-113) contains the results of the calculation
of the average hourly earnings, (A) excluding and (B) including
employers' contributions to social insurance. As in the case of
average earnings per manshift (day), averages are further given
separately in national currency and in gold francs, as well as for the
different categories of workers. Figures for underground
workers other than hewers are not available for Belgium. In
the nature of the case, no general averages for the whole of
mine workers can be given.
A consequence of the considerable difference in the average
number of hours is that the differences in the level of earnings
as between the various countries and districts are accentuated,
and show different relations to those found in the preceding
comparison.
RELATIVE L E V E L

O F AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS

(EXPRESSE»

IN GOLD), 1 9 2 5
(Base : Great Britain

=

100)

Underground workers
Country and district

Earnings
per hour
of attendance

1

Earnings
per hour
at face

Surface
earnings per
hour of effective
work

1

A. Excluding Employers' Contributions
100
75
—
52
—
49
48
47
—
37

100
79
54
57
—
50
50
53
43
42

B. Including Employers' Contributions
. . . . . . .
100
100
78
80
64
—
52
51
49
52
49
. 51
40
41

100
86
57
58
52
50
45

Belgium
Germany, Upper Silesia . . .

Great B r i t a i n
Germany, R u h r

100
74
60
53
51
51
50
49
43
38

— 115 —
This is illustrated by the table on page 114, where t h e
level of hourly earnings in the different countries is related t o
the average hourly earnings received in Great Britain, taken
as the basic figures ; the method of presentation is similar to
that employed in comparing the relative level of earnings p e r
manshift (day). Owing to the fact that "hours of attendance,..
excluding breaks" are not available for Great Britain, Germany,,
and the Saar, relative numbers have not been established oni
this basis.
As the hours of work are more or less shorter in Great Britain
than in other countries, the relative levels of hourly earnings;
in the latter naturally are lower than in the case of earnings'
per manshift (day). In certain cases, however, the difference'
in the hours is not very great, and hence the relative numbers;
are practically the same in both comparisons for some countries,,
viz. the Netherlands, Belgium, France, the Saar, as well as.
Poland. On the other hand, the comparatively long hours
indicated for Germany account for the fact that the ratio which:
the hourly earnings in this country bear to the British level is
lower than that found in the comparison of daily earnings. I t
is seen in fact that the level of hourly earnings in Saxony is not
very much above the level of Belgium and France, while the
earnings in German Upper Silesia are at about the same level
as those received in Poland.
§ 21. The average annual earnings are calculated by dividing
the aggregate actual earnings by the number of workers employed.
In view of the difference between the average number of workers
and the number of full-time workers, both these figures have
been taken as the divisor. The information available contains
certain defects : first, those relating to the composition and
distribution of the aggregate earnings 1 ; and secondly, the
average number of the different categories of workers is unknown
in the case of Belgium and the Saar, and that of hewers and
other underground workers, in the case of the Netherlands. It
should be further noted that the average annual earnings in
the Netherlands are calculated (as in the case of daily averages)
on the assumption that items other than money wages and
allowances in cash bear the same ratio to money wages in the
case of the different groups of workers as in the case of all mineworkers.
1

Cf. § 19 of this chapter.

— 116 —
TABLE VIII.

AVERAGE ANNUAL

EARNINGS I N T H E

COAL I N D U S T R Y ,
(A),

EUROPEAN

1925

E X C L U D I N G E M P L O Y E R S ' C O N T R I B U T I O N S TO SOCIAL I N S U R A N C E

Per worker employed
Country, district
and unit of
currency

Germany (R.M.) :
Euhr : . . . .
Upper Silesia . .
Saxony
. . . .
Belgium (Fr.) :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
"Whole country .
France (Fr.) ". .
Great Britain (£ s.)
Netherlands (Golden)
Poland (Zloty) :
Silesia
Dombrowa . . .
"Whole country .
Saar (Fr.) . ". .
Czechoslovakia (Kc.)
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
"Whole country .

Per full-time worker

Under
Underground
Underground
Under
Above
Above| and
Workers ground and
Workers ground | above
above Hewers Others underHewers Others underground
ground
ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings in National Currency

2,235
2,101
1,969

8,997
163 4
2,077
2,061
2,031
13,891
12,111
13,044

1,688
1,414
1,728

1,996
1,568
1,865

1,715
1,350
1,613

,
—
•—
—

—^
—
—
—

1,590
1,494
1,541

1,388
1,304
1,337

—

—

1,944
1,511
1,794

2,613 1,977
2,430 1,638
2,260 1,995

2,335
1,819
2,112

1,924
1,521
1,894

—
7,690
7,604
—
—
.—
—
7,924
—
—.
—
—
7,816
—
—
—
—
7,8
8,230 6,156 7,633 10,294 8,646 9,140 6,642
120 8 14018 117 0 136 7 213 13 14917 179 12 141 16
1,504 1,185 1,418 1,920 1,516 1,671 1,255
1,427
1,321
1,375

1,527 2,679
1,416 2,583
1,472 2,620
8,011 10,120

1,801
1,655
1,743
8,010

2,017 1,693
1,872 1,517
1,962 1,607
9,013 7,660

9,633 11,480 10,664 11,309 17,870 12,427 14,792 12,427
9,390 10,533 8,953 10,046 14,825 12,020 13,229 10,640
9,453 11,019 9.746 10,710 16,505 12,072 14,015 11,322
(ii) Average Earnings in Gold Francs

Germany :
Ruhr . . . .
Upper Silesia .
Saxony
Belgium :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France
Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .
Poland :
Silesia . . . . .
Dombrowa . . .
"Whole country .
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

2,756 2,082 2,462
2,591 1,744 1,934
2,428 2,131 2,300

—
—
—
—

—
—
—
—

—
1,911
1,896
1,869

2,115
1,665
1,989

2,398 3,223 2,438 2,880 2,370
1,864 2,997 2,020 2,243 1,876
2,213 2,787 2,460 2,605 2,336

—

2,034
3,525
3,130

—
.—
.—
1,897
1,876
—
—
—
—
1,955
—
—
—
—
1,928
—
—
—
—
1,521 1,886 2,544 2,136 2,288 1,641
2,930 3,411 5,346 3,749 4,494 3,648
2,466 2,951 3,995 3,155 3,477 2,612

1,313
1,215
1,265

1,463
1,374
1,418

1,277
1,200
1,230

2,223 1,949
4,083 3,012

.—
—
—
—

—
•—
—
—

—

—

—

—

1,405
1,303
1,354
1,980

2,135
1,861
2,006

1,481
1,443
1,453

1,764
1,619
1,694

1,639
1,376
1,498

1,738
1,544
1,646

2,465
2,376
2,410
2,501

1,657
1,523
1,604
1,979

1,856 1,558
1,722 1,396
1,805 1,478
2,227 1,893

2,746
2,279
2,537

1,910
1,847
1,855

2,274 1,910
2,033 1,635
2,154 1,740

117
T A B L E V I I I . — AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS IN T H E
COAL I N D U S T R Y ,
(B).

EUROPEAN

1925

I N C L U D I N G E M P L O Y E R S ' CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL

Per worker employed
Country, district
and unit of
currency

Germany (R.M.) :
Ruhr"
Upper Silesia .

INSURANCE

Per full-time w o r k e r

Underground
Underground
Under
Under
Above and
Above
Workers ground and
Workers ground
Hewers Others underabove Hewers Others underabove
ground
ground
ground
ground
(i) Average Earnings In National Currency
2,487

1,907

2,234

1,912

2,174

2,908

2,234

2,614

2,145

2,295

2,017
Belgium" !(Fr.) :
Charleroi . . .
Liège
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France (Fr.) . . . 9,594 8,420 8,783 6,559
Great Britain (£s.d.) 170.1.0 125.8.7 146.15.8 I2I.I7.8
Netherlands (fiulden)
1,657 1,307
Poland (Zloty) :
2,341 1,608 1,792 1,565
Dombrowa . . . 2,260 1,448 1,637 1,430
Whole country . 2,274 1,540 1,725 1,494
Saar (Fr.)
. . . .
Czechoslovakia (Kc):
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country . 14,830 10,765 12,537 11,086

2,524

142.0.11
1,563

9,229
222.12.2 156.2.7
2,116
1,671

8,704
8,850
S.934
8,827
9,753
7,076 8,966
187.2.2; 147.14.2 179.6.1
1,841 1,383 1,713

1,721
1,552
1,647

3,020
2,831
2,933

2,030
1,814
1,950

2,274
2,052
2,197

12,186

18,766

13,747

8,011
7,952
8,276
8,144
8,142 10,977

1,909
1,663
1,796

2,157
1,884
2,056

15,946 12,879 15,151

(ii) Average Earnings in Gold Francs
Germany :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia . .
Saxony
. . . .
Belgium :
Charleroi . . .

3,067

.2,352

2,755

2,358

3,586

2,755

3,224

2,645

3,113

2,488

2,830

2,712
5,570
4,403

2,280
3,906
3,477

2,410
4,681
3,831

1,748
3,696
2,878

2,147
2,183
2,204
2,178
2,215
4,486
3,565

2,371
4,255

2,081
3,138

2,170
3,673
3,448

1,621
3,050
2,720

1,976
1,962
2,042
2,009
2,012
3,554
3,252

2,154
2,079
2,092

1,479
1,332
1,417

1,649
1,506
1,587

1,440
1,316
1,374

1,583
1,428
1,515

2,778
2,605
2,698

1,868
1,669
1,794

2,092
1,888
2,021

1,756
1,530
1,652

1,984
1,733
1,892

2,279

1,655

1,927

1,704

1,873

2,884

2,113

2,451

1,980

2,329

Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
Poland :
Silesia
Dombrowa . . .
Whole country .
Saar
Czechoslovakia:
Ostrava- Karvina.
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

2,681

— 118 —
Table VIII (pages 116-117) gives the results of the calculation of
t h e average annual earnings in the different countries and districts.
As before, the table is divided into two main sections, according as
employers' contributions to workmen's compensation and social
insurance are (A) excluded or (B) included ; and each section
gives separately the average earnings (i) per worker employed
(i.e. calculated on the basis of the average number of workers)
and (ii) per full-time worker. In order to illustrate the differences
found, relative numbers showing the level of average earnings
in each country and district as compared with the level in
Great Britain (where annual averages are the highest) are
calculated according to the method employed in the case of
daily and hourly averages. The countries and districts are
arranged in a descending order as determined by the relative
numbers, calculated on the average worker basis, for all mineworkers.

RELATIVE LEVEL OF AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS, 1 9 2 5
( E X P R E S S E D I N GOLD)

(Base : Great Britain = 100)
A v e r a g e worker basis
Under-

Country and district

worked
(A).

Great Britain . .
Netherlands
. .
Germany, R u h r .
Germany, S a x o n y

.
.
.
.

Belgium
Germany,
Upper Silesia . .
Czechoslovakia . .

Surface
workers

AU
workers

Full-time worker basis
Underworked

Surface
workers

All
workers

Excluding Employer s' Contrib utions

100
89
70
65
—
—
58

100
84
72
68
—
—
52

100
87
70
65
58
57
55

100
77
64
58
50
—
50

100
74
67
66
53
•—
46

100
75
65
59
50
49
48

55
48
40

57
51
42

55
48
40

50
48
40

53
49
42

50
.48
39

100
78
72
—
—
47
54
45

100
79
69
63
49
49
52
42

(B). Including Employers ' Contribiitions

Great B r i t a i n . .
Netherlands
. .
Germany, R u h r .
Germany, S a x o n y
Czechoslovakia

.
.
.
.

. .

100
94
75
—
—
59
52
43

100
89
77
—
—
53
56
45

100
92
75
70
57
57
63
43

100
82
69
•—
—
51
52
43

— 119 —
As may be expected, the relative numbers obtained when
employers' contributions are included appear here, in general,
as higher than those relating to average earnings when these
contributions-are excluded. In this respect the above table
shows almost exactly similar results to those given in preceding*
comparisons.
Similarly, the average earnings per full-time worker and the
corresponding relative numbers do not introduce a new element
in the discussion. As a matter of fact, average annual earnings
per full-time worker are bound to be equal to average daily
earnings multiplied by the number of ordinary working days
(about 300 in most cases), and add little to information which
is already obtained on the basis of daily averages. The absolute
average earnings per full-time workers (as given in Table VIII)
are, of course, higher than those calculated on the average
worker basis ; the relative numbers, again, appear lower for
most Continental countries. This is due to the fact that the
number of full-time workers in Great Britain was, in 1925,
considerably smaller than the average number of workers.
The outstanding feature of the above figures is that the relative
levels of the annual earnings, calculated on the basis of the
average number of workers, approaches in the Continental
countries and districts the British level considerably more than
is the case in respect of daily and hourly earnings. The natural
explanation of this is that the time lost (in 1925) which is allowed
for in the calculation of the average number of workers, was
in Great Britain larger than in other countries, except in Czechoslovakia, which showed the maximum, and Poland, where it
was nearly as great as in Great Britain \ The picture of the
relative wage levels in European countries is thus different
from that shown in respect of daily and hourly earnings. While
Great Britain still shows the highest level, the Netherlands now
come very near it, especially when employers' contributions
are taken into account, and the Ruhr and Saxony districts of
Germany also show a relatively high wage level, which attains
three-fourths of the British in the Ruhr. The Saar territory,
France, Belgium and German Upper Silesia show a rather
similar wage level which is more than one-half of that found for
Great Britain ; the same applies to Czechoslovakia when
1

Cf. §§ 12 and 14 of this chapter.

— 120 —
employers' contributions are counted. Poland, where time-loss was
considerable (as mentioned above) remains in the same relative
position as in tables concerning daily and hourly averages.
G. —

COMPARISON OF THE RELATIVE PURCHASING POWER OF
AVERAGE EARNINGS

§ 22. Comparison of earnings expressed in terms of gold
does not give an adequate measure of the relative level of
earnings from the point of view of the standard of living of the
workers. It is therefore indispensable to complete the study
of average earnings per time unit by expressing them in terms
of the prices of commodities and services upon which the miner's
wage is usually spent. The average earnings expressed in terms
of commodity prices of the different countries will show their
purchasing power in the internal market.
The method adopted is identical with that which has been
adopted by the International Labour Office for several years in
comparing the real wages of workers in certain occupations in
different capital and other cities 1 . To put it briefly, this method
consists in (i) calculating the price of a given quantity of foodstuffs, a "basket of provisions", in typical mining districts
of different countries ; (ii) calculating how many times the
miner can purchase, with his earnings, the "basket" of his own
district, on the one hand, and the foreign "baskets", on the
other ; finally, (iii) calculating index numbers in each case, by
relating the numbers (which show how many times the average
earnings can purchase each basket) to a common basis, and
taking a general average of these index numbers 2.
This method, it will be seen, amounts to calculating index
numbers of the relative purchasing power of earnings, or of
comparative real earnings. It is by no means a fully satisfactory
method, and it is indeed necessary to make in advance. all
reservations against any close comparison of the results. In
the first place, the fact alluded to above that in periods of
fluctuations in the value of currency the purchasing power of
the monetary unit is not constant, has its importance also in
the calculation of real earnings. The principal defect,
however, is that only certain items of food consumed by
1
See International Labour Review, "Vol. X, No. 4, Oct. 1924, and subsequent issues.
2
The method is explained in detail in Appendix III.

— 121 —
miners are taken into account. The real earnings calculated
accordingly would be representative only provided that the
relative price level of all commodities consumed by the
miners would correspond to that of foodstuffs considered ;
and this cannot be assumed. Moreover, it is to be noted that
although the expenditure on food, as a rule, forms the largest
part in the workers' budget, it bears a varying ratio to the total
family budget in the different countries. The inclusion of
other items of expenditure (clothing, rent, etc.) is, however, in
practice impossible owing to the lack of information as to
expenditure on these quantities, and the very considerable
differences in the habits of consumption of the different countries.
§ 23. The index numbers of comparative real earnings are
given in Tables IX to XI (pages 122-127). Table IX is based on the
average earnings per day (in the case of the Saar and Czechoslovakia
per manshift) and gives index numbers separately for (i) underground workers, and (ii) all mine-workers. Table X refers to
average hourly earnings, and is divided into three sections, viz.
(i) earnings per hour of attendance (including travelling time
and breaks) underground, (ii) earnings per hour at face underground, and (iii) earnings per hour at the surface. Finally, Table
X I shows the comparative level of real average earnings per
annum (i) per underground workers and (ii) for all mine-workers.
Each table is, moreover, divided into two main sections according as employers' contributions to social insurance are (A)
excluded or (B) included 2.
The calculations of index numbers are based on four different
"baskets of provisions" representing quantities of food consumed
in Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, and Poland. The purchasing power of average earnings received in Great Britain is taken
as basis (equal to 100).
A remark is to be made as regards France. The average
earnings refer to the whole country ; the prices used in the
calculation are those current in the northern region. Now,
prices in the north of France are in general higher than in
France as a whole, and consequently the index numbers of real
earnings are somewhat under-estimated. If a separate calcalation
could be made for Northern France (which is impossible
1
These three tables thus correspond to Tables VI, VII and VIII,
and are based on data contained therein as to average earnings expressed
in national currency.

— 122 —

TABLE IX.

I N D E X NUMBERS OF COMPARATIVE REAL EARNINGS

P E R MANSHIFT ( D A Y ) , IN T H E EUROPEAN COAL I N D U S T R Y ,
(Base : Great Britain
(A)

EXCLUDING

EMPLOYERS'

Country
and
district

=

100)

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO

SOCIAL

INSURANCE

Index numbers based on quantities of food
consumed in :
Great
Britain

Belgium

1925

Germany

Poland

General
average
index
number

(i) Average Earnings of All Underground Workers

Great B r i t a i n . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
France
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia . .

100
81
68

100
83
69

100
89
78

100
84
75

100
84
73

64
59
60

63
65
62

69
68
66

68
68
65

66
65
63

57

59

62

64

61

57
48
44

53
45
45

69
60
55

66
57
55

61
53
50

(ii) Average Earnings of All Workers
(Under and Above Ground)

Great B r i t a i n . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Saar
. . . . . . .
Germany :
Ruhr
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Upper Silesia
Poland

100
80
65

100
82
67

100
88
74

100
83
72

100
83
70

65
61
58

64
63
63

70
67
67

70
66
64

67
64
63

58

55

71

68

63

57

58

62

64

60

48
44

46
45

61
55

58
55

53
50

— 123 —

TABLE I X .

I N D E X NUMBER OF COMPARATIVE REAL EARNINGS

P E R MANSHIFT ( D A Y ) I N T H E E U R O P E A N COAL I N D U S T R Y , 1 9 2 5
(Base : Great Britain
B.

=

100)

I N C L U D I N G E M P L O Y E R S ' CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL I N S U R A N C E

Country
and
district

Index numbers based on quantities of food
consumed in :
Great
Britain

Belgium

Germany

Poland

General
average
index
number

(i) Average Earnings of AU Underground Workers

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Belgium
Germany :
Ruhr
France
Poland

100
85
68

100
87
69

100
94
78

100
89
75

100
89
73

61
61
48

58
66
49

74
70
59

71
67
59

66
66
54

(ii) Average Earnings of All Workers
(Under and Above Ground)
Great B r i t a i n . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Belgium
Germany :
Ruhr
France
Poland

100
84
65

100
87
67

100
93
75

100
88
72

100
88
70

63
59
48

60
65
49

77
68
59

72
66
59

68
65
54

'

— 124 —
TABLE X. —

INDEX NUMBERS OF COMPARATIVE REAL EARNINGS
PER HOUR, 1925
(Base:

(A),

Great Britain

= 100)

EXCLUDING EMPLOYERS' CONTRIBUTIONS
Country
and
district

TO SOCIAL

Index numbers based on quantities o! food
consumed In :
Qreat
Britain

Belgium

Germany

Poland

INSURANCE
General
average
index
number

(i) Average Earnings of All Underground Workers
per Hour of Attendance

Great B r i t a i n . . .
Netherlands. . . .
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Ruhr
Germany :
Upper Silesia . .

100
79
69

100
81
71

100
87
79

100
82
76

100
82
74

69
64
61

68
66
67

74
71
71

73
69
68

71
68
67

62

63

67

69

65

56
43

52
44

68
54

64
54

60
49

42

40

53

50

46

(ii) Average Earnings of AU Underground Workers
per Hour at Face

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Belgium
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik

100
80
66

100
82
68

100
89
76

100
84
73

100
84
71

66
60

65
63

72
67

71
64

69
64

60
43

61
44

65
53

67
53

63
48

(iii) Average Earnings of AU Surface Workers
per Hour of Attendance (Excluding Breaks)

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Ruhr
Poland
Germany :
Upper Silesia . .

100
85

100
87

100
95

100
89

100
89

79
69

77
69

85
-79

84
75

81
73

68
61

69
67

74
71

76
67

72
67

51
48

47
49

61
53

58
59

54
52

42

39

59

50

48

— 125 —

TABLE X.

I N D E X N U M B E R S OF COMPARATIVE R E A L

EARNINGS

PER HOUR, 1 9 2 5
{Base : Great Britain
(B).

INCLUDING

EMPLOYERS'

Country
and
district

= 100)

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO

SOCIAL

Index numbers based on quantities of food
consumed in :
Great
Britain

Belgium

Germany

Poland

INSURANCE
General
average
index
number

(i) Average Earnings of AH Underground Workers
per Hour of Attendance

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Germany :
Ruhr

100
83
70
63

100
85
71
69

100
92
79
72

100
87
77
69

100
87
74
68

60
47

56
48

72
58

69
58

64
53

(ii) Average Earnings of All Underground Workers
per Hour at Face

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .

100
85
66
60
46

100
87
67
65
47

100
94
75
69
57

100
89
73
66
57

100
89
70
65
52

(iii) Average Earnings of All Surface Workers
per Hour of Attendance (Excluding Breaks)

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .

Germany :
Ruhr

100 .
92
69
63
52

100
94
70
68
53

100
101
78
72
65

100
96
76
69
64

100
96
73
68
59

53

50

65

62

58

— 126 —

TABLE X I .

I N D E X N U M B E R S O F COMPARATIVE REAL EARNINGS

PER YEAR, 1925
(Base : Great Britain
(A),

EXCLUDING

=

100)

EMPLOYERS' CONTRIBUTIONS

Country
and
district

TO SOCIAL

INSURANCE

Index numbers based on quantities of food
consumed in :
Great
Britain

Belgium

Germany

General
average
index
number

Poland

(i) Average Earnings of All Underground Workers

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .
Germany :
Ruhr
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Upper Silesia . .

100
95
70

100
97
77

100
105
81

100
99
78

100
99
77

64

61

78

74

69

67

66

72

72

69

62

63

67

70

54
46

61
47

68
57

64
57

'

66
59
52

(ii) Average Earnings of All Workers
(Under and Above Ground)

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands . . .

Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina.
Germany :
Ruhr
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany :
Upper Silesia . .

100
93
77
72
67

100
95
78
74
73

100
97
85
78
74

100
97
82
76
73

67

100
102
88
80
78
74

68

73

71

65

61

79

75

70

61

62

66

69

65

53
45

51
46

67
56

64
56

59
51

— 127 —

TABLE X I .

I N D E X N U M B E R S OF COMPARATIVE R E A L E A R N I N G S
PER YEAR,
(Base:

(B).

INCLUDING

Great Britain

EMPLOYERS'

Country
and
district

1925
=

100)

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO SOCIAL

INSURANCE

Index numbers based on quatities of food
consumed in :
Great
Britain

Belgium

Germany

Poland

General
average
index
number

(i) Average Earnings of All Underground Workers

Great Britain . . .
Netherlands
. . .
Germany :
Ruhr

100
100
72

100
103
78

100
111
83

100
105
80

100
105
78

69
49

65
50

84
61

80
61

75
55

(ii) Average Earnings of All Workers
(Under and Above Ground)
Great B r i t a i n . . .
Netherlands
. . ,
Germany :
Ruhr

100
98
77
69

100
100
78
75

100
108
88
80

100
102
85
76

100
102
82
75

70
49

66
50

85
60

80
60

75
55

— 128 —
owing to the absence of information on earnings) the indexes
might be three or four points higher than those given in the
tables. Czechoslovakia, again, must be omitted from Tables
(B), where employers' contributions are included, because this
item is known only for the country as a whole, whereas the
prices of commodities are given, and consequently index numbers
of real earnings are calculated, separately for both districts.
Finally, information as to the level of prices in the coal-fields of
the Free State of Saxony has not been received, and therefore
this country is omitted from the tables.
The results of the calculations of comparative real earnings
are summarised below. For the sake of simplicity, only index
numbers of earnings per hour of attendance are reproduced in
the case of average hourly earnings of underground workers.
The countries are arranged in the descending order of the index
number of average annual earnings for all mine workers.
I N D E X N U M B E R S OF COMPARATIVE REAL EARNINGS, 1 9 2 5
(Base:

Great Britain

=

100)

Average index
of
daily earnings

Country and district

Average index of
earnings per hour
of attendance
UnderUnder- Surface
All
ground
ground
workers workers workers workers

Average index
of
annual earnings
UnderAll
ground workers
workers

A. Excluding Employers' Contributions

Great Britain
Netherlands
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina. . .
Germany : Ruhr . . . .
Czechoslovakia :
Kladno-Rakovnik . .
Germany : Upper Silesia.

100
84
73
63
65

100
83
70
64
63

100
82
74
68
67

100
89
73

100
99

67

76

100
97
82
76
73

66
61

67
63

71
60

81
54

69
69

71
70

61
53
50

60
53
50

65
46
49

72
48
52

66
59
52

65
59
51

B. Including Employers' Contributions

Great Britain

Germany : Ruhr . . . .

100
89
73
66
66
"54

100
88
70
65
68
54

100
87
74
68
64
53

100
96
73
68
58
59

100
105
78
75
65

100
102
82
75
75
55

— 129 —
The above index numbers show that the real earnings index
number is, in general, highest in Great Britain. However, in
the case of annual earnings, the level of the Netherlands is
practically equal when employers' contributions are excluded,
and even higher when that item is taken into account. The
Netherlands take also the second place in the case of the level
of daily and hourly real earnings, and show a distinct maximum
level for Continental Europe.
To group the other countries according to the general level
•of earnings is a difficult task owing to the variety in the index
numbers. As a rule, however, the indexes for annual earnings
are higher than those for daily and hourly earnings, in each
country, while the two latter index numbers show a similar
tendency. Roughly speaking, it may be observed that Belgium
•occupies an intermediary position between the Netherlands and
a group formed by the coal districts of France, the Saar,
the Ruhr, and Czechoslovakia, where real earnings are
.approximately at the same level. Finally, German Upper
Silesia and Poland show fairly uniform index numbers of real
earnings which represent not more than 50 per cent, of the
British level in the case of daily and hourly earnings, and
less than 60 per cent, of that level in the case of annual
earnings.
These results are rather different from those arrived at in
the comparison of average earnings expressed in terms of gold
francs. When Great Britain is taken as basis, it is seen (a) that
the relative numbers of "gold franc earnings" and the index
numbers of "real earnings" are approximately equal in the
Ruhr and Upper Silesian districts of Germany, while (6) the
relative level of "real earnings" is more or less higher than that
shown by the relative numbers of "gold franc earnings" in the
remaining countries and districts. In general, when related to
the purchasing power of money, the "standard of living" of
workers employed in the different Continental coal-fields appears
more uniform, although far from equal.
§ 24. It may be interesting to compare the above results
with those arrived at in the calculations of comparative real
wages of workers of different occupations in various capital
-and other large cities which have appeared in the International
Labour Review, calculations in which the International Labour
Office has applied the same method as in the preceding
9

— 130 —
paragraphs 1 . The results conform roughly in both cases ;
but certain differences are also to be found. Thus the index
numbers of real daily earnings in the Belgian and Czechoslovakian coal-fields (Great Britain being taken = 100) are considerably higher than the indexes of real weekly wages in Brussels
and Prague (London being taken = 100) ; both series of index
numbers are nearly identical for the Dutch, French, and Ruhr
coal-fields on the one hand, and for Amsterdam, Paris, and
Berlin on the other ; while the index numbers of miners' real
earnings in the Upper Silesian and Polish coal-fields are
somewhat lower than the indexes of city workers' wages
in Berlin and Lodz. The order of coal-fields therefore differs
from that found for the respective cities, among which Brussels,
Lodz, and Prague show the lowest index numbers of real
wages.

H. — TOTAL AND AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL

§ 25. The second principal object of the present enquiry into
wages in the coal industry is to calculate the labour cost of
production.
For this purpose, it is necessary to ascertain at the outset the
quantity of coal produced which forms the basis of the calculation. Two different quantities have been taken into account,
viz. (i) the quantity of saleable coal obtained after the coal
raised has been cleaned, and (ii) the net quantity of commercially
disposable coal, i.e. saleable coal less coal consumed by the
mine and coal distributed to the employees. The figures
secured from the different countries have been established
according to a uniform basis and require no comment.
The figures relating to the total output of coal and its distribution for different uses in the several countries and districts
are given in Table XII. For Czechoslovakia, official statistics
of output of coal are available for the whole country, but not
for the different districts to which the wage data refer.
1
The "index numbers of comparative real wages in various cities""
taken into account here refer to wage rates and prices at 1 July 1925,
except as regards Paris, for which city data are not available for this
date and whose situation at 1 April 1925 is considered. Cf. International
Labour Review, Vol. XII, No. 1 (July 1925), p. 106, and Vol. X I I ,
No. 4 (Oct. 1925), p. 570.

— 131 —

TABLE XII.

TOTAL OUTPUT OF COAL IN EUROPEAN
COUNTRIES, 1925
(Metric Tons: 000's Omitted)

Country and district
Germany :
Ruhr*
Upper Silesia. . . .

Saleable coal

Coal
consumed by
the mine

Commercially
Coal
distributed to
disposable
employers
coal

104,124
14,273
3,869

6,932
513
488

1,280
198
86

95,912
13,562
3,295

7,521
5,201
4,931
23,097
47,571
238,920
6,849

732
462
669
2,491
4,081
15,148
256

133
136
121
521
1,201
5,913
57

6,656
4,603
4,141
20,085
42,289
217,869
6,536

21,660
5,729
29,081
12,597

1,981
576
2,790
929

478
189
721
347

19,201
4,964
25,570
11,321

9,140
1,826
12,559

595
458
1,313

157
56
254

8,388
1,312
10,992

Belgium :
Couchant de Mons .
Whole country . . .
France
Poland :
Whole country . . .
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina . .
Kladno-Rakovnik. .
Whole country . . .

— 132 —
The following figures show the ratio which the different items
bear to the total quantity of saleable coal.
COAL DISTRIBUTED FOR DIFFERENT USES, 1925
(In Percentages of Total Coal Produced)
Country and district

Netherlands
Germany : Upper Silesia .
Ruhr . . . .
Great Britain
Saar
France
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Belgium
Germany : Saxony . . .

CommerCoal
Coal
cially
Total of
consumed by distributed
disposable saleable coal
coal
the mine to employees

3.7
3.6
6.7
6.3
7.4
8.6
9.6
10.5
10.8
12.6

0.8
1.4

2.2

95.5
95.0
92.1
91.2
89.8
88.9
87.9
87.5
86.9
85.2

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

It appears from the above percentages that the distribution
of saleable coal varies in a not insignificant degree. The relative
quantity of commercially disposable coal is generally about
90 per cent, of the saleable quantity, but is considerably more
in German Upper Silesia and the Netherlands (95-96 per cent.),
and less especially in the Saxony district of Germany (85 per cent.).
While coal consumed by the mine forms less than 5 per cent.
of the total in a few cases (the Netherlands and German Upper
Silesia), it is twice or thrice as large in others (particularly
in the Saxony district, Belgium, and Czechoslovakia). The
quantity of coal distributed to employees represents in most
countries 2 or 2.5 per cent, of the total, but it is in some cases
(the Netherlands and Prussian districts in Germany) less than
this proportion.
§ 26. The average output, which is of interest as indicating
the differences which exist in the natural conditions and the
efficiency of labour in the different countries, is calculated
(a) for manshift or day as well as (b) for year and worker,
separately for hewers, underground workers and all workers
under and above ground.
It is evident that these averages, in the calculation of which
the divisors are, on the one hand, the number of manshifts
or days and, on the other, the number of workers employed, are
comparable only with the appropriate reservations made above.

— 133 —

TABLE X I I I .

AVERAGE O U T P U T OF SALEABLE COAL I N E U R O P E A N
COUNTRIES,
(Metric

1925
Tons)

Average output
Per day

Per manshift

Country and district
Hewer

Germany :
Ruhr". . . .
Upper Silesia
Saxony . . .
Belgium :
Charleroi . .
Liège . . . .
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France
Great Britain. . .
Netherlands . . .
Polands :
Silesia
Dombrowa. . .
Whole country
Saar
Czechoslovakia :
Ostrava-Karvina
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country

Underground

Average annua! output

Under
and
above
ground

Newer

Under-

Per worker
Under
and
above
ground

Hewer

Underground

Per full-time worker
Under
and
above
ground

Hewer

Underground

Under
and
abate
ground

2.100 1.179 0.946 2.146 1.209 0.977 557 313 255 650 366 296
7.156 1.5 1.153 7.462 1.682 1.231 2,039 433 319 2,224 501 367
0.595 484 215 156 555 243 180
1.753 0.762 0.561
137 1,074 228 150
3.79: 0.768 0.497
118 1,040 186 133
3.622 0.632 0.444
133 986 205 145
3.017 0.683 0.479
130 1,049 208 142
3.555 0.698 0.472
2.637 0.809 0.571 711 220 156 813 244 172
1.159 0.915 2.718 1.237 0.974 593 284 230 776 361 290
342 245
298 221
2.920 1.120 0.800
6.262 1.507 1.010 6.313 1.557 1.057 1,468 368 253 1,894 467
6.108 1.399 0.771 6.207 1.448 0.823 1,491 348 204 1,869 436
6.035 1.473 0.938 6.094 1.520 0.986 1,419 359 237 1,830 456
182 574 273
1.912 0.908 0.653
2.752 1.196 0.925
2.136 0.921 0.626
2.475 1.085 0.803

642 278 220
523 220 152
587 256 194

317
248
296
196

853 371 287
662 285 194
779 341 253

— 134 —
The average output of saleable coal in various countries and
districts is shown in Table X I I I (page 133).
The basis of the calculation of the average output for manshift
(day) is the total number of manshifts (days). Averages are
computed both for manshift and for day of attendance (normal
manshift) for all countries and districts which furnish these
basic figures 1.
The differences in the average output in the various countries
and districts will be illustrated by the following relative numbers.
The maximum output is reached, as is seen in Table XIII, in
German Upper Silesia ; this output is taken as equal to 100 and
the output of other districts is related to this figure.
The
countries are arranged in descending order as determined by
the relative number of output (per manshift) underground.
RELATIVE L E V E L OF AVERAGE OUTPUT OF SALEABLE COAL FOR
MANSHIFT AND FOR DAY, 1 9 2 5

(Base : German Upper Silesia — 100)
Manshift basis
Country and district
Underground

Germany : Upper Silesia . . .

Day basis

Under and
above
Underground
ground

100.0
96.4
88.6
74.6
73.4
68.7

100.0
87.6
66.9
82.0
79.4
69.6

64.0
48.2

53.0
48.7

Netherlands

Belgium

Under and
above
ground

100.0
92.6
86.1
71.9
73.5

100.0
85.9
66.9
79.4
79.1

66.6

65.0

46.1
41.5

48.3
46.4
38.3

The order of countries and districts is thus slightly different
according as the average output for manshift or that for day
(or "normal" manshift) is taken as measure; the relative numbers calculated on the manshift basis are generally higher, as
compared with the basic district, than those established on the day
basis, except in respect of underground work in Great Britain.
The main feature of the table is the considerable difference in
the average output between the various coal-fields of Europe.
Taking first into account the output for manshift (day)
1

Cf. § 11 and Table III of this chapter.

— 135 —
underground, it is seen that the most productive coal-fields are
in Silesia, both German and Polish, followed rather near by the
Dombrowa district of Poland. Again, the average output in
Great Britain and the Ruhr district of Germany is practically
similar, being nearly three-quarters of the Upper Silesian
quantity. In Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands, the output
is, on the average, much below that reached in their neighbouring coal-fields mentioned above ; finally, the daily output
of a miner in the Saar is little over half, and in Saxony, France,
and Belgium less than half of the maximum quantity reached in
Europe.
These conclusions are apt to be changed but little if the
average output is computed for underground and surface
workers taken together. The principal point about these
latter figures is that the Dombrowa district of Poland descends
to the level of Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands. The
output in the Ruhr district of Germany and in Great Britain
appears higher, compared with the Upper Silesia level, than
when underground workers alone are considered ; which fact
is largely explained by the percentage of manshifts (days)
worked by surface workers, which is relatively lowest in these
regions K
§ 27. Turning now to the average annual output, it is to be
observed that both the average number of workers and the
number of full-time workers have been utilised as bases for the
calculations, as far as available 2 (see table on next page).
In order to compare the level of the averages obtained for
the different countries and districts, relative numbers have been
•calculated according to the same method as in the preceding
case. The order of the countries and districts is determined
by the average annual output per worker underground.
It is evident, in view of the method adopted for the calculation of the average number of workers, that the averages
relating to annual output per worker actually employed, and
the corresponding relative numbers, are bound to be influenced
by the quantity of time lost. It is equally obvious that the
averages computed per full-time worker (which eliminates the
element of time lost) will be approximately equal to the daily
1
2

Cf. § 11 of this chapter.
Cf. § 16 and Table V of this chapter.

— 136 —
RELATIVE L E V E L O F AVERAGE ANNUAL OUTPUT OF SALEABLE
COAL P E R W O R K E R , 1 9 2 5
(Base:

German

Upper Silesia

Average worker basis
Country and district

Per worker
underground

= 100)
Full-time worker basis

Per worker Per worker Per worker
under and underground under and
above ground
above ground

Germany :
100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

85.0
80.4

79.3
63.9

93.2
87.0

86.4
67.6

72.3
68.8
65.6
61.0

79.9
69.3
72.1
62.7
57.1
48.9

73.1
68.3
'72.1
68.1
54.5
48.7

80.7
66.8
79.0
68.9
53.4
46.9

48.9
40.8

48.5
41.5

49.0
38.7

Poland :
Germany :

—

50.8
Germany :
49.7

—

averages multiplied by a figure near to 300, and that the corresponding relative numbers will be nearly similar.
Attention should, therefore, be given to the figures relating
to the averages established on the basis of the average number
of workers. It will be remembered that the time lost was, in
1925, relatively larger in Great Britain, Czechoslovakia^ and
Poland, than in France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and the
Saar, the German coal districts taking an intermediate position l .
It is then natural that the mutual position of the countries and
districts is somewhat different in the above comparison than
in that made in regard of average daily output. The differencesare not, however, very marked. The Polish districts, while
showing lower relative numbers for annual than for daily output,
still appear as the most productive coal-fields after German
Upper Silesia. The Ruhr district of Germany, and Great
Britain, which are joined by the Netherlands, form the following group, the average annual output per worker of which is
65 to 80 per cent, of the basic figure. After Czechoslovakia
follow France, the Saxony district of Germany, and Belgium,
with an average annual output of less than half the maximum
quantity reached in Europe.
1

Cf. § 13 and Table IV of this chapter.

— 137 —
I. —

COMPARISON OF THE AVERAGE LABOUR COST PER
TON OF COAL

§ 28. The total "cost of labour" is taken as equivalent t o
the total wages bill as defined above, i.e. the aggregate amount
of actual earnings received by the mine-workers. On the
other hand, the most suitable basis for measuring the labour cost
is the ton of coal, saleable and commercially disposable. The
average labour cost of production is calculated from these elements
simply by dividing the total wages bill, (A) excluding employers'
contributions, and (B) including the same, by the total (metric)
tonnage of (i) saleable coal and (ii) commercially disposable coal.
In the nature of the case, no distinction is made between the
different categories of workers.
For the sake of comparison, the averages have been converted
to gold francs by the method employed in respect of average
earnings \
RELATIVE LEVEL OF AVERAGE LABOUR COST P E R TON OF COAL, 1 9 2 5
(Base : Great Britain

=

100)

Per ton of
saleable coal

Country and district

Per ton of
commercially
disposable coal

(A). Excluding Employers Contributions
100
99
96
90
81
73
63
55
38
39

Belgium

100
104
103
86
84
75
63
58
40
38

(B). Including Employers Contributions
Germany : Saxony.

. .

i Cf. § 17 of t h i s c h a p t e r .

r

. . . .

100
105
100
96
83
68
61
41

100
112
104
91
85
67
63
43

— 138 —

T A B L E X I V . — AVERAGE W A G E S P E R METRIC TON OF COAL
IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES,
(A), E X C L U D I N G

1925

E M P L O Y E R S ' CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL

INSURANCE

Average wages per ton
Country, district and
unit of currency

Germany (R.M.) :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia . .
Belgium (Fr.) :
Charleroi . . . .
Couchant de Mons
Whole country .
France (Fr.) :
Great Britain
Netherlands (Gulden)
Poland (Zloty) :
Dombrowa . . .
Whole country .
Saar (Fr.) :
Czechoslovakia (Kc.) :
Ostrava-Karvina .
Kladno-Rakovnik
Whole country .

In national currency

In gold francs

Saleable
coal

Commercially
disposable
coal

Saleable
coal

Commercially
disposable
coal

7.62
4.73
11.59

8.28
4.98
13.61

9.40
5.83
14.25

10.21
6.14
16.79

55.99
63.61
69.57
59.80
48.85
lls.lld.
6.45

63.27
71.87
70.94
68.77
54.94
13s.0d.
6.74

13.81
15.69
14.70
14.75
12.07
14.91
13.42

15.61
17.73
17.50
16.97
13.58
16.26
14.03

6.03
6.94
6.21

6.81
8.01
7.06

5.55
6.38
5.71

6.27
7.37
6.60

44.09
49.74
63.92
53.47

49.06
54.20
88.96
61.09

10.89
7.66
9.82
8.22

12.12
8.33
13.67
9.39

— 139 —

TABLE XIV.

AVERAGE WAGES P E R METRIC TON OF COAL
IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES,

(B). INCLUDING EMPLOYERS' CONTRIBUTIONS

1925
TO SOCIAL

Average wages per ton
in national currency
Country, district and unit
Saleable
coal

Germany (R.M.) :
Ruhr*
Saxony
Belgium (Fr.) :
Charleroi
Couchant de Mons .
Whole country . .
France (Fr.) . . . .
Great Britain . . . .
Netherlands (Gulden).
Poland (Zloty):
Dombrowa . . . .
Whole country . ,
Saar (Fr.)
Czechoslovakia (Kc.) :
Ostrava-Karvina . .
Kladno-Rakovnik .
Whole country . .

Commercially
disposable
coal

INSURANCE

Average 'wages
in
gold francs
Commercially
Saleable
disposable
coal
coal

8.63

9.27

10.52

11.43

13.09

•16.37

16.14

18.96

58.32
66.51
62.21
62.31
52.09
12s.4d.
7.09

65.90
75.16
74.08
71.66
58.60
13s.7d.
7.43

14.39
16.41
15.35
15.37
12.87
15.43
14.75

16.26
18.54
18.28
17.68
14.48
16.99
15.46

6.80
7.61
6.94

7.67
8.78
7.90

6.26
7.00
6.38

7.06
8.08
7.27

60.75

69.50

9.34

10.68

— 140 —
The results arrived at are presented in Table XIV (pages 138139).
In order to facilitate the comparison of the average labour cost
expressed in terms of gold francs, relative numbers have" been
computed (see table on page 137) according to the method used in
comparing the average earnings. Wages paid per ton of coal in
Great Britain are taken as basis, although it will be seen at once
that in three out of four series of figures they do not attain the
maximum in t h a t country. The other countries and districts are
arranged in descending order of the relative number showing
the wages per ton of commercially disposable coal.
It will be seen that the relative level of the average labour
cost in the several countries and districts is influenced to some
extent by the exclusion or inclusion of employers' contributions
on the one hand, and of the quantity of coal consumed by the
mine and the miners on the other.
The average wages cost appears as the highest in Great
Britain only provided that employers' contributions are
excluded (representing a very low proportion of total wages
in this country), and coal consumed by the mine and
miners is included (this being a less important proportion of
total quantity of coal in Great Britain than in many Continental
districts). The British level is equalled by Belgium when
employers' contributions are included and by Saxony when the
cost is calculated per ton of commercially disposable coal. It is
exceeded by the same countries in all other cases : the maximum
cost is reached in Belgium as regards wages per ton of
commercially disposable coal without employers' contributions,
and by Saxony when employers' contributions are included \
In short, Great Britain, Belgium and Saxony form the three
places where coal-mining becomes most costly as compared
with the rest of Europe.
The Dutch coal-fields show, however, a level of labour cost
which approaches rather near the above maxima. Taking
into account all the four relative numbers at the same time,
it may be said that there is a difference of about one-tenth
between Great Britain and the Netherlands ; and a similar
difference, in turn, between the last-named country and France.
1
It should be noted that the wages cost in Saxony is increased, relatively to other districts, by the fact that the total wages include those
paid in ancillary establishments.

— 141 —
The Ruhr district of Germany follows rather far behind, showing
a wages cost which is hardly two-thirds of that in the high-cost
countries ; and the same remark applies, with increased force,
to Czechoslovakia. In Poland and German Upper Silesia—the
regions with the highest productivity—wages per ton of coal
are decidedly lower than elsewhere, viz. less than 40 per cent.
of the maximum level of labour cost in Europe.

CONCLUSION

SUMMARY OF T H E

RESULTS

§ 1. The foregoing pages embody a detailed analysis of the
results of the enquiry conducted by the International Labour
Office into the hours of labour and wages in the European coal
industry in 1925. It will now be convenient to sum up the
principal points which the study has brought into light. A few
words must be said at the outset as to the general character
and the limitations of the present enquiry.
In order to secure material as comprehensive and comparable
as possible, the International Labour Office has had recourse
to a direct method of enquiry. The data contained in the
existing national statistics are indeed very heterogeneous and
widely divergent in scope. Therefore, after a close study
of the labour conditions in the European coal mines, a framework for a uniform scheme of statistics has been elaborated on
lines which are in several respects new ; this scheme was then
distributed to the Governments concerned with a request to
supply data on this basis; and, finally, the returns were adjusted
to the standard in order to put them, as far as possible, on an
internationally comparable basis. This process has met with
many difficulties and has required much time ; but as a result
the information secured, although still containing flaws and
inaccuracies, may be considered as more comprehensive than
any other statistics available on the subject up to the present
time.
On the other hand, however, it is necessary to emphasise
the limitations of the present enquiry. In the first place, its
scope is limited in that only European countries are considered,
and even among these some countries (of which Russia is the
most important) are excluded. In the second place, the enquiry
refers to a single year which was, in several countries, an
exceptional one ; and, as a matter of fact, sensible changes in
the labour conditions have taken place since 1925. An attempt

— 144 —
has been made to remedy these in appendices. But it is not
possible to remedy thus the incompleteness which arises from
the unsatisfactory development of certain methods of comparison.
For these reasons, reservations are to be made against drawing
any sweeping conclusions from the results of the enquiry. The
comparisons which will be made in the following are necessarily
only approximations.
§ 2. The first problem considered is that of the hours of
labour. The starting point of the determination of the hours
of labour is the length of the shift (or the working week) fixed
either by legislation or by collective agreements, or both ; and
this is determined and defined according to different principles
in the different countries. In order to reduce them to a comparable basis, certain adjustments are to be made.
The question is particularly complicated in respect of the
hours of labour of underground workers ; owing to the peculiar
conditions under which miners are performing their daily task,
their aggregate working time comprises not only hours of
work at face, b u t also time needed for descending to the
shaft bottom, or ascending to the pithead, travelling from the
shaft to the place of work in the mine, breaks for meals, etc.
With a view to allowing both for the aggregate working time
which is the workers' primary concern, as well as for the time
spent in work properly so called in which the employers
are chiefly interested, two different notions of hours of labour
have been determined, viz. :
(i) "Hours of attendance" reduced to a uniform basis, that
is to say, the length of the individual shift (day), corresponding
to the period from the moment the individual worker enters
the cage to descend to the moment when he leaves the
cage after being raised to the surface. The calculations
necessary to arrive at this uniform basis differ according to
the way the length of the shift is defined, especially if it is
defined as referring collectively to all the miners.
(ii) "Hours at face", that is to say, the hours as determined
under (i) less (a) the average length of the walking time
underground from the shaft bottom to the face or the place
•of work, as well as (b) the average length of breaks; no
deduction is made in respect of other elements of lost time
inherent in the work. This concept refers particularly to hewers
-and their assistants.

— 145 —
As regards surface workers, their hours of labour are determined on practically an identical basis in the different countries.
The "hours of real work" are based on the legal or contractual
hours, excluding breaks.
Information on the above lines has been secured for all
countries and districts under review, except the Prussian coalfields in Germany (Ruhr, Aachen, Upper and Lower Silesia),
Great Britain, and the Saar Territory, for which districts
certain figures are lacking. The following table summarises
the evidence in respect of the normal daily hours of labour
(excluding Saturdays). These figures, if strict comparisons are
made, require several precisions which have been indicated
in the detailed analysis and are omitted here.

AVERAGE DAILY HOURS OF LABOUR IN E U R O P E A N COALMINES,

1925
Surface
workers ;
hours ot
real work
excluding
breaks

Underground workers
Country and district

Germany :
Ruhr'
Aachen
Upper Silesia
Lower Silesia
Saxonv
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland :
Silesia
Dombrowa
Czechoslovakia

Hours of
attendance

8h.
8 h.
8 h.
8h.
8h.
7 h.
7 h.
7 h.
8h.

Hours
at face

30 m.
30 m.
50 m.
44 m.
30 m.

8h.
8h.
7 h. 30 m.
7 h. 25 m.

6
6
6
5
6

li.
h.
h.
h.
h.

15
20
17
45
20

m.
m.
m.
m.
m.

10 h.
10 h.
10 h.
9 h. (9 h. 30 m.)
9 h.
8 h.
7 h. 59 m.
7 h. 45 m.
8 h.

6¡h. 16 m.
6 h. 16 m.

8 h.
8 h.

6 h. 55 m.

7 h. 46 m.

The normal weekly hours of work will be obtained from the
above figures by multiplying them by six and allowing, when
appropriate, for the shorter hours on certain days of the
Aveek, especially in various districts of Great Britain, the
Netherlands, and Poland (in the Dombrowa and Cracow districts).
The daily hours of attendance underground, reduced to a
comparable basis, present certain divergencies. They exceeded,
in 1925, 8 hours in two German districts only ; were exactly
8 hours in other German districts, the Netherlands, and
10

— 146 —
Poland ; but were less in all other countries. It is further seen
that the time required for breaks and walking underground to
the face or the work place, while varying considerably from
mine to mine, appear, on an average, to be sensibly equal in
the different countries and districts (1 h. 27 m. to 1 h. 45 m.).
As a consequence, "hours at face" show differences which are
rather similar to those found in the comparison of the hours of
attendance : 6 hours and some 15 to 20 minutes except in Great
Britain and Czechoslovakia where they are less than 6 hours.
This does not, however, apply to the Prussian coal-fields of
Germany for which no relevant information is available.
The daily hours of effective work at the surface are mostly
eight, or even less ; the chief exception is provided by Germany
where the hours of work are sensibly longer. The weekly hours
are below 48 in five countries or districts : France, Great
Britain, Poland (Dombrowa and Cracow), the Saar, and
Czechoslovakia.
§ 3. The second problem, that of wages, has needed a more
detailed analysis than the hours of labour. As a matter of fact,
the task of rendering the wage data comparable among themselves is complicated by the large number of different elements
on which the calculation of average wages is based. A few
important points of method are therefore to be indicated in this
connection.
The statistics of wages have two distinct objects, viz. the
determination of the standard of living of the workers, and of
the labour cost of production. The former object is ultimately
complied with by a calculation of the average earnings per a
time u n i t : manshift (day), hour, and year; the second by a
computation of average wages per a ton of coal.
The starting point of the calculations is in both cases the
total wages bill, which has been defined as comprising the
aggregate sum of the miners' actual earnings. It should be
remarked that wage statistics are usually concerned with money
wages only ; but in view of the special position of miners in
that they often receive, in addition to money wages, various
kinds of allowances and benefits, and that in several countries
a not inconsiderable portion of wages consists of these additional
advantages, it has been deemed necessary to take into account
the actual earnings comprising almost every possible element of
income which workers receive by reason of their employment in

— 147 —
and about the mines ; and the results of the enquiry show t h a t
it had been unjustified to employ another method. A particularly controversial point is that relating to advantages accruing;
to workers from various social insurance schemes. The question
whether the employers' contributions to social insurance should
be considered as an element in wages has in fact been left open,
and two different conceptions of the total wages bill have been
applied throughout the report, the one excluding, the other
including this item which constitutes about 4 to 12 per cent, of
the total wages bill.
With regard to the special question of payments for holidays,.
the enquiry shows that they form about 1.4 to 2.9 per cent, of
the total wages bill ; however, holidays with pay are not granted
in the coal-mining industry of Belgium, France, and Great
Britain.
Another noteworthy point is that if average earnings per
time unit are to be rendered internationally comparable, a
clear distinction must be made between manshifts and days of
attendance ; and similarly the average number of workers is
to be distinguished from the number of "full-time workers".
A close examination of the statistics has provided means of
appreciating the practical importance of these distinctions ;
and it has been seen that while the number of manshifts is in
some cases practically equal to that of days of attendance, the
former number exceeds in other cases the latter by a not insignificant proportion (attaining 7 per cent.). Again, the average
number of workers is superior to the number of full-time workers
by 8 to 21 per cent.
In general, the averages as supplied by the statistics of the
several countries are not comparable and have not been utilised
as such ; the greater part of them, as given in the present enquiry,
have been recalculated by the International Labour Office. For
this purpose, the International Labour Office has applied uniform methods in the calculation of both the average number of
workers and the number of full-time workers for most countries.
The average number has been computed by taking account of
both manshifts (days) worked and those lost, and thus is more
accurate than the simplest methods usually employed.
§ 4. The methods employed in the comparisons of the
average earnings per time unit may be briefly put as follows. In
order to render them comparable, they have been converted t o

— 148 —

a common unit of measure, viz. the gold franc, and the averages
obtained have been related to the highest average, viz. that for
Great Britain, which is taken as equal to 100. On the other
hand, the average earnings are expressed in terms of retail
prices of foodstuffs, so as to calculate index numbers of "comparative real earnings", taking averages for Great Britain as
basis and equal t o 100. Whereas the average earnings, expressed
in terms of gold, show the purchasing power of the earnings in
the international market, and are of interest chiefly from the
point of view of commercial competition ; the average earnings
expressed in terms of retail prices give their purchasing power
in the internal market, and indicate the relative standard of
living of mine-workers in the different districts and countries.
The relative numbers of average earnings expressed in terms
of gold francs, and the index numbers of average earnings
expressed in terms of their purchasing power over a certain
quantity of foodstuffs, are summarised in the following table.
It is confined to figures relating to the earnings of underground
workers only. Separate calculations have, in fact, been made
for hewers, other underground, and all underground workers,
as well as for surface workers ; but it has been observed that
the principal and most typical category, that of hewers, has not
been found anything like uniform in the different countries ; and
therefore the two groups of underground and surface workers
furnish a more adequate basis for comparison ; in the present
general summary, however, the latter group, which on the whole
is less important, may be neglected. Furthermore, average
hourly earnings underground are only given as per hour of
attendance ; the relative numbers relating to earnings per hour
at face differ in fact but little from those found in the table.
The countries are arranged in descending order as determined
by the index number of real earnings.
It will be seen from the table that there are marked differences
in the level of earnings in the different countries and districts.
Considering first the basic averages, viz. those per manshift
(day), the following remarks may be made. The maximum
wage level is afforded by Great Britain ; but the differences as
between the Continental coal-fields appear much more marked
in the calculation of earnings in terms of gold than in that of
earnings expressed in terms of their purchasing power. When
the average earnings are converted to gold francs and related
to the maximum level, it will be seen that the earnings attain

— 149 —
RELATIVE LEVELS OF AVERAGE EARNINGS OF

UNDERGROUND

WORKERS IN EUROPEAN COAL-MINES, EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF
GOLD AND OF THEIR INTERNAL PURCHASING POWER, 1 9 2 5
(Base : Great Britain

=

100)

Relative number of
average earnings expressed in terms of gold
Country and district

Index number of earnings expressed in terms
of their purchasing
power

Excluding Including Excluding Including
employers' employers' employers' employers
contricontricontricontributions
butions
butions
butions
(i) Average Earnings per Manshift (Day)

Great Britain
Netherlands
Belgium
Czechoslovakia : Ostrava-Karvina.
France
Saar
Germany : Ruhr
Czechoslovakia : Whole country. .
Czechoslovakia : Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany : Saxony
Germany : Upper Silesia
Poland
Great Britain
Netherlands
Belgium
Czechoslovakia : Ostrava-Karvina.
Saar
France
Czechoslovakia : Whole country . .
Czechoslovakia : Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany : Ruhr
Germany : Saxony
Poland
Germany : Upper Silesia
Great Britain
Netherlands
Belgium (o) .•
France
Saar (a)
Germany : Ruhr
Germany : Saxony
Czechoslovakia : Ostrava-Karvina.
Czechoslovakia : "Whole country .
Czechoslovakia : Kladno-Rakovnik
Germany : Upper Silesia
Poland

100
75
50
51
49
52
64
48
46
57
49
40

100
80
50
50
69
52

43

100
84
73
66
65
63
61

100
89
73
66
66

61
53
50

54

(ii) Average Earnings per Hour of Attendance
Underground
100
100
100
100
74
78
82
87
51
51
74
74
51
71
51
68
50
67
68
49
52
46
60
64
60
CA
53
38
49
53
41
43
46
(iii) Average Earnings per Year and Worker
100
100
100
100
89
94
99
105
57
57
82
82
58
59
77
78
58
76
70
69
75
75
65
50
69
48
52
46
66
55
59
40
52
55
43

(a) Information for underground workers lacking, the figures refer to all mine workers.

— 150 —
about three-fourths of the British standard in the Netherlands
•which show the highest level on the Continent ; while they are
not more, or are less, than half of that standard in every other
district except in two German coal-fields (the Ruhr and Saxony).
However, the average earnings, calculated in gold francs, do not
give a true idea of the comparative level of mine-workers'
standard of living ; owing to the differences in the purchasing
power of money, the index numbers of "real earnings" show more
uniformity and higher standards for most countries. Great
Britain and the Netherlands still give the maximum standards
for Europe as a whole and for the Continent respectively, but
the difference between these two countries is smaller, little
more than one-tenth if employers' contributions are taken into
account. The outstanding fact is, however, that the comparative level of real earnings in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the
Saar territory, the Ruhr district, and France, while considerably
below that prevailing in Great Britain, is approximately
equal. The eastern region, consisting of German Upper Silesia
and Poland, shows the lowest relative standard, which is somewhat more than one-half of the level of real earnings in Great
Britain.
Comparisons made on the basis of average hourly and annual
earnings do not change substantially these conclusions. It is,
however, to be observed, that the relative level of hourly earnings
is in general somewhat lower than that of daily averages on
account of the fact that the hours of labour were, in 1925,
shorter in Great Britain than elsewhere ; per contra, the relative
levels of annual averages come considerably nearer the British
level—which is even exceeded by the Netherlands when employers' contributions are taken into account—than daily and
hourly averages, owing to the fact that in 1925 the time loss
in Great Britain (taken as basis) was exceptionally high ; in
Czechoslovakia and Poland where the time lost was equally
great, the average annual earnings show, in fact, approximately
the same relation to the British level as do daily and hourly
earnings.
§ 5. As the natural conditions of production vary to a
large extent from coal-field to coal-field, and as wages tend, as
much as possible, to equalise the production and transportation
cost of coal competing in the same market, it is of interest to
compare the average output of coal and the average labour cost
of production in the different countries and districts.

— 151 —
The variety of the natural conditions is well illustrated by
average output of coal per manshift (day). The best measure
of the labour cost of production again is the amount of wages
(expressed in terms of gold) paid per ton of saleable coal.
Taking in both cases Great Britain as equal to 100 (although
this country does not represent the maxima), and relating the
averages obtained for other countries to this basis, the following
relative numbers of average output and average labour cost
are obtained.
RELATIVE LEVEL OF AVERAGE OUTPUT A N D AVERAGE

WAGES

PER TON OF COAL IN EUROPEAN COAL-MINES, 1925
(Base : Great Britain

Country and district

Great Britain
Belgium
Germany : Saxony
Netherlands
France
Saar
Germany : R u h r
Germany. Upper Silesia. . .

=

100)

Average output
per
manshift

100
48
61
82
59
71
100
88
126
101

Wages per ton oí saleable
coal
Excluding
employers'
contributions

Including
employers'
contributions

100
99
96
90
81
73
63
55
39
38

100
100
105
96
83
68
61
41

The outstanding feature of the above table is the very great
discrepancy between the relative numbers of average output
and those of average wage cost per ton of coal. These numbers
permit indeed an interesting comparison of the relation which
exists between the "productivity" (as indicated by the average
output) and the "labour cost" of production in each country or
district. Compared with the relation existing between productivity and wage cost in Great Britain (and taken as equal to
100 : 100), other countries may be arranged in two main groups.
The first group, formed by Belgium, the Netherlands, France,
and Saxony, is in general less productive than Great Britain,
yet the level of the labour cost exceeds, or is nearly equal to,
the British level (in France, however, only four-fifths of it).
The contrary is true for the second group, to which belong the
Ruhr and Upper Silesian districts of Germany, Poland, and

— 152 —
(to a less extent) Czechoslovakia : whereas the productivity in
these countries is superior to, or not much below, that of
British coal-fields, the labour cost of coal is very much cheaper
than in Great Britain. The Saar occupies an intermediate
position between these groups : both the productivity and
the labour cost are less than in Great Britain.
§ 6. The three main results of the enquiry, viz. the comparative standard of living of coal-mine workers, as determined by
their average earnings (expressed in terms of purchasing
power), the comparative wage cost of a ton of coal (expressed
in terms of gold) and the comparative productivity, as determined by the average output per manshift (day), in the year 1925,
may now be outlined as follows :
(i) Great Britain and the Netherlands, where the standard
of living appears to be the highest in Europe and Continental
Europe respectively, show also a very high wage cost
per ton of coal, and a relatively high productivity, which,
however, are exceeded or equalled in a few Continental
districts.
(ii) Belgium, France, the Saar territory, the Ruhr and
Saxony districts of Germany, as well as Czechoslovakia,
where the workers' standard of living may be assumed as
being roughly equal, show marked differences in respect of
the wage cost of production and the productivity. The
wage cost is very high in the Free State of Saxony and
Belgium (where it attains indeed its maximum level), and
is relatively high also in France, but the productivity is
considerably less than in Great Britain ; in other districts
the wage cost is considerably below the maximum level
(in Czechoslovakia little more than half of the same),
whereas the productivity (the Saar excepted) is equal or
nearly equal to the European maximum.
(iii) Finally, in German Upper Silesia and Poland, the
standard of living is the lowest in Europe, and as the productivity of these regions (as determined by the average
output per manshift or day) is at the same time the highest
in Europe, also the wage cost of coal is cheaper than elsewhere ; it may be noted that the wage per ton is less than
two-fifths, but the real earnings about one-half of the
maximum level attained in Europe.

— 153 —
These circumstances seem to indicate that the standard of
living of the mine-workers, as determined by the purchasing
power of their earnings, bears direct relation neither to the productivity of the coal-fields in which they are employed, nor to the
low cost of production of coal, as measured in terms of gold.
They further show that the wage cost of production does not
bear a direct relation to the productivity of the mines, nor to
the standard of living of the workers. These three factors, the
workers' standard of living, the productivity of the mines, and
the labour cost of production, influence each other in a highly
unequal degree in the different countries ; but they are in
turn related to other factors, such as the geographical situation
of the coal-fields, the overhead costs of production, the efficiency
of labour, the general standard of living acquired by the
workers, which escape the analysis of a statistical enquiry.

APPENDIXES

APPENDIX I
METHODS OF CALCULATION, AND LIMITATION, OF
HOURS OF WORK IN 1925 IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Belgium
§ 1. (a) The hours of work in coal-mines are regulated by the
general Act of 14 June 1921 \ providing for an eight-hour day and
48-hour week, the application of which extends to "mines, surface
mines, quarries, and other works for the extraction of minerals
from the e a r t h " (section 1).
So far as is known, there are no collective agreements limiting
hours of work.
(b) The actual working hours must not exceed eight hours in
the day and 48 hours in the week (section 2).
(c) As regards the underground workings of coal-mines, working
hours are limited to eight either per shift or gang or per category or
cage-load, both winding times to be included. Where the underground workings are accessible by adits, the working hours are held
to begin with the entrance of the worker into the adit and terminate
with his return to the same point (section 2). The calculation is
collective on the basis of the shift or gang, category or cage-load.
In order to obtain the standard manshift according to regulations,
it would be necessary to deduct from the legal hours of work the
time necessary for winding the whole shift (see § 8, (a), page 24).
The various terms employed by the Act (shift or gang, category
or cage-load) for establishing the method of calculation of the daily
working hours allow the various undertakings to adopt particular
methods within the general framework of the Act.
In the Mons basin a shift consists of the number of workers which
the cage will hold at a time. This is the system known as the "cordée"
system.
In the Centre, only two undertakings use the cordée system. The
others divide the workers of a particular shift into two, three, four,
or five groups according to occupation, according to gallery and,
in one case, according to the place of residence and means of transportused by the worker for arriving at the mine (railway, motor-bus).
In almost all the mines of the Charleroi basin, the shifts are arranged
on the cordée system. In nine mines, however, the workers are
grouped according to the kind of work. Subdivision is carried somewhat far in the latter case and each shift is made up of two or three
cordées at the most.
In four mines of no considerable importance in the Namur basin
all the workers of one shift constitute a single gang. In four mines
the cordée constitutes the shift and in two others the workers are
grouped according to the nature of their work.
1

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

: Legislative Series, 1921, Bel. 1.

— 158 —
In the Liège basin the workers are grouped by occupation, by
category and in some cases by gallery. The subdivision of a shift
is sometimes carried somewhat far. Only three mines consider a
cordée as a shift.
In Limburg the workers are divided according to the working face.
A system of supervision is in force in most of the districts to ensure
that the ascent of the workers is carried out in the same order as the
descent.
Mining undertakings further require the worker to be equipped
for the descent from two to fifteen minutes before taking his place
in the cage 1.
§ 2. For surface workers the working hours are fixed at eight
hours in the day and 48 hours in the week by the Act of 14 June 1921.
Czechoslovakia
§ 1. (a) The hours of work are regulated by the general Act of
19 December 1918 respecting the eight-hour working-day 2, and by
collective agreements entered into for the most important mining
districts.
The act applies inter alia to "mining undertakings (pits, coke works,
calcining furnaces and blast furnaces), both below ground and on
the surface".
(b) In accordance with the Act, "in undertakings subject to.
the Industrial Code . . . .
the actual hours of work of workers
shall not in principle exceed eight hours within 24 hours or 48 hours
in the week" (section 1, subsection 1).
(c) While the Act provides that " t h e entering and leaving of
the mines shall be regarded as a subsidiary operation . . . .
provided t h a t the shift shall not be increased thereby by more than
half-an-hour reckoned from the descent of the first workman until
the last workman of the same shift leaves the mine", the collective
agreements include both winding times in the daily hours of work.
Consequently, in order to reduce the period fixed by the collective
agreements to the international standard manshift adopted in this
report it is necessary to deduct the time required for one collective
winding descending or returning (see § 8, (a), page 24).
((I) The Act provides for a break of at least a quarter of an hour
after not more than five hours' uninterrupted work, unless a proper
period of rest is otherwise ensured. In practice, breaks may be
estimated at t h i r t y minutes and are regularly observed.
(e) The time spent at the working face, excluding breaks, calls
for a special observation. In the mines of Czechoslovakia, custom
requires all the workers to be assembled at the foot of the shaft
before the ascent commences. As a result, the time spent at the
working face excluding breaks is reduced by half the time required
for a collective ascent s .
1

Enquiry into the Organisation of Work in Coal-Mines, 1921.
Legislative Series, 1919, Cz. 1, 2, and 3.
3
See note 18, p. 69.
2

— 159 —
§ 2. The hours of work of surface workers are fixed at eight
hours per day and 48 hours per week by the Act of 19 December
1918. Breaks fixed at regular periods only exist in very rare cases.
In practice, however, the worker interrupts his work for at least a
quarter of an hour for the purpose of taking food.

France

§ 1. (a) The hours of work of underground workers are regulated
by a special Act of 24 June 1919 1, explained and supplemented by
the Ministerial Circular of 16 February 1920 2.
So far as is known, there are no collective agreements containing
provisions relating to hours of work.
The Act applies to all classes of mining undertakings and all
persons employed in such undertakings.
(b) The hours of work are fixed by section 9 of the Second Book
of the Code of Labour as amended by section 1 of the Act in the
following terms :
" The working day of persons employed in coal (fuel) mines of
all kinds. . . . shall not exceed eight hours either for underground or for surface workers."
Section 11 of the Labour Code as amended by section 1 of the Act
provides that the legislative provisions shall not affect agreements or
customs equivalent to agreements, by which in certain undertakings
a shorter period than that established by the foregoing sections has
been fixed as the normal working day.
(c) The Act does not prescribe any special rules except for the
calculation of the hours of work of underground workers (section 10
of the Labour Code as amended by the Act) :
"
This period shall be calculated for each shift and
for every class of workers from the time when, according to
the regulations, the first descending workers enter the shaft
to the time when, according to the regulations, the last ascending
workers arrive at the surface.
" For mines entered by means of adits the said period shall
be calculated from the arrival at the entrance of the adit to
the time of return to the same point."
The Ministerial Circular states that "the working day is not
calculated individually and that the time necessary for the descent
and ascent of each class of workers is included in the eight hours".
The Circular also explains the intention of the legislation with
regard to the meaning to be attributed to the expressions "shift"
and "class of workers":
" I call your attention to the expression 'for each shift' and
'for every class of workers' . . . .
This expression allows
every latitude to the owners of undertakings to adjust their
time-tables to the requirements of their work.
1
2

Legislative Series, 1920, Fr. 3.
Bulletin du ministère du Travail, 1920, p. 38 *.

— 160 —
" I consider, however, in agreement with the General Council
of Mines, that the expressions used by the legislation do not
allow the division, for the purpose of calculating the eight
hours, of a continuous and uninterrupted operation of descent
or ascent according to shifts assigned to different parts of the
mine, except in quite exceptional circumstances, such as, for
example, the existence of two working places constituting,
in fact, two distinct mines served by a single pit for the transport
of the workers.
"Similarly, the classes of workers contemplated by the Act
can only be classes resulting either from the technical speciality
of the workers, which leads the owners of the undertaking
to lower and subsequently to raise to the surface the workers
of a particular speciality at hours distinctly different from those
applying to the rest of the staff, or from special circumstances
such as t h e distance of the workers' cottages or any other
similar cause necessitating the adoption of special hours of
descent, and ascent for single groups of workers who thus
constitute a class apart.
"Finally, the distinction by class should be absolutely effective,
so that no worker of one class can descend or ascend during
the regulation period assigned by the time-table to another
class."
There are no special regulations as to time-tables of descent and
ascent. In most cases there is only a notice in the lamp-shed, indicating the time at which the first cage descends. This is generally
sufficient to determine the time of descent of other cages 1. In many
cases the workers are given counters for the purpose of ensuring
the order of their descent in the shift or category and the order of
their ascent.
It follows, therefore, from these provisions t h a t the windingtime of the shift or class are included in the collective calculation
and that, accordingly, the standard manshift for each worker taken
individually will be equal to the legal working hours of the shift
or class less the winding time of the whole shift or class (see § 8, (a),
page 24).
(d) Breaks are provided for in the Ministerial Circular, which
states that " t h e legal working hours will include the time necessary
for the snack which the miner takes during the course of his work".
In general, t h e rest periods are taken simultaneously by the workers
of a mining undertaking. They begin and end at a given signal.
§ 2. The surface workers and employees are subject to the provisions of the Act of 23 April 1919 relating to the eight-hour day.
The Circular of 16 February 1920 contains the following statement :
" I t should be noted, however, that section 9 of the Act of
24 June 1919 fixes a maximum of eight hours for the working
day and t h a t it provides no method of calculation for the week
or any other period. In these circumstances subsections 1 and
2 of section 8 of Chapter II (hours of work) of Title I of Book
II of the Labour and Social Welfare Code, relating to the distribution of work, are not applicable to surface workers. "
1
Communication from the Director of the Paris Office to the International Labour Office, 25 Jan. 1926.

— 161 —
Germany

§ 1. (a) For underground workers the hours of work in mines
a r e regulated by the provisions of the Order of 212 December 1923 l
amending those of the Order of 23 November 1918 and by collective
agreements
and arbitral awards in force in the principal mining
•districts 3.
The Order applies to all mines.
(b) The regular daily working hours of workers must not exceed
eight exclusive of breaks (section 1). In coal-mining the length of
the shift is to be deemed to be the regular daily working hours
(section 8).
The collective agreements often fix regular working hours below
the normal. A certain number of so called "additional" hours
(Mehrarbeit) are, however, added. These are the result of arbitral
awards pronounced and made binding by public authority by virtue
of the provisions of the Order concerning hours of work of 21 December 1923 relating to exceptional circumstances. These measures
were adopted after the denunciation of the Ruhr Agreement of
29 November 1923, relating to additional work (Mehrarbeitsabkom.men). In consequence of this, the total length of the shift varies
according to district from eight hours to eight and a half hours.
(c) The Order provides that the length of the shift shall be
calculated "from the time of beginning winding in descending to
the time of beginning winding again in ascending or from the entry
of the individual worker into the adit to the time of his leaving the
adit on departure" (section 8). Under the agreement relating to
additional work and the arbitral awards in force in 1925, the length
of the shift is calculated for each worker individually from the moment
when he commences the descent to the moment when he commences
the ascent.
There is no difference, for the purpose of this enquiry, between these
two methods of calculation since, as has been shown, a collective
•calculation by cage may be assimilated to an individual calculation
(see page 23).
The data so furnished are therefore considered as corresponding
to the international basis adopted in this report.
It has been seen that in order to be perfectly exact it would be
necessary to add the time required for an individual ascent (or
ascent of the cage), a time which has been estimated to be practically
negligible.
§ 2. For surface workers the hours of work are fixed by legislation
at eight per day. In pursuance of collective agreements and binding
arbitral awards relating to additional work, however, the daily
working hours are increased by from one to two hours according
to district. It should be noted that an Order of 20 J a n u a r y 1925
reduced to eight per day the hours of work in coke oven undertakings and blast furnaces from 1 May 1925.
1

Legislative Series, 1923, Ger. 7.
Bulletin of the International Labour Office (Basle), Vol. XIII, 1918,
p. 8.
* The modifications introduced in hours of work since 1925 for underground and surface workers are indicated in Appendix II.
2

il

— 162 —
Great Britain
§ 1. (a) Prior to 1908, no statutory provision regulated the hours
of adult male workers at coal-mines, either above or below ground,.
although those of women and children had been governed by special
and general Acts since 1872. The working hours of miners below
ground have been regulated by law since 1909, when the Coal MinesRegulation Act, 1908, came into force. Modifications have been
introduced, notably by the Coal Mines Act of 1919 ; and the various.
Acts are cited together as the Coal Mines Acts, 1887-1919 \ The
legal provisions are supplemented by regional or district collective
agreements.
The Acts apply to coal-mines and to mines at which certain
other minerals are worked along with coal. They distinguish
between persons defined as "workmen" and others (Coal Mines.
Regulation Act, 1908, section 1, subsection 7):
"The expression 'workman' means any person employed
in a mine below ground, who is not an official of the mine (other
than a fireman, examiner, or deputy) or a mechanic or horsekeeper, or a person engaged solely in surveying or measuring."'
The same section stipulates special conditions relative to hours of
work for "firemen, examiners, deputies, onsetters a , pump-minders,.
fanmen, or furnace-men".
Certain categories, viz. mechanics, horse-keepers, surveyors, etc.,.
are expressly excluded, and do not come within the scope of t h e
Acts.
(b) As regards hours of work, the Act of 1908 (section 1) laid
down that " a workman shall not be below ground in a mine for the
purpose of his work, and of going to and from his work, for more than
eight hours during any consecutive twenty-four hours" and for more
than 9 y2 hours in the case of the specified classes referred to above.
The Act of 1919 reduced the hours of work by the substitution of
7 and 8 for 8 and 9 % respectively.
These Acts, however, legalised the extension of the working time
below ground by not more than one hour a day for a limited number
of days in the year. The relevant section is as follows :
" The time fixed by this Act as the time during which the workmen in a mine may be below ground for the purpose of their
work and of going to and from their work may be extended as
respects any mine by the owner, agent, or manager of the mine
on not more than sixty days in any calendar year by not more
than one hour a day, and on any day on which an extension
of time is made in accordance with this section as respectsany mine the time as so extended shall be substituted for the
purposes of this Act as respects that mine for the time as
fixed by this A c t " 3 .
1
Bulletin of the International Labour Office (Basle), Vol. IV, 1909,,
p. 94, and INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : Legislative Series, 1919,.
G.B. 4. The modifications made in hours of work since 1925 as regards
underground and surface workers are shown in Appendix IV.
2
Under the Act of 1919, however, "onsetters" were specifically
excluded from these special classes, and thus placed in the same position.
as ordinary "workmen".
3
Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908, section 3.

— 163 —
(c) While it would be possible to reconcile the maxima with
the limitations imposed by statute in the case of single workmen,
it would be impossible, without some statutory relaxation, to do so
in the case of shifts of workmen the lowering and raising of which
occupy a period of time.
The expression "shift" is defined as follows : "Any number of
workmen whose hours for beginning and terminating work in the
mine are approximately the same". 1
Such relaxation is provided by the Act of 1908, which declares
" t h a t no contravention of the foregoing provisions (i.e. those laid
down in section 1 as repeated above) shall be deemed to take place
in the case of shifts of workmen if the period between the times at
which the last workman in the shift leaves the surface and the first
workman in the shift returns to the surface does not exceed 8 hours"
or, subsequent to the operation of the 1919 Act, 7 hours.
The owner, agent or manager of every mine is required to fix and
to specify for each shift of workmen the time at which the lowering
and raising of the men is to commence and to be completed, subject
to the approval of the inspector that the interval between the times
fixed is reasonable for the purpose 2.
The average time occupied in lowering and raising shifts of workmen in Great Britain may for practical purposes be estimated to be
30 minutes, and in the case of the average workmen (i.e. the middle
man down to the middle man up) this period must be added to the
prescribed hours of work in order to determine the time spent below
ground.
§ 2. Except in the case of winding enginemen, whose hours of
work were limited to 8 per day under the Coal-Mines Act, 1911, and
of females and boys under 16 years of age, the hours of surface workers
have never been regulated by law, but have been subject to agreements made between employers and workers. Prior to 1919 district
agreements were in operation, under which the weekly hours of
work were fixed, according to the basin, at 48 to 50 exclusive of
mealtimes. Towards the end of 1918, however, a national agreement
was concluded between the owners and the workmen providing for
a uniform maximum of 49 hours per week, exclusive of meal times.
This arrangement came into operation early in 1919, but was superseded a few months later by a similar agreement, which was made
consequential upon the reduction of working hours below ground,
under which the weekly maximum on the surface was reduced to
4 6 % hours.
Netherlands
§ 1. (a) The regulation of hours of work in coal-mines is based on
the Royal Decree of 22 September 1906 3, issued in pursuance of
section 9, paragraph 1, of the Act of 27 April 1904, amending the
Act of 21 August 1810 relating to mines.
1

Ibid., section 1, (7).
2 Ibid., section 1, (3) and (4).
3 Bulletin of the International Labour Office (Basle), 1906, Vol. I, p. 505.

— 164 —
These regulations have, however, been amended in several points
by the collective agreement of 17 October 1921 x.
The legislation and the collective agreement apply to all workings
underground and above ground of all mines.
(Z>) For underground workers the Royal Decree fixes the time
spent within the mine at 8% hours in every 24 hours (section 242)
and the agreement reduces this period to 8 hours in 24 hours for the
first five days of the week and 6 hours on Saturday, Christmas Eve
and the Friday preceding a Saturday which is a public holiday. Under
the agreement, the weekly hours of work are therefore 46. Section
246 of the Royal Decree provides special regulations for persons
employed in mechanical traction and drivers, who are not to remain
underground more than one hour daily beyond the time prescribed
by section 242.
(c) As regards the calculation of the time spent underground, the
Royal Decree (section 243) and the collective agreement by reference
thereto provide as follows :
(1) The time spent in underground workings shall be
reckoned for the men of a shift from the time when the shift
begins to descend till the time the same shift begins to return
to the surface.
(2) The time taken in the return of a shift shall not exceed
the time taken in the descent by more than 15 minutes.
(3) Workmen shall return as nearly as possible in the same
order as they descended.
The result of these provisions is that the time spent by the group
in the mine is calculated collectively and includes one collective
winding time descending and returning. This method of calculation
therefore corresponds to the international manshift standard adopted
in this r e p o r t 2 (see § 8 (b), page 25).
§ 2. The normal working hours of surface workers are fixed by
the collective agreement already mentioned at 8 hours in 24 hours,
subject to certain exceptions necessary in the interest of the undertaking. As a matter of fact, the regulations of 1906 only contain
provisions relating to children under 16 years of age and persons
engaged in the operation of winding machinery or signals. The
first paragraph of section 231 stipulates that such persons must not
work more than 8 hours daily at the surface, exclusive of the time
necessary for changing a shift. The working period may, however,
be extended by not more than one hour for the purpose of ensuring
the raising or lowering of a shift.
1
This agreement is signed by the four miners' unions : the General
Union of Christian Miners of Holland, the General Union of Miners of
Holland, the General Protestant Union of Miners, and the Neutral
Union of Miners.
2
See also on this subject note 13 accompanying the table relating
to hours of work of underground workers (p. 68).

— 165 —
Poland
A distinction must be made between the basins of Dombrowa and
Cracow, and that of Polish Upper Silesia.
(a)

Basins

of Dombrowa and Cracow 1

§ 1. (a) The hours of work in coal-mines are regulated by the Act
of 18 December 1919 relating to hours of work in industry and
commerce 2.
The collective agreements contain no provisions as to hours of
work.
(b) The hours of work must not exceed 8 hours per day, exclusive
of rest periods, and on Saturday 6 hours, so that the total working
week does not exceed 46 hours (section 1 of the Act).
Section 2 provides that " t h e hours of work shall mean the number
of hours during which a worker is bound under his contract to be at
the orders of the manager, either in the establishment or outside it".
(c) As regards underground workers it is provided that " t h e
time spent in descending and ascending the shaft shall be included in
the hours of work in the mining industry. The order of descent and
ascent of the workers employed in the establishment shall be fixed
in detail by a register".
The legal hours of work including winding times being calculated
individually, as is confirmed by the statement of the Polish Government, correspond exactly to the standard manshift according to
regulations as previously defined (see § 7, page 22).
(d) There are no uniform regulation breaks. The worker is,
however, allowed to interrupt his work for forty minutes on the
first five days of the week and thirty minutes on Saturday for rest
and food.
§ 2. As regards surface workers, the Act already quoted fixes
the hours of work at 8 hours per day. This period is reduced to 6
hours on Saturdays. Surface workers have regulation breaks varying
from one to two hours. These breaks are not reckoned in the hours
of work.
(b)

Polish

Upper

Silesia

§ 1. (a) Under the provisions of the German-Polish agreement of
15 May 1922 (section 1, subsection 1), the regulations in force in
Polish Upper Silesia at the date of the cession of the territory are
to remain in operation so far as they apply to the working of mines,
industry, commerce, or to the rights of workers. By virtue of subsection (2), however, Poland has the right to replace these provisions
by its own regulations, provided that such regulations extend to the
whole territory of the State and that their contents are of such a
character that they can be substituted for the provisions in force.
1
The changes introduced in hours of work since 1925 as regards breaks
are indicated in Appendix IV.
2
Legislative Series, 1920, Pol. 1.
,

— 166 —
In these circumstances, the Act of 18 December 1919 relating to
hours of work does not apply to Polish Upper Silesia, in which the
provisions of t h e German Order as to the work of industrial workers
of 23 November 1918 are still in force. These provisions apply to
workers in all industries, including mining 1. The daily hours of
work must ordinarily not exceed 8 hours.
(b) The ordinary hours of work are fixed at 8 hours per day.
Collective agreements have, since 1923, provided, in accordance with
German legal provisions, that the hours of work of underground
workers must be calculated by shifts, from the commencement of
the descent to the commencement of the return to the surface or
from the conclusion of the descent to thé conclusion of the return
to the surface.
The hours of work stipulated by the agreement therefore include one
winding time descending or returning, and correspond to the standard
manshift according to the regulations as previously defined (see
§ 8, (b), page 25).
(c) The system of breaks is the same as in the basins of Dombrowa
and Cracow.
§ 2. The hours of work of surface workers are legally fixed at
8 per day. The system of breaks is in this case also identical with
that in the basins of Dombrowa and Cracow.
Saar

2

The hours of work in force in the Saar mines were introduced in
the middle of 1919 by the German administration of the Saar mines
in agreement with the French supervisory authorities. This measure
has been made definitive by the labour regulations issued on
3 September 1921 by the Director-General of Mines of the Saar, in
agreement with the representatives of the workers.
For underground workers, the shift is calculated for each worker
individually from the time when he enters the cage to the time when
he leaves it. The workers of a shift return in the same order as that
in which they descended. The result is that the manshift calculated
individually is measured by the period elapsing between the time
when the first workman descends and that when he returns to the
surface, or between the moment when the last workman descends
and that when he returns to the surface. This period therefore
corresponds exactly to the international basis adopted in this study
(Cf. § 7, page 22). The manshift thus calculated is 7% hours.
The hours of work of surface workers, including a break of a quarter
of an hour about the middle of the shift, are 8 hours per day.

1

See the particulars as to Germany, p. 161.
Information supplied by the Director-General of Mines of the Saar
on 13 July 1926.
2

A P P E N D I X II
METHODS OF COMPILING STATISTICS OF WAGES
IN T H E COAL-MINING INDUSTRY
IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

The survey published in the first part of the present report on the
methods of compiling statistics of wages in coal-mining is of a purely
theoretical and international character. The following notes complete
the survey by furnishing a short statement of the methods employed
in the official statistics published in various countries, methods
which, in fact, have served as the starting point of the international
analysis. The countries taken into consideration are those in respect
of which statistical data have been received—that is to say, the
principal coal-producing countries of Europe : Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Poland,
and the Saar Basin. The Saar Basin mines (mines domaniales) are
controlled by the French Government, and the relevant statistics,
therefore, are included in the French mining statistics. For each
country information is furnished under the following seven heads :
•collection of information ; classification of workers ; composition
of wages and earnings ; calculation of the number of shifts ; calculation of the average number of workers ; calculation of average wages ;
statistics of production.
Belgium
§ 1. Collection of Information. — The statistical data collected
each year by the mining engineers in the various concessions are
assembled by the Department of Mines for the purpose of publication
in the form of a special chapter of the Mining Annals of Belgium
(Annales des Mines de Belgique). The results obtained are furnished
for each coal-field, for groups of coal-fields, and for the entire Kingdom.
They are compiled separately for coal-mines, related industries (coke
and compressed1 fuel), and the other extractive and metal industries
of the country .
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The mining statistics include four
main groups of workers :
(1) workers at the coal-face ; these are the miners proper, that is,
hewers and stonemen occupied in hewing coal ;
(2) all underground workers, that is, workers at the face and the
other workers below ground ;
(3) all the surface workers ;
(4) The aggregate of the underground and surface workers, constituting the sum total of the workers employed in the collieries.
1
MINISTÈRE DE L'INDUSTRIE, DU TRAVAIL ET DE LA PRÉVOYANCE
SOCIALE, ADMINISTRATION DES MINES : Statistique des industries extrac-

tives et métallurgiques et des appareils à vapeur en Belgique.

— 168 —
This personnel is classified according to age and sex in the following
way :
Underground : men and boys: (a) over 16 years of age, (b) from 14
to 16 years ;
Surface workers : men and boys: (a) over 16 years of age, (b) 14 to
16 years; women and girls : (a) over 21 years, (b) from 16 to<
21 years, (c) from 14 to 16 years.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. — The Belgian statisticsdistinguish between :
(1) net wages, corresponding to money wages for normal work done ;
(2) gross wages which represent the preceding amounts plus the
amount of workmen's social insurance contributions ;
(3) wages costs, t h a t is, the amount of the allowances in cash and
in kind, employers' social insurance contributions, and compensation for accidents to workmen.
The apportionment of the first two factors is furnished in respect
of each of the workers' groups enumerated above. Only the total
amount is indicated for the third group.
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — To determine the
number of days of attendance, the number of workmen appearing
on each pay-sheet is taken and these figures are totalled up. No
distinction between normal work and overtime is made in the total
thus obtained.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — Mining
statistics are based on the concept of the "estimated number of
workers" obtained in each concession by dividing the number of
days of attendance on coal-winding days by the average number of
such days. The sum of the numbers thus calculated for each concession represents the coal-mining personnel of the whole country. The
average number of coal-winding days is calculated on the basis of
the total number of days in each mine on which at least one pit
was being worked.
The apportionment of the personnel according to age and sex is
based on four normal working periods of a fortnight, one period for
each quarter ; the classification by categories is drawn up in respect
of each period, averages are taken and applied to the estimated
number of workers.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — The wage averages calculated from the factors indicated above are the following :
(1) average wages per day of attendance : (a) net, (b) gross ;
(2) average annual wages : (a) net, (b) gross.
These averages are furnished in respect of each of the four main
groups of workers.
§ 7. Statistics of Production. — Production is taken as the sum
of the quantities sold, distributed and consumed ; stocks existing
at the end of the year are taken into account and stocks carried over
from the previous year are deducted. (Production is subdivided intocoal of various qualities : charbon flenu, gras, mi-gras, maigre.)

— 169 —
The data relating to tonnage, to the total value of the coal and t o
its price per ton are furnished separately in respect of the quantities
sold outside the mine, and to coke ovens, compressed fuel works»
etc., of the concession holders, of quantities distributed gratuitously
to the workers, quantities consumed in the mines and quantities
in stock at the begining and at the end of the year.
On the basis of the total tonnage produced, the following are
calculated :
(1) average output : (a) per day of attendance, (b) per annum :
separately for face workers, underground workers and the
total number of workers ;
(2) average wages, and wages costs per ton produced.
These two latter averages are factors in the calculation of working
expenses.
Czechoslovakia
§ 1. Collection of Information. — The data are collected, analysed
and published each year by the Statistical Office of the Czechoslovak
Republic. The methods explained below were introduced in 1925 ;
up till 1924 the data were collected in conformity with the methods
of the former Austrian mining statistics.
The new methods have effected considerable alterations in all
domains, with a result that from 1925 onwards it is not possible t o
compare the data with those of previous years. The classification
of the coal-fields is no longer the same, but the figures continue
to be
furnished for each of them and for the entire country 1.
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The mining statistics divide
the workers into eight groups :
Underground workers :
(ö) pikemen engaged in hewing ;
(6) hauliers (adult workers engaged in transporting the mineral) ;
this group also includes pikemen-apprentices ;
(c) other adult workers of more than 16 years of age employed in
timbering, repairs, etc. ;
(d) juveniles ; this group includes all boys up to the age of 16 years
working underground.
Surface workers :
(a) specialists ; skilled artisans, enginemen, firemen ;
(b) other adult workers (of more than 16 years of age) ;
(c) juveniles : boys up to the age of 16 working at the surface ;
(d) women : all women without distinction of age.
1
STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE CZECHOSLOVAK REPUBLIC : (a) Statistika
hornickych mezd za rok 1925 (Report on the statistics of wages in collieries
for 1925, with an explanation of the new methods) ; (&) Vyrobni statistika
hornicka, hutnicka, koksoven a briketaren (Report on the mining production
statistics).
The reports of the statistical office are published in Czech, French, and
German.
MINISTKY OF PUBLIC WORKS : Zpravy Verejné sluzby technické (Report
of the technical department, which furnishes detailed information on
production and output in the mines).

— 170 —
The supervisors, including gangers, foremen, etc., form a separate
group intermediate between the workers and the technical and administrative personnel. They are not taken into account in the
statistics of wages of the workers proper.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. — The grand total of
income arrived a t in the statistics of wages includes the following
factors :
(a) wages for work done ;
(6) surcharges for overtime ;
(c) family allowances granted on the basis of work done ;
(d) payment of part of the wages in cases of illness and accident ;
(e) the payment of wages lost through absence owing to various
reasons (fulfilment of civic duties, interruption of the transport
service, important family reasons). The payments referred to
under (d) and (e) are made in virtue of section 1154 (6) and
1155 of the Civil Code ;
(/) holiday payments.
The sum total of these factors represents the cash earnings of the
"workers, to which is added the assessed value of allowances in kind,
represented by :
(a) free coal ;
(6) free wood ;
(c) free lodging, including lighting ;
(d) the difference in price of lodgings let at reduced rental;
(e) allowance for transport of free coal ;
(/) housing allowances.
The total income represents the sum of cash earnings and allowances in kind and includes compulsory contributions to social
insurance funds and to the district councils (Revierrat).
No deductions are made on account of occupational charges
(explosives, etc.).
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — The number of
shifts corresponds t o the sum of the shifts actually worked, whether
they are normal or overtime. A distinction is drawn, however, to
indicate the number of ordinary shifts and the number of Saturday
shifts, whose duration is six hours.
Lost shifts are apportioned according to the causes of time lost :
illness, want of trade, lack of transport, unforeseen breakdowns in
working, strikes and lock-outs, paid holidays, absence with reason
(shifts paid, shifts not paid), absence without reason.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. ~ The
method adopted by the Czechoslovak statistics for the calculation
of the number of workers employed differs from that used in other
countries. First of all, the numbers of workmen taken at the end
of each period of payment (that is, every two weeks) are totalled,
and the sum thus obtained is then divided by the number of periods
of payment included in a normal year (that is, 26). In theory,
the result is not a n average number of workers, but an average
number of full-time workers (working units). In practice, the

— 171 —
figure obtained by the Czechoslovak method corresponds to the
average number of workers in the case in which the mines are in
continuous working throughout the whole year. If this is not the
case, the figure obtained indicates the supposed number of workers,
assuming that they have regularly worked the whole year.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — The factors enumerated
in the preceding paragraph permit the. determination of three
averages of wages :
(a) average earnings per shift worked ; this includes the total
payment for normal and overtime work as well as family
allowances ;
(b) average gross income per shift worked ;
(c) average gross income per workman.
§ 7. Statistics of Production. — These are completely separated
from the statistics of wages. The figures published relate to net
utilisable tonnage, apportioned as follows :
(a) used in the mine ;
(b) distributed to workers ;
(c) outside sales and sales to establishments attached to the mines;
(d) stock at the end of the year.
The following deductions are made from the sum of these quantities :
(a) stock at the beginning of the year ;
(b) outside receipts and receipts from establishments attached
to the mines.
From the net tonnage on the one hand, and the total number of
shifts worked and the average number of workers on the other hand,
the average output per shift and per worker is calculated. These
latter averages are furnished by the Public Works Statistical
Department.
France and the Saar
§ 1. Collection of Information. — Statistical material furnished
by each mining concession is collected and totalled by the Department of Mines (Direction des Mines) subordinate to the Ministry of
Public Works and is published each year by Departments and for
the entire country. The French Government mines in the Saar
territory form the subject of a special chapter in the report on the
mining industry. The relevant figures are compiled in an analogous
manner to those in respect of other French coal-fields 1.
1

MINISTÈRE DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS, DIRECTION DES MINES : Statistique de l'industrie minérale et des appareils à vapeur en France et en
Algérie.
In addition to the annual reports of the Department of Mines, statistical summaries are found from time to time in the following official
publications :
MINISTÈRE DU TRAVAIL, DE L'HYGIÈNE, DE L'ASSISTANCE ET DE LA

PRÉVOYANCE PUBLIQUE : (a) Bulletin de la Statistique générale de la

France ; (b) Bulletin du Ministère du Travail et de l'Hygiène.
The wages statistics which are published in the first mentioned of these
publications are compiled from information furnished by the Central
Committee of French Collieries (Comité central des Houillères de France).

— 172 —
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The mining statistics classify '
workers in the following way :
(1) Underground workers : (a) men ; (b) juveniles of 16 to 18
years ; (c) children under 16 years.
(2) Surface workers : (a) men ; (b) women above 18 years ;
(c) boys and girls of 16'to 18 years ; (d) boys and girls below
16 years.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. —The figures published
correspond to the amount of money wages earned by the workers.
This amount is the wage for normal work done together with the
cash bonuses and allowances and workmen's social insurance contribu.
tions.
The apportionment of these amounts is furnished in respect
of the total underground personnel on the one hand and the total
surface personnel on the other.
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — The total number
of shifts is calculated by adding the numbers of workmen appearing
on the attendance rolls, without making a distinction between
normal work and overtime.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — The
average number of workers either at the surface or underground is
obtained by dividing the total number of shifts worked at the surface
or underground by the number of coal winding days.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — The only wage averages
compiled in the mining statistics are the average daily wages underground and at the surface, obtained by dividing the total amount
of wages by the number of shifts worked by the underground workers
on the one hand and the surface workers on the other.
The average annual wages per underground worker and per surface
worker are also calculated from the material supplied.
§ 7. Statistics of Production. — The information collected
corresponds to the tonnage wound or net tonnage, represented by
the weight of the total production of fuel at the pitheads of the
mines after deducting the dirt resulting from washing and screening.
These data enable calculations to be made of :
(1) Average production per shift of the underground workers
and also per shift of the total of all workers (underground and
above ground).
(2) Wages costs per ton wound, obtained by dividing the total
amount of wages by the number of tons wound.
The mining statistics also give the value of the fuel extracted,
based on the evaluation at the pithead of the net tonnage. From
this figure is calculated the average price per ton.
Germany

§ 1. Collection of Information. — The statistics of wages and
of production in the Prussian mines are published by the Prussian
Ministry of Trade and Industry. For the statistics of the other
German States a similar procedure has been adopted ; they are

— 173 —
assembled by the Ministry of the Interior, which publishes them
conjointly with the Ministry of Labour 1.
All the basic figures are collected by the mining authorities (Bergbehörden) by means of a form (provided for in the Order of the
Prussian Ministry of Trade and Industry of 12 February 1921),
whose application has been extended to t h e mining statistics of
the Reich.
These statistics relate to all the workmen employed in t h e mines
or establishments placed under the supervision of the mining authorities, as well as to those employed by sub-contractors (Unternehmerarbeiter) in so far as they are insured with the miners' mutual insurance association (Knappschaftsberufsgenossenschaft).
Information
respecting the technical, managing and commercial personnel should
be excluded from the mining statistics.
The data published relate to quarterly and annual periods. They
are compiled separately for each coal-field, and no averages are
calculated by States or for the whole Reich. § 2. Classification of Workers. — The German mining statistics
comprise five groups of workers :
(1) Miners proper, employed in hewing and removing coal. They
are subdivided into : (a) hewers or pikemen ; (b) hauliers or
loaders.
(2) Workmen employed in cutting galleries and on minor works.
They are subdivided into : (a) shifters, timbermen, etc. ;
hookers, brakesmen, trammers, coggers, and pumpmen.
These two groups only include adult men (of a t least 16 years of
age) working underground.
(3) Surface workers (adult men), among whom are distinguished :
(a) skilled workers ; (b) other surface workers.
(4) Juvenile workers of less than 16 years of age, at the surface
and underground.
(5) Women workers who are employed a t the surface.
In the last three groups are included, apart from t h e workers in
the mines themselves, those who are employed in ancillary establishments, or establishments attached to the mines, such as coke ovens,
briquette manufactories, etc.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. — The statistics of
salaries are compiled from basic factors :
(1) Money wages in respect of the normal work done (Leistungslohn). They are composed of the basic salary — either on a
1
REICHSMINISTERIUM DES INNEBN : Deutscher Reichsanzeiger und
preussischer Staatsanzeiger. Nachweisung über die Arbeitsverhältnisse
und Löhne in den Hauptbergbaubezirken.
REICHSARBEITSMINISTERIUM : Reichsarbeitsblatt. (Which also publishes
the above statistics.)
STATISTISCHES REICHSAMT : Vierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des deutschen
Reiches. Produktion der bergbaulichen Betriebe.

PREUSSISCHES MINISTERIUM FÜR HANDEL UND INDUSTRIE : Zeitschrift

für das Berg-, Hütten und Salinenwesen im Preussischen Staate; (a) Statistische Mitteilungen über die beim Bergbau Preussens gezahlten Arbeitslöhne; (b) Haupt Übersicht über die Bergwerkserzeugnisse Preussens an
Mineralkohlen....
nach den Oberbergamtsbezirken.

— 174 —
time or piece-work basis — bonuses granted for the accomplishment of normal shifts (bonuses for underground workers, for
example) and workmen's social insurance contributions.
(2) Money earnings, known as Barverdienst. These include, in
addition to the Leistungslohn, all payments made on account
of overtime, as well as family allowances in cash.
In addition to these two factors, the mining statistics show :
(a) the amount of payments and allowances for holidays ; and (b) the
total value of allowances in kind.
The sum total of all these factors enables the aggregate income
of the workers (errechnetes Gesamteinkommen) to be calculated. The
latter does not include employers' social insurance contributions,
and no account is taken of deductions in respect of occupational
charges, as these are refunded to the workmen.
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — The German statistics
show : the number of normal shifts worked during a given period,
and (b) the total number of shifts worked (verfahrene Arbeitsschichten),
including overtime, expressed in terms of normal shifts.
Shifts lost (entgangene Arbeitsschichten) are classified according
to the causes of time lost : want of trade, lack of means of transport,
technical causes, labour disputes, illness, official and paid holidays.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — Two concepts of the number of workers will be found in the mining statistics :
(1) The average number of workers (durchschnittlich angelegte
Arbeiter), obtained by dividing the number of normal shifts,
together with the number of shifts lost, by the number of
working days during a given period. This average corresponds, in fact, to the actual number of workers employed in the
mines.
(2) The number of full-time workers (Vollarbeiter), obtained by
dividing the number of normal shifts by the number of the
working days in a given period. This average represents
the number of workers taken as uninterruptedly emploj^ed
in the accomplishment of normal work.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — On the basis of the factors
enumerated and defined above, the mining statistics furnish the
following averages of wages :
(1) Money wages per shift for the total number of workmen?
and for each of the groups mentioned above.
(2) Money earnings per shift also in respect of the total number
of workers and of each of the groups.
(3) Money earnings per full-time worker.
(4) Average aggregate income per workman employed.
The first and the second figures are obtained by dividing the
grand total of wages in the first case, and of earnings in the second
case, by the total number of shifts worked in a given period. The
third figure is t h e result of dividing the grand total of money earnings
by the number of full-time workmen calculated for a given period,
and the fourth is the quotient of the division of the aggregate income
of the total number of workmen by the average number of workmen
calculated for a given period.

— 175 —
§ 7. Statistics of Production. — For Prussia, in whose territory,
as a matter of fact, the majority of coal-mines is situated, t h e
statistics of production are combined with t h e wages statistics in
such a way as to show :
(1) Total utilisable tonnage (verwertbare Förderung).
(2) Average output : (a) per shift, and (b) per full-time worker
on a yearly basis, calculated separately for the hewers, for
the underground workers, and for the aggregate of all workers.
For the Reich there are special statistics compiled for insurance
purposes, which give, in respect of each State and each coal-field,
the following information relating to production : total utilisable
tonnage, quantity consumed by the mines, quantity consumed by
the ancillary establishments, quantity distributed to workmen and
employees, tonnage sold.
Great Britain
§ 1. Collection of Information.
— Data pertaining to the
mining statistics are collected and published by the Mines Department
in its annual report. Some are taken from the weekly and annual
reports furnished directly by the mining companies in virtue of the
Mining Industry Act of 1920 ; others, established by the National
Wages Board (composed of an equal number of employers and
workers) are summarised in the form of a quarterly bulletin on output,
costs of production, proceeds and profits of the coal-mining industry.
The information covers practically all the mining establishments
(about 96 per cent.) 1.
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The mining statistics classify
the workers in the following groups :
(1) underground : men.
(2) surface : men and women.
(3) underground and surface : men and women.
Each of these groups is subdivided into : workers of less than
16 years of age, from 16 to 18 years, from 18 to 20 years, more than
20 years.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings.
— The official
figures of wages consist of the "percentage additions to basis rates".
Statistics of money wages are also published, however, in the annual
report, compiled quarterly by the National Wages Board. They
furnish the total amount of money wages earned by the mining
workers in respect of work done.
This amount of the total money earnings includes the workers'
insurance contributions, but not those of the employers. No
official statistics of the allowances in kind exist.
1

BOARD OF TRADE, MINES DEPARTMENT : Annual

Report of the

Secretary for Mines and the Annual Report of H.M. Chief Inspector of
Mines, with a Statistical Appendix to both Reports.
Statistical Summary of Output, Cost of Production, Proceeds and
Profits of the Coal-Mining Industry.

— 176 —
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — To determine
the number of shifts, the numbers worked on each day in each mine
are totalled. This total includes the shifts of normal duration,
and overtime and week-end shifts expressed in terms of normal
shifts. This information is furnished under the headings : shifts
worked at the coal face, elsewhere below, and shifts worked on the
surface.
Shifts lost are those which could have been worked, and only
include those lost on account of holidays, disputes, transport difficulties, want of trade, sickness and accidents, during the days that
the mine is working.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — The
aggregate of the workers included in the classification described
above is ascertained from the pay-books of the mines at quarterly
intervals. The figures thus obtained are totalled and divided by
four to obtain the average number of persons employed in the mines
during the year.
The statistics do not furnish any explanation of the method
followed to compile the figure of the average number of workers —the
figure utilised by the National Wages Board—but it appears to be
based on the number of workers inscribed in the pay-books of the
mines.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages.
(1) The average wage per shift is the quotient of the
of the total amount of wages by the number of shifts
(2) The average quarterly earnings are obtained by
the total amount of wages by the average number of

division
worked.
dividing
workers.

§ 7. Statistics of Production. — The figures show :
(1) Total tonnage raised, including dirt, etc.
(2) Tonnage of saleable coal, i.e. excluding dirt.
(3) Tonnage disposable commercially, i.e. excluding colliery
consumption and coal supplied to the miners or at reduced
rates.
(4) Average output per shift obtained by dividing the tonnage
of saleable coal by the number of manshifts worked.
(5) Average output per worker, resulting from the division of
the saleable tonnage by the number of workers employed.
(6) Wages costs per ton, resulting from the division of the total
amount of wages by the tonnage disposable commercially.
Netherlands

§ 1. Collection of Information. — The official mining statistics
form the subject of an annual report submitted to the Government
by the Chief Mining Engineer. In addition, the Central Bureau
of Statistics periodically summarises certain data relating to wages
in the mining industry 1 .
1

Jaarverslag van den Hoofdingenieur der mijnen.
: Jaarcijfers voor Nederland;
Maandschrift.
There is also an annual report relating to the working of the State
mines, which contains information concerning wages, production and
output per man : Jaarverslag van het bedrijf der Staatsmijnen in Limburg.
CENTRAL BUREAU VOOR DE STATISTIEK

— 177 —
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The Dutch statistics distinguish between :
(1) Underground workers, divided into thirteen categories which
may be grouped as follows :
(a) foremen-pikemen, pikemen, assistant pikemen, loaders,
timbermen ;
b) hauliers and other artisans (skilled workers) ;
c) signallers, enginemen, pumpmen, horsekeepers and other
workers.
Certain categories of underground workers are further divided
into two groups according to age :
(a) those of more than 18 years,
(£>) those of less than 18 years.
(2) Surface workers divided into seven categories :
(a) skilled workers,
(b) semi-skilled workers,
(c) unskilled workers,
(d) general labourers from 21 to 22 years,
(e) general labourers from 19 to 20 years,
(/) general labourers from 16 to 18 years,
(g) general labourers of less than 16 years.
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. — The total amount
of wages corresponds to the wages earned by the workers, including
family and social allowances, but excluding payment for overtime.
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — The report of the
Chief Mining Engineer furnishes the total number of shifts worked
in each year.
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — The
statistics give an average number of workers employed in the coalfields during, and at the end of each year.
§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — The information published
relates to :
(a) average wages per shift, calculated from the total amount
of wages earned by the workers and the number of shifts
worked ; the averages are determined for each of the categories
of workers mentioned above, for the total number of surface
workers, and for the total of all workers,
(b) average annual wages per workman, determined from the
total wages and the average number of workers underground
and at the surface.
§ 7. Statistics of Production.
tion shows :
(a) tonnage wound,
(ft) tonnage saleable.

— The material relating to produc-

The latter heading is divided as follows :
(a) tonnage sold, subdivided into (i) coal sent away, (ii) coal
retailed by the mines, (iii) coal distributed to the personnel,
(iv) coal given away.
12

— 178 —
(b) tonnage utilised by the mines for the manufacture of
briquettes, for the manufacture of coke, and for other
purposes.
From the tonnage wound, the number of shifts and the average
number of workers, the statistics determine the average output per
worker : (a) per shift, (b) per annum.
Each of these averages is determined separately for the total
number of underground workers and the general total of workers.
Poland
§ 1. Collection of Information. — The figures are collected by
the Mining Administration, subordinate to the Ministry of Industry
and Trade, by means of a standard form which is sent every month
to all the mining establishments.
The statistics of wages, however, are not unified, as there are
considerable differences between the methods employed in Polish
Silesia and those employed in the coal-fields of Dombrowa and
Cracow. It is for this reason that the complete results of the analysis
of the forms are not published on a uniform basis for the entire
country. For the moment, the official mining statistics only relate
to wages and average earnings, to the average number of workers
and to production. On the other hand, certain private publications
(organs of mining associations) supply more detailed information,
but solely for one or other of the principal coal-fields of the country 1.
§ 2. Classification of Workers. — The mining statistics divide
the totality of workers into the following groups :
Underground workers :
(a) pikemen engaged in hewing operations,
(b) skilled workmen, employed as timbermen, shifters, or
attending to installations, etc. ;
(c) assistants employed as loaders, trammers, hookers, brakesmen,
etc. ;
(d) juveniles (males), up to 18 years in the Dombrowa and Cracow
coal-fields, and up to 16 years in the Upper Silesian coal-fields ;
(e) aggregate of underground workers.
Surface workers :
(a) skilled workers ;
(b) assistants ;
(c) women ; of more than 18 years of age at Cracow and Dombrowa, and more than 16 years in Upper Silesia ;
(d) juveniles of both sexes : from 16 to 18 years and apprentices
of less than 17 years at Dombrowa and Cracow ; of 14 to 16
years in Upper Silesia ;
(e) aggregate of surface workers.
1

O F F I C E CENTRAL D E STATISTIQUE D E LA R É P U B L I Q U E POLONAISE :

(a) Statistique du Travail (Statystyka Pracy) ; (b) Annuaire statistique
de la République polonaise.
The information concerning the methods adopted by the Polish
Statistical Office has been gathered from a report which Dr. A. STEIN,
mining engineer, has prepared for the International Labour Office.

— 179 —
§ 3. Composition of Wages and Earnings. — The gross earnings
on which the mining statistics are based include the following;
factors :
(a) cash wages for the total work done, including overtime
payments ;
(b) bonuses or small allowances granted for regular attendance
or for certain special tasks ;
(c) holiday payments ;
(d) family allowances ;
(e) value of lodging ;
(J) value of other allowances in kind, particularly free coal or
coal at reduced prices ;
(g) possible extra payments not included in the preceding groups.
Deductions made from wages are apportioned as follows :
(a) sickness insurance contributions ;
(b) contributions to the pension fund and in respect of life insurance (survivors' insurance) and disablement insurance ;
(c) contributions to the unemployment fund ;
(d) other deductions, such as income tax ;
(e) fines.
Deductions for expenses occasioned by the work are not included
in the amounts deducted, either because the system is not in force
or because they have been taken into account in fixing wages.
§ 4. Calculation of the Number of Shifts. — The mining statistics
furnish information concerning the number of shifts worked as
well as those lost.
Shifts worked are subdivided into normal shifts, that is, of normal
or legal duration, and overtime shifts expressed in terms of shifts
of normal duration.
Shifts lost are grouped according to the causes of loss : illness,
paid holiday, absence with reason, absence without reason, strike,
and, lastly, reasons beyond the control of the workers (technical
reasons or lack of transport or want of trade).
§ 5. Calculation of the Average Number of Workers. — The
official statistics. take the number of workers inscribed at the end
of each month in the registers of the mines and calculate for t h e
entire year the arithmetical mean of these monthly totals.
From the figures relating to the number of shifts and working;
days there are calculated, in addition :
(a) "average number of workers", by dividing the number of
normal shifts, plus the number of shifts lost, by the number
of working days in a given period (month or year) ;
(b) "actual number of workers employed", by dividing thenumber of normal shifts by the number of working days in a
given period ;
(c) "theoretical number of full-time workers", by dividing the
total number of shifts worked by the number of working days
in a given period.

• — 180 —

§ 6. Calculation of Average Wages. — By means of the factors
enumerated above, the mining statistics determine :
(a) average gross earnings per shift ;
(&) average net earnings per shift.
The first is obtained by dividing the sum total of wages paid to
workmen by the total number of shifts worked, plus the number of
holiday shifts. To obtain the second, the enumerator is diminished
by the deduction made from the wages, the denominator remaining
unchanged. In both cases it is a calculation of average earnings per
shift paid and not per shift worked.
§ 7. Statistics of Production. — These statistics are completely
separate from the statistics of wages. The information furnished
by the official publications all refers to the total production and is of
no assistance in calculating either average output or wages cost in
production.

APPENDIX I I I
M E T H O D EMPLOYED FOR CALCULATING RELATIVE
PURCHASING POWER OF AVERAGE EARNINGS

The method adopted for calculating the relative purchasing power
of average earnings is identical with that adopted by the International Labour Office during the last few years in calculating index
numbers of real
wages of certain categories of workers in different
capital cities 1 . The object of the method is to show how many times
the wages of the worker can purchase at the prices current in his
town or district a "basket of provisions" containing the foodstuffs
normally consumed by a worker's family. From the ideal point of
view, a group of commodities should be formed including items not
only of food but also of heating and lighting, clothing, house accommodation, and various miscellaneous items of consumption (e.g.
furniture), so that the group is representative of the consumption
of the workers in the countries covered and would serve as a common
unit of measurement of wages. If such a group were established, the
wages of similar groups of workers in different countries could be
expressed as ratios of the cost in each country of the group of commodities, or, in other words, there would be found for each country
the purchasing power of wages over a given group of commodities
at the prevailing level of prices.
In practice it is impossible to construct such an ideal unit of
measurement owing to differences in the items consumed in the
different countries or, where similar items are found in the consumption budgets, to differences in their quantity and quality. A further
difficulty is the lack of price data for many of the items. Consequently, it has been found necessary to limit the calculation to a
list of those articles of food which are important items in the consumption of working-class families in the countries covered. This
limitation to the principal articles of food may diminish the value
of the results, but it should be remembered that the expenditure on
food constitutes the greater part of family outgo, often reaching twothirds of the expenditure. In the case of miners' families where coal
and housing are often supplied free or at reduced rates, food expenditure would constitute an even higher proportion. The effect of
the exclusion of clothing, fuel and light, and rent from the calculations
depends on the extent to which the relative prices of these items
differs from those of foodstuffs. In the case of fuel and light and
clothing, the effect is probably small. In the case of rent, however,
owing to the operation of rent restriction legislation, the levels of
rent and the proportion spent on rent in different countries differ
widely. In the quarterly calculations of real wage index numbers
published in the International Labour Review, a correction is made for
1

See International Labour Review, Oct. 1924, and subsequent issues.

— 182 —
this factor, but owing to the special and widely differing conditions
of housing in the different mining districts it has not been possible
to do so in the present case.
In order to measure wages in terms of foodstuffs, an international
budget containing the quantities of the chief items of food consumed
by miners' families would be necessary. The method of the International Labour Office has been to take different "baskets of provisions" representative of the consumption of different mining
regions and to use each of these as a measure of the level of real
wages in each district. Four different baskets have been chosen
for this purpose ; the British, the Belgian (which may also be
considered as representative of France), the German (which may be
considered as representative of Czechoslovakia), and the Polish.
Information as to the composition of these baskets has been furnished
by the Governments of the respective countries and is given in the
following table.
TABLE

SHOWING QUANTITIES OF FOOD CONSUMED IN
COUNTRIES (PER UNIT OF CONSUMPTION)
Items

Unit

British
quantities

White b r e a d . . . .
Rye b r e a d
. . . .

kilo

2.10
—
1.25
0.17
0.05
0.50
0.20
0.12
1.50
0.60
0.01
—
0.10
0.08
1.20
2.75
0.135

Butter
Beet
Mutton
Potatoes
Coffee. .
Coffee s u b s t i t u t e
Tea
Milk
Eggs

litre
unit
kilo

DIFFERENT

Belgian
German
Polish
quantities quantities quantities

4.50
—
0.25
0.24
0.08
0.50
—
0.20
3.00
0.35
0.20
—
—
0.10
1.70
3.00
0.06

0.50
3.00
0.30
0.10
0.12
0.25
0.05
0.11
4.50
0.25
0.03
0.10
—
0.13
2.50
2.00
0.40

0.50
2.37
0.58
0.07
0.08
0.58
—
0.23
3.50
0.26
—
0.09
0.02
—
1.75
3.50
0.35

The British, German, and Belgian budgets are based on the general
budgets used in the respective countries for the compilation of
cost-of-living index numbers and are also used by the International
Labour Office in its quarterly calculations of real wages in capital
cities. The Polish budget was supplied by the Polish Government.
The cost of each of these four baskets is then calculated for each
of the ten regions : Great Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, France,
Germany (two districts), Czechoslovakia (two districts), Poland and
the Saar at the prices current in those districts. The prices used for
Great Britain are published in the Ministry of Labour Gazette; those
for Germany (the Ruhr), Germany (Upper Silesia), Belgium, France,
Poland, and Czechoslovakia were supplied by the respective Governments ; those for the Saar by the Saar Mining Administration ; and
those for the Netherlands are those current at Maastricht (as representing the Limburg mining district) on 1 January 1926 as published

— 183 —
in Pripen en Kosten van Levensonderhoud. The French prices, it
should be noted, refer only to the Pas de Calais region.
The number of times the earnings will purchase each of these four
baskets is calculated and the results expressed in the form of index
numbers on the basis Great Britain = 100. The average of these four
index numbers is taken and the result gives an "international
average of real earnings". It will thus be seen that each of the
national earnings are not measured in terms of each of the four
budgets. The final average index number thus takes account of
each of the representative budgets.
An example will make the method clear :
The cost of the four different budgets in 1925 in three of the mining
regions was as follows :
Region

British
budget

French
budget

German
budget

Polish
budget

Great B r i t a i n . . . .
Germany (Ruhr) . .

86.5d.
7.92 R.M.
30.00 frs.

102.5d.
9.95R.M.
32.60 frs.

81.0d.
6.10 R.M.
24.30 frs.

82.0d.
6.50 R.M.
25.70 frs.

The average daily earnings of mine-workers in these districts were
(see Table VI, pages 108-109) :
Great Britain
139d.
Germany (the Ruhr)
7.45 R.M.
France
27.90 1rs.
The number of times that a British, German (Ruhr), and French
miner can buy these "baskets of provisions" is as given below :
Number of times miner's wage in different
region will purchase
Region

Great Britain
Germany (Ruhr)

. . .

British
basket

French
basket

German
basket

Polish
basket

1.61
0.94
0.93

1.36
0.75
0.86

1.72
1.22
1.15

1.70
1.15
1.09

Thus a British miner by spending the whole of his wages on pur139
chasing these foodstuffs could buy the British basket Q» r or 1.61
7.46
times, the German miner ~-cñ o r 0-94 times, and the French miner
27.9
or 0.93 times.
30.0
The ratio of the purchasing power of wages in Great Britain, the
Ruhr, and France using the British basket is thus 1.61,0.94, and 0.93.
Great Britain is then taken as 100, and the index numbers are 100,

— 184 —
58.5, and 58.0. Identical calculations are made for each mining region
and for each of the other three baskets and an average of the four
series of index numbers is then made, as shown in the following
table :
Index numbers (Great Britain = 100)
Region

Great Britain . . .
Germany (Ruhr)
France

British
basket

French
basket

100
58.5
58.0

100
55
63

German
basket
100
71
67

Polish
basket

General
average

100
68
64

100
63.1
63

APPENDIX

IV

CHANGES IN HOURS OF LABOUR AND WAGES
IN T H E COAL INDUSTRY OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
FROM 1925 T O 1927

INTRODUCTORY N O T E

The year 1925 to which the comparative enquiry presented in
Part Two of this report refers, constituted an exceptional year in
several respects and for several countries. Observations to this
effect have been expressly made in the course of the enquiry on the
part of the Polish Government and the Miners' Federation of Great
Britain. For this reason, and with a view to bringing the enquiry
up to date as much as possible, it is necessary to give a general
survey of the changes which have taken place in the regulation of
hours of work and in the level of wages in the European coal industry
in the period following 1925.
It goes without saying that the method of presentation in this
appendix must be different from that employed in the study concerning the situation in 1925. The data given in the following notes
are secured directly from the official sources of each country, and,
owing to the varying scope and methods of national legislation and
national statistics, each country must be dealt with in a separate
note. Comparisons between different countries cannot, as a rule,
be made.
The principal object of the present appendix is in fact to compare
the developments which have taken place in each individual country
during the period 1925, 1926, and 1927. The starting point of the
comparison is the situation in 1925 ; it should, however, be noted
that in general the data given in P a r t Two in respect of this year
cannot be compared with the information available for later periods ;
hence it is necessary to furnish for each country such information
for 1925 as is to be found in the official statistics, and with which
the information for 1926 and 1927 agree.
Section A deals with hours of labour. This section is confined
to three countries only, viz. Germany, Great Britain, and Poland,
where important modifications have been made since 1925.
Section B deals with statistics of wages 1 . Since the level of wages in
a great industry, like coal-mining, is constantly fluctuating in a greater
or lesser degree, it is necessary to cover in this section all countries
for which useful information is found, viz. Belgium, Czechoslovakia,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, Poland, and the Saar.
For all countries, data are available for the years 1925 and 1926 ;
in the case of Poland, additional information is given for the first

— 186 —
quarter of 1927, in the case of Germany and the Netherlands for the
first three quarters of the same year, and in the case of Belgium,
France, Great Britain and the Saar for the whole year 1927.
The average wages are expressed (as in Part Two of this report)
both in terms of national currency and in terms of gold francs. The
conversion of wages into gold francs has been deemed to be indispensable in view of the fluctuations in the value of some European
currencies in 1925 and 1926 which render any comparisons for the
individual countries difficult, if not impossible. Wages expressed
in terms of gold francs will also show in what direction the cost of
an hour's or a day's work, or of a ton of coal, i.e. the purchasing
power of wages in the international market, have changed. The
conversion of wages into gold francs is effected on the basis of an
average rate of exchange for the whole year (or for a quarter in 1927),
whereas the currencies which were not stable, varied in fact from day
to day ; the figures relating to gold franc wages are therefore only
approximate 1.
A further and more important reservation is to be made as regards
the comparisons of the workers' standard of living. If wages
expressed in national currencies and converted to gold francs are
shown to have increased in a given period, this does not necessarily
mean that the standard of living of workers has also improved. The
figures relating t o wages refer in most cases to money wages only,
and it is not known how the value of allowances in kind, payments
for holidays, employers' contributions, etc., have changed. Above
all, accurate calculations of the relative purchasing power of the
wages in terms of prices of commodities cannot be made for the
periods considered. In order to remedy this flaw, the cost-of-living
index numbers are given for each country, but since these index
numbers are not established for the mining districts concerned, they
can only indicate the changes in the internal purchasing power of the
national currency in its general lines.

A.

HOURS OF W O R K

Since 1925, the period to which the figures in this report refer, new
circumstances have arisen in Germany, Great Britain and Poland,
as regards hours of work in coal-mines.
Germany
In the Ruhr2, the arbitral award of 18 March 1927 (rendered
binding on 23 March 1927 and applied since 1 April 1927) contains
the following provisions :
(1) The maintenance of the usual shift, i.e. 7 hours plus 1 hour
overtime.
1

See remarks made in Part Two, Chapter II, § 17.
An enquiry made by the Mining Employers' Federation of the
Ruhr showed that on 22 Feb. 1927 the effective hours of work at
the lace, excluding breaks (durée de présence au chantier : reine Arbeitszeit pot Ort), for hewers, fillers and drawers, were 6 hours 15.02 minutes.
2

— 187 —
(2) A reduction of hours from 10 to 8, plus 1 hour overtime, for
surface workers whose work is directly connected with coal getting.
(3) As from 2 May 1927, a reduction of hours for other classes of
surface workers, which will reduce hours of work, breaks excluded,
to 9 a day. In undertakings working two shifts, 8 hours are worked
on Saturdays, in those employing one shift, 8 and 10 hours are
worked on alternate Saturdays. Daily hours of attendance are
reduced from 12 to 10 for the whole of the workers, a supplement of
25 per cent, being paid for the tenth hour.
(4) In surface undertakings operating continuously (coke furnaces
excepted) hours of work are 10 a day. Sunday work is regulated as
formerly. The personnel may be required to be present during
breaks and rest periods. Since 1 April 1927, a supplement of 25 per
cent, is paid for the tenth hour ; this supplement is reduced to 10
per cent, for groups of workers whose occupation consists mainly in
being present.
At Aachen, the arbitral award of 26 March 1927 (rendered binding
on 31 March and applied since 1 April 1927) provides :
(1) For underground workers a shift of 7 hours. Overtime must
be carried out in such a way that the total shift shall be 8 % hours,
this period to be reduced to 81/t hours on 1 June 1927.
(2) For surface workers whose work is directly connected with
coal-getting, hours of work equal to those of underground workers.
(3) As from 1 May 1927, a reduction of hours for other classes of
surface workers, which will reduce hours of work, breaks excluded,
to 9 on weekdays, the duration of the shift being 10 hours. In
undertakings working two shifts, 8 hours are worked on Saturdays,
9 hours being worked in those with one shift.
(4) In surface undertakings operating continuously, hours of
work are 10 a day. Sunday work is regulated as formerly. The
personnel may be required to be present during breaks and rest
periods. Since 1 April 1927, a supplement of 25 per cent, is paid
for the tenth hour ; this supplement is reduced to 10 per cent, for
groups of workers whose occupation consists mainly in being present.
In Upper Silesia, the arbitral award of 22 February 1927 (rendered
binding on 1 March 1927) contains the following provisions :
(1) For underground workers, a reduction of the shift by a quarter
of an hour from 1 March and by a further quarter of an hour from 1
September 1927, the duration of the shift thus being reduced to 8
hours.
(2) For surface workers, the duration of hours of work, breaks
excluded, is reduced to 8 hours on Saturdays.
(3) In surface undertakings operating continuously, hours of
work are not reduced on Saturdays. Work performed in excess
of 8 hours is considered as overtime.
In Lower Silesia, the arbitral award of 28 May 1927 (rendered
binding on 31 May and applied since 1 June 1927) provides :
(1) For underground workers a shift of 7 hours, plus 1 hour
overtime.
(2) For surface workers whose work is directly connected with
coal-getting, a shift of 8 hours plus 1 hour overtime.

— 188 —
(3) For other classes of surface workers, 9 hours of work, excluding
rests, on weekdays and a shift of 10 hours. In undertakings where 10
hours were worked, the tenth hour to be abolished before 1 August
1927. On Saturdays, overtime is not to become a regular habit.
(4) A supplement of 15 per cent, is to be paid for the ninth hour's
work, and a supplement of 25 per cent, for the tenth and following
hours. These supplements are, however, not granted to workers
whose work normally and mainly consists in being present.
(5) In surface undertakings operating continuously (coke furnaces
excepted), hours of work are reduced from 10 to 9% a day.
Sunday
work is regulated as formerly. The personnel may be required to
be present during breaks and rest periods.
In the Free State of Saxony, in virtue of the arbitral award of 18 May
1927, workers were to receive a supplement of 15 per cent., as. from
1 July 1927, for the ninth hour of work, excluding breaks (reine
Arbeitszeit), and a supplement of 25 per cent, for the tenth hour.
At the present time, regulations guarantee that work performed
in the mines over and above that fixed by agreement and overtime
shall be paid at an increased rate varying between 15 and 25 per
cent.
Great Britain
In Great Britain the Coal Mines Act of 1926 \ which received the
Royal Assent on 8 July of that year and which is to continue in
force for a period of five years from that date, has amended section 3
of the Coal Mines Regulation Act of 1918, included in the Coal Mines
Acts, 1887-1919 2 .
Section 3, subsection (1), of the earlier Act was as follows :
"The time fixed ,by this Act as the time during which the
workmen in the mine may be below ground for the purpose of
their work and of going to and from their work may be extended
as respects any mine, by the owner, agent or manager of the
mine, on not more than 60 days in any calendar year by not
more than one hour a day, and on any day in which an extension
of time is so made in accordance with this section as respects
any mine the time as so extended shall be substituted for the
purposes of this Act as respects that mine for the time as fixed
by this Act."
The subsection as amended by the new Act is as follows :
"The time fixed by this Act as the time during which the
workmen in the mine may be below ground for the purpose of
their work and of going to and from their work may be extended
as respects any mine by the owner, agent, or manager of the
mine, by not more than one hour a day, and on any day in
which an extension of time is so made in accordance with this
section as respects any mine the time as so extended shall be
substituted for the purposes of this Act as respects that mine
for the time as fixed by this Act."
1
3

Legislative Series, 1926, G.B. 2.
See pp. 162-163.

— 189 —
This provision therefore makes it legally possible for the owner of
a mine to increase working hours to 8 per day for the personnel
deemed to be "workmen" and to 9 for the personnel covered by
paragraph (a) of subsection (7) of section 1 of the Act of 1908.
Subsequent to the passing of this Act, collective agreements have
been made between the representatives of the owners and the
workers in practically all the coal-mining districts, embodying the
duration of the shift, or working day, below ground. In the majority
of the districts the full 8 hours is stipulated, in others 7%> whilst yet
in others the hewers alone work 7 % , while other underground classes
(haulage hands, etc.) are required to work 8. Most of the agreements provide for a shorter shift on Saturday, varying from 5 1 / t to
7 hours.
The hours of work on the shifts have also been increased pari passu
with those underground, and the weekly maximum of 4 6 % hours
laid down in the National Agreement of 1919 has been superseded by
separate district arrangements incorporated in the various agreements.
For all practical purposes the hours of work above ground are now
similar to those which existed in 1919, i.e. from 48 to 50 hours per
week according to the district.

Poland
In the Basins of Dombrowa and Cracow the Directorate of Mines
introduced on 6 April 1926, for underground workers, a break of
30 minutes, which is not included in the hours of work, and must
therefore be added to the regulation hours in order to give the actual
working day. This rest period is not granted on Saturdays. In
consequence of these provisions the actual working day is increased
to 8 % hours (6 hours on Saturdays).

B.

WAGES

Belgium
§ 1. Statistics as to the employment and production in the
Belgian coal-mines are available for the years 1925 and 1926 ; moreover, some provisional figures for 1927 have been obtained. Data
are furnished for six different districts, but in the following notes
figures are given only for the country as a whole. The differences in
the level of wages between the various districts are in fact rather
small.
§ 2. Table I shows the aggregate amount of money wages paid
by the coal-mines in 1925 and 1926. The statistics distinguish
between the term "net wages" which means money wages paid
directly for the amount of work done, and the term "gross wages",
meaning the total of net wages and workers' contributions to social
insurance. As was shown in the study of wages in 1925, these
"gross wages" represent about 94 per cent, of total actual earnings
of workpeople, excluding employers'contributions to social insurance.

— 190 —
TABLE I. — TOTAL WAGES BILL IN BELGIAN COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 5
AND 1 9 2 6

(Belgian Francs—000's Omitted)
Items of wages

1925

Workmen's contributions to social
Total or " gross wages " .

1926

1,266,041

1,492,343

29,691
1,295,732

35,397
1,527,740

Further to money wages, the statistics show "expenditure in
respect to labour" (dépenses afjérantes à la main-d'œuvre), which
includes the value of coal distributed to employees free of charge or
at a reduced rate, employers' contributions to the schemes of workmen's compensation for industrial accidents, subventions to mutualaid funds, and miscellaneous. The sum total of this expenditure
was, in 1925, 147,585,000 francs, and, in 1926, 182,414,000 francs.
This sum is somewhat higher than the total of items other than net
money wages and workers' contributions to social insurance, as is
shown in Part Two of the present report.
The distribution of the total of gross money wages of different
categories of mine workers, viz. hewers, underground workers, and
surface workers, is given in the following table.
TABLE II. — DISTRIBUTION OF GROSS MONEY WAGES AMONG
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF MINE-WORKERS, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(Belgian Francs—000's Omitted)
Categories ol workers

All underground workers

1925

. . . .

All mine workers. . .

209,940
967,877
327,855
1,295,732

1926

245,966
1,155,213
372,527
1,527,740

The aggregate number of days' work (corresponding to manshifts)
of coal-winding days (jours d'extraction), as well as the average
number of mine-workers, is given in Table III. With regard to
the first-named number, it is to be observed that it excludes days'
work performed by certain categories of workers on days when
coal was not wound. The average number of mine-workers is
calculated from the number of days worked and the average number
of coal-winding days. By coal-winding days are meant days on
which at least one of the pits was in operation. The average number
of coàl-winding days was, in 1925, 295.13 and, in 1926, 298.52which
corresponds nearly to the full number of possible working days.

— 191 —
TABLE III. — NUMBER OF DAYS'

WORK

ON

COAL "WINDING

DAYS

AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF MINE-WORKERS, BY CATEGORIES,

1925

AND 1926
Average number of mineworkers

Number of days' work
Categories of workers
1925

1926

1925

|

1926

6,496,000

6,512,000

22,058

21,967

Surface workers . . .

32,436,000
14,899,000

33,028,000
14,795,000

109,916
50,467

110,615
49,582

All mine-workers. .

47,334,000

47,823,000

160,383

160,197

All underground

It will be seen from Table III that both the number of days' work
and the average number of mine-workers have remained practically
stationary in the two years considered. The proportion of days
worked and of workers employed in the different categories has also
remained unchanged in both years. The number of hewers was
14 per cent, of the total number of workers, that of all underground
workers 69 per cent., and that of surface workers 31 per cent. ;
the percentages of days' work by these different categories were the
same.
TABLE IV. — AVERAGE DAILY AND YEARLY WAGES OF DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES OF MINE-WORKERS, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
Average wage
Belgian francs

Categories of workers

1925

|

1926

Average wage
gold francs
1925

1926

(i) Average Wages per Day's Work

All underground workers. . .
All mine-workers

. . . .

32.32

37.77

7.97

6.61

29.25
20.72

34.29
23.85

7.22
5.11

6.00
4.17

26.49

30.99

6.54

5.42

(ii) Average Wages per Worker per Year

All underground workers. . .
All mine-workers

. . . .

9,518

11,197

2,348

1,958

8,806
6,496

10,444
7,513

2,172
1,603

1,827
1,314

8,079

9,537

1,993

1,668

— 192 —
§ 3. The average "gross wage" per day and per annum for the
different categories of mine-workers is calculated on the basis of
data furnished above. The averages are given in each case (Table IV)
both in Belgian francs and in gold francs 1 .
The changes which have taken place in the level of wages from
1925 t o 1926 are shown by the "relative numbers' ' in Table V. These
numbers are calculated by taking in each case the average wage paid
in 1925 as equal to 100, and by relating the average wage paid in
1926 to this basis.
TABLE V. — RELATIVE NUMBER OF AVERAGE WAGES OF THE
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF MINE-WORKERS IN 1 9 2 6

(Average Wage in 1925 = 100)

Category of workers

All underground workers

. .

Average wages per
day expressed in

Average wages per
year expressed in

Belgian
francs

Gold
francs

Belgian
francs

Gold
francs

116.9
117.2
115.1
117.0

82.9
83.1
81.6
82.9

117.6
118.6
115.7
118.0

83.4
84.1
82.0
83.7

The above figures show that the changes in wages have been
practically equal for the different categories of workers. Average
wages expressed in the national currency have increased by about 15
to 18 per cent ; owing to the depression of the Belgian franc in 1926
the average wages expressed in terms of gold francs have decreased
by about 16 to 18 per cent. The purchasing power in the international market of wages paid by the Belgian coal industry thus
decreased considerably in 1926.
In order to know how these fluctuations have affected the standard
of living of workers, it will be necessary to ascertain the changes in
the internal purchasing power of the Belgian franc. A general idea
of these changes will be obtained by means of the index numbers of
food prices and cost of living which refer to retail prices in 59 Belgian
towns. Taking the index number shown for the month of July 1925
as equal to 100, the index numbers for July 1926 are :
Foodstuffs . .
Cost of living

139.1
130.8

It may be inferred from these figures that the cost of living increased
in Belgium during the year 1926 more than the average wages paid
in the coal industry, and that consequently the internal purchasing
power of mine-workers' wages ("real wages" of mine-workers)
were less in 1926 than in the preceding year.
1
The rates of exchange used in the conversion of Belgian francs to
gold francs are :
In 1925
100 Belgian francs = 24.67 gold francs
In 1926
100
„
„
= 17.49

— 193 —
According to provisional information published for 1927 1 , average
wages per day of the different categories of workers were as follows 2 :
BeJgian
francs

Gold
francs

Hewers
50.13
7.23
All underground workers
44.98
6.49
Surface workers
31.31
4.52
All mine-workers
40.83
5.89
Compared with the wage level of 1925 = 100, the relative number
of average wages expressed in gold francs was 90. The purchasing
power of these wages in the international market in 1927 was
thus 10 per cent, below the corresponding purchasing power in
1925. On the other hand, the purchasing power of the wages of
the Belgian miners in the internal market (or "real wages") was
approximately on the same level in 1925 and 1927. As a
matter of fact, if the relative number of average wages expressed
in Belgian francs in 1925 is taken as = 100, the wages paid in 1927
are represented by the figure 154. The index number of foodstuffs,
compared with July 1925 = 100, was, in July 1927, 157.9 and that
of cost of living in general, 153.4.
The fact that real wages thus increased in 1927 to their previous
level is due to the application of a "combined index" to the regulation
of wages in the coal industry during the period from 1 November 1926
to 1 November 1927 3.
§ 4. Table VI shows the total output of coal and its distribution
for different uses in 1925 and 1926.
TABLE VI.

—

TOTAL O U T P U T

O F COAL

AND

ITS DISTRIBUTION

FOR

DIFFERENT USES, 1925 AND 1926
(Metric Tons—000's Omitted)
T o n n a g e of

Coal distributed t o mine-workers

1925

. . . .

1926

2,491
521
20,085

2,501
507
22,252

23,097

25,260

The average daily and annual output of coal per hewer, per underground worker, and per underground and surface worker is shown in
Table VII.
1
Cf. MINISTÈRE DE L'INDUSTRIE, DU TRAVAIL ET DE LA PRÉVOYANCE
SOCIALE, ADMINISTRATION DES MINES : L'Industrie charbonnière pendant

l'année 1927; statistique provisoire et vue d'ensemble sur l'exploitation.
Brussels, 1928.
2
In order to convert the Belgian francs to gold francs, the value of
the belga at par has been divided by 5 (100 Belgas = 74.14 gold francs ;
100 Belgian francs = 14.43 gold francs).
3
This "combined index" was established on the basis of fluctuations
of the retail prices of food and market prices of coal.
13

— 194 —
TABLE VII. — AVERAGE DAILY AND ANNUAL OUTPUT OF COAL PER

WORKER, 1925 AND 1926
(Metric Tons)
Category of worker

Underground worker
. . . .
Mine-worker in general . . .

Average output
per day

Average output
per year

1925

1926

1925

1926

3.56
0.70
0.47

3.88
0.72
0.51

1,047
210
144

1,150
228
155

These figures show that the average output increased by about 10
per cent, in 1926 as compared with the preceding year.
The average ' 'gross wage' ' cost per ton of coal may be calculated
from figures given in Tables I and VI. The average wage cost
is calculated both in terms of Belgian francs and in gold francs.
TABLE VIII. — AVERAGE WAGE COST OF A TON OF COAL,
1925 AND 1926
Ton ot

Commercially disposable coal

Average cost in
Belgian francs

Average cost in
gold francs

1925

1926

1925

1926

56.10
64.51

60.48
68.66

13.84
15.91

10.58
12.01

It is seen t h a t the wage cost expressed in gold francs decreased
considerably (by about 24 per cent.) from 1925 to 1926.
In 1927 the total quantity of saleable coal was about 27,548,000
metric tons ; the average daily output was as follows :
Per hewer
3.91 tons
Per underground worker
0.74 ,,
Per mine-worker in general
0.51 „
These figures show that while the total production continued to
increase in the course of 1927, the average output remained almost
stationary.
Finally, the average wage cost per ton of saleable coal raised in
1927 was 79.44 Belgian francs, or 11.46 gold francs. The wage cost,
expressed in terms.of gold, increased slightly as compared with the
preceding year, but still remained considerably below (by about 17
per cent.) the 1925 level.
Czechoslovakia
§ 1. Wage and output statistics for the coal-mines of the Republic
of Czechoslovakia, published by the Statistical Office, are available
for the years 1925 and 1926. The figures in question are fairly
complete and are largely based on the methods used for the 1925
enquiry into wages and set forth in P a r t Two of this report.

— 195 § 2. The total earnings shown in Czechoslovak statistics cover
the various elements included in "aggregate actual earnings",
with the exception of employers' contributions to social insurance.
It must, however, be pointed out t h a t the figures given in the official
statistics do not quite agree with those given by the Czechoslovak
Government in reply to the 1925 enquiry ; for example, the allowances
in kind are shown
according to their taxed value, which is less than
their real value 1 . The result of this is that the earnings in question
as shown in the official statistics are somewhat lower than the figures
obtained for our enquiry. The composition of the aggregate actual
earnings in the coal-mines of the Republic and their distribution
between the various classes of miners are shown in Tables I
and II.

TABLE I.

— COMPOSITION OF AGGREGATE ACTUAL EARNINGS IN THE
GOAL-MINES OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(In

Thousands of Crowns)
1925

1926

606,299
32,587
638,886

630,553
28,595
659,148

Composition of earnings

Total money earnings
Total value of allowances in kind

TABLE

II.

— DISTRIBUTION

OF

. . . .

AGGREGATE

ACTUAL

EARNINGS

IN 1925 AND 1926
(In Thousands of Crowns)
Category of workers

Total underground and surface workers .

|

1925

255,601
498,435
140,451
638,886

|

.

1926

260,754
525,010
134,138
659,148

The total number of shifts worked, calculated on the basis of the
normal shift, and including overtime and short shifts, is shown in
Table III, which also gives the total number of shifts lost when the
mines were working and when work was suspended in the mines.

1

A comparison of the "taxed value" of allowances in kind as shown
in the mining statistics, and their real value as given at the time of
enquiry, proves that in 1925 the latter was exactly double the
former.

— 196 —
TABLE III. — TOTAL NUMBER OF MANSHIFTS WORKED AND LOST

IN 1925 AND 1926
(000's Omitted)
Manshifts worked

Manshifts lost

Category of workers
1925

1926

1925

1926

Hewers
All underground workers . .

5,074
11,579

4,713
11,111

1,346
3,149

1,110
2,615

All surface workers
Total underground and surface

4,052

3,459

655

513

15,631

14,570

3,804

3,128

Table IV shows the number of workers employed in Czechoslovak
coal-mines in 1925 and 1926. As was explained in a description
of the methods used in compiling mining statistics, this number
does not represent the average number of workers but rather the
number of full-time workers. The number of shifts lost during the
course of these two years having been rather high, the number of
full-time workers is much lower than the average number of workers
actually employed.

TABLE IV.

NUMBER OF MINE-WORKERS IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

Category of workers

Total underground and surface workers .

1925

21,092
48,050
14,403
62,453

1926

19,004
45,183
13,011
58,194

§ 3. The average actual earnings are calculated per manshift
on the one hand, and per worker per annum on the other. The
relative figures are shown in Table V *.

1

The rates used for the conversion of the Czechoslovak crown into
gold francs were as follows :
1925
100 Kc. = 15.39 gold francs
1926
100 Kc. = 15.35 „

— 197 —
TABLE V. — AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS PER MANSHIFT AND PER

ANNUM IN 1925 AND 1926
Average earnings
in gold francs

Average earnings
in crowns

Category of workers

1925

j

1925

1926

1926

(i) Per Manshift

Hewers
All underground workers. . .
All underground and surface
workers

50.40
43.05
34.66

54.06
46.07
35.98

7.75
6.62
5.33

8.30
7.07
5.52

40.87

43.58

6.28

6.69

(ii) Per Worker per Annum

Hewers
All underground workers. . .
All surface workers
All underground and surface
workers

12,118
10,373
9,752

13,721
11,620
10,310

1,863
1,594
1,499

2,106
1,784
1,583

10,230

11,327

1,572

1,739

Table V shows that earnings expressed in Czechoslovak currency
rose slightly during 1926. On account of the stability of the Czechoslovak crown during the two years in question, the gold value of
actual earnings also increased in each case. The increase is more
noticeable in the case of annual average earnings than in the case
of earnings per shift. This is explained by the fact (brought out
by the number of shifts lost as shown in Table III) that the mines
were worked more regularly in 1926 than during the preceding year.
The increase of annual average earnings for the workers taken as a
whole was 10 per cent, between 1925 and 1926.
On the other hand, the purchasing power of wages on the home
market appears to have remained stable, or it did not increase,
during 1926.
The official cost-of-living index number for the town of Prague
fell by about 3 per cent, between July 1925 and July 1926. It may
therefore be assumed that the real wages of Czechoslovak working
miners increased during 1926.
TABLE VI. — TOTAL COAL OUTPUT, 1925 AND 1926

(Metric

Tons—000's

Omitted)

Distribution of tonnage

Total saleable coal . . .

1925

861
254
11,444
12,559

1926

842
236
13,099
14,177

—

198 —

TABLE VII. — AVERAGE OUTPUT OF SALEABLE COAL, 1925 AND 1926

(In Metric Tons)
A v e r a g e output
per manshift

Category of workers

Underground workers
Underground and surf ace workers

Average output per
worker per a n n u m

1925

1926

1925

1926

2.475
1.086
0.803

3.008
1.276
0.973

595
261
201

746
314
244

§ 4. The statistics relating to the total and average output of
coal are summarised in Tables VI and VII.
As is shown in Table VII, the average coal output both per shift
and per worker per annum increased to a considerable extent during
1926 as compared with 1925. The increase was as high as 21 to 22
per cent.
Finally, the labour cost per ton of saleable coal raised and per ton
of commercially disposable coal may be calculated on the basis
of the data given in Tables I to VI. These figures were as follows
in 1925 and 1926.
TABLE VIH. — WAGE COST PER

TON OF COAL IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
W a g e cost in
crowns

W a g e cost in
gold francs

Ton of

Saleable coal
Commercially disposable c o a l .

1925

1926

1925

1926

50.87
55.83

46.49
50.32

7.82
8.58

7.14
7.72

The wages in the production of coal are thus seen to have decreased
by almost 10 per cent., this result being obtained in spite of the
increase in the average earnings of the working miners and as a
result of the rise in the individual worker's output.
France
§ 1. French mining statistics published by the Ministry of
Public Works contain detailed information relating to employment,
wages, and output in coal-mines, up to the end of 1925. For the
years 1926 and 1927 recourse has been had to provisional information
collected, but not published, by the Ministry 1.
1
It should be observed, however, that the Bulletin du Ministère du
Travail et de l'Hygiène publishes from time to time a quarterly summary
of mining statistics, but the fact that this information is irregular has
prevented direct use being made of it.

— 199 —
The figures are given separately for each department in which
minerals are worked, but in the following notes only those concerning
the whole country have been included.
§ 2. Table I shows the total amount of wages paid in francs, and
includes bonuses of all kinds. Compared with the amount of
"aggregate actual earnings" supplied by the French Government in
connection with the enquiry of 1925, the total wages paid to workers
during that year represent 88 per cent.
TABLE I. — TOTAL WAGES PAID IN THE COAL-MINES OF
IN 1925, 1926 AND 1927

(In

FRANCE

Thousands of French Francs)

Year

1925
1926
1927

Underground
workers

Surface
workers

All workers

1,562,023
1,896,924
2,115,219

492,626
531,609
592,796

2,054,649
2,428,533
2,708,015

The same statistics also give information on the number of manshifts worked and the average number of workers.
The latter
figures include the "registered staff", which is counted each month,
and include not only the personnel employed in coal-mines, but also
that of the lignite mines, the importance of which is, however,
small in comparison with the coal-mines.
TABLE II. — TOTAL NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED AND AVERAGE
NUMBER OF STAFF REGISTERED IN COAL-MINES, FROM 1 9 2 5 TO 1 9 2 7
Number of manshifts
(000's omitted)

Registered staff '

Year

III

Underground

60,158
61,850
62,565

Surface

25,211
23,674
23,699

Underground

Surface

Total

85,369 214,831
85,524 238,637
86,264 226,235

83,287
91,832
91,883

298,118
330,469
318,118

Total

• For 1925, average number ; for 1926 and 1927, number registered on 31 December.

§ 3. The official statistics include the figures concerning average
daily wages earned per worker 1 (Table III).
1
The rates used for the conversion of French francs into gold francs
were as follows :
1925
100 French francs = 24.71 gold francs
1926
100
„
„
= 16.83
1927
100
„
„
= 20.34

— 200 —
TABLE III.

— AVERAGE DAILY WAGE OF MINING WORKERS FROM

1925 TO 1927
Wages in French francs
Year

1925
1926
1927

Underground

Surface

25.94
30.66
34.33

19.55
22.50
25.02

Wages in gold francs
UnderUnderground and UnderSurface ground and
ground
surface
surface

24.07
28.40
31.39

6.41
5.16
6.98

4.83
3.79
5.09

5.95
4.78
6.38

In order to illustrate the changes in wage levels expressed in
French and gold francs, the relative figures for average wages have
been calculated by taking the 1925 figures as a basis ( = 100). Table
IV shows the relative value of the wages earned by underground and
surface workers.
TABLE IV.

— RELATIVE

AVERAGE DAILY WAGES
1925 TO 1927

OF MINERS

FROM

(Average Wage in 1925 = 100)
Wages in French francs

Wages in gold francs

Year

1925
1926
1927

Underground

Surface

Underground

Surface

100
118.2
132.3

100
115.1
128.0

100
80.5
108.9

100
78,5
105.4

The relative figures given above show that nominal wages expressed
in French francs have risen to a considerable extent since 1925.
The same, however, cannot be said when wages are converted into
gold francs. As a consequence of fluctuations in the rate of exchange,
the gold value of miners' average wages decreased in 1926. In
the following year the rise in the rate of exchange resulted, in
increasing the reduced wages in gold francs beyond their value in
In order to show the fluctuations in the purchasing power of
wages on the home market, the following official index numbers of
foodstuffs for 250 French towns of over 10,000 inhabitants are given,
the index numbers of prices in August 1925 being taken as a basis :
August 1925 = 100
August 1926 = 135
August 1927 = 123
The purchasing power of the French franc, calculated in terms
of retail prices, is thus seen to have decreased in 1926 and to have
risen in 1927, without however reaching the 1925 level. It may
therefore be concluded that the purchasing power of miners' wages
(real wages) decreased during 1926 in comparison with 1925, and
that it rose during 1927 so as to exceed the level of 1925.

— 201 —
§ 4. The monthly coal extraction figures are shown in the French
statistics. The figures in Table V relate to the tonnage of saleable
and commercially disposable coal. The average output has been
obtained by dividing the total output by the number of working
days as given in Table II.
TABLE V. — TOTAL AND AVERAGE OUTPUT FROM 1925 TO 1927

(Metric Tons)
Total output
(000's omitted)

Daily output of saleable
coal per w o r k e r

Year
Saleable
coal raised

1925
1926
1927

48,091
52,362
52,669

Commercially
disposable coal Underground

0.799
0.846
0.840

4i,972
45,772
46,143

In g e n e r a l

0.563
0.612
0.606

Table VI shows the cost of labour per ton of coal.
TABLE

VI.

AVERAGE

LABOUR

1925

COST

TO

PER

Cost in French francs
Year

1925
1926
1927

TON

OF

COAL

FROM

1927

Per
saleable ton

Per
commercially
disposable ton

42.73
46.38
51.42

48.95
53.06
58.69

Cost in gold francs
Per

Per
i
.¡alpahle
saleable ton
ton | dcommercially
isposable ton

10.56
7.81
10.46

12.10
8.93
11.94

Two facts are obvious from the above figures : first, that the average output per worker, after having undergone a considerable
decrease in 1926, continued in the following year to show a slight
tendency to fall ; and, secondly, that the labour cost per ton expressed
in French francs, after declining considerably in 1926 as compared
with 1925, rose again in 1927 to very near the 1925 level.
Germany j

§ 1. The German statistics relating to the employment and
production in the coal-mines are available for the years 1925 and
1926, as well as for the first three quarters of 1927. Statistics are
given separately for the different coal districts and no figures for the
country as a whole are furnished ; in the following notes (as in Part
Two of the present report) statistics are shown separately for the
two principal districts, viz. the Ruhr and Upper Silesia, as well as
for the Free State of Saxony. The figures available for the lastnamed district are incomplete in several respects. It is to be observed
that ancillary establishments are included in the official statistics
of mines.

— 202 —
§ 2. The total wages bill given in the German statistics distinguishes between the amount of total money wages, including additional
payments for overtime (Leistungslohn inklusive Zuschläge für Überarbeiten), the value of allowances in money (Hausstandsgeld und
Kindergeld), the sum of which constitutes total money earnings
(Barverdienst) ; further, the total value of allowances in kind (Wert
der wirtschaftlichen Beihilfen), and that of payments for holidays
(Urlaubsentschädigung und Urlaubsabgeltung).
The sum of these
items and of total money wages gives the amount of "calculated
actual earnings" (errechnetes Gesamteinkommen). The last-named
amount corresponds to the amount of total actual earnings, excluding
employers' contributions to social insurance, as defined in the present
report.

TABLE I.

— COMPOSITION OF TOTAL EARNINGS BY DISTRICTS,

1925

TO

1927

(In R.M. —000's Omitted)
Year
and
quarter

Total
money
wages

Total
value of
allowances
in money

: 1925
\l926
R u h r . . 1927: 1st
/
2nd
i
3rd
11925
Upper
) 1926
Silesia . (1927: 1st
j
2nd
'
3rd
/1925
\1926. . .
Saxony. < 1927 : 1 s t
/
•
2nd
{
3rd
I

782,259
781,069

33,659
30,606

—
—
—

—
—
—

District

qr.
qr.
qr.

63,293
75,339

2,228
2,387

qr.
qr.
qr.

—
—

—
—

—.

.—

—

. .
qr.
qr.
qr.

—.

—
—

—
—
—

—

—

•

Total
Total
Total
money
value of payments
for
earnings allowances holidays
in kind

815,918
811,675
226,038
213,000
227,885
65,521
77,726
21,686
19,823
23.157
41,999
46,223
12,148
10,785
10,763

12,341
11,262
3,406
2,498
2,610
2,112
2,239

19,275
20,650
3,737
8,967
10,048
1,428
1,655

551
500
495

212
538
695

1,669
1,587

1,188
1,230

418
351
314

16
569
601

Total
actual
earnings
847,534
843,587
233,181
224,465
240,543
69,061
81,620
22,449
20,861
24,347
44,856
49,040
12,582
11,705
11,678

The money earnings thus form about 93.6 to 96.2 per cent., the
value of allowances in kind 1.3 to 3.7 per cent., and the payments
for holidays 1.7 to 2.7 per cent., of the total actual earnings.
The parts of the total money earnings and total actual earnings
a ccruing to hewers and loaders (taken as a group), other underground
workers, and surface workers are given in Table II. Surface workers
are divided into three groups, viz. adult males over sixteen years of
age, male juveniles under sixteen, and females. It may be observed
that the number of juveniles given for the district of Upper Silesia
includes a small number of juveniles employed underground. These
figures are only available for the Ruhr and Upper Silesia for the
years 1925 and 1926.
The number of manshifts worked as given in the German statistics
refers to the total of normal manshifts, supplementary manshifts

— 203 and.overtime manshifts.
T h i s n u m b e r is given s e p a r a t e l y for t h e
different groups of workers a s s h o w n in T a b l e I I I .
Only t h e t o t a l s
for u n d e r g r o u n d a n d surface w o r k e r s t a k e n t o g e t h e r a r e a v a i l a b l e
in t h e case of S a x o n y a n d for t h e o t h e r d i s t r i c t s for 1927.
TABLE II. — DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL MONEY EARNINGS AND TOTAL
ACTUAL EARNINGS BY CATEGORIES OF WORKERS, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
(In R.M.—000's

Omitted)

Underground workers
District

Year

Hewers
and
loaders

Others

Surface workers
Adult
males

All

Male
juveniles Females

All

(i) Total Money Earnings
1925
1926

441,353
449,984

197,179
192,217

638,532
642,201

174,050
166,606

3,069
2,607

267
261

177,386
169,474

Upper : 1925
Silesia' 1926

22,760
27,491

26,337
32,550

49,097
60,041

15,481
16,770

148
124

795
791

16,424
17,685

Ruhr. .

(ii) Total Actual Earnings
1925
Ruhr..
1926
—
Upper
Silesia

1925
1926

TABLE III.

—

459,257
468,586

204,794
199,714

664,051
668,300

180,118
172,401

3,089
2,618

276
268

183,483
175,287

23,923
28,818

27,733
34,125

51,656
62,943

16,415
17,719

149
124

841
834

17,405
18,677

TOTAL NUMBER OF MANSHIFTS W O R K E D BY CATEGORIES

OF WORKERS, 1925 TO 1927
(000's

Omitted)

Underground workers
District

Year and quarter

1925
1926
1927 : 1st quarter
Ruhr.
2nd quarter
3rd quarter
1925
Upper ,1926
Silesia . 1927 : 1st quarter
2nd quarter
3rd quarter
1925
1926
Saxony.) 1927: 1st quarter
2nd quarter
3rd quarter

Hewers
and
loaders

OUiers

Surface workers

111

Adult
males
(oner 16)

Juvenile
males
(under IS)

55,158 33,141 88,299 28,084 1,555
52,070 29,507 81,577 24,607 1,246

3,550
4,175

5,436 8,986
6,246 10,421

3,236
3,267

125
95

Underground
and
Females

68
63

111

surface
workers

29,707 118,006
25,916 107,493
29,062
26,669
339 3,700 27,923
313 3,675 12,686
14,096
4,744
3,384
3,835
7,079
7,238
1,831
1,583
1.540

— 204 —
Information as to the number of manshifts lost is given in Table IV
for the total of underground and surface workers.
TABLE IV. —

TOTAL NUMBER OF MANSHIFTS LOST, 1925 TO 1927

(000's Omitted)
District

1925

1927

1926

1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter

Ruhr
Upper Silesia . . ,

17,782
1,756
920

15,171
1,830
975

3,990
407
243

4,107
524
280

4,448
539
279

The average number of workers calculated by dividing the sum of
normal manshifts worked and manshifts lost by the number of
possible working days in each category of workers is shown in Table V.
Here, too, only totals are available for Saxony and in respect of the
three quarters of 1927 only totals for the other districts.
TABLE V.

— A V E R A G E N U M B E R O F WORKERS, 1 9 2 5 TO 1 9 2 7
Underground workers

District

Vear

1925.
1926.
R u h r . .< 1927 : 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr.
1925
Upper- 1 1926
Silesia < 1927 : 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr.
1925
1926.
Saxony < 1927: 1st qr.
2nd qr.
2rd qr»

Hewers
and
loader:

Others

Surface workers

Ml

Adult
males

Juveniles

Females

Ml

Underground
and
surface
workers

244 100,773 433,567
240 86,470 384,255
415,241
409,424
402,283
13,356 19,443 32,799 11,189 (a) 471 1,251 12,911 45,710
15,380 21,813 37,193 11,132 (I) 343 1,142 12,617 49,810
52,309
51,807
63,062
25,114
25,585
25,907
23,923
22,087

208,191 124,603 332,794 94,877
190,221 107,564 297,785 81,786

(a) Of which 178 occupied underground.

5,652
4,444

(b) OS which 140 occupied underground.

§ 3. Two different average earnings are calculated in the German
statistics, viz. first, the average money earnings per manshift worked,
and secondly, average actual earnings per worker employed. The
averages are given not only in Reichsmarks, but also in terms of
gold francs x.
1
The rates of exchange used in the conversion of R.M. to gold francs
were as follows :
1925.
R.M. 100 = 123.33 gold francs
1926.
R.M. 100 = 123.33
R.M. 100 = 122.86
1st qr..
1927 2nd qr.
R.M. 100 = 122.86
R.M. 100 = 123.21
3rd qr.

— 205 —

TABLE VI.

— AVERAGE MONEY EARNINGS PER

MANSHIFT,

1925 TO 1927
Underground v, orkers
Year
and
quarter

District

Hewers
and
loaders

Others

All

0)
1925
1926
1927: 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr,
/1925
Upper Í1926
Silesia .<1927: 1st qr.
2nd qr,
3rd qr.
Jl925
11926
SaxonW1927: 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr,

Í

5.95
6.61
6.66
6.89
7.06
4.84
5.21
5.47
5.55
5.70
6.88
6.36
6.60
6.85
7.02

8.00
8.64
8.92
9.12
9.36
6.41
6.58
6.86
6.96
7.18
6.49
6.87
7.15
7.37
7.56

Surface workers
Adult
males

Juveniles

Females

Average Earnings in K.M.

7.23
7.87
8.10
8.32
8.54
5.46
5.76
6.03
6.10
6.26
6.19
6.62
6.89
7.12
7.31

6.20
6.77
6.95
7.24
7.28
4.78
5.13
5.37
5.46
5.65
5.44
5.94
6.11
6.26
6.41

1.97
2.09
2.20
2.22
2.24
1.18
1.30
1.39
1.41
1.51
1.92
2.04
2.31
2.69
2.70

3.91
4.14
4.18
4.31
4.37
2.34
2.53
2.71
2.72
2.83
3.13
3.40
3.46
3.51
3.58

(ii) A v e r a g e Earnings in Qold F r a n c s

/l925
•n ,
\1926
Ruhr. J 1 9 g 7 . 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr.
/1925
Upper U926
Silesia .¿1927 : 1st qr.
2nd qr.
3rd qr.
Jl925
11926
Saxony )l927: 1st
2nd
3rd

9.87
10.66
10.96
11.20
11.63
7.91
8.12
8.43
8.65
8.85
8.00
8.47
8.78
9.05
9.31

1
7.34
8.03
8.18
8.47
8.70
6.97
6.43
6.72
6.82
7.02
7.25
7.84
8.11
8.42
8.65

8.92
9.71
9.95
10.22
10.52
6.73
7.10
7.41
7.49
7.71
7.63
8.16
8.47
8.75
9.01

7.65
8.35
8.54
8.90
8.97
5.90
6.33
6.60
6.71
6.96
6.70
7.33
7.51
7.69
7.90

2.43
2.58
2.70
2.73
2.76
1.46
1.60
1.71
1.73
1.86
2.37
2.52
2.84
3.30
3.33

4.82
5.11
5.14
5.30
5.38
2.89
3.12
3.33
3.34
3.49
3.86
4.19
4.25
4.31
4.41

— 206

TABLE VII. — AVERAGE ACTUAL EARNINGS PER WORKER PER YEAR,

1925 AND 1926, AND PER QUARTER, 1927
Underground workers
District

Year
and
quarter

Hewers
and
loaders

Others

All

Surface workers
Adult
males

Underground
and
Juven- Females surface
iles
workers

(i) Average Actual Earnings in R.M.
.1925
Rohr.. 1926
)1927:lstqr.
2nd qr.
,
3rd qr.
Í1926
Upper 11926
Silesia. YL927:1st qr.
f
2nd qr.
1
3rd qr.
Í1925
11926
Saxony 1927:1st qr.
}
2nd qr.
3rd qr.
k

2,206
2,463

1,644
1,857

1,996
2,244

1,899
2,108

546
589

1,132
1,118

1,791
1,874

1,426
1,564

1,575
1,692

1,467
1,592

316
360

672
731

.
.
.

1,955
2,195
562
548
598
1,511
1,639
429
403
459

.
.
.

1,917
486
489
629

.
.
.

(ii) Average Actual Earnings in Gold Francs
1925
Ruhr.. 11926
<1927:lstqr.
'
2nd qr.
}
3rd qr.
1925
Upper 11926
Silesia. YL927:lstqr.
J
2nd qr.
V
3rd qr.
[1925. . . .
^1926
(1927:1st qr.
j
2nd qr.
[
3rd qr.
r

2,721
3,038

2,028
2,290

2,462
2,768

2,342
2,600

673
726

1,396
1,379

2,209
2,311

•1,769
1,929

1,942
2,087

1,809
1,963

390
444

829
902

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

2,411
2,707
690
673
737
1,864
2,021
627
495
666
2,364
597
601
652

I

— 207 —
Tables VI and VII show that the average earnings received by
the different categories of mine-workers in the three districts covered
have, as a rule, increased since 1925. The average earnings per
manshift have increased in the district of the Ruhr slightly more
than in other coal-fields. The increase from 1925 to the third quarter
of 1927 was, for all workers taken together, about 18 per cent. In
Upper Silesia the corresponding increase has been about 17 per cent.
and in Saxony slightly less than 18 per cent. The difference existing
in 1925 between the earnings received in the Ruhr and other districts
has thus been accentuated in the course of 1926 and 1927. As
regards the changes which have taken place in the average earnings
of the different categories of workers, it may be noted that the
average earnings of surface workers have increased slightly more than
those of underground workers.
As the gold parity of the Reichsmark diminished slightly during
the first two quarters of 1927, the wages expressed in terms of
gold francs then increased less than wages expressed in terms of the
national currency.
On the other hand, the internal purchasing power of the Reichsmark has remained practically stable during the period under review.
The cost-of-living index number (established on the basis of prices
in 72 German towns) was as follows :
July, 1925 . . . .
100 March, 1927 . . .
101
July, 1926 . . . .
99
July, 1927 . . . .
103
It thus may be inferred that the purchasing power of mine-workers'
earnings in Germany has increased in some degree during 1926 and
1927.
§ 4. The total output of coal and its distribution for different
uses is given in Table VIII. It is to be noted that the figures for
the district of the Ruhr as given in the table, have not been furnished
directly by German statistics, which give figures for the Ruhr and
district of Schafberg-Piesberg together 1.
TABLE

VIII. —

TOTAL

PRODUCTION

(Metric
District

Year

R u h r . . (1925
i 1926
Upper
\ 1925
Silesia 11926
Saxony . 11925
\ 1926
1

OF COAL,

1925

AND

1926

Tons—000's Omitted)

Total tonnage
Coal conof saleable
sumed by the
coal raised
mines

104,124
112,131
14,273
17,462
3,869
4,147

6,935
6,279
513
569
488
479

Coal distributed to
employees

1,395
1,233
198
213
86
79

Commercially
disposable
coal

95,794
104,619
13,562
16,680
3,295
3,589

In order to arrive at the figures given in the table, the International
Labour Office has calculated the percentage of coal consumed by the
mine plus coal distributed to workers to the total output of coal in
the Ruhr, including Schafberg-Piesberg. These percentages have been
applied to the total saleable coal raised in the Ruhr alone, which is
known.

— 208 —
The average output of coal is calculated in the German statistics
as (i) per manshift, and (ii) per full-time worker per year 1 ; the
average output is not given for the Free State of Saxony.
TABLE IX.

— AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL, BY CATEGORY OF WORKERS,

IN 1925 AND 1926
(Metric Tons)
Aierage output per manshift
District

Year

(1925
11926
Í1925
Upper Silesia Í1926
Ruhr

Average output per full-time worker per ¡fiar

Hewer

Underground

Underground
and surlaca
workers

Homer

2.10
2.38
7.16
7.66

1.18
1.38
1.68
1.67

0.95
1.11
1.15
1.27

650
769
2,224
2,389

Underground

366
438
501
538

Underground
and surftet
workers

296
356
367
408

As the foregoing table shows, the average output, both daily and
annual, has been considerably increased during the year 1926.
The average wage cost per ton of saleable coal and per ton of commercially disposable coal (Table X) has been calculated from the
data given in Tables I and VIII. These averages have been based on
the total of money earnings {Barverdienst), including wages paid in
ancillary establishments ; since the ancillary establishments do not
produce coal, an error is introduced in the calculation. The figures
are shown in Table X.
TABLE X. — AVERAGE WAGES COST PER TON OF COAL, 1 9 2 5 AND 1926

District

Ruhr
Upper
Silesia. . .
Saxony . .

Average cost in R.M.
Per ton of
commercially
disposable
coal

Year

Per ton of
saleable
coal

i 1925
11926
J1925
\1926
11925
11926

7.84
7.24
4.59
4.45
10.86
11.15

8.52
7.76
4.83
4.66'
12.75
12.88

Average cost in gold francs
Per ton of
Per ton of
commercially
saleable
disposable
coal
coal

9.67.
8.90
5.66
5.47
13.39
13.70

10.51
9.53
5.96
5.73
15.72
15.82

It appears from the above table that the wage cost of coal has
decreased to some extent during the year 1926 in the districts of the
Ruhr and Upper Silesia, whereas it has slightly increased in the
Free State of Saxony during the same year.
1

It is to be observed that juveniles employed underground have been
included in the total number of workers employed underground, which
has been used as divisor in the calculation. On the other hand,
the number of workers employed in ancillary establishments has been
excluded from the number of workers used in the calculation.

— 209 —
Great Britain
§ 1. The presentation of the British statistics of employment and
production in the coal industry is influenced by the exceptional
conditions prevailing in the years 1925 and 1926. As a matter of
fact, both of these years are sharply divided into two distinct periods.
Owing to the gradual depression in the coal industry which continued
from the preceding year during the first part of 1925, the Government
decided to give a subvention to the coal industry from August 1925
•onwards for nine months. The broad principle governing the
payment of the subvention, was that while the percentage of basic
rates actually paid to the workmen in each district should continue
a t not less than the minimum figure provided under the
agreement of 1924, the percentage which the colliery owners themselves should pay should be the figures which resulted from the
application of their own proposals of July 1925 ; where wages paid
Jjy the owners were below the minimum level, the difference between
t h e two was met by the subvention. The effect of the subvention was
tantamount to a general and progressive reduction of wages costs
•during the latter part of the year. The subvention continued
to be paid during the first four months of 1926, which constituted
a period of recovery, but during the last eight months of the year
the production at the coal-mines was almost at a standstill in consequence of the longest coal stoppage on record, or was being slowly
restored as the movement of the men back to the pits spread. This
•stoppage came to an end in the course of December 1926, since when
the coal-mining industry has been working under more normal
conditions.
Owing to these circumstances, no statistics are given for the last
•eight months of 1926. For other periods figures are available for
«ach quarter until the fourth quarter (inclusive) of 1927. They
•cover about 96 to 99 per cent, of all the coal-mines of Great Britain.

TABLE I. — TOTAL WAGES BILL, DISTINGUISHING

SUBVENTION, IN

BRITISH COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 5 , 1 9 2 6 , AND THREE QUARTERS OF 1 9 2 7

(Pounds Sterling)
Year,
quarter,
and month

1925:
1st quarter.
2nd
3rd
„
4th
,
1926 :
1st quarter.
April month
1927:
1st quarter.
2nd
„
3rd
„
4th
„

Wages, excluding
subvention

Amount of
subvention

Wages,
including
subvention

£
36,923,043
32,533,634
28,622,700
27,020,362

£
—
—
3,360,744
8,667,117

£
36,923,043
32,533,634
31,983,444
35,687,479

. . .
. . .

28,765,639
9,340,648

8,464,972
2,515,016

37,230,611
11,855,664

. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .

32,471,656
29,437,500
28,028,105
27,867,260

—
—
—
—

32,471,656
29,437,500
28,028,105
27,867,260

. . .
. . . .

14

— 210 —
§ 2. The total wages bill (Table I, previous page) as given in the
British statistics includes money wages only which correspond to
about 94 per cent, of workers' " t o t a l actual earnings", excluding
employers' contributions, as defined in P a r t Two of the present
report. It is t o be noted that allowances to low-paid day-wage
workers under clauses 6 and 7 of the agreement dated 18 June 1924, are
included in the wages ; moreover, the costs of raising ancillary
minerals at coal-mines are included. The amount of subvention is
shown separately in Table I.
All averages which are given in the following tables are based on
the amount of wages including the subvention.
The number of manshifts given in the British statistics includes*
apart from the number of manshifts worked on ordinary hours,
also week-end and overtime manshifts which are calculated by adding
up in each district the number of hours worked during week-ends and
overtime, and dividing the same by the number of hours included in
the normal manshift. The number of manshifts lost refers to manshifts which "could have been worked" during days when mines
were open, but which were not actually so worked, including absences
due to sickness or accidents. The average number of workers is
calculated on the basis of numbers registered at each weekly pay-day
in colliery books (Table II).
TABLE

II.

— NUMBER

OF

MANSHIFTS

WORKED

AND LOST,

AND

NUMBER OF WORKPEOPLE EMPLOYED AT COAL-MINES DURING 1925,.

1926, AND 1927
Number of manshifts worked (OOO's omitted)
Year, quarter,
and month

By underground workers

Number
of
Number
manshifts
of
lost
(OOO's workpeople
omitted) employed

Hewers

Others

All

By
surface
workers

1925:
1st quarter
2nd
3rd
4th

27,533 C
24,280
24,122
27,166

27,553
24,296
24,191
26,935

55,086
48,576
48,313
64,101

14,374
13,014
13,167
14,343

69,460
61,590
61,480
68,444

6,164
4,680
5,219
5,089

1,074,079
1,032,216
1,013,767
1,041,997

1926 :
1st quarter
April month

28,565
9 029

28,172
8,895

56,737
17,924

14,864
4,775

71,601
22t63c

5,867
J.,OUO

1,074,395
1,071,184

1927:
1st quarter
2nd
3rd
4th

24,479
22,748
22,595
22,948

23,878
22,445
22,273
22,570

48,357
45,193
44,868
45,518

12,960
12,322
12,368
12,446

61,307
57,515
57,236
67,964

4,287
3,490
3,762
3,660

969,943
981,393
946,487
945,480

Total

The total number of possible coal-winding days in 1925 was 299.59,
and the number of days on which pits wound coal was 252.78.
Corresponding figures are not given for 1926 and are not yet available
for 1927.

— 211 —
§ 3. The average wages (including subvention) are given for t h e
whole of mine-workers
only. They are expressed here also in terms
of gold francs 1 . Two different averages are given, namely, average
wages per manshift and average wages per quarter per worker 2.

TABLE III. — AVERAGE WAGES PER MANSHIFT AND PER QUARTER
OF COAL-MINING WORKERS DURING 1 9 2 5 , 1 9 2 6 , AND 1 9 2 7
Average Wages in £ s. d.
Year, quarter,
and month
Per manshift

Per quarter
per worker

£ s. d.

Average wages
in gold francs
Per quarter
Per
manshift per worker

Fr.

Fr.

S.

d.

10
10
10
10

1\
6f4f
5i

34 7
31 10
31 11
34 5

6
4
0
0

13.29
13.21
13.01
13.06

. . . .
. . . .

10 4f
10 5 |

34 13

1

13.08
13.14

872

.
.
.
.

10
10
9
9

33 9 7
29 19 11
29 12 3
29 9 6

13.32
12.86
12.31
12.09

842
754
745
741

1925 :
1st quarter
2nd
„
3rd
„
4th
„

.
.
.
.

1926:
1st quarter
April month
1927:
1st quarter
2nd
„
3rd
„
4th
„

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

1\
2f
91
7f

'

860
789
789
857

As the currency was practically stable throughout the period
covered, the average wages expressed in sterling and in gold francs
show similar tendencies. It will be seen that the average wages per
manshift varied but little from the beginning of 1925 to the first
quarter of 1927, but decreased during the last three quarters of
1927. The average wage per manshift during the fourth quarter of
1927 was about 9 per cent, below the level prevailing during t h e
first quarter of 1925.
The average quarterly wages increased, as the above table shows,
during the subvention period (from the third quarter, 1925, to t h e
first quarter, 1926), but diminished gradually after the dispute
period : the fall from the first quarter, 1926, which shows t h e
maximum for the period considered, to the fourth quarter, 1927,
was 15 per cent.
1
The rates of exchange used for the conversion of sterling to gold
francs are as follows :
1925
£1 = 25.02 gold francs

2

1926
1927

£1 = 25.17
£1 = 25.15

The quarterly averages have been calculated by the International
Labour Office.

— 212 —
This decrease has been, perhaps, counterbalanced to some extent
by an upward tendency of the internal purchasing power of wages.
At any rate the official cost-of-living index number for 630 towns
and localities shows a steady, though slight, decrease. If the price
level prevailing in July 1925 is taken as equal to 100, that for July,
1927, "was 92.
§ 4. The total and average output of coal, expressed in metric
tons, may be seen from Table IV.
TABLE IV.

— TOTAL AND AVERAGE

OUTPUT

OF COAL IN BRITISH

MINES DURING 1925, 1926 AND 1927

(Metric

Tons)
Average output
oí saleable coal

Total output (000's omitted)
Year, quarter,
and month

1925:
1st quarter .
2nd
3rd
4th
1926 :
1st quarter
April month .
1927:
1st quarter .
2nd
3rd
4th

Tonnage
conof saleable Mine
sumption
coal
raised

Miners'
coal

Tonnage
Per
disposable Per man- quarter
comshift
and
mercially
worker

63,458
65,862
65,856
63,665

3,965
3,612
3,618
3,947

1,687
1,361
1,255
1,608

67,806
50,889
50,983
58,110

0.914
0.907
0.909
0.930

59.1
54.1
55.1
61.1

67,128
21,319

4,041
1,309

1,695
565

61,392
19,445

0.938
0.939

62.5

64,343
69,823
59.522
61,316

3,666
3,481
3,436
3,608

1,523
1,302
1,189
1,442

59,164
55,040
54.897
66,266

1,050
1,040
1.040
1,058

66.3
61.0
62.9
64.9

It may be added that the tonnage of coal raised and weighed at the
pit head during the dispute period (May to December 1926) was
34,454,000 metric tons (based on 96 per cent, of all coal-mines in
the country).
It will be seen t h a t the average daily output rose considerably
in 1927. This is due to the increase in hours of work which came in
force on the termination of the stoppage of 1926.
Finally, the average wage cost (including subvention) of a ton of
coal may be calculated on the basis of figures, given in Tables I and IV.
Table V shows separately the wage cost of a ton of saleable coal, and
of a ton of commercially disposable coal, both in £ s. d. and in gold
francs.

— 213 —
TABLE V. — AVERAGE WAGE COST OF A METRIC TON OF COAL DURING

1925,1926, AND 1927
Wage cost in gold francs

•Wage cost in s. d.
Year, quarter,
and month

1925:
1st quarter . .
2nd
„
. .
3rd
4th
„
. .
1926:
1st q u a r t e r . .
April month .
1927:
1st q u a r t e r . .
2nd
3rd
„
. .
4th
„
. .

Per metric ton Per metric ton Per metric ton Per metric ton
of
of
of
of
saleable coal commercially saleable coal commercially
disposable coal
disposable coal
S.

d.

S.

d.

.

11
11
11
11

8
8
5
3

12
12
12
12

9
9
7
3

Fr.
14.60
14.60
14.30
14.10

Fr.
15.95
15.95
15.75
15.35

.
.

11
11

1
1

12
12

2
2

13.95
13.95

15.30
15.30

.

10
9
9
9

1
10
5
1

11
10
10
9

0
8
3
11

12.70
12.35
11.85
11.42

13.80
13.40
12.90
12.46

.
.

.
.

This table shows clearly that the wage cost of a ton of coal has
constantly diminished. The diminution from the first quarter
of 1925 to the fourth quarter of 1927 is more than 20 per cent.
Netherlands

§ 1. The wage and output statistics for coal-mines in the Netherlands, published by the Chief Engineer of Mines, cover the years
1925 and 1926. In addition to this information, monthly statistics
of average wages were published during 1927 by the Central Statistical Office.
§ 2. The total wages bill shown in Table I includes wages in
cash, workers' contributions to social insurance, as well as family
and social allowances, but excludes expenditure incurred by the
workers in connection with their work and payments made for
overtime.
The figures given may therefore be considered as "money earnings"
corresponding to 97 per cent, of the "aggregate actual earnings"
as defined in the wages report of 1925.
TABLE I.

— TOTAL WAGES PAID IN THE COAL-MINES OF THE
NETHERLANDS IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(In Thousands of Gulden)
Category of workers

Underground
Surface
Total

1925

32,879
9,384
42,263

1926

34,656
9,849
44,505

— 214 —
Dutch statistics show the total number of manshifts worked
underground and above ground, as well as the total number of
workers employed exclusively in the coal-mines. The figures for
1925 and 1926 are as shown in Table II.

TABLE I I . — TOTAL NUMBER OF MANSHIFTS WORKED AND AVERAGE
NUMBER OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN THE COAL-MINES IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
Number of manshifts
Category o! workers
1925

|

1926

6,119,570 6,370,762
2,381,392 2,505,368
8,500,962 8,876,130

Total

Average number of
workers
1925

1926

22,176
8,230
30,406

23,203
8,463
31,666

§ 3. The daily and annual average earnings of underground and
surface workers are shown in Table III in gulden and gold francs 1

TABLE

III.

MINERS AVERAGE DAILY AND ANNUAL EARNINGS

IN 1925 AND 1926
Earnings in gulden

Earnings in gold francs

Category of -workers
1925

|

1926

1925

[

1926

(i) Daily Earnings

Underground and surface

5.37
3.94

5.44
3.93

11.17
8.20

11.30
8.16

4.97

5.01

10.34

10.41

(ii) Yearly Earnings per Worker

Underground
Surface . . . .

. . .

1,483
1,140

1,494
1,164

3,086
2,372

3,103
2,418

Underground a n d surface

1,389

1,405

2,890

2,918

1
The rates used for the conversion of the gulden into gold francs are
as follows :

1925
1926
1927

January

April

July

October

Year

209.35
208.30
207.27

207.06
207.89
207.27

207.89
208.09
207.68

208.51
207.27
208.14

208.09
207.72
—

— 215 —
The information given in the preceding table may be completed
by relative figures concerning the average earnings of hewers, underground workers, surface workers, and other classes of workers for
different periods (January, April, July, October) of the years 1925,
1926 and 1927 (Table IV).

TABLE IV. — AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF THE DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN COAL-MINES

FROM 1925 T01927
Aierage earnings in gold francs

Average earnings in gulden
Underground

Year and month

Surface
Hewers

All classes

Ml workers
(underground and
surface)

Hewers

Ml workers

Surface

til workers
(underground and
surface)

Underground

1925 : January
April. .
July . .
October

.
.
.
.

6.40
6.10
6.09
6.13

6.60
5.28
6.29
5.36

4.04
3.89
3.90
3.90

5.09
4.89
4.91
4.95

13.40
12.63
12.66
12.78

11.54
10.93
11.00
11.18

8.46
8.05
8.11
8.13

10.66
10.13
10.21
10.32

1926 : January
April. .
July. .
October

.
.
.
.

6.11
6.10
6.13
6.28

5.35
6.38
5.40
5.50

3.93
3.92
3.91
3.91

4.95
4.96
4.98
5.06

12.73
12.68
12.76
13.02

11.14
11.18
11.24
11.40

8.19
8.15
8.14
8.10

10.31
10.31
10.36
10.49

1927 : January
April. .
July . .
October

.
.
.
.

6.46
6.21
6.24
6.21

5.68
5.45
5.49
5.52

4.13
3.95
3.96
4.08

5.25
5.03
6.06
5.11

13.39
12.87
12.96
12.93

11.77
11.30
11.40
11.49

8.56
8.19
8.22
8.49

10.88
10.43
10.61
10.64

Miners' wages in the Netherlands show a general tendency to
remain stable ; the small fluctuations observed are of a seasonal
character. The difference between wages in April and July of 1925,
which are the lowest during the period considered, and those paid
in January 1927, which represent the maximum, is not quite 7 per
cent. In October 1927, the general level of salaries was 4 per cent.
higher than in October 1925. The variations of wages expressed
in gold francs correspond, as a rule, to those expressed in gulden in
spite of a slight fluctuation of the gold value of the gulden during the
period in question.
The purchasing power of the gulden on the home market increased
in a regular, if somewhat negligible, fashion during the years 1926
and 1927. The official cost-of-living index numbers for the town of
Amsterdam, 1925 figures being taken as a basis, were as follows :
June 1925
100
„ 1926
96
„ 1927
93
From the above it may be concluded that the real wages of Dutch
miners increased slightly during 1926 and 1927 in comparison with
real wages in 1925.

— 216 —
§ 4. The total output of coal and the distribution of the tonnage
produced is shown in Table V. The tonnage commercially disposable
has been estimated by deducting from the total tonnage produced
the quantity of coal consumed in the mines or distributed to the
personnel.
TABLE V. — TOTAL OUTPUT OF COAL IN 1925 AND 1926

(Metric Tons—000's Omitted)
Distribution of tonnage

Amount consumed in the mines (including
deliveries t o ancillary undertakings) . .
Distributed t o employees
Tonnage commercially disposable . . . .
T o t a l saleable coal raised. . .

1925

1926

1,439
58
5,352
6,849

1,857
61
6,690
8,608

The average output of saleable coal per manshift on the one
hand, and per annum and per worker on the other, was as follows :
TABLE VI. — AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL PER MANSHIFT AND PER

ANNUM IN 1925 AND 1926
(In Metric Tons)
Average output
per manshift

Categories of workers

Underground
Underground

and

surface

Average annual
output per worker

1925

1926

1925

1926

1.12

1.35

309

371

0.81

0.97

225

272

The cost of wages per ton is shown as follows :
TABLE VII. — COST OF WAGES PER TON OF COAL IN 1 9 2 5 AND 192ft

Ton of

Commercially disposable coal

Cost of wages
in gulden

Cost of wages
in gold francs

1925

1926

1925

1926

6.17
7.90

5.17
6.65

12.84
16.44

10.74
13.81

The cost of wages per ton in the Netherlands decreased in 1926
by about 16 per cent, in comparison with the previous year. This
decrease is explained by the fact that the production of coal increased
more than the amount of wages paid, while average wages remained
practically stable.

— 217 —
Poland
§ 1. The movement of wages earned by workers employed in
Polish coal-mines is shown in a special enquiry carried out b y t h e
Directorate of Mines and Metallurgy, a department attached to
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce 1. This enquiry covers the
first and fourth quarters of 1925 and 1926, and includes a certain
amount of additional information for the month of March 1927.
Coal output statistics published by the same department extend
to the third quarter of 1927.
§ 2. Figures concerning the aggregate actual earnings, the total
number of manshifts worked and lost, and the average number of
workers are not included in the report.
§ 3. The average daily earnings established by Polish statistics
represent the actual earnings of the miners and include the total
wages received for work performed, allowances in cash and in kind,
as well as holiday allowances. Table I shows the average earnings
in zloty and their value in gold francs 2.
TABLE

I.

— AVERAGE

DAILY

EARNINGS

IN POLISH

COAL-MINES

IN 1925 AND 1926
Arerage earnings in zloty
District

Year and period

Underground

III workers
(underground and
surface)

Average earnings in gold francs
Alf workers
(underground
and
All workers surface)

Underpaid

Miners

All workers

/1925:1st quarter
Upper-Silesia )
4th
„
/l926:1st quarter
1
4th „

7.96
8.13
8.23
10.45

5.80
6.17
6.30
7.86

5.47
5.81
5.94
7.46

7.91
5.87
5.50
6.06

6.77
4.45
4.21
4.55

5.44
4.19
3.97
4.33

11925:1st quarter
Dombrowa.. )
4th
„
/1926:1st quarter
\
4th
„

7.41
7.85
8.61
10.31

5.30
5.52
5.97
7.14

4.78
4.93
5.28
6.36

7.37
6.67
5.75
5.98

5.27
3.99
3.99
4.14

4.75
4.66
3.63
3.68

11925:1st quarter

7.70
8.00
8.18
10.23

5.62
5.97
6.15
7.59

5.21
5.51
5.68
7.06

7.65
5.78
6.47
5.93

5.59
4.31
4.11
4.40

5.18
3.98
3.80
4.09

1

4til

Wholecountry \
"
/1926:1st quarter
\
4th „

1

Miners

OFFICE CENTRAL DE STATISTIQUE DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE POLONAISE :

Statistique du Travail, No. 2, 1927. JEAN DERENGOWSKI : " Les salaires

en Pologne à la période de l'an 1924 à mars 1927 ".

2
The rates used for the conversion of the zloty into gold francs
were as follows :

1st quarter
1st half
June-July
4th quarter
31 March

1925

1926

99.40
99.40

66.84

72.20

1927

50.10
59.00
59.07

— 218 —
In order to give clear expression to the changes taking place, the
absolute figures given above for the whole of Poland have been
converted into relative figures shown in Table II.

TABLE

II.

— RELATIVE

FIGURES

OF

DAILY

AVERAGE

EARNINGS

IN POLISH COAL-MINES IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(Earnings of First Quarter 1925 = 100)
Earnings oxprosod in ilotj
Period

1925 : 1 s t quarter . .
4th
„
1926 : 1 s t quarter . .
4th
„
. .

Underground

Earnings expressed in gold francs
Underground

Miners

til workers

Ml workers
(underground
and surface)

Minors

All workers

Ml workers
(underground
and surface)

100
103.9
106.2
132.9

100
106.2
109.4
135.1

100
105.8
109.0
135.5

100
75.6
81.5
77.5

100
77.1
73.5
78.7

100
76.8
73.4
79.0

It may be seen from the above figures that although nominal
earnings increased by more than one-third between the beginning
of 1925 and the end of 1926, their gold value decreased during the
same period by nearly one-quarter of what it was a t the beginning
of 1925. The changes in the various mining districts correspond
almost exactly t o that shown by the national figures.
Table I I I gives a summary of the fluctuation of wage rates in the
basins of Upper Silesia and Dombrowa between 1925 and 1927.
These rates represent the minimum wages established by collective
agreements or regulated by the trade unions, on the basis of an eighthour day. They do not include any kind of allowance or supplementary payment.

— 219 —

TABLE III. — WAGE RATES OF THE VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF WORKERS
IN UPPER SILESIA AND DOMBROWA, FROM THE FIRST HALF OF

1925

TO 31 MARCH 1927
District and category
of workers

1st half of 1925

On 30 June 1926

On 31 March 1927

(i) Wage Rates in Zloty
Upper Silesia
Hewers working tranversally (contract rates). .
Hewers in the galleries
(contract rates). . . .
Haulage men, wagon men
Juvenile underground
Surface workers

. . . .

Dombrowa
Hewers (contract rates). .
Assistant underground workers (over 24 years of age)
Juvenile underground
Assistant surface workers
(over 24 years of age) .

6.52

7.91

9.22

5.86
1.70 — 4.06

7.11
2 . 4 3 — 4.92

8.29
2 . 8 3 — 5.73

1.12
1.12 — 3.68

1.43
1.76 — 4.64

1.66
2.08 — 5.44

5.20

6.24

7.28

3.00 — 3.20

3.60 — 3.84

4 . 2 0 — 4.48

1.80 — 2.00

2.16 — 2.40

2.52 — 2.80

2.60 — 3.00

3.12 — 3.60

3.64 — 4 . 2 0

(ii) W age Rates in Gold Francs
Upper Silesia
Hewers working transversally (contract rates) .
Hewers in the galleries
(contractrates). . . .
Haulage men, wagon men
Juvenile
underground

Dombrowa
Hewers (contract rates) .
Assistant underground workers (over 24 years of age)
Juvenile
underground
Assistant surface workers
(over 24 years of age) .

6.48

3.96

5.45

5.82
1.69 — 4.04

3.56
1.22 — 2.46

4.90
1.67 — 3.38

1.11
1.11 — 3.66

0.72
0.88 — 2.32

0.98
1.23 — 3.21

5.17

3.13

4.30

2 . 9 8 — 3.18

1.80 — 1.92

2.48 — 2 . 6 5

1.79 — 1.99

1.08 — 1.20

1.49 — 1.65

2.58 — 2.98

1.56 — 1.80

2.15 — 2.48

— 220 —
Expressed in relative figures the fluctuations in wage rates were
as follows :
TABLE IV.

— R E L A T I V E F I G U R E S OF W A G E RATES IN

UPPER

SILESIA

A N D D O M B R O W A F R O M T H E F I R S T H A L F O F 1 9 2 5 TO 3 1 M A R C H

(First
District
a n d category
of workers

Upper Silesia
Hewers working transversally
Hewers in the galleries
Haulage men (average)
Juvenile undergound
workers
. . . .
Surface workers (average)
Dombrowa
Hewers
Assistant underground
workers (average) .
Juvenile underground
workers (average) .
Assistant surface workers
(average)

Half

of 1925 =

100)
W a g e rates
in gold francs (&)

W a g e rates
in zloty (a)
1st half
1925

1927

On
On i
30 J u n e 31 March
1926
1927

1st half
1925

On
30 J u n e
1926

On
31 March
1927

100
100
100

121.3
121.3
127.8

141.4
141.5
148.6

100
100
100

61
61
64

84
84

100
100

127.7
133.3

148.2
156.7

100
100

65
67

91

100

120

140

100

60

83

100

120

140

100

60

83

100

120

140

100

60

83

100

120

140

100

60

83

(a) Figures given in the Polish enquiry.
(6) Figures calculated on the basis of d a t a given in Table HI (ii).

It is seen that the general movement of wage rates was similar
to that of average earnings. Wage rates expressed in zloty continued
to increase considerably until the first quarter of 1927. Their value
in gold francs decreased in 1926, but rose again in 1927 without,
however, reaching the level of 1925. As regards the fluctuations
in wage rates of the different classes of workers, the same percentage
increase was made in the wages of all workers in the Dombrowa
Basin, while in Upper Silesia the rates for unskilled workers and
surface workers were increased in a relatively greater proportion
than those of miners properly so called.
The Polish enquiry also furnishes information on the fluctuations
in the cost of foodstuffs in two mining districts, viz. Kattowitz
(Upper Silesia) and Sosnowiec (Dombrowa). Taking the prices
of the first quarter of 1925 as a basis, the index numbers were as
follows :
Kattowitz
Sosnowiec

1st quarter
1925

J u n e 1926

March 1927

100
100

124.4
124.4

145.1
141.2

These figures show that, generally speaking, nominal wages
increased in proportion with the rise in the cost of foodstuffs. In
so far as the price of foodstuffs reflect the cost of living in general,

— 221 —
it may be said that the purchasing power of wages earned by Polish
miners remained unchanged during the period between the first
quarter of 1925 and the first quarter of 1927.
The regular wage statistics published by the Directorate of Mines
show that wage rates continued to increase between March and December 1927. On the other hand the cost of living showed a similar
tendency to increase during the same period. Therefore it may be
concluded that the real wages earned by miners did not change to
any considerable extent during the year 1927.
§ 4. — Polish statistics contain information on the number of
workers occupied in the mines and in the production of coal classified
according to the mining regions.
The number of workers registered in the mines at the end of the
years 1925 and 1926, and at the end of the first three quarters of
1927 is shown in Table V.

TABLE

V.

— NUMBER

OF

WORKERS

OCCUPIED

IN

COAL-MINES

FROM 1925 TO 1927
Number of workers employed at the end of
1927

Mining region

1925

Kielce (Dombrowa). . .
Whole country . .

74,960
26,911
7,860
109,731

1926

87,823
30,677
9,810
128,210

March

June

September

81,624
28,446
7,915
117,984

75,167
26,842
7,964
109,973

75,653
26,915
8,078
110,646

(«)

(a) Provisional figures.

The total output of coal during the years 1925 and 1926 and the
first three quarters of 1927 was as follows :

TABLE VI. — TOTAL COAL OUTPUT FROM 1 9 2 5 TO 1 9 2 7

(In Thousands of Metric Tons)
1927
Mining region

1925

1926
1st qr.

Kielce (Dombrowa). . .

21,660
5.729
1,692

26,165
7,226
2,366

—

Whole country . .

29,081

35,747

10,109

2nd qr.

3rd qr.

—

—

8,103

9,520

— 222 —
From the above figures it is possible to calculate the average
output per worker per annum or per quarter.
TABLE VII. —

A V E R A G E O U T P U T OF COAL PER W O R K E R PER A N N U M

IN 1925 AND 1926, AND PER QUARTER IN 1927
(Metric Tons)
1927

Mining region

1925

289
213
215

298
236
240

—

Kielce (Dombrowa). . .
Cracow
Whole country . .

265

279

86

1926

1st qr.

2nd qr.

3rd qr.

—
—
74

86

It has not been possible to estimate the labour cost per ton of coal.

Saar Territory
§ 1. In reply to the enquiry of the International Labour Office,
the Directorate of State Mines of the Territory of the Saar supplied
comparable information for the years 1925 and 1926. This information may be completed by quarterly figures published by the
Christian Miners' Trade Union for the year 1927.
§ 2. The total amount of "aggregate actual earnings" of the
•workers and the elements included in them are shown in Table I.
TABLE I. — COMPOSITION OF THE AGGREGATE ACTUAL EARNINGS
OF MINERS IN THE SAAR TERRITORY IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

{In Thousands of French Francs)
Component parts of actual earnings
N e t money wages
Workers' contributions to social insurance.
Allowances in money
Allowances in kind :
P a y m e n t s for holidays

1925

1926

427,754
40,148
54^733

570,592
57,020
55,248

22,210
490
10,065

32,054
697
13,223

555,400

728,834

The distribution of the aggregate actual earnings between the
different classes of workers (hewers, other underground workers,
surface workers) is shown in Table II.

— 223 —
TABLE II.
— DISTRIBUTION
OF AGGREGATE
ACTUAL
EARNINGS
A C C O R D I N G TO V A R I O U S C L A S S E S O F W O R K E R S I N 1 9 2 5 A N D 1 9 2 6

(In Thousands of French Francs)
Category of workers

1925

1926

Underground workers
Surface workers
T o t a l underground and surface workers. .

222,267
194,351
416,618
138,782
555,400

285,208
262,035
547,243
181,591
728,834

Table III summarises the statistical information relating to the
Saar Territory as regards the total number of manshifts worked
and the average number of workers. The former number covers
working days of unspecified duration ; the second is calculated on
the basis of the number of workers registered in the mines on p a y
days.
T A B L E I I I . — TOTAL N U M B E R O F M A N S H I F T S W O R K E D A N D A V E R A G E
N U M B E R O F M I N E R S A C C O R D I N G TO CLASSES O F W O R K E R S , I N 1 9 2 5

AND 1926
Total number of manshifts

A v e r a g e number of workers

Category of worker

Other

1925

1926

1925

6,689,000

6,821,000

25,450

25,282

7,279,000
13,368,000
5,436,000

7,607,000
14,428,000
6,602,000

27,130
52,580
17,890

26,880
52,162
17,738

19,303,000

20,030,000

70,470

69,900

1926

underground

Underground workers.
Surface workers . . .
Total underground and
surface workers. . .

The total number of manshifts lost in 1925 was 1,497,000, in 1926
1,029,000. The time lost was due mainly to involuntary absence
on the part of the miners during days when coal was wound.
§ 3. The average earnings per manshift and per annum for t h e
various classes of workers have been calculated on the basis of t h e
information given in the above tables. These averages are expressed
in French francs and have been converted into gold francs x.
1
The rates used for the conversion of French francs into gold francs
were as follows :

1st quarter
2nd quarter
3rd quarter
4th quarter
Annual average

1925

1926

1927

—
—
—
20.85
24.71

19.04
16.32
14.02
17.55
16.83

20.37
20.30
20.30
20.37
—

— 224 —
TABLE IV. — AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO CATEGORIES

OF WORKERS IN 1925 AND 1926

Category oí workers

Hewers
Other underground workers .
Underground workers . . . .

Average earnings
in French francs

Average earnings
in gold francs

1925

1926

1925

1926

33.73
26.70
30.04
25.53

41.81
34.45
37.93
32.42

8.33
6.60
7.42
6.31

7.03
5.80
6.38
5.46

28.77

36.39

7.11

6.12

T o t a l underground a n d surface

TABLE V. — AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY

OF WORKERS IN 1925 AND 1926

Category of workers

Average earnings
in French francs
1925

Other u n d e r g r o u n d workers .
Underground workers . . . .

|

Average earnings
in gold francs

1926

1925

1926

8,733
7,164
7,924
7,758

11,281
9,748
10,491
10,237

2,158
1,770
1,958
1,917

1,899
1,641
1,766
1,723

7,881

10,427

1,947

1,755

T o t a l underground a n d surface

Generally speaking, average earnings in 1926 were higher than
those of the preceding year. For t h e workers taken as a whole,
the increase in daily earnings was 26 per cent., that of annual earnings
lieing 32 per cent. Expressed in gold currency these earnings
•decreased respectively 14 and 10 per cent.
In order t o study the changes in wages in 1927 it is necessary to
have recourse to the statistics published by the above-mentioned
trade union 1. These statistics are, however, established on a
•different basis from those summarised above, and cover money wages
including t h e workers' contributions to social insurance, and the
various allowances in money (Table VI).

1

GEWERKVEREIN CHRISTL. BERGARBEITER DEUTSCHLANDS FÜR DAS

SAARGEBIET : Der Saar-Bergknappe, 1927, Nos. 14 and 38, and 1928,

Ko. 15.

— 225 —
TABLE VI.

— AVERAGE

MONEY

WAGES PER

MANSHIFT

IN

1925,

1926 AND 1927
Wages in French francs
AU
Underground
underground
All
and
Hewers workers
surface
workers

Period

1925:
4th quarter
1926:
1st quarter
2nd
„
3rd
„
4th
„
1927:
1st quarter
2nd
,
3rd
4th
,

Wages in gold francs
AU
underground
All
and
Hewers workers
surface
workers
Underground

. . . .

33.33

29.68

28.39

6.95

6.19

5.92

. . . .
. . . .

34.82
36.76
41.55
45.22

30.97
32.96
37.23
40.57

29.60
31.68
35.74
39.06

6.63
6.00
5.83
7.94

5.90
5.38
5.22
7.12

6.64
5.17
6.01
6.86

. . . .

. 45.38
42.40
42.47
44.10

40.72
38.36
38.53
40.28

39.21
37.02
36.97
38.74

9.24
8.61
8.62
8.98

8.29
7.79
7.82
8.21

7.99
7.52
7.50
7.89

The fluctuations in daily wages stand out more clearly in the
figures given in the following table :
TABLE

VII.

RELATIVE FIGURES OF AVERAGE
PER MANSHIFT FROM 1 9 2 5 TO 1 9 2 7

MONEY

WAGES

(Base: Average Wages during Fourth Quarter, 1925 = 100)

Period

Wages in French francs
All
Underground
underground
All
and
Hewers workers
surface
workers

Wages in gold francs
All
Underground
underground
All
and
Hewers workers
surface
workers

1926:
1926:
1st quarter
2nd
3rd
4th
„

100

100

100

100

100

100

104.5
110.3
124.7
135.7

104.3

104.3
111.6
125.9
137.6

95.4
86.3
83.9
114.2

95.3
86.9
84.3
115.0

95.3
87.3
84.6
115.9

138.1
130.4
130.2
Ï36.5

132.9
123.9
124.0
129.2

133.9
125.8
126.3
132.6

135.0
127.0
126.7
133.3

111.1
125.4
136.7

1927:
2nd

„

4th

„

136.2
127.2
127.4
132.3

137.2
129.2
129.8
135.7

A study of the fluctuations of wages expressed in French francs,
.as indicated in the previous tables, shows a progressive and regular
increase during the year 1926, This increase continued during the
15

— 226 —
first quarter of 1927, but was then followed by a fall during t h e
two following quarters of the same year. At the end of 1927
wages were slightly lower than during the last quarter of t h e
previous year.
Expressed in gold francs, wages at first underwent an inverse
movement, t h a t is to say, they fell continually until the end of
the third quarter of 1926, rising again during the fourth quarter
of the same year and during the first quarter of 1927. During t h e
past year they have undergone the same variations as wages in
French francs, as the rate of exchange of the latter has remained
stable. On comparing the tendencies shown by the Saar statisticswith those already noted in France, it is seen that wages in French.
francs increased in the Saar to the same extent as in France, whereas
their gold value was less affected in the Saar by the variations of
the exchanges rates, although these were the same in both cases..
In order to give an idea of the purchasing power of wages on thehome market, we quote the following cost-of-living index numbers*
calculated by the Statistical Department of the Saar Government.
Taking the prices in December 1925 as a basis, the index numbers.
during 1926 and 1927 were as follows :
December 1925 . .
December 1926 . . .
March 1927 . . . .

100
137
129

June 1927
. . . .
September 1927. . .
December 1927 . .

129
124
124

It is thus seen that real wages (the purchasing power of wages on
the home market) remained at practically the same level as in 1925,.
with the exception, however, of the first, third, and fourth quartersof 1927, when they were slightly above that level.
§ 4.

The total output of coal in 1925 and 1926 was as follows :
Saleable coal in 1925
12,597,000
Saleable coal in 1926
13,319,000
Commercially disposable coal in 1925 . . . 11,321,000
Commercially disposable coal in 1926 . . . 11,943,000
The average output of saleable coal raised per manshift and per
annum was as follows :
TABLE

VIII.

—

AVERAGE

OUTPUT

OF

SALEABLE

GOAL

ACCORDING-

TO CLASSES OF WORKERS IN 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(Metric
Category of workers

underground workers . . .
Underground and surface

Tons)
Average output
per manshift

Average annual
output per worker

1925

1926

1925

1926

1.91
0.91

1.95

495
240

527
255

179

191

0.65

0.92
0.67

It is seen t h a t the average output per manshift remained practically stable, while the average annual output increased considerably
in 1926.

— 227 —
The cost of wages per ton of saleable coal raised and of commercially
disposable coal, expressed in French francs and gold francs, is shown
in the following table :
TABLE IX.

— WAGE

COST PER

Ton of

TON OF GOAL IN 1 9 2 5 AND
W a g e cost in
French francs
1925

Commercially disposable coal.

44.09
49.06

!

1926

W a g e cost in
gold francs

1926

1925

1926

54.72
61.03

10.89
12.12

9.21
10.17

These figures demonstrate that the gold value of wage costs per
ton of coal decreased to a considerable extent during the year 1926.

APPENDIX V

HOURS OF LABOUR AND WAGES IN T H E COAL
INDUSTRY OF NON-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

PRELIMINARY N O T E

The scope of the comparative study of hours of labour and wages
in the coal-mining industry presented in P a r t Two, has been confined
to European countries only. The reason for this limitation lies in
the fact that the material received from other countries is comparable
neither with the data supplied for Europe, nor among these nonEuropean countries. Since, however, the coal industry outside
Europe is, from an international point of view, as important as the
European coal trade, it is necessary to make an attempt to complete
the enquiry by statistics relating to those countries overseas for
which any useful information is available.
At the outset, it will be convenient to indicate which are the
principal coal-producing countries outside Europe. This will bé seen
from the following table, where the total output of coal is taken as
the criterion of importance 1 .
PRODUCTION OF COAL IN THE PRINCIPAL NON-EUROPEAN

COUNTRIES, 1909-1913 AND 1925
(Metric Tons—000's Omitted)
Absolute figures
Countries

Union of South Africa

Total outside Europe
World
1

Percentage to
total world
production 1925

Average
1909-1913

1925

. . . .

6,692
10,698
11,621
12,869
464,587
15,126
17,885
6,613

11,793
13,847
8,627
20,500
530,776
21,102
31,495
10,975

1.0
1.2
0.7
1.7
44.7
1.8
2.6
0.9

. . .

546,091
551,543

649,115
538,688

54.6
45.4

1,097,634

1,187,803

100.0

Figures are taken from : LEAGUE OF NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL
: Documentation, Memorandum on Coal, Vol. I,
Annex IV, p. 4 3 ; Geneva, 1927.

ECONOMIC CONFERENCE

— 229 —
The above figures show that, in 1925, the United States alone
produced almost as large a quantity of coal as the whole of Europe.
Compared with America, all other non-European countries are of
less importance from the point of view of production ; on the other
hand, Japan, India, and China are as large coal producers as, for
instance, Poland and Belgium.
Information and statistics relating to hours of labour and wages
have not been obtained for all of the above countries. Only the Union
of South Africa, India, and Japan have forwarded to the International
Labour Office certain data in reply to the questionnaires sent with
a view to the present enquiry. Further, official statistics published
for Canada and the United States have been secured and utilised
for the enquiry. These five countries represented, in 1925, about
61 per cent, of the world production of coal, and 93 per cent, of
the total production outside Europe. It is regretted that no statistics have been ascertained in respect of Australia and China.
It follows from the above remarks that the chapters dealing with
the hours and wages in non-European countries will have a rather
heterogeneous character. The method of presentation cannot, of
course, be the same as that adopted in the comparative study of
European countries. As the scope of the statistics, the methods
employed therein, and their completeness and accuracy are widely
different, each country is dealt with in a separate note.
It is to be observed that the information available for the five
countries does not refer to the same period. Statistics for South
Africa and India refer to the year 1925, those for Japan to the year
1924, those for Canada to the years 1925 and 1926 (in certain cases
also 1927), and those for the United States to the years 1924 and
1926.
Owing to the incomparability of the data, the average earnings
are in each case expressed in terms of the national currency only.
Per contra, with regard to the total and average production, statistical comparisons are not impossible, and therefore the quantities
of coal are in each case converted to metric tons. Furthermore, an
estimate of the average wage cost per ton of coal may be attempted
in certain cases, and the average cost has then been expressed in
terms of gold francs.
The following discussion is divided into two parts, dealing with
(A) hours of labour and (B) wages.

A.

HOURS

OF

LABOUR

Canada
The production of coal in Canada is restricted to the four following
provinces : Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Nova
Scotia. As the coal-mining industry of New Brunswick is of very
little importance 1 , it is not taken into account.
1
The number of workmen employed in the mines of these provinces
in 1925 was : Nova Scotia, 12,100 ; Alberta, 3,370 ; British Columbia,
5,095 ; New Brunswick, 544 ; Total, 21,109. The miners of the first
three provinces represent more than 96 per cent, of the total. (Figures
taken from the Coal Statistics for Canada for the Calendar Year 1926,

of the

D O M I N I O N B U R E A U OF STATISTICS.)

— 230 —
The regulation of hours of work is within the competence of the
provinces. Each of the three provinces under consideration possesses
legislation limiting the hours of work in the mines.
In the province of Alberta the Mines Act of 1922 \ whose scope
extends to coal-mines, lays down in section 8, subsection (1), that
" n o workman shall be below ground in a mine for the purpose of
his work or for going to or from his work, or be allowed to be below
ground for that purpose, for more than 8 hours during any consecutive
24 hours". Subsection (2) of the same section stipulates that there
is no infraction of the provisions of subsection (1) if " t h e period
between the times at which the first workman in a shift leaves the
surface and the first workman in the shift returns to the surface,
and the period between the times at which the last workman in the
shift leaves the surface and the last workman in the shift returns to
the surface, do not exceed the time fixed by this section", that is
totsay, 8 hours.
With a view to ensuring the execution of these provisions,
" t h e owner, agent or manager of every mine shall fix for
each shift of workmen in the mine the times at which the lowering
of workmen to the mine is to commence and to be completed,
and the times at which the raising of workmen from the mine
is to commence and to be completed, and the same shall be
fixed in such manner t h a t every workman shall have an opportunity of returning to the surface without contravention of the
foregoing provisions of this section, and such owner, agent or
manager shall post at the pithead a conspicuous notice of the
times so fixed, and shall make all arrangements necessary for
the observance of these times in lowering and raising the workmen." (Section 8, subsection 3.)
"The interval between the times fixed for the commencement
and for the completion of the lowering and raising of each shift
of workmen to and from the mine shall not exceed the time
reasonably required for the purpose, and the same shall be
approved b y the Chief Inspector." (Section 8, subsection 4.)
"The owner, agent or manager of every mine shall appoint a
person or persons to direct at the pithead the lowering and
raising of workmen to and from the mine, and shall cause a
book to be kept in which shall be entered the times at which
workmen are lowered into and raised from the mine, and the
cases in which any workman is below ground for more than
the time fixed by this Act, and the cause thereof." (Section 9.)
Section 10 provides that the workmen in a mine may, at their
own cost, institute a system of supervision of the times of lowering
and raising.
It follows from this legislation that the winding times are
included in the legal duration of the shift.
In British Columbia, section 19 of the Coal Mines Act of 1911,
modified by the Act of 1918 2, stipulates that no person employed
in or about a mine shall remain underground, for the purpose of
employment, for a longer period than 8 hours in any one calendar
day of 24 hours, counted from midnight to midnight. This period
1
2

Revised Statutes of Alberta, 1922, Chap. 190.
Revised Statutes of British Columbia, 1924, Chap. 171.

— 231 —
îs comprised between the moment at which the workman enters
the mine and the moment when he leaves it (from bank to bank).
Where more than two shifts are worked in a mine the stay of
some categories of workers (onsetters, cagers, pumpmen, certain
•engineers, etc.) in the mine may be increased to 8% hours (from
bank to bank).
The descent and ascent are included in the legal duration of the shift.
The Act of 23 April 1918 has added a subsection concerning
surface workers to section 19 of the Act of 1911. The latter, with
t h e exception of persons employed in the office, boarding house or
bunkhouse, may not be employed at or about a mine for a longer
period than 8 hours in any one calendar day of 24 hours, counted
from midnight to midnight.
In Nova Scotia the Act of 9 May 1924 *, modifying the Coal Mines
Regulations Act, declares in section 39 (a), subsection (1), that " a
workman shall not be employed at his working place below ground in a
mine for the purpose of his work for more than 8 hours during any
consecutive 24 hours".
It appears from the tenor of this section that the descent and ascent
are not included in the duration of the shift as fixed by legislation.
The Eleventh Report on Wages and Hours of Labour in Canada,
published by the Department of Labour as a supplement to the
Labour Gazette of January 1928, contains statistics of wages and
hours of work in the coal-mines of Nova Scotia, Alberta, and Vancouver Island (British Columbia) from 1920 to 1927. These statistics
show that in 1927 the length of the shift worked by the miners as
a whole, on the basis of which wages were compiled, was 8 hours,
«xcept as regards surface labourers and machinists of Nova Scotia,
who worked 8% hours. This regime has not varied since 1920,
except in the case of carpenters and blacksmiths in Nova Scotia who
worked 8% hours up till 1926.
In the tnree provinces some engineers, pumpmen, firemen, etc.,
"worked 7 days a week.
India
The hours of work are regulated by the Mines Act of 23 February
1923 2 . The legal provisions, however, are not applicable to ' 'persons
who may by rules be defined to be persons holding positions of
supervision or management or employed in a confidential capacity".
Hours of work are fixed by section 23, which stipulates :
"No person shall be employed in a mine —
(a) on more than six days in any one week,
(b) if he works above ground, for more than 60 hours
in any one week,
(c) if he works below ground, for more than 54 hours in
any one week."
The reply of the Government of India to the questionnaire states :
"Section 23 of the Indian Mines Act, 1923, imposes a weekly
limit of 60 hours for surface workers and 54 hours for
1
2

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

Ibid., 1923, Ind. 3.

: Legislative Series, 1924, Can. 5.

— 232 —
underground workers. These limits are considerably in excess
of the average hours worked. The daily hours in the case of
both surface and underground workers are probably in the
neighbourhood of 8, and with the majority of miners days of
absence are numerous. It is probable (although here again
no reliable figures are available) that the average miner doesnot attain to an average of five days' work weekly throughout
the year. There is at present no such statutory limit to the
length of a shift or to the number of hours which a miner may
work on any one day."
On 25 March 1927 a draft amendment to the Act of 1923 was
submitted to the Indian Legislative Assembly. The purpose of
this draft is to define the daily hours of work. It provides for the
prohibition of employment of workers in the mines for more than
12 hours in the course of 24 consecutive hours and for the introduction
of shifts in all mines worked more than 12 hours in 24, and the
periodic alternation of shifts. Weekly maxima are maintained.
If the Bill is voted the mine-owners will have the choice either
(a) of limiting the hours of work in the entire mining undertaking
to 12 hours a day, or (Z>) of introducing a shift system with a 12-hour
maximum organised so that the hours of work of the two shifts do
not overlap for t h e same category of workers.

Japan
In Japan there is no limitation by law or by collective agreements
for adult workers. The hours of work of underground workers are
only regulated as regards women and young persons of less than 15
years of age 1.
The maximum period of presence in the mine of women and children
under the Act of 1916 is 12 hours inclusive of a compulsory rest of
one hour (sections 6 and 9).
As for adult workers, the length of this period is left to the decision
of the employer. However, there is a certain indirect restriction
in that mining enterprises are compelled to obtain the.consent of
the authorities before issuing any regulation that it may be considered
necessary to prescribe with regard to working hours of adult workers.
This obligation contributes towards a shortening of the working day
for women and children a .
According to an enquiry carried out on 17 July 1923 on working
hours in the most important coal-mines, the actual working period
is understood to count from the time when the worker descends into
the shaft to the time when he ascends from it. It is, therefore,
calculated individually, includes the two winding times, and corresponds to the international manshift standard 3.
1
The modifications effected in this legal regime since 1925 are indicated
on p. 235.
2
Note of the Japanese Government accompanying the tables on the
hours of work.
3
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : Industrial and Labour Information,
Vol. XI. No. 3. Rodo Jiho, 27 July 1924 (monthly publication of the

JAPANESE BUREAU OF SOCIAL AFFAIRS).

HOURS OF WORK OF UNDERGROUND WORKERS IN THE

TABLE I.

Regulations
Week

Day or shift
Regions

Ctllutiri
Ctllictin
Legis- agreimBnts Legis- agraomants
lation or arbitral lation or arbitral
dissions

2

1

3

....

4

5

11
11

Sendai
Tokyo
Osaka

—

Average
time und

Day or
shift

Week

Going

6

7

8

9

2

3

6

4

decisions

l

Fukuoka

Standard manshift
actually worked

Average
time for
descent
or
ascent

—

40'

10.34'

63.24'

32'

20'

8.46'

52.36'

22'

)
)

Whole country

11
11

—

30'

10.2'

60.6'

19'

36'

10.21'

62.6'

30'

1
The figures in this column refer to the duration of the working day as prescribed by the 1916 A
children. Only limits fixed by laws and regulations are given.
* The figures of the average duration of the descenti and ascent are those obtained from obser
possible3 to utilise statistical data.
The figures in this column represent the average hours of work of all workers in various m
The hours of male workers are approximately the same as those of women and children.
* The average duration of walking time (going to and returning from the working face for und
working conditions in mines. The figures refer to given numbers of workers selected in each of the min
* The average rest time, properly so called, is in practice one hour ; this is in agreement with the
8
The figures in this column are obtained by multiplying the average hours of work by six,

— 234 —
For women and young persons under 15 years of age the 1916 Act
prescribes a break of half an hour if the hours of work are over six,
and of one hour if they are over ten (section 9). In practice the
average break for other classes of workers is also one hour 1.
The average period of presence at the coal-face, after deducting
rests, includes long waits for trucks and material : this loss of time
is estimated a t 1 hour 50 minutes for the Fukuoka field, 33 minutes
for the Sapporo field, 1 hour 37 minutes for the Sendai, Tokyo and
Osaka fields, and 1 hour 42 minutes for the country as a whole.
Iii this way t h e coal industry of Japan is placed at a disadvantage.
Advantage is not taken of the long hours of work of the underground
employées to the extent that it should be, owing to the dearth of
material.
In the case of surface workers also, legislation fixes a maximum
^working period only in the case of women and young persons under
15 years of age. This working period is 12 hours, including one
hour of compulsory rest. In certain cases it includes other interruptions which diminish the duration of the actual working period
correspondingly.
In the case of adult workers, the decision as to working hours is
left to the employer.
In the following tables, drawn up in the same way as the corresponding tables for European countries, the figures furnished by the
Japanese Government in its reply to the questionnaire are given.

TABLE I I . — HOURS OF WORK OF SURFACE WORKERS IN THE
JAPANESE MINES IN 1 9 2 5
Hours of work fixed by regulations
Regions

1

Actual duration
of work

Week

Day

Collective
Collective
Legislation agreements Legislation agreements
or arbitral
or arbitral
decisions
2
3
4
1 decisions
5

Day

Week

6

7
3

1

Fukuoka . .

Sapporo . .
Sendai
. )
Tokyo
. [
Osaka
. )
Whole country

11
11
11

11

—
—

—

'

10
9

60
54

10

60

9.52'

1

59.12'

For women and children only.
* These figures relate to all workers.
* The figures in this column are obtained by multiplying the daily hours of work by six.

1

Communication from the Japanese Government, Aug. 1927.

— 235 —
Since 1925 modifications have been effected in the legal regime of
hours of work.
The Decree of 23 June 1926 \ which came into force on 1 July 1926,
amended the Mines Act of 1916 in order to bring it into agreement
with the regulations contained in the Factories Act of 1923 s . Under
the new section 6 the maximum number of hours of attendance in
the mine of women and young persons of under 16 years of age 3 is
eleven i. These two groups of workers continue to benefit by the
rest period prescribed in 1916 (30 minutes if the hours of work are
over 6, and 1 hour if they are over 10). These provisions also apply
t o surface workers in these groups.

Union of South Africa

The Mines Act of 15 April 1911 5 regulates hours of work in
mines, but does not apply " t o work in coal-mines" (section 9, subsection (c)).
Neither is there, as far as is known, any regulation of hours of
work in coal-mines by collective agreement or by decisions of arbitration courts.
The Government of the Union of South Africa in its reply t o the
questionnaire says :
"No returns are available, but the usual shift is about 9 hours
long, and is from bank to bank.
"In European countries the breaking or mining of coal is
carried out by a white miner, while in South Africa work of a
similar nature is done by coloured labourers. The so-called
miner of South Africa is in reality a supervisor of labour and
practically takes the place of an official in the British Isles,
such as a deputy, and he only conducts blasting operations and,
in isolated cases, erects and withdraws timber."

United States

For the purpose of an exposé on the hours of work in the coal-fields
of the United States, information has been extracted from Hours
of Labour in Industry: United States, published in its "Studies and
Tieports" by the International Labour Office in 1925 e, and from
the following publications of the Bureau of Labour Statistics of the
United States Department of Labour : Hours and Earnings in
1

Legislative Series, 1926, Jap. 2.
Ibid., 1923, Jap. 1.
3
Formerly 15 years.
4
Formerly 12 hours.
5
Bulletin of the International Labour Office (Basle), Vol. VI, 1911,
p. 63.
2

6

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : Hours of Labour in

United States.

Industry:

Studies and Reports, Series D, No. 14. Geneva, 1925.

— 236 —
Anthracite and Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1922 and 1924, and Hours
and Earnings in Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1922, 1924, and 1926 *.
In the first place, an outline is given of the regulations governing
hours of work in virtue of legislation or collective agreements in
the mining industry, and, secondly, statistics furnished in the
course of the enquiries referred to above.
Sixteen of the 48 States of the Union have limited by legal
prescriptions the length of the shift of underground workers and
machinists in the mining industry 2. The maximum duration of
the shift is fixed at 8 hours, except for Maryland, where it is 10 hours 8 .
Generally speaking, the hours of work are fixed by collective
agreements.
As regards anthracite mining, the most important collective
agreement is t h a t of 1916 applying to Pennsylvania-, where nearly
all the anthracite mines are to be found.
This agreement provides for 8 hours' actual work at the usual
place of work ; the time spent in coming and going not being taken
into account. The prescription relating to hours of work is as
follows :
"An 8-hour day means eight (8) hours of actual work for all
classes of labour at the usual working place, exclusive of noon
time, for six (6) days per week,' if the operator desires to work
his mines to that extent, excluding legal holidays. The time
required in going and coming from place of employment in
and about the mine shall not include any part of the day's
labour."
For the bituminous coal-mines, an agreement concluded by the
mine operators of the Central Region (Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, that is to say, the principal centre of bituminous coal
production
in the United States) and the United Mine Workers of
America 4 , is taken as the basis of negotiation by all organised
workers.
This agreement, which was renewed for a period of three years
from April 1924, provides, in respect of nearly all categories of workers
a basic shift of 8 hours' work at the coal-face, the time spent in
coming and going not being taken into account.
As regards the statistics of hours of work during the half-month
under consideration the data were established in the following
manner :
The calculation of the hours of work of men on piece rates (tonnage
men) being b u t rarely undertaken, it was necessary to make special
arrangements with officials of the mines to determine exactly the
1

The results of these enquiries were published in the Monthly Labour
Review, July 1925 and July 1927.
2
These States are the following : Arizona, California, Colorado,
Idaho, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington, Wyoming.
The texts of the laws relating to hours of work of miners are incorporated in Labour Laws of the United States published by the UNITED
STATES BUREAU OF LABOUR STATISTICS.
3

In Alaska the maximum legal duration of the shift is also 8 hours.
The United Mine Workers of America comprised, in 1923, 400,000
of the 660,000 workers employed in the mines of the Union at that
time.
4

— 237 —
number of hours of work. For this purpose the Bureau of Labour
Statistics came to an agreement with the companies selected to
keep a day-by-day record of the hours of each tonnage worker for
a basic half-monthly pay period.
The method of noting hours of work is, however, not uniform.
In certain cases the persons entrusted with this task have entered
the total time spent in the mine, including or not, as the case may be,
underground travel time and time taken for meals, while others
have entered the total hours of presence at the coal-face with or
without time taken for meals.
Supplementary information was obtained by the agents of the
Bureau of Statistics with regard to the average travelling time
underground. The average time spent each day in going from the
shaft to the coal-face and in returning from the coal-face to the
shaft has been partly calculated and partly estimated.
Most of the miners do not have a regular interval for meals ;
they eat at the coal-face while waiting for empty trucks or while
they are idle for other reasons ; hence, in general, averages of the
times taken for meals have not been obtainable.
The hours of work of wage-earners have been revised with a view
to establishing a common basis for the calculation of average wages.
Two units of time have been determined for the hewers (miners)
and loaders on piece rates (tonnage men) and hewers on time rates, in
anthracite mines ; these are :
(a) Total hours of presence in the mine, that is to say, the number
of hours actually spent in the mine from the moment (expressed
in hours and minutes) of entering the shaft or other means*
of access to the mine, in the morning, to the moment (expressed
in hours and minutes) of leaving the shaft or any other means
of access to the mine, in the afternoon, after the termination
of the shift ; this includes the hours of work proper, the
average travelling time, underground, and the time taken for
meals.
(b) Hours of presence at the coal-face, including meal-times,
which represent the hours of actual work at the coal-face,
from the moment (expressed in hours and minutes) of arrival
at the coal-face, in the morning, to the moment (expressed
in hours and minutes) of leaving the face after the termination
of the shift.
With regard to the miners on time rates (daily or hourly rates),
the hours actually worked are entered on the pay-rolls of the company.
The average hours used in the statistics refer to the time spent at
the face to the exclusion of time taken for meals, that is to say, the
number of hours actually spent in working.
(a) Anthracite Mines
The first of the above-mentioned publications of the Bureau of
Labour Statistics J contains a survey summarising the results of a
special enquiry on wages and hours of work in 1924 in the anthracite
mines of Pennsylvania where the agreement of 1916 already referred
t o is in force. The agreement fixes the duration of work at t h e coalface at 8 hours a day, exclusive of time spent in underground travel.
1
Hours and Earnings in Anthracite and Bituminous Coal1922 and 1924.

— 238 —
The shift of workers on time rates is generally fixed at. 8 hours,
excluding meal-times.
The hours of work of men on piece rates and their helpers seem
to be the same as those of men on time rates, but in practice, these
hours are more or less irregular.
For the latter category of workers the average time required for
underground travel from the shaft to the face and vice versa varies
from 20 minutes a day in the mines where the journey is shortest to
1 y2 hours a day in the mines with the longest galleries. The most
frequent time is 30 minutes a day, that is, 15 minutes going and 15
minutes returning.
The time taken for meals is about 30 minutes a day.
The following tables, incorporated in the publication referred to,
give for 1924 (October and November) the average number of hours
of work done during the half-monthly period under consideration in
respect of each working day (start) 1 for the principal categories
of wage-earners.
As regards the underground workers, separate figures are given
for the total hours of presence in the mine (including meal-times and
underground travel time) and for the hours of presence at the coalface (including meal-times and excluding meal-times).

TABLE I.

— HOURS OF WORK OF UNDERGROUND WORKERS IN THE
ANTHRACITE MINES, OCTOBER-NOVEMBER 1 9 2 4
Number of

Average hours
Average
number

in half-month
based on

per start based on

OÎ

Occupation

starts
mines employees (days)
in
halfmonth

time at face
time
in
mine

including
lunch

excluding
lunch

time at face
time
in
mine

inclu- excluding
ding
lunch lunch

Hewers x (miners) :
Consideration

....

Labourers :
Company m i n e r s ' . .
Consideration
miners'..
Contract miners' .

47
22
55

1,735
961
11,778

10.3
10.9
10.8

96.7
96.3
81.4

89.8
90.1
73.9

84.5
84.7
68.5

9.3
8.9
7.5

8.7
8.3
6.8

8.2
7.8
6.3

47

1,699

10.2

96.5

89.4

84.1

9.4

8.7

8.2

22
53

748
6,794

10.6
10.1

97.7
79.1

91.4
72.4

86.1
67.3

9.2
7.8

8.6
7.2

8.1
6.7

In the anthracite mines the miners also act as loaders.

^ o r the definition of "start" which does not correspond exactly to
"shift", see p. 266.

— 239 —
TABLE II. — HOURS OF WORK OF SURFACE WORKERS IN THE
ANTHRACITE MINES, OCTOBER-NOVEMBER 1 9 2 4
Average
number of
starts
(days)
in halfmines employees
month
Number of

Occupation

Blacksmiths
Cagers
Carpenters
Engineers
Labourers

Other employees

. . ,

55
52
56
41
52
51
55
54
51
45
53
56

142
234
607
231
441
413
2,612
381
244
366
1,103
2,334

12.5
12.1
12.3
10.9
14.2
14.7
12.0
11.7
13.2
11.1
11.6
12.7

Average hours
worked
in halfmonth

per start
(day)

113.4
112.4
109.0
97.2
122.7
123.6
109.3
104.4
122.5
96.1
96.2
113.6

9.1
9.3
8.9
8.9
8.6
8.4
9.1
8.9
9.3
8.6
8.3
8.9

As the notion of the working day (start) does not correspond
exactly to that of shift, it is rather difficult to interpret the figures.
in these tables. However, it appears from the examination of t h e m
that, generally speaking, the 8-hour day was exceeded in 1924,
(b) Bituminous Coal-Mines
The second publication of the Bureau of Labour Statistics referred
to 1 reproduces the results of an official enquiry undertaken in October
1926 in the coal-fields with a view to comparing hours of work and
wages in 1926 with those of 1922 and 1924. The data for the enquiry
were collected in 556 mines in Alabama, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana,.
Kansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and
West "Viginia.
These statistics apply to 148,155 wage-earners (132,949 underground workers and 15,206 surface workers), t h a t is to say, 25 per
cent, of the 588,498 workers who constitute the entire personnel of
the bituminous mining industry of the United States. The following
tables indicate hours of work during the half-monthly period under
consideration and per working day (start) of the principal categories
of wage-earners underground and at the surface.
The figures relating to underground workers are in respect of
hewers (miners) and loaders, who correspond to the category of
average workers forming the subject of the enquiry in European
countries. The figures show the average number of hours spent in
the mine (including underground travel time and meal-times) and
at the face (including meal-times). By "face" is meant not only
the perpendicular face, but also the place of work of the miner in
the mine. The time taken for meals is estimated at 30 minutes ; the
underground travel time, going and returning, varies from 10 minutes
to 2 hours, on an average it is 46 minutes—23 minutes going and
23 minutes returning.
1

Hours and Earnings in Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1922, 1924 audi
1926.

— 240 —
TABLE I I I . — HOURS OF WORK OF HEWERS (MINERS) AND LOADERS IN THE
BITUMINOUS COM-"MINES IN 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6
Number of
Year

Occupation

mines

wageearners

Average
number
of starts
(days)
in
halfmonth

Average hours
in half-month
based on

per start
based on

time
time
time
time
in mine at face in mine at face

1924
1926

24
61

170
694

9.5
10.1

84.3
92.4

79.9
85.3

8.9
9.1

8.4
8.4

1924
1926

514
488

61,936
66,414

8.1
9.4

68.6
80.3

63.3
73.7

8.5
8.6

7.8
7.8

1924
1926

10
23

102
306

9.4
9.9

90.4
93.7

84.3
87.3

9.6
9.5 .

9.0
8.8

Miners, gang

1924
1926

40
32

1,036
1,065

8.1
9.5

71.1
86.0

65.6
78.7

8.8
9.0

8.1
8.2

Miners, h a n d or pick .

1924
1926

291
254

21,424
20,594

8.5
9.8

71.2
84.3

65.6
77.0

8.4
8.6

7.7
7.9

1924
1926

485
464

6,499
6,055

8.8
10.3

78.6
93.3

72.9
86.0

8.9
9.0

8.3
8.3

1926

151

882

8.8

84.5

79.0

9.6

9.0

Loaders, c o n t r a c t . . . .

Miners, machine

Miners, machine
(cutters') helpers . . .

TABLE IV. — HOURS OF WORK OF SURFACE WORKERS IN THE
BITUMINOUS COAL-MINES IN 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6
Number of
Occupation

Years
mines

.

wageearners

hours
Average Average
worked
number
of starts
(days)
in half- in half- per start
month
month
(day)

1924
1926

581
540

969
909

in 7
1Ï.9

92.0
104Í8

8.6
8.8

1924
1926

474
484

1,354
1,545

10.4
11.4

89.6
98.3

8.6
8.6

1924
1926

333
320

732
674

12.9
13.3

114.4
119.6

8.9
9.0

Labourers

1924
1926

591
550

7,514
7,877

9.5
10.7

81.2
92.6

8.6
8.7

Other employees . . .

1924
1926

578
540

4,823
4,201

11.1
12.1

99.1
108.1

8.9
8.9

Carpenters and car

241
In addition, it has been thought useful to give the following table,
which shows for each of the various bituminous coal-producing
States of the Union, hours of work of hewers (miners) and loaders
taken en bloc, and labourers employed underground and at the
surface. The first group represents the greater part of the underground skilled workers, the other two groups represent the greater
part of the unskilled workers, both underground and at the surface.
The number of workers in the three groups together is about 90
per cent, of the aggregate of workers employed in bituminous coalmines.
TABLE V. — HOURS OF WORK OF HEWERS (MINERS) AND LOADERS, AND LABOURERS
EMPLOYED UNDERGROUND OR AT THE SURFACE I N 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 IN VARIOUS
STATES OF THE UNION
Hewers and loaders '

Undarground labourers

Average hour;

berags
(aar

Slate

nimbar
of
starb
{Up)
in
halfmonth

in half-month
basad on

tima
at fa«
including
lunch

ins
in
mine

*!

of
starts
(dais)
in
halfmonth

8.5
8.5

7.50

8.9
12.5
8.6
9.9
7.5
9.2

71.1
100.5

85.4
71.4

8.1
8.0
8.0
8.1

71.5
70.5

8.5
8.5

tima
at lace
inclu-

in half-

per
start

8.8
8.7
8.0
8.1
8.0
8.1

9.0

85.1

77.2

9.5

8.6

1924
1926

10.2

87.8

79.8

8.6

7.9

1924
1926

9.5

84.8

77.1

8.9

8.1

Indiana

1924
1926

9.7

75.4

70.2

7.8

7.2

Kansas

1924
1926

9.4

71.7

67.4

7.7

7.2

9.1

76.5

71.8

8.4

7.9

10.7
8.9
8.4
8.3

9.4

79.1

72.9

8.5

7.8

8.9
8.2

73.3
63.2

. . . .

1924
1926
1924
1926

74.3

69.0
79.7
60.5
73.7

Pennsylvania. . .

1924
1926

9.9

88.1

80.4

8.9

8.2

9.8
10.7

81.5
89.1

Tennessee

1924
1926

8.5

72.5

67.2

8.5

7.9

7.8
7.6

62.8
59.5

9.2

78.9

73.6

8.6

8.0

7.6
8.4

61.6
70.4

9.6

75.3

69.1

7.9

7.2

8.8
9.8

73.5
83.1

8.3
7.7
8.3
8.4
8.1
7.9
8.1
8.4
8.4
8.5

9.5

82.2

75.4

8.6

7.9

8.9
9.4

74.2
78.7

8.3
8.4

Ohio

. . . .

W e s t Virginia

. .

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

1

iierage
tumbar
of
¡tarts
(dan)
in
ballmonth

in halfmonth

per
start

9.5

71.9
83.5

8.9
12.0

77.6
108.6

8.9
8.8
8.8
9.1

9.2
11.0

75.7
94.1

8.2
8.5

7.1
10.7
10.1
11.2
9.1
10.4
9.1
10.0

67.2
88.0

8.0
8.2
8.8
8.2
8.6
8.6

lunch

1924
1926

Kentucky

Arirage baurs

lirerag« him

par start basad Aierage
number
on

ting
in
mm

Surface labourers

8.1

88.8
91.8
78.3
90.3
73.6
80.2

10.2
11.0

89.8
97.9

8.1
8.0
8.8
8.9

8.8
8.8

70.2
69.7

8.0
8.0

8.4
9.6

68.9
84.4

8.2
8.8

9.9
10.9

84.8
95.2

9.5
10.7

81.2
92.6

8.6
8.8
8.6
8.7

There are no statistics tor 1924 for these two categories of workers taken together.

For the bituminous coal-mines, as for the anthracite mines —
subject to the same reservation respecting the unit of measurement —the hours of work exceeded 8 per day in 1926.
15

— 242 —
'

B.

STATISTICS OF WAGES

Canada

§ 1. Regular statistics of employment and production in the coalmines of Canada are published by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics
in the annual report ; moreover, the Department of Labour publishes
information as to wage rates prevailing in the September month of
each year in three provinces *.
The' latest years for which complete information is published
are 1925 and 1926, and these years only are taken into consideration
in the following notes. It should be observed that the year 1925
was exceptional in that the employment and production, owing
largely to labour troubles in somes mines, were less than in several
preceding years. In 1926 both employment and production showed
an improvement without, however, attaining the maximum level
reached. previously.
The statistics cover both bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite
mines. In accordance with the general plan of the enquiry, only
bituminous mines will be taken into account. Such existed in five
provinces, namely, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Alberta, British
Columbia, and Yukon a . Similarly, salaried employees are excluded
from the following notes as in the case of other countries.
It may be noted t h a t little or no information as to the methods
employed in the Canadian statistics are to be found in the publications referred to, except the statements that the figures published
are based on returns received from each mine, and that uniform
methods are followed throughout the country.

TABLE I. — TOTAL WAGES PAID IN THE COAL-MINES OF DIFFERENT

PROVINCES, 1925 AND 1926

(In Dollars)
Province

New Brunswick

1925

1926

$
10,707,656
536,871
4,164,568
7,199,205
3,022
22,611,322

$
14,041,702
432,006
4,677,717
6,544,188
600
25,696,213

1
CANADA, DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND COMMERCE, DOMINION BUREAU
OF STATISTICS : Coal Statistics for Canada for the Calendar Years 1925
and 1926 ; Ottawa, 1926 and 1927. DEPARTMENT OFLAROUR, CANADA I

Wages and Hours of Labour in Canada, 1920 to 1927 (Wages and Hours
of Labour Report No. 11, issued as a Supplement to the Labour Gazette,
Jan. 1928) ; Ottawa, 1928.
2
Sub-bituminous mines lie all in the province of Alberta, and lignite
mines in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta.

— 243 —
§ 2. The total of wages paid to wage earners in bituminous
mining is shown in Table I for each province. The figures refer
apparently to money wages only ; no information is available in
respect of allowances in kind, payment
for holidays, or employers'
contributions to social insurance 1. Furthermore, statistics do not
show separately the total of wages paid to underground and
surface workers.
It will be seen from this table t h a t the employment of labour
is important in the provinces of Nova Scotia, Alberta and British
Columbia. The total wages bill in New Brunswick is less than onetenth of that paid in Alberta, while Yukon is quite negligible.
§ 3. The Canadian statistics give the total number of days' work
(man-days) done, as well as the average number of wage earners
employed underground and on the surface. The number of days*
work is based on records kept in the mines which are communicated
monthly to the central authority. The number for each province
is shown in Table II.
TABLE II. — NUMBER OF DAYS' WORK DONE IN THE COAL-MINES, B Y

PROVINCES, 1925 AND 1926

Province

Days' work
underground
1925

1926

Days' work
on surface
1925

|

1926

Total of days'
work
1925

1926

Nova Scotia . . 1,448,327 2,375,145
421,640
613,136 1,869,967 2,988,281
New Brunswick.
167,069
135,590
103,098
40,501
126,568
32,492
654,558
Alberta . . . .
840,269
601,627
203,302
451,256
238,642
British Columbia
1,332,768
857,889
479,062
964,275
474,879 1,443,337
431
112
56
108
323
56
Canada . . 2,990,749 3,937,815 1,144,613 1,359,205 4,135,362 6,297,020

The number of wage earners refers to workers registered on colliery
pay-rolls, and the average is calculated from the monthly figures
secured from each province. The average number of workers classified
by places of work and provinces is seen from Table III (on next page).
Tables II and III show that the number of days worked and the
average number of wage earners in Nova Scotia, Alberta, and
British Columbia form about 97 per cent, of the respective totals for
the whole Dominion. On account of the very small figures given
for Yukon, it will not be worth while to calculate below any averages
for this province.
The underground workers form in the country as a whole about
three-fourths of the total labour force employed.
1
Compulsory industrial accident insurance is in force in the provinces
of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Alberta, and British Columbia, and
workmen's compensation in the province of Yukon. The employers are
responsible for the whole cost of these schemes.

— 244 —
The wage earners are classified further by individual occupation,
The statistics show nineteen different occupations for white employees
classified in three principal groups : (i) crafts employed mainly underground, (ii) crafts employed mainly on surface, (iii) miscellaneous.
TABLE I I I . — AVERAGE NUMBER

OF WAGE EARNERS

EMPLOYED, BY

PROVINCES, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
Average number
underground

Province

New Brunswick. . . .
British Columbia . . .
Yukon
Canada

TABLE IV.

1925

1926

6,689
468
2,412
3,713
3
13,285

9,878
415
2,546
3,435
1
16,275

— AVERAGE NUMBER

Average number
on surface
1925

1926

1,644
146
851
1,623
1

2,222
129
824
1,660
1

4,265

4,836

Average number
all w a g e earners
1925

1926

8,333
614
3,263
5,336
4
17,550

12,100
644
3,370
6.096
2
21,111

OF WAGE EARNERS EMPLOYED, BY

OCCUPATIONS, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6
Underground

On surface

Total

Occupations
1925

I. Officials underground
Hand cutters and
Machine cutters . . .
Machine loaders and
Horse

1926

1925

1926

875

10

7

784

882

6,139
1,231

6,077
1,925

6

5

6,146
1,231

6,082
1,925

2,396

2,805

1

2,397

2,805

1,504

1,795

34

26

1,538

1,821

1,651
371
452
859
191
27
14
2
14

61
5
4
17
11
214
455
1,160
424
323
326
238
302
1,811
260

74
4
8
15
7
205
476
1,386
449
338
363
283
306
1,969

1,612
376
466
876
202

6
1
102
1,431
246

2,026
464
549
1,113
197
24
12
6
14
1
7
2
162
1,960
233

240

506

2,100
468
557
1,128
204
229
488
1,392
463
339
370
285
468
3,929
473

17,311

20,247

6,662

6,161

22,973

26,408

haulage

Ventilation employees

II. Administration . . .
Foremen and clerks .
Screenmen and loaders
III. Bnginemen . . . .
Firemen . . . . . . .
Carpenters and masons
Other mechanics. . .
All other white. . . .
IV. Coloured
Total

1926

774

haulage em-

Mechanical

1925

241
469
1,162
438
323
332
239
404
3,242

— 245 —
Coloured employees—a very insignificant group—are only employed in the province of British Columbia and are chiefly Chinese,
though several Japanese and a few Indians are also employed.
Table IV gives the average number of wage earners classified by
occupation for the Dominion as a whole. It is, however, to be noted
that the figures include all mine-workers in Alberta, since the wage
earners employed on bituminous mines are not shown separately
in this classification ; as a consequence the totals are higher than in
Table III*.
Finally, from the figures given in Tables II and III, the Canadian
statistics calculate the average number of day's work per man
per year in the different provinces. This number, which indicates
the regularity of the employment, is shown in Table V.
TABLE V. — AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED PER MAN PER YEAR
IN THE DIFFERENT PROVINCES, 1 9 2 5 AND
Underground

On surface

1926
Underground
and on surface

Provinces

i

Nova Scotia . . .
New Brunswick
British Columbia
Canada

. . . .

1925

1926

1925

1926

1925

217
270
187
260

240
248
236
249

256
277
239
295

276
252
280
286

224
272
201
271

247
249
249
261

225

242

268

281

236

252

j

1926

It will be seen that in neither year the full number of possible
working days has been worked in any province. The employment
was generally more regular in 1926 than in 1925 ; but this does not
apply to all provinces ; in New Brunswick and British Columbia
the average number of day's work was somewhat Jess in 1926.
Further, the number of days worked by underground men is, as
may be expected, considerably below the corresponding average for
surface workers in both years and in all provinces. Finally, it is
seen that a minimum average number of days worked was recorded
in 1925 in Alberta, while in 1926 the average was sensibly equal in
the different provinces. The employment has in general been most
regular in British Columbia.
§ 4. From the data given in Tables I, II and III, thefaverage
wage earned per day and per year can be calculated for each province
and for all wage earners taken together. The average earnings are
computed simply by dividing the total wages bill (a) by the number
of day's work, and (b) by the number of workers employed (Table
VI).
1

The average number of wage earners in sub-bituminous mines in
Alberta was 654 in 1925 and 611 in 1926. That of wage earners employed
in lignite mines was 5,150 in 1925 and 5,042 in 1926.

— 246 —

T'ABLE VI. — AVERAGE WAGE EARNED PER DAY WORKED AND PER
YEAR, ALL WAGE EARNERS IN COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 5 AND

1926

(In Dollars)
Average earnings
per clay's work

Average earnings
per man per year

1925

1926

1925

1926

$
5.73
3.21
6.36
4.99

$
4.69
3,18
5.57
4.91

5.47

4.85

$
1,285
873
1,276
1,349
1,288

$
1,160
794
1,430
1,284
1,223

Province

Nova Scotia
New Brunswick

. . . .

• British Columbia

. . .

These figures show that average day earnings were highest in
1925 in the provinces of Alberta and Nova Scotia ; in 1926 there
was a considerable decrease in the earnings received in Nova Scotia
and the highest earnings were received in Alberta and British
Columbia. The average yearly earnings are, owing to the larger number
of days worked, highest in British Columbia in 1925 and in Alberta
in 1926. In all cases New Brunswick shows a very much lower
level of earnings than other provinces.
The above results may be completed by information drawn from
another source, namely, from statistics showing the day wages in
the month of September of each year. These data are based, according to information given, on agreements between the coal-mining
operators and the employees, in some cases represented by unions
and in others b y committees of employees. They thus give wage
rates. As regards workers employed on the piece-work basis, the
minimum rate per day paid when miners are not working on contract, per ton, per yard, etc., is shown. However, in the case of
"contract miners", the wages are given as showing "average earnings
per day on contract, per ton, etc.," and these cannot have been taken
from collective agreements. In some of the mines in each district
the wages of unorganised employees are stated to be somewhat
lower than those in agreements.
These figures (Table VII) are available for the month of September
in 1925, 1926, and 1927 for eleven occupations in three principal
districts, namely, Nova, Scotia, Alberta, and Vancouver Island
(including three mines in South-Eastern British Columbia). Chinese
workers employed in Vancouver are not included.
Among the three districts covered, Alberta shows the highest
level of daily earnings for contract miners and highest time rates
for other mine workers ; the lowest level is in all cases shown for
Nova Scotia.

— 247 —
TABLE VII. — DAILY WAGE RATES IN COAL-MINES IN NOVA SCOTIA,
ALBERTA, AND VANCOUVER ISLAND, SEPTEMBER 1 9 2 5 , 1 9 2 6 AND 1 9 2 7
Nova Scotia
Sept.
1925

Sept.
1926

Contract miners (a). . .

S
6.08

$
6.25

Machine miners (6) . . .

—

—

Hand miners (b) . . . .

4.30

4.15

Hoisting engineers . . .

4.35

4.15

3.60

3.60

3.75

3.65

Pumpmen

4.00

3.90

Labourers, underground

3.35

3.35

Labourers, surface . . .

3.25

3.25

Machinists

4.35

4.15

Carpenters

4.00

3.85

Blacksmiths

4.10

4.00

Vancouver Island

Alberta
Sept.
1925

Sept.
1926

Sept.
1927

Sept.
1925

Sept.
1926

Sept.
1927

S
7.92
( 5.65
7.00
4.16 I 5.00
5.40
5.50
4.15 6.00
4.70
3.60 4.90
5.20
3.65 5.40
4.26
3.90 4.75
4.25
3.35 • 4.45
4.00
3.25 ; 4.20
4.15 | 4.70
5.50
5.30
3.85 |
5.50
5.30
4.00 | 5.50

7.10
5.65
7.00
5.00
5.57
5.60
6.00
4.70
5.25
5.20
5.57
4.26
4.75
4.25
4.67
4.00
4.20
4.70
5.71
5.30
5.77
5.30
5.77

7.74
5.65
7.00
5.00
5.57
5.50 |
6.00 J
4.70 |
5.25 j
5.20 )
5.57
4.25 1
4.75 .
4.25 1
4.67 ;
4.00 i
4.20 /
4.70 1
5.71 1
5.30 I
5.77 J
5.30 1
5.77 J

S

$
6.78

$
6.99

6.76

4.81

4.81

4.81

4.52

4.52

4.52

5.39

5.39

5.39

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.35

4.36

4.35

3.96

3.96

3.96

3.97

3.97

3.97

3.76

3.76

3.76

5.40

5.40

5.40

4.83

4.83

4.83

5.11

5.11

5.11_

Sept.
1927

$
6.62

1

1

(a) Average earnings per day on contract, per ton, etc.
(ft) Minimum rate per day when not working on contracts per ton, yard, etc.
TABLE VIII. — TOTAL PRODUCTION OF BITUMINOUS COAL AND ITS
DISTRIBUTION FOR DIFFERENT USES, 1 9 2 5 AND 1 9 2 6

(Metric Tons, 000's Omitted)
Distribution of tonnage

Supplied to employees

P u t in waste heap

1925

123
603
126
(0.7)
431
170
7,120
8,574
466
8,108

1926

147
704
145
9
452
181
9,983
11,621
380
11,241

248
§ 5. The output of bituminous coal and its distribution for
different uses in Canadian mines (converted to metric tons) is seen
from Table VIII.
The tonnage of coal shipped formed about 88 per cent, of the total
output in 1925, and 89 per cent, in 1926.
The total output of bituminous coal as well as the average output
per man per day and per man per year in each province is given in
Table IX.
TABLE IX. — TOTAL AND AVERAGE OUTPUT OF BITUMINOUS COAL, BY

PROVINCES, 1925 AND 1926
(In Metric Tons)
Total Output

(000's omitted)

Province

1925

New Brunswick. . . .
Alberta
British Columbia . . .
Yukon
Canada

. . . .

3,486
189
1,946
2,487
(0.7)
8,108

1926

6,120
167
2,593
2,371
(0.3)
11,241

Average output •
Per m a n
per d a y

Per m a n
per year

1925 | 1926

1925 | 1926

1.86
1.13
2.97
1.72

2.05
1.16
3.09
1.78

418
308
596
466

606
289
769
465

1.96

2.12

462

532

These figures show that the provinces of Nova Scotia, Alberta,
and British Columbia yielded about 97 per cent, of the total
quantity of coal produced in Canada.
The figures relating to the average output show very considerable
variations as between different provinces. The average output,
both daily and yearly, is by far the highest in the province of Alberta ;
and it is only in this province t h a t it is above the general averages
found for the whole Dominion. The average output in Nova Scotia
and British Columbia is sensibly equal, while New Brunswick shows
t h e minimum in each case.
If the average daily output in Canadian mines is compared with
the corresponding average found for other countries, it will be seen
that Canadian output is about twice as high as the output in any
European country, but only half of the corresponding average shown
for the United States (bituminous mines). As regards the annual
output, Canada shows an average which is much higher than the
average in the most productive European coal-field (German Upper
Silesia), approximately equal to the average in South Africa, but
less than three-fourths of the corresponding average in the United
States (bituminous mines). In short, the productivity of Canadian
mines is second highest in the world.
§ 6. On the basis of data given in Tables I and IX the average
wage cost of a metric ton of coal may be calculated. The average
cost is shown both in terms of dollars and in terms of gold francs.
The results of these calculations are shown in Table X.

— 249 —
TABLE X .

— A V E R A G E W A G E COST P E R M E T R I C TON O F

COAL, 1925 AND 1926
W a g e cost in dollars

W a g e cost in gold francs

Province

Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
. . . .
Alberta
British Columbia . . .
Canada

1925

1926

1925

1928

$
3.07
2.87
2.14
2.89

S
2.29
2.75
1.80
2.76

Francs
15.91
14.87
11.09
14.97

Francs
11.87
14.25
9.33
14.30

2.79

2.29

14.46

11.87

As will be seen, the wage cost was in 1926 considerably less than
in the preceding year in all provinces. Of the different provinces,
Alberta shows the lowest wage cost in each year ; the maximum was
reached in 1925 in Nova Scotia, and in 1926 in New Brunswick and
British Columbia where the wage cost of coal was practically
equal. Compared with other countries the wage cost of coal in
Canada appears as very high. It is higher than the corresponding
cost in any European or non-European country, except Great
Britain and Belgium.

India

§ 1. The statistics available for India are very scanty.
The
information received from the Department of Industries and Labour
(Government of India), and the India Office (London) is summarised
below.
The number of workers employed is given for the year 1925£as
follows 1 :
Hewers
49,538
Other underground workers
61,063
AH underground workers
110,601
Surface workers
61,329
Total
171,930
The classification by sex of these workers was as follows :
Males
113,399
Females
58,531
Total
171,930
It will be seen that the employment of female labour is a particular characteristic of Indian coal-mining ; the proportion of women
to the total number of workers—34.5 per cent.—is much in excess
1
Statistics are available for each year from 1919tol925. Account is
taken of the last-named year only which shows slightly lower figures
than the preceding years.

— 250 —
of the corresponding proportion found in other countries. On the
other hand, child labour has not been extensive in Indian mines,
and since 1 July 1924 the employment of persons under thirteen
years of age has been prohibited 1.
§ 2 Accurate information is not available as to average earnings.
It is, however, estimated by the Department of Industries and Labour
that the average weekly earnings were during the year 1925 as
follows :
Rs.

Hewers
4
Other underground workers
3.11
Workers above ground
3.1
Mineowners provide as a rule free housing, sanitation, water
supply, lighting and domestic fuel. They also pay contributions
under the Workmen's Compensation Act and provide in some cases
medical attendance.
§ 3. Statistics are further given as to the total and average
output of coal. The total output of coal was as follows :
Metric tons

Saleable coal
Coal consumed by the mine
Coal distributed to employees 2
Commercially disposable coal
The average annual output per worker was

20,289,000
1,981,000
532,000
17,776,000
as follows :
Metric tons

Per worker underground
183
Per worker under and above ground
118
It may be observed that the average output per worker under and
above ground in Indian mines appears to be lower than in any other
country covered by the present enquiry.
Japan
§ 1. The statistics of wages prepared by the Bureau of Social
Affairs of J a p a n refer to the year 1924. These statistics are not
considered by the Bureau of Social Affairs as comprehensive, and to
quote the report, "there may be cases of presuming the whole from
the partial data so long as a certain amount of accuracy can be
maintained by this method". However, the available statistics are
fairly comprehensive as compared with the information available
for other non-European countries, and they have been completed
by the Japanese authorities by a special enquiry into labour conditions in mines which covered nearly all the leading mines throughout
Japan, and another enquiry into family budgets of 400 households
of coal-miners, covering a period of three months.
The statistics are given separately for three administrative districts, namely, Fukuoka, which is by far the most important mining
district, Sapporo, and the district of Sendai-Tokyo-Osaka.
1
A certain number of children, however, are reported to have been
employed in 1925 in contravention of the Act.
2
Estimated at 3 per cent, of saleable coal.

— 251 —
§ 2. Table I shows the total wages bill for each district. In
general, the method outlined by the International Labour Office for the
present enquiry has been followed ; some remarks, however, should
be made. The money wages (column 2) are calculated "from the
average working-day wages of a mirier, the percentage of his working
days, and the number of miners" as shown by the special enquiry
mentioned above ; they include amounts corresponding to the
occupational charges. As regards workmen's contributions (column
3), it should be observed that social insurance contributions properly
so called were not yet collected in 1924 ; the figures refer in fact to
mutual-aid associations against accidents, sickness, occasions for
congratulations and condolences, etc., which have been organised
in almost every mine, and which are generally financed by both the
employers and the workers, the average contribution per worker
(ascertained from special enquiries) being about 30 sen. The figures
shown in the table have been obtained by multiplying this average
contribution by the total number of mining workers. The figures
concerning free coal (column 4) are taken solely from the leading
coal-mines in the district of Sapporo, because in the other districts
the value of the free coal is negligible. The amounts shown under
"allowances in kind other than free coal" (column 5) include payments for "the supply of housing accommodation, the sale at reduced
prices of articles of daily necessity, education and recreation, the
redemption of loans, etc." ; they are calculated from the allowance
of an average individual worker, and are based on special enquiries.
The figures relative to employers' contributions to social insurance
(column 6) refer to allowances for occupational diseases as prescribed
by the laws and regulations, contributions or subsidies by employers
to mutual-aid associations, and hospital expenses for the benefit of
sick or injured workers, as
well as all other necessary expenditure for
the sanitary equipment 1 . The figures for the allowances for occupational diseases are calculated on the basis of a report on the laws and
TABLE I.

— TOTAL WAGES BILL OF COAL-MINING

WORKERS,

1924

(In Yen)

District

1

Fukuoka . .
Sapporo . .
Sendai-TokyoOsaka. . .
Total . .

Money
wages

2

WorkAllowances in kind
men's
contributions
to social
Free coal
Other
insurance
3

4

5

Employers' Deductions Total actual
contribu- for occupaearnings
tions
(columns 2-6,
tional
to social
charges
less
insurance
column 7)
6

7

8

68,351,414 725,339
(a)
11,131,936 6,143,297 2,538,686 83,813,300
12,160,759 92,844 258,957 1,977,450 1,385,244 315,670 15,559,684
9,669,174

85,666

(a)

1,203,364

804,348

702,458 11,060,094

90,181,347 903,849 258,957 14,312,750 8,332,889 3,556,814 110,432,978
(a) Amount negligible.

1

It appears that the term "employers' contributions to social insurance" has been interpreted in Japan in a wider sense than in European
statistics.

— 252 —
regulations, and those for the cost of sanitary equipment on the
basis of a special enquiry ; as regards the employers' contributions
to the expenses of mutual-aid associations, the amount contributed
is presumed to be the same as that paid by the workers, which is a
practice generally adopted. No figures are given in respect of allowances in cash and payments for holidays. On the other hand,
occupational charges, which form in Japan an important item in the
total wages bill, are shown in a separate column. The figures relating
to these charges (column 7) are calculated from the expenditure of
an average individual worker, and are based on the enquiry into
family budgets mentioned above.
It will be seen from Table I that the money wages (including
occupational charges) constitute about 82 per cent, of the total
wages bill (excluding occupational charges). Of the other items the
most important are the allowances in kind other than free coal, which
represent 13 per cent, of the total wages bill, and employers' contributions, corresponding to 7.5 per cent, of the total. Workmen's
contributions t o social insurance represent only 0.8 per cent, and free
coal distributed to the employees not more than 0.2 per cent. Deductions for occupational charges form not less than 3 per cent, of the
total wages bill, including occupational charges.
The distribution of the total wages bill among the different categories of workers has been calculated on the basis of the number of
days worked and the number of workers in the different categories,
as shown by the special enquiry.
TABLE II. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL WAGES BILL AMONG
DIFFERENT

CATEGORIES

OF

WORKERS,

1924

(In Yen)
Underground workers
District

Fukuoka

. . . .

Sendai-TokyoOsaka
. . . .
Total

Surface
workers

Hewers

Other

All

25,729,269
7,807,967

42,399,527
3,896,701

68,128,796
11,704,668

15,684,504
3,854,916

4,503,207

4,025,358

8,528,565

2,531,529

38,040,443

50,321,586

88,362,029

22,070,949

Table II shows that the part of the total wages bill accruing to
hewers forms 34 per cent, of the total, that accruing to other underground workers 46 per cent, and the part to all underground workers
80 per cent. The wages paid in respect of surface workers thus forms
20 per cent, of the total wages bill.
§ 3. The total number of days worked is shown in the following
table ; the number of days worked by the different categories of
workers is calculated on the basis of the percentage of working days
and the number of mining workers, as shown by the special enquiry.

— 253 —
TABLE III. — TOTAL NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED, 1 9 2 4

Country and
district

Fuknoka . .
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-Tokyo.
Osaka . . .
Total. .

Undergound
By hewers

On surface

By other
workers

Total

Underground
and on
surface

10,446,104 19,976,388 30,422,492 11,327,538 41,750,030
2,355,936 1,790,087 4,146,023 2,076,477 6,222,500
1,393,600

1,964,675

3,358,275

1,378,629

4,736,904

14,195,640 23,731,150 37,926,790 14,782,644 52,709,434

As regards the number of days lost, information is only available
in respect of underground workers. The number lost by this group
is shown in Table IV.
TABLE IV. — TOTAL NUMBER OF DAYS LOST, UNDERGROUND

MINES, 1924
Days lost when the mine
was working owing to
District

Fukuoka

voluntary
absence

. . . .

Sendai-Tokyo
Osaka
Total

involuntary
absence

Days lost when
the mine was
not working

Total

7,835,940
545,561

6,537,413
452,918

790,648
83,337

15,164,001
1,081,816

843,505

657,149

78,758

1,579,412

9,225,006

7,647,480

952,743

17,825,229

The percentage of the total of days worked and lost underground
(55,752,019), represented by the days lost, was, in 1924, 32. The
corresponding percentage of days lost when the mine was operating
and on account of workers' voluntary absence, was 16.5 per cent.
and owing to workers' involuntary absence 13.8 ; the percentage
of days lost on account of mines not being in operation was not more
than 1.7.
TABLE V. — NUMBER OF COAL-MINING WORKERS RECORDED AT THE
END OF J U N E 1 9 2 4
Country
and District

Fukuoka . .
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-TokyoOsaka . . .
Total . . .

Underground workers
Hewers

Other

|

Total

Surface
workers

All
workers

51,739
10,120

97,517
7,036

149,256
17,156

52,227
8,634

201,483
25,790

6,923

9,424

16,347

7,449

23,796

68,782

113,977

182,759

68,310

251,069

— 254 —
§ 4. The number of coal-mining workers given in Table V refers
to the number employed at the end of June 1924, the date at which
the working conditions in Japanese mines are most normal throughout
the year.
It will be seen from Table V that hewers form 27 per cent, of the
total number of workers ; other underground workers 46 per cent.,
and all underground workers taken together, 73 per cent. ; the percentage of surface workers thus is 27.
The Japanese statistics give also the number of workers classified
by sex and age. The term "juvenile workers" means workers under
sixteen years of age. The figures for Japan as a whole are as follows :
Adults

Juveniles

Total

Males
178,127
4,490
182,617
Females
65,174
3,278
68,452
Total . . . .
243,301
7,768
251,069
§ 5. From the data given in Tables I, II, III, and V, the average
earnings per day and per year can be calculated. The average earnings per hour of attendance and of effective work may be computed on
the basis of the enquiry into the working hours in mines 1. The
average daily earnings are given in Table VI, the average hourly
earnings in Table VII and average annual earnings in Table VIII.
TABLE VI. — AVERAGE ACTUAL EARNINGS PER DAY 1 9 2 4

(In

Yen)

Underground workers
District

Fukuoka . .
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-TokyoOsaka . . .
Whole country

Surface
workers

Underground
and surface
workers

Hewers

Others

All workers

2.46
3.31

2.12
2.18

2.24
2.83

1.39
1.86

2.01
2.50

3.23

2.05

2.54

1.84

2.34

2.68

2.12

2.33

1.49

2.10

TABLE VII. — AVERAGE ACTUAL EARNINGS PER HOUR, 1 9 2 4

(In

Yen)
Average earnings per hour
of effective work

Average earnings per hour
of attendance underground
District
Hewers

Other
All
workers workers

Undergound
Hewers

All
J ^ e r s workers

Above
ground

Fukuoka . .
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-TokyoOsaka . . .

0.23
0.36

0.20
0.26

0.21
0.32

0.34
0.47

0.33
0.35

0.34
0.44

0.14
0.21

0.31

0.21

0.25

0.42

0.33

0.37

0.18

Whole country

0.25

0.21

0.23

0.34

0.33

0.35

0.15

1

See Appendix V, (A), note on Japan.

— 255 —
TABLE

VIII.

—

AVERAGE

(In

ANNUAL

EARNINGS,

1924

Yen)

Underground workers
Hewers

Other

All workers

Surface
workers

Underground
and surface
workers

District

Fukuoka
. .
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-TokyoOsaka . . .

497
772

436
554

456
682

300
446

316
603

650

429

521

340

465

Whole country

553

442

483

323

440

The Japanese statistics give further the average annual earnings
separately for males and females, adults and juveniles. It will be
of interest to give these figures for J a p a n as a whole.
Adults
Yen

Juveniles
Yen

Males
484
259
Females
341
271
All workers
445
264
No calculations have been made in respect of real wages in the
different districts of Japan.
§ 6. The total average output of coal is shown in Table IX on the
same lines as in the enquiry into the European coal mines. It is to
be observed that the tonnage of saleable coal raised is based on a
special enquiry conducted by the Department of Commerce and
Industry ; the tonnage of coal consumed by the mines is obtained by
a calculation based on the amount of coal consumed by different
mines and the capacity in horse-power of the boilers employed in
both coal and other mines, since figures for coal consumed by the
coal-mines alone are not available. The tonnage of coal distributed
to employees refers solely to the district of Sapporo, where the
figures of the leading coal-mines are taken as the basis for the total
TABLE IX. — TOTAL AND AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL, 1924

(In Metric Tons)
Total output
District

Saleable
coat raised

Coal
consumad
by the
nine

Coal
nïitritatetl
to
employees

Aierage output
Per day worked
Commercially
disposable
coal

by a
newer

(a) 19,728,458 2.09
Fukuoka . . . 21,828,259 2,099,801
5,192,792
160,988 70,947 4,960,867 2.20
Sapporo . . .
Sendai-Tokyo490,777
(a)
2,698,998 2.22
Osaka . . . 3,089,775
Whole country 30,110,826 2,751,566 70,947 27,288,313 2.12
(a) Amount negligible.

under
and
above.
ground

Per year per worker
underground

under
and
atom
ground

0.72 0.61
1.25 0.84

421 146
531 303

108
201

0.93 0.60
0.79 0.55

446 189
438 165

130
120

underground

newer

— 256 —
amount of coal distributed to employees in all the coal-mines in
that district ; • the tonnage distributed to employees in other districts
is negligible. Finally, the figures representing the average output
are computed by dividing the total amount of saleable coal by the
number of manual workers and that of days worked.
The foregoing table shows that the province of Fukuoka produces
about 72 per cent, of the total tonnage of coal raised in Japan.
The average output per manshift of a hewer is sensibly equal in
the different districts ; but owing to the variations in the number
of other workers, the average output per manshift of underground
workers and mine workers in general is, in the district of Sapporo,
considerably higher than in the other coal-fields and in the country
as a whole. The same remarks apply when the average annual output
is taken into consideration. In all cases the average output appears
to be lower in the principal district —that of Fukuoka —than in the
country as a whole.
Compared with the corresponding averages calculated for the European countries, it will be seen that the average output per manshift in
Japan is somewhat higher than in Belgium, but lower than in other
countries. The average annual ouput in Japan is lower than in any
European country.
§ 7. The average labour cost of a ton of coal is shown in Table X.
Following the method adopted in respect of European countries,
two different conceptions of total wages bill have been taken into
account, viz. (a) wages excluding employers' contributions, and
(b) wages including the same. On the other hand, averages are
computed as per ton of saleable coal and as per ton of commercially
disposable coal.
TABLE X. — AVERAGE WAGES COST PER TON OF COAL, 1 9 2 4

{In Yen)

District

Wages excluding
employers' contributions

Wages including
employers' contributions

Per ton of
Per ton o!
commersaleable cially disposable coal
coal

Per ton oi
saleable
coal

Per ton of
commercially disposable coal

o

Sendai-Tokyo-Osaka

3.56
2.73
3.32

3.94
2.86
3.95

3.84
2.94
3.58

4.25
3.14
4.26

Whole country

3.39

3.74

3.67

4.05

. . . .

It will be seen that the inclusion of employers' contributions, as
well as the exclusion of coal consumed by the mine and the miners,
both increase the wage« cost per ton by 8 to 10 per cent.
The wages cost is considerably lower in the district of Sapporo
(where the productivity was shown to be the highest) than in the
two other districts which, again, show practically the same level
of wages cost.

— 257 —
Since the total wages bill and the total production of coal in Japan
have been established on approximately the same lines as the corresponding data for Europe, it may not be inappropriate to attempt
to make a rough statistical comparison of this point. Converting the
yen into terms of gold francs, the average wages cost, excluding
•employers' contributions, is as follows :
Gold francs

Per ton of saleable coal
7.24
Per ton of commercially disposable coal
7.99
If these amounts are compared with the corresponding figures for
European countries \ it may be noted t h a t the average wages cost
of a ton of coal in Japan is relatively low. However, it is somewhat
Jiigher than the wages cost in Poland and German Upper Silesia and
less than the cost in other countries.
It is thus seen that both the productivity (as shown by the
average output per manshift) and the labour cost (i.e. average wages
paid per ton of coal) in Japan are lower than the corresponding
averages in most European countries. In Europe, it will be remembered, relatively low productivity usually corresponds to relatively
high labour cost. By what natural, racial, and industrial conditions
the Japanese situation may be explained, is outside the scope of the
present notes.
Union of South Africa

§ 1. The statistics furnished by the Government of the Union of
South Africa are considerably different from those furnished by
other countries, owing to the special peculiarities of coal-mining.
In this country, the breaking or mining of coal is carried out by
coloured labourers, while the so-called "miner" is in reality a supervisor of labour and takes the place of an official or supervisor in
European countries : he only conducts blasting operations and,
in isolated cases, erects and withdraws timber.
The South African mining statistics, published by the Government
Mining Engineer, give separate information for the three provinces
of Transvaal, Natal, and the Orange Free State. There are a few
small collieries in the Cape Province, but the number of employees
and the production in this district are negligible and are omitted from
the present summary. The following statistics refer to the year 1925 2 .
§ 2. Table I shows the amount of the total wages bill in South
African mines in 1925. It is to be observed that the figures refer to
money wages only. No information is available as to the value of
{a) allowances in kind, which are likely to be very important since
^11 native workers are fed and housed by the employers ; (6) free coal,
which is allowed to white workers but is not valued. On the other
hand, there are no insurance contributions, either from workers or
employers, nor any holidays with pay.
The total money wages paid to white, Asiatic, and native employees,
are shown separately.
1
2

Cf. Part II, Chapter II, § 28 and Table XIV.
Statistics are available for the period 1911 to 1913 and for each year
from 1919 to 1925. As in the case of other countries, the following notes
are confined to the year 1925, which is a fairly representative year
lor South Africa.
17

258
TABLE I. — TOTAL MONEY WAGES, 1 9 2 5

{In Pounds Sterling)
White
employees

Province

Coloured employees
Asiatics

Native
and other

Total

£

£

£

£

262 431,138 431,400
60,218 417,603 477,821
66,726 66,726
60,480 915,467 975,947

331,745
313,189
47,663
692.597

Transvaal . . . .
Natal
Orange Free State.
Total

§ 3. The statistics relating to the workers employed distinguish
between labour " i n service" and labour " a t work", but no information
is given as to the method by which the different figures are obtained.
The average number of labour " a t work" is given in Table I I l . The
principal distinction is between white employees and coloured
workers. Coloured workers are further subdivided into those
employed underground and those on the surface. On the other hand,.
separate figures are not given for Asiatics and natives.

TABLE II. — AVERAGE NUMBER OF LABOUR " A T W O R K " , 1 9 2 5
Coloured employees
White
employees

Province

Natal
Total

TABLE III.

Days worked
by white
employees

. . . .

Orange Free S t a t e
Total

On
surface

Total

797
742
128

9,536
10,149
1,532

4,229
5.165
'546

13,765
15,314
2,078

1,667

21,217

9,940

31,157

— TOTAL NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED,

Province

Transvaal

Underground

1925

Days worked by coloured employees
Underground

On surface

248,664
231,504
39,936

1,319,448 '
2,975,232
3,166,488 . 1,611,480
170,352
477,984

520,104

6,619,704

3,101,280

Total

4,294,680
4,777,968
648,336
9,720,984

1
The number of workers "in service" exceeds in general the number
of workers "at work" by about 10 per cent.

— 259 —
It will be seen that of the total labour employed in South African
mines, 97 per cent, are coloured workers.
Direct returns of manshifts worked and lost are not available.
However, an approximate number of days worked during the year
may be calculated by multiplying the number of workers given above
by 312, which is given as the number of working days in a year. The
result obtained by this calculation will be seen from Table III.
§ 4. The average daily and annual wages may now be computed
from the above data for the total of white and of coloured workers.
These calculations have been effected by the International Labour
Office.
TABLE IV. — AVERAGE MONEY WAGES PER DAY AND PER ANNUM, 1 9 2 5
Average wages
per day worked

Province

White

Average for Union

Coloured

Wliite

1 Coloured

d.

S.

d.

£

S.

26 8
27 1
23 10

2
2
2

0
0
1

416
422
372

5
2
7

£ s.
31 7
31 4
32 2

26

2

0

415

9

31

S.

Transvaal
. . . .
Natal
Orange Free S t a t e .

Average wages
per year and worker

8

6

The striking difference between the average wages of white employees and the coloured workers shown in the above table requires
no comment.
As regards native workers, the annual statistics published by the
Government Mining Engineer, give the average monthly wage per
person working on the mines, classified into Asiatics and natives.
They also contain separate information as to the average monthly
wages of female workers ; but it is to be observed that the number
of female workers covered by these statistics is very small 1 .
TABLE V.

— AVERAGE MONEY WAGES PER
COLOURED EMPLOYEES, 1 9 2 5

MONTH,

Native and others
Asiatics

Province

£

Natal
Average for Union

Female
workers

Male workers

. . . .

S.

d.

3 12
3 2

9
4

3

5

2

£
2
2
2
2
2

s. d.
12 3
10 10
13 6
5 6
11 8

£

S.

d.

2 14
1 9

7
5

14 10
1 8
4

1
The total wages earned during the year 1925 by female native workers
in all provinces, including Cape Province, was not more than £255.

— 260 —
The above data may be completed by averages for whites given
in the annual report of the Government Mining Engineer. These
figures show the average pay including allowances, but excluding
overtime, "rated per shift" (third Wednesday in June 1925), or
"rated per m o n t h " (June 1925). The average for a few principal
occupations is given in the following table ; it is, however, to be
noted that the number of employees covered is very small, except
in the case of coal-miners.
TABLE VI. — AVERAGE PAY RATED PER SHIFT OR PER MONTH
CERTAIN CLASSES OF WHITE EMPLOYEES, 1 9 2 5
Average rated per shift
Province

Transvaal
Natal
Orange Free State . .
Number of workers
covered

Coalminers Screeners

s.
23
20
23

d.
2
2
5

s.
18
15
20

d.
2
9
7
52

362

Average rated per month

Fitters

s.
22
20
22

FOR

Mine overseers

d.
5
2
0

£
53
48
65

111

s.
9
1
5

d.
4
6
0

45

Shift bosses

£
41
38
46

s.
6
16
0

d.
6
4
0

51

§ 5. Information has been further supplied as to the total output
of coal produced, and the average output of coal per year per person
" a t work". As regards the total output, the statistics distinguish
between coal mined, "waste coal", and coal sold. It should be
observed that coal consumed by the mine is partly included in
"waste coal", and partly accounted for by the difference in coal
mined and the sum of waste and coal sold. The total and average
output of coal, expressed in terms of metric tons, in South African
mines in 1925 is shown in Table VII.
TABLE VII. — TOTAL AND AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL, 1925

(In Metric Tons)
Total coal produced
(000's omitted)
Province
Mined

Transvaal
. . . .
Natal
Orange Free S t a t e .

Waste

Sold

Coal mined per year
(tons)
Per under- Per worker
ground
under and
worker
above ground

9,024
6,188
1,155

1,206
1,256
111

7,515
4,696
990

923
594
734

620
385
523

16,368

2,573

13,202

750

499

It will be seen from the figures relating to the average annual
output per worker that these are very much higher in the Transvaal
than in the other provinces and in the Union as a whole ; the contrary is true of the province of Natal. Compared with the European

— 261 —
countries, South African coal-fields appear to be very productive :
the average output in the Transvaal was nearly twice as high as that
shown for German Upper Silesia in 1925 (the most productive
district in Europe), and the average output in the Union as a whole
at least 50 per cent, larger than that in any European country.
§ 6. On the basis of data given in Tables I and VII, the average
money wage paid per ton of coal mined may be calculated. The total
wages paid to white and coloured labour has been taken as the divisor.
TABLE VIII. — AVERAGE MONEY WAGE PER METRIC TON OF COAL, 1 9 2 5
Province

Average per ton
of coal mined
S. d.

1

Natal
Average

8i

2 6f
1 If
2 OJ

Average per ton
of coal sold
S. d .

2
3
2
2

0£
4\
3f
6i

The above figures indicate that the wage cost is the highest in the
province of Natal. Both of the other provinces show a wage cost
which is below the average for the whole Union ; the lowest point
is reached in the Orange Free State in the case of coal mined, but
in the Transvaal as regards the cost of coal sold.
In considering these figures, it is of course to be remembered that
a considerable part of the real cost of labour is excluded from them.
No comparison is therefore possible with the corresponding figures
given for other countries.
United States of America
§ 1. The statistics of wages of coal-mining workers in the United
States, published by the United States Bureau of Labour Statistics,
are not regular, but have rather the character of special enquiries 1.
These enquiries have, however, been renewed in recent years at
several intervals, and are based on a uniform method. They refer
to certain periods in 1919, 1922, 1924, and 1926. For the last-named
year, however, the scope of the statistics is limited in that it only
covers bituminous coal-mines. Since enquiries relating to the years
1919 and 1922 are limited in scope, and their results are now out
of date, it will be convenient to summarise the statistics for the two
years 1924 and 1926.
1

U.S.

DEPARTMENT OP LABOUR ; BUREAU OF LABOUR STATISTICS :

Hours and Earnings in Anthracite and Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1922
and 1924 (Bulletin No. 416), Washington, Sept. 1926 ; and Hours and
Earnings in Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1922, 1924, and 1926 (Bulletin
No. 454), Washington, Nov. 1927. A further special enquiry into labour
conditions in the coal industry was made by the United States Coal
Commission for the year 1921, with complementary information for
1922. The wage data given are, however, out of date and have not been
utilised for the present note.

— 262 —
A particular characteristic of the statistics of wages in the American
coal-mines is its division into two distinct parts, viz. that referring
to the anthracite or hard coal industry, and that covering bituminous
or soft coal.. Both the natural, industrial, and labour conditions
are, in fact, different in the anthracite and bituminous coal-fields.
Practically all of the anthracite mines lie within a small area in
North-Eastern Pennsylvania, and this geographical situation has
favoured concentration of ownership and the integration of the
producing part of the industry;, the mine-workers are organised
into strong unions. The methods of payments of wages are nevertheless very varied, the miners being paid a widely differing rate in
different mines for the same kind of work.
The bituminous coal-mines are scattered over thirty-one States
and Alaska, employ four times as many men as the anthracite
industry, produce about five to seven times as much coal, and present
a great variety of industrial and labour conditions, from the most
primitive to the most highly organised. In view of the importance
of the industrial organisation, the bituminous coal-fields are usually
classified into "union fields," i.e. mining districts where workers
are organised, and "non-union fields". In the "union fields" wage
rates are fairly uniform, the same rate being paid throughout a
district and sometimes throughout the State, and wage adjustments
occur only at stated intervals. Taking the industry as a whole,
however, the standardisation is by no means complete and the
variations in the rates within and between different coal-mines are
still very marked. Generally speaking, the wage level of the union
fields is determined by wage negotiations of the "central competitive
field" (Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and West Pennsylvania). In other
organised areas (South-Western inter-State field consisting of
Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, as well as Iowa, Michigan, Kentucky, Montana, West Virginia, Wyoming, etc.) rates are
agreed upon in separate joint conferences. In the non-union fields the
wage rates are fixed by individual bargaining and consequently
show greater differences than those prevailing in the union fields.
These circumstances, peculiar to the United States, should be
borne in mind when considering the methods and results of the
wage statistics of the American coal industry.
§ 2. The statistics of the Bureau of Labour Statistics cover neither
the whole of the coal industry nor the entire year to which they refer.
They are based on the representative method both as regards mines
covered and periods investigated.
(i) The data are secured from the records of a certain number of
representative mines in 11 principal States, viz : Alabama, Colorado,
Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee,
Virginia, West Virginia.
The degree in which these States, and the mines for which data
are presented, represent the coal-mining industry in general is seen
from Table I.
As regards the bituminous coal industry, it will be seen from
this table that it is largely concentrated in the eleven States
covered ; about 92 per cent, of the total American production and
about 90 per cent, of the total number of coal-mining employees
in 1924 and 1926 were in these States. The scope of the statistics is,
however, further limited by the choice of representative mines, the

— 263 —
TABLE I. — SCOPE OF THE AMERICAN WAGE STATISTICS, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6
Total output of
coal—metric tons-000's
omitted

Number
of
mines

Number
of wage
earners

1924
1924

160,009
44,500

79,750

56

1924
1926
All mines in the 11 States 1924
covered by the statistics . 1926
Mines covered in the 11 States 1924
1926

7,586
7,144
6,439
6,018
Ö99
556

619,604
588,493
559,956
534,315
140,719
148,155

438,704
471,688
405,240
438,661

Mines and States

Year

Anthracite:
Pennsylvania : All mines . .
„
Mines covered
Bituminous:
All mines in all States . . .

—

number of which was in 1924 7.9 per cent, of the total number of
mines and in 1926 7.8 per cent. The number of wage earners employed
in these representative mines was in the anthracite mines (in 1924)
28 per cent, of the total number of employees ; in bituminous coalmines (in 1924) 23 per cent, and (in 1926) 25 per cent, of the total.
(ii) The sample pay-roll period to which the data refer is in all
cases half a month. Since the anthracite coal-field is limited to one
State, the data have been secured from all companies for the same payroll periods, viz. half-months ending 31 October or 15 November
1924. The same method was not practicable in respect to bituminous
€oal-mines, as the field of enquiry has been extended over mines in
a great number of States. The pay-roll periods considered vary
within a period of three months (October to December) in 1924, and
November and December in 1926, being extended in several cases to
January, February, and March 1927. All data are taken directly
from the mines records by agents of the Bureau of Labour Statistics ;
only a few companies have themselves made a copy of the wage data
from their records according to instructions of the Bureau.
Since the half-month covered by the statistics has not been identical
for all mining companies, the number of working days in the different
half-months has been 11, 12, 13, or 14. When some employees are
shown as having made more days, this is because they worked on
Sundays as well as weekdays.
§ 3. The basis of calculating the average earnings is formed by the
aggregate earnings of each occupational group in the half-month
period covered. The composition of the earnings in both anthracite
and bituminous collieries may be briefly stated as follows.
The "gross earnings" include, first, wages received on the basis
of rates for coal cut or for hour or day work. They include also in
most cases a number of items of cost which are called occupational
charges, such as the cost of powder, dynamite, electric exploders,
fuses and caps used by miners and loaders in blasting coal from the
seams, carbide, lamp oil, machine oil, blacksmithing and tool
sharpening, as well as payment for the wages of a checkweighman,

— 264 —
etc., items necessary for the purpose of work and for which the employee pays. They include also lodging free of charge or at reduced
rent, household coal free of charge or at reduced prices, and severat
store supplies.
The net earnings" mean earnings after deductions from gross
earnings of the occupational costs or charges. The reports indicate
that there are very few companies which do not charge employees.
for explosives or for tool sharpening.
The statistics take into account "net earnings". However, t h e
aggregate amount of net earnings is not shown in the statistics as.
published.
§ 4. A very complete classification by occupations of the coalmining employees is given in the American statistics. It will be
convenient at the outset to define several specific terms used in theclassification :
By tonnage men are meant miners and loaders who are employed
on the piece-wage rate basis 1 . Anthracite miners paid exclusively on
piece-rates are called "contract miners",which is the basic occupation.
in anthracite coal-mining. Most of them have one or more helpersgenerally known as "contract miners' labourers" whose wages are
paid principally from the gross earnings of the contract miners, only
a small part being paid by the company. In bituminous coal-mines,.
pick or hand miners, machine-miners, as well as hand and machine
loaders (underground) are all usually paid tonnage rates. Among these,.
two special occupations are further to be distinguished, viz. "gang
miners" who work in groups dividing their earnings equally regardless
of the kind of work performed ; and "contract hand loaders" whoemploy one or more helpers whom they pay out of their earnings..
Their importance is small, however.
By company men are understood all workers paid on the time-rate
basis. In anthracite collieries some of the regular contract miners
who, in consequence of obstructions in their working chambers or
rooms, or bad working conditions, are unable to earn on a tonnage
basis an amount equal to a specified rate per day, are paid this rate
until they are able to earn more.on a tonnage basis ; these "consideration miners" thus form an intermediate class between tonnage and
company men. In the anthracite mines, further, some miners who
seldom mine coal but operate machines, drill holes, and load cars, are
entirely working on the time basis and are called "company miners"..
Corresponding crafts do not exist in bituminous coal-mines. All.
other company men fill auxiliary occupations, other than mining..
The two principal groups of these company men are "inside men"„
i.e. underground workers other than miners and loaders, and "outside
men" i.e. surface employees.
The occupational classification given in the American statistics
includes nearly sixty different crafts. The classes for which data are:
presented are given below :
Anthracite Mines
Miners and their Labourers.
(a) Tonnage men : Contract miners ; Contract miners' labourers.
(b) Company men : Company miners ; Company miners' labourers ;:
Consideration miners ; Consideration miners' labourers.

1.

1

The term "miner" as used in the American statistics refers to hewer,.
and not to mine-worker generally.

— 265 —
2.

Employees other than Miners.
(a) Company men, inside : Blacksmiths ; Cagers ; Car runners p
Door tenders (boys) ; Drivers ; Engineers ; Labourers ; Machinists ; Masons ; Motormen ; Motor-brakemen ; Pumpmen ;
Timbermen ; Trackmen ; Other employees.
(b) Company men, outside : Ashmen ; Blacksmiths ; Cagers ; Carpenters ; Car-runners ; Dumpers ; Engineers ; Firemen ; Jigrunners ; Labourers ; Loaders ; Machinists ; Oilers ; Platemen ;
Repair men ; Slaters (boys) ; Timber cutters ; Trackmen ;
Other employees.
Bituminous

Coal-Mines

1.

Miners and Loaders (Tonnage Men).
Gang miners : Hand or pick miners ; Machine miners (cutters);
Machine miners' helpers ; Contract loaders ; Hand loaders ;
Machine loaders.

2.

Employees other than Miners and Loaders (Company Men).
(a) Inside workmen : Brakemen ; Bratticemen and timbermen ;
Cagers ; Drivers ; Labourers ; Motormen ; Pumpmen ; Trackmen ; Trappers (boys) ; Other employees.
(b) Outside workmen: Blacksmiths ; Carpenters and car repair
men ; Engineers ; Firemen ; Labourers ; Other employees.

Table II (page 266) gives the number of coal-mining employees
covered by the statistics, cJassified by occupation. The number of
workers is as recorded in the colliery books at the time of the
enquiry. Owing to the importance of the group of miners and loaders,
each occupation is shown separately ; but as regards employees
other than miners and loaders, i.e. company men inside and outside
the mine, only the principal occupations are shown separately.
It will be seen from Table II that in the anthracite collieries miners.
and their labourers form 53 per cent, of the total number of employees
covered ; other inside men form 24 per cent, and all inside men 77
per cent, of the total ; outside men or surface workers represent 23
per cent, of the total number of workers. The percentages are rather
different in the bituminous coal mines. Miners and loaders constituted
both in 1924 and 1926, 65 per cent, of the total number of employees
covered ; other inside men 24 per cent, (in 1924) and 25 per cent.
(in 1926) and all inside men taken together, 89 per cent. (1924) and
90 per cent. (1926) ; the number of surface workers was not more than
11 per cent. (1924), and 10 per cent. (1926) of the total number of
employees. The statistics published by the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Mines, which refer to the total number
of coal-mining employees in the country, show that these proportions
are approximately representative for American coal-mining.
Table III (page 267) shows the number of mines and employees in
bituminous coal-mining, classified by States. Separate figures are
only given for the three largest and most representative groups of
coal-mining employees, viz. miners and loaders taken together,
labourers inside and labourers outside the mine.
§ 5. The American wage statistics give three different averages,
namely, average net earnings per start, per hour of worker, and for the
half-month period covered.

— 266 —
TABLE II. — NUMBER OF MINES AND COAL-MINING EMPLOYEES
COVERED BY THE WAGE STATISTICS, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY OCCUPATION
N u m b e r of mines reporting
Occupation

Anthracite

1924

1926

47

—

—

47
22

—
—

22
55
53

Consideration miners .
Consideration miners' laContraot miners . . . .
Contract miners' la-

Number of employees covered
Anthracite

1924

Miners and loaders :
Company miners . . .
Company miners' la-

Contract workers . . .

Bituminous

1924

1926

1,735

—

—

—
—

1,699
961

—
—

—
—

—
—

—
—

748 •
11,778

—
—

—
—

—

—

6,794

—

—

—
—
—
—'
—
—
—

170
1,036
61,936
21,424
102
6,499

—

61
32
488
254
23
464
151

56

599

556

23,715

91,167

96,010

—
62
55
50
55
56

547
377
602
548
587
599

518
320
500
520
554
556

1,054
2,388
733
406
5,840

4,259
4,603
7,228
3,751
4,026
9,657

4,368
4,530
8,823
4,239
4,246
10,733

56

599

556

10,421

33,524

36,939

55
53
56

591

550

7,877

599

—

556

2,612
1,103
6,649

7,514

—

Total

56

599

556

10,364

16,028

15,206

Grand total. . . .

56

599

556

44,500

140,719

148,155

—
—
•

Hand or pick miners.. .
Machine loaders . . . .
Machine miners . . . .
Machine miners' helpers.
Total
Other inside men :

Other employees inside .
Total
Ontsido men :
Other employees outside

—

—
—.
—
—

24
40
514
291
10
485

1924

Bituminous

—.

—

—

8,514

694
1,065
66,414
20,594
306
6,055
882

—

7,329

(i) The start means a day on which aminer had coal hoisted. This
measure may or may not be the equivalent of a full-time working
day. The relevant figures are therefore subject to some error. On
the one hand, one or more cars of coal may be dumped in the morning
from a previous day and the employee credited with a start despite
the fact that he was not in attendance ; on the other hand, a whole
day could be spent clearing falls of rock and doing other work preparatory to mining, when no coal was hoisted and no credit for
attendance given. Counting the days when a miner works without
having coal hoisted tends to offset, in the aggregate, the error of
considering men at work when coal is dumped and credited to them
when they are not in the mine.

— 267 —
TABLE III. — NUMBER OF MINES AND EMPLOYEES IN BITUMINOUS
COAL-MINING, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES

State

Year

Alabama. . . .
Colorado

. . .

Illinois . . . •
Indiana

. . . .

Kansas

. . . .

Kentucky . . .
Ohio
Pennsylvania

.

Tennessee . . .
Virginia

. . .

West Virginia
All States . .

Number of employees covered
Number
of mines Miners and Labourers Labourers All mining
reporting
loaders inside mine outside employees
mine

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

39
36
17
17
46
39
23
17
9
11
79
86
57
45
155
151
20
. 14
12
22
142
118

4,968
5,230
2,448
2,318
15,769
16,945
3,627
3,052
1,474
1,749
8,802
11,762
7,637
7,600
29,190
29,821
1,873
1,271
1,121
2,227
14,258
14,036

736
965
69
61
1,097
1,122
167
151
21
21
1,017
1,661
213
505
2,012
2,081
126
111
98
345
1,672
1,800

580
620
210
234
765
778
192
162
37
53
999
1,190
441
474
2,017
2,098
157
146
136
292
1,980
1,830

8,495
9,078
3,797
3,616
22,749
23,555
5,177
4,469
1,874
2,173
15,003
20,024
10,645
10,817
42,796
43,693
2,902
2,092
1,908
4,034
25,473
24,604

1924
1926

599
556

91,167
96,010

7,228
8,823

7,514
7,877

140,719
148,155

(ii) The method of recording the total number of hours worked in
the half-month period covered has been already explained x. It will
be seen that two time units have been determined in respect of
miners and loaders, namely, (a) the total time in the mine, including
the hours worked, the average travel time inside the mine, and such
time as may be taken for lunch ; (b) the time at the face, excluding
the average travel time, but including time for lunch, i.e. actual hours
at the face or place of work in the mine. As regards the other employees, i.e. company men (excluding company miners and day
labourers in anthracite mines) the actual hours worked, including
time for lunch, are given.
The average number of hours per start is obtained by dividing
the average number of hours per half-month by the average number
of starts.
(iii) For the calculation of the average earnings for half-month,
the number of workers in each occupation and in each State is
necessary.
1

See Appendix V, section A.

— 268 —
The average number of starts and the average hours worked in
the half-month period and per start, have been given above in connection with the discussion on hours of labour in the United States 1 . It
appears from these tables that both the number of starts and the
hours worked during the sample period have been larger in anthracite mines t h a n in bituminous mines. In the former, tonnage miners
work less starts and much shorter hours than other miners and all
company men. The maximum hours are worked, on the average,
by motormen underground, and by outside labourers. As regards
bituminous mines, the figures for 1926 are regularly higher than those
for 1924. This is due to a general depression in bituminous mining
in 1924, resulting in less work in many mines in several States covered.
It appears further that hand miners and hand loaders work shorter
hours than machine workers and loaders ; even when time for lunch
and travel in the mine are included, these crafts work fewer hours in
the half-month than employees in any other occupation. The hours
of company men inside and outside do not show considerable differences. The number of starts and the hours in the different States
covered in the statistics, show considerable variation.
The number of employees has been given above in Tables II and III.
§ 6. On the basis of the record of the aggregate earnings of the
employees in the half-month pay period, the recorded time of work
and the number of workers, the average earnings are calculated as
follows :
(i) Average earnings per start are obtained by dividing the total
of the actual earnings of all employees in the occupation by
the total number of the starts worked in the half-month payroll period considered.
(ii) Average earnings per hour are obtained by dividing the total
of the actual earnings of all the employees in the occupation
by the total of (a) the "hours in mine" or (b) the "hours at
face" worked in the half-month pay-roll period.
(iii) Average earnings in half-month are obtained by dividing the
total of the actual earnings of all the employees in the occupation by the total number of these employees.
These averages are summarised in respect of the principal occupations in Tables IV and V.
It appears from these tables that the average earnings of
"contract miners" in the anthracite mines are considerably higher
than those of other groups ; their average earnings per hour and in the
half-month are the highest in the United States. The average earnings
of company miners' labourers (which group receives the lowest
wages) are less than 60 per cent, of those of contract miners.
In the bituminous mines the group of "gang" and "machine
miners" form a conspicuous exception as earning much higher wages
than all other categories of workers in these mines. Their average
earnings per start show the maximum for the whole American coal
industry, and their earnings per hour and in the half-month are next
to those received by contract miners. The earnings of the two largest
groups, viz. "hand miners" and "hand loaders" do not differ considerably from one another ; owing to the relatively high wages of the
1

See Appendix V, section A.

— 269 —
TABLE IV. — AVERAGE EARNINGS OF MINERS AND LOADERS, 1 9 2 4 AND
1 9 2 6 , BY OCCUPATION
Average
earnings
per start
Kind of mine and
occupation

Time n mine
1924

Anthracite
Company miners . .
Do. labourers. . .
Consideration miners
Do. labourers. . .
Contract miners . .
Do. labourers. . .
All miners and their
labourers
. . . .

6.49
5.72
7.26
6.21
9.07
6.47

—
—
—

7.77

Bituminous
Contract loaders . .
Gang miners . . . .
Hand l o a d e r s . . . .
Hand miners . . . .
Machine loaders. . .
Machine miners . .
Do. helpers

7.82
9.66
6.32
6.26
6.20
9.65

All miners and loaders

6.60

—

1926

$

$

$

0.747
0.655
0.876
0.722
1.327
0.903

—.
—
—
—
—
—

67.15
58.57
78.99
65.98
98.07
65.39

—
—
—
—
—
—

—

1.064(a)

—

81.59(a)

0.784
1.260
0.715
0.715
0.735
1.101
0.637

0.929
1.187
0.811
0.808
0.690
1.163

74.26
77.79
51.29
53.02
58.20
84.79

—

0.849
1.377
0.779
0.783
0.788
1.195
0.681

—

72.43
108.33
57.48
60.31
68.80
102.68
53.77

0.749

0.843

0.817

64.44

61.61

$

$

0.694
0.607
0.820
0.676
1.204
0.826

—
—
—
—.
—
—

—

•

—

7.16 • 0.881
11.36 1.094
6.12 0.748
6.18 0.744
6.96 0.644
9.93 1.079
6.14
—
6.46

1924

1926

$

0.777

T i m e a t face
including lunch
1926

1924

1926

$

A v e r a g e earnings

A v e r a g e earnings per hour

1924

$

—

(a) These averages are not given in the official report and are calculated on the basis of the average
earnings per start, the average number of starts, and the average number of hours per start for all miners
(cf. Bulletin No. 416, p. 26).
TABLE V. — AVERAGE EARNINGS OF COAL "MINING EMPLOYEES, OTHER
THAN MINERS AND LOADERS, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY OCCUPATIONS
Average earnings
per start
Occupation

Anthra- Bituminous Anthracite
cite
1924 1 1924

Inside men :
Brakemen .
Drivers . . .
Labourers. .
Motormen. .
Trackmen. .
Outside men :
Labourers. .
Slaters (boys)
All inside and
outside men.

A v e r a g e earnings
per hour

1926

1924

Bituminous
1924 | 1926

Average earnings
in half-month
Anthra
cite

Bituminous

1924 j 1924

1926

S

?

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

5.46
5.68
6.60
6.47

5.96
6.12
5.47
6.46
6.14

5.82
5.88
5.18
6.27
5.92

0.632
0.664
0.703
0.741

0.710
0.748
0.657
0.752
0.737

0.687
0.708
0.620
0.718
0.705

61.83
63.05
75.32
77.39

53.25
54.08
48.74
62.89
59.83

57.61
59.80
48.82
67.97
64.15

5.24
3.08

4.93 4.74 0.577 0.575 0.546 63.10 46.73 50.63
35.68
0.371

—

5.92 5.70

—

0.696 0.664

—

57.81 60.87

— 270 —
machine miners, as well as of the small groups of "gang miners" and
"contract loaders", the average for all miners and loaders is somewhat above the average for hand miners and loaders. In general, the
earnings in the half-month of miners and loaders in bituminous
mines are below those received in anthracite mines, but on account
of the smaller number of starts and of the shorter hours worked in
the half-month by the bituminous coal-workers, the differences are
smaller in the case of daily and hourly averages. Comparing wages
earned in 1924 and 1926 in bituminous mines, it will be seen that
averages per start and per hour were less in 1926 than in 1924 (except
for a few occupations), while the aggregate earnings in the half-month,
owing to a high average of starts and hours worked, were higher in
1926.
Table VI shows the average earnings for all miners and loaders
taken together and Table VII t h a t for labourers inside and outside
mines, classified by States. The American statistics do not give
averages per hour and per half-month in respect of miners and
loaders for 1924.

TABLE VI. — AVERAGE EARNINGS OF MINERS AND LOADERS IN
BITUMINOUS

Year

State

Alabama . . .
Colorado . . .
Illinois

. . . .

Indiana. . . .
Kansas

. . . .

Kentucky.

. .

Ohio
Pennsylvania .
Tennessee. . .
Virginia

COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES

. . .

"West Virginia
All S t a t e s . .

Average earnings per
Average
Average
hour
earnings in
earnings per
half-month
Time in mine Time at face
start

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

$
4.57
4.57
7.23
6.31
8.55
8.90
8.56
8.20
5.92
5.83
5.63
5.18
7.17
6.71
6.40
6.18
4.08
3.49
4.65
5.04
6.10
5.85

1924
1926

6.60
6.46

•a

0.481

0.530

40.92 '

0.730

0.804

64.12

0.999

1.100

84.76

1.055

1.134

79.61

0.761

0.809

54.53

0.616

0.656

47.09

0.793

0.861

62.77

0.693

0.759

61.03

0.409

0.441

29.63

0.587

0.629

46.30

0.743

0.811

56.00

0.749

0.817

61.61

— 271 —
TABLE VII, — AVERAGE EARNINGS OF LABOURERS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
MINE IN BITUMINOUS COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES
Average earnings of
labourers inside mine
Year

1924
1926
1924
Colorado. .
1926
1924
Illinois . .
• 1926
1924
Indiana . .
1926
1924
Kansas . .
1926
1924
Kentucky .
1926
1924
Ohio . . .
1926
.1924
Pennsylvania
1926
1924
Tennessee .
• 1926
1924
Virginia . .
1926
1924
West Virginia
1926
1924
All States
1926
Alabama. .

Average earnings of
labourers outside mine

Per
start

Per
hour

In halfmouth

Per
start

Per
hour

In halfmonth

$
3.38
3.46
7.36
5.36
7.32
7.36
7.59
7.47
•7.53
6.91
4.54
4.32
7.17
6.58
6.16
5.65 .
3.20
2.93
3.12
3.58
4.54
4.54
5.47
5.18

$
0.383
0.398
0.921
0.664
0.915
0.911
0.940
0.934
0.941
0.857
0.532
0.507
0.866
0.859
0.744
0.676
0.396
0.372
0.388
0.426
0.543
0.536
0.657
0.620

28.73
29.55
65.46
66.73
63.08
72.64
56.89
68.76
80.37
61.22
38.02
35.77
63.48
54.27
60.58
60.18
24.90
22.16
23.84
29.97
39.89
44.51
48.74
48.82

?

$
2.53
2.54
6.27
4.71
7.07
7.31
6.81
6.82
7.62
6.82
4.00
3.77
6.92
6.77
5.51
4.99
3.03
2.70
3.02
3.16
4.08
4.23
4.93
4.74

$
0.284
0.288
0.716
0.519
0.863
0.858
0.850
0.829
0.865
0.831
0.467
0.437
0.859
0.847
0.626
0.563
0.379
0.339
0.367
0.361
0.477
0.482
0.575
0.546

20.39
24.09
55.53
56.41
65.36
80.77
48.64
72.90
76.77
76.29
36.55
39.44
63.24
67.97
56.20
65.11
26.64
23.64
25.33
30.49
40.44
45.93
46.73
50.53

?

It appears from these tables that average earnings are rather different
in the various States, and that these differences have remained
constant for the period 1924-1926. Comparing the average earnings
of all workers, it will be seen that the highest earnings were received
in the States of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, i.e. in the principal p a r t
of the "central competitive field". Pennsylvania, which also belongs
to this field, shows a level of earnings which is very near the average
for all States. Apart from these States, also Colorado (in most.
cases) and Kansas (in some cases) exceed the average level of earnings for the whole country. In all other States, earnings are usually
below the general average and are least in the States of Tennessee
and Alabama.
§ 7. On the basis of average earnings in the half-month, the
American statistics make further an estimate of the amount t h a t
would have been earned in twelve months, had all the employees
worked every day of operation during the twelve months a t the
average earnings they received during the half-month covered by t h e
study.

— 272 —
For this calculation the average number of days of operation
during the year concerned is required. This number has been calculated
in two ways in respect of the year 1924. On the one hand, the Bureau
of Labour Statistics has recorded the number of days of operation
for the twelve months ending 31 October 1924 in all mines covered
by the enquiry (except 50 bituminous coal-mines for which no data
were available). On the other hand, the United States Geological
Survey has ascertained the average days of operation in the calendar
year 1924 for all mines in each State ; this number is weighed by the
total number of employees in all occupations of each mine ; and the
average number of days of operation in all States covered is obtained
Jay weighing the days of operation for each State by the number of
miners and loaders employed, as shown in Table III. For the year
1926, the average number of days of operation for mines reporting
TABLE VIII. — AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS OF OPERATION IN YEAR,
AND ESTIMATED POSSIBLE AVERAGE YEARLY EARNINGS OF MINERS
AND LOADERS, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES

Kind ot mine, and
State

Anthracite
Pennsylvania .
Bituminous
Alabama . . .
Colorado . . .
Illinois

. . .

Indiana. . . .
Kansas

. . . .

Kentucky.
Ohio

. .

. . . . .

Pennsylvania .
Tennessee. . .
Virginia

. . .

West Virginia
Total, bituminous . . .

possible average
Average days of operation Estimated
yearly earnings
Year

In mines
reporting

In all mines
in State

In mines
reporting

S

In all mines
in State

$

1924

286.7

274

2,228

2,129

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

231.2

1,057

200.3

220
266
178,
202
148
172
136
173
151
158
174
230
143
159
180
224
159
234
226
263
182
247

1,005
1,216
1,287
1,275
1.265
1,531
1,164
1,419
894
921
980
1,191
1,025
1,067
1,152
1,384
649
817
1,051
1,326
1,110
1,445

1924
1926

198.2

187.0
173.5
147.7
192.9

177.7
215.2
185.6
242.5
204.4

172
214

1,352
1,483
1,264
1,142
1,128
1,274
1,377
757
1,128
1,247
1,300

1,128
1,382

— 273 —
has not been computed by the Bureau of Labour Statistics, and only
the average number for all mines in each State, calculated by the
United States Bureau of Mines, is available.
The annual earnings are computed on the basis of the number
of days of operation, by multiplying this number by the average
earnings per start.
The average days of operation and the estimated possible average
yearly earnings in 1924 and in 1926 are seen in Table VIII.
The difference between the anthracite and bituminous coal-mines
is striking. Anthracite mining is limited in area and in number and
capacity of collieries. The annual production of an anthracite coalmine seldom exceeds the demand, and consequently the collieries
have been operated nearly the full number of working days in each
year. Hence the estimated possible yearly earnings are very high, as
compared with those paid in bituminous coal-mining.
Bituminous mining is very extensive in area, and the number and
capacity of mines are large. Production would be much in excess of
demand should all the mines in the industry be operated nearly full
time, or approximately 300 days per year. Many mines, however,
have been in operation much less than 300 days per year, due
primarily to lack of a market or of orders. As a consequence the
estimated possible yearly earnings are on an average only 60 per
cent, of those of anthracite mines.
Another noteworthy difference is between the number of days of
operation and the estimated annua] earnings in bituminous mines,
as calculated for the mines reporting and for all mines. The number
of days of operation and consequently average yearly earnings are
superior for the former group of mines. This is due to the fact that mines
seldom, if ever, record hours per start, and that therefore mines in
operation in the latter part of 1924, to which period the statistics
refer, were selected for the study, and many of the other mines may
have been in operation in the early part of 1924, although they were
closed in the latter part *.
Finally, it is seen that the average number of days of operation,
and the average number of earnings differ widely from State to
State and from the year 1924 to 1926. The general average of days
of operation of the States included increased from 172 in 1924 (which
year was particularly irregular) to 214 in 1926. Further, the average
number of days of operation in all mines ranged (in 1924) from 136
for Indiana to 226 for Virginia, and (in 1926) from 158 in Kansas to
266 for Alabama.
The estimated average earnings were the highest in 1924 in the
States of Colorado and Illinois, and in 1926 in the States of
Illinois, West Virginia, and Indiana. The lowest earnings were
received in both years in the States of Tennessee and Kansas.
§ 8. Information as to the production of coal is calculated by
the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Mines.
Table IX shows the total tonnage of coal raised and its distribution
for different uses for the country as a whole. The figures relate to
calendar years 1924, 1925, and 1926 ; the distribution of the total
tonnage raised between different uses is distinct from that given in
1
This condition, however, does not materially affect the representative
character of the average hours or earnings in the half-month period
covered since the mines kept a special day-by-day record of hours for
each of the workers considered.

18

— 274 —
respect of European countries : the American statistics distinguish
between tonnage used at mines for steam and heat, tonnage made
into coke at mines, tonnage sold to local trade and used by employees,
and, finally, tonnage loaded at mine for shipment.

TABLE IX.

— TOTAL PRODUCTION OF COAL-MINES,

1924

TO

1926

(Metric Tons — 000's Omitted)
Tonnage
Tonnage Tonnage
sold to
used at
made into local trade
mines for
coke at
and used
steam and
mines
by
heat
employees

Year

Total
tonnage
raised

1
¡ 1924
Anthracite . . . 1925
; 1926

79,750
56,068
76,584

6,925
4,684
5,833

Kind of mines

Tonnage
loaded
at mines
for
shipment

2,761
2,617
2,437

70,064
48,767
68,314

i

Bituminous coal

1924
1925
1926

438,704
471,688
520,044

6,002
5,239
5,195

13,054
14,288
16,101

19,148
19,365
21,407

400,500
432,796
477,341

All coal . . .

1924
1925
1926

518,454
527,756
596,629

12,927
9,923
11,028

13,054
14,288
16,101

21,909
21,982
23,844

470,564
481,563
545,655

The above figures show t h a t of the total tonnage of coal raised,
11 to 13 per cent, in the anthracite collieries and 8 to 9 per cent, in
the bituminous mines were used at mines and by the mining employees, and sold to local trade. A difference between anthracite.
and bituminous mines is that the tonnage used at mines for steam and
heat is about 8 per cent, in the former mines, but not more than 3
per cent, in the latter.
In order to calculate the average output for the eleven principal
States covered by the wage statistics, it is necessary to know the
tonnage raised, the number of employees and the average number
of days worked in each State. The last-named number has been
given in Table V I I I above. The other elements are shown in Table X.
The most important States from the point of view of production
are Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Illinois, and Kentucky ; the least
important among the eleven States separately shown are Tennessee and
Kansas. The "central competitive field" (States of Illinois, Indiana,
Ohio, and Pennsylvania) produced, in 1926, about 48 per cent, of
the total production of bituminous coal in the United States.

— 275 —

TABLE X. — TOTAL PRODUCTION AND NUMBER OF WORKERS IN
ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS COAL-MINES, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES

Kind ot mine, and State

Anthracite
Pennsylvania

Year

Total number of workers
Total tonnage
raised during
Under and
the year in
Underground above
ground
metric tons
(000's omitted)

1924
1926

79,750
76,584

119,363
126,231

160,009
165,386

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

17,351
19,048
9,473
9,648
61,969
62,916
19,482
21,030
3,853
4,005
40,948
57,072
27,639
25,280
118,485
138,809
4,133
5,251
9,699
12,819
92,208
438,703
130,163
520,044

23,108
23,024
11,001
10,854
80,757
68,288
23,927
20,041
7,432
6,831
46,567
51,664
38,447
33,852
147,085
135,959
7,962
6,750
10,386
11,567
85,547
531,904
99,952
510,824

27,956
27,345
12,954
12,815
89,363
75,870
27,558
23,404
8,561
8,172
55,766
60,578
44,229
38,547
169,322
155,999
9,365
7,948
12,679
13,764
102,203
619,604
118,726
593,647

All anthracite and bit- 1924
uminous mines . . . 1926

518,454
596,628

651,267
637,055

779,613
759,033

Bituminous
Colorado

Indiana

Ohio
Pennsylvania
Tennessee

West Virginia

All bituminous mines.

The average output of coal raised in the years 1924 and 1926 will
be seen from Table XL The average "per man per d a y " is calculated
by twice dividing the total tonnage raised, viz. first b y the total
number of employers, and then by the average number of days of
operation (as shown in Table IX). This average can be computed only
in respect of all mine employees, since the average days of operation
are not given separately for underground workers. The average
"per man per year" is the result of the total tonnage of coal raised,
divided by the number of underground workers, or t h a t of all
employees.

— 276 —
TABLE XI. — AVERAGE OUTPUT OF COAL IN ANTHRACITE AND
BITUMINOUS MINES, 1 9 2 4 AND 1 9 2 6 , BY STATES

(Metric Tons)
Average outpw
Kind of mine, and State

Year

Per man per
day

Per man jer year

Under and
above ground Underground

Anthracite
Pennsylvania
. . . .

Under and
above ground

1924
1926

1.81
1.90

668
607

498
463

1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926
1924
1926

2.82
2.62
4.10
3.73
4.68
4.82
5.22
5.19
2.98
3.10
4.24
4.10
4.37
4.13
3.87
3.97
2.77
2.82
3.38
3.54
4.97
4.44

751
827
861
889
767
921
814
1,049
518
586
879
. 1,105
719
747
806
1,021
519
778
934
1,108
1,078
1,302

621
697
731
753
693
829
707
899
450
490
734
942
625
656
700
890
441
661
765
931
902
1,096

All bituminous mines 1924
1926

4.14
4.07

825
1,018

708
876

All anthracite
and
bituminous mines .

3.46
3.56

796
937

665
786

Bituminous
Colorado

Indiana

Kentucky
Ohio

p.

West Virginia

1924
1926

Marked differences may be observed between the different coalfields in respect of the average output. The first point to be noticed
is t h a t in the anthracite coal-fields the average output is considerably
lower than in the bituminous coal-fields 1 ; in the State of Pennsylvania, the average daily output of anthracite is less than half of
that of bituminous coal. Owing to the larger number of days of
operation in the anthracite industry, the average annual output in
anthracite mines falls short of that in bituminous mines much less
than does the average daily output.
1
A few bituminous coal districts (not shown in the table) have a still
lower average output per day, but the production in the States concerned
is negligible.

— 277 —
As regards particularly bituminous mines, the highest average
daily output in both years considered is shown for Indiana, Illinois
and West Virginia ; there are, however, other States, not shown in
Table XI, where the average output attains
a level considerably
above the maxima given in the table 1 . Of the other States,
Kentucky and Ohio show an average output above the average for
the whole of the United States ; all other States are below it, and the
average output in Alabama and Tennessee is among the lowest
averages in the whole country.
Owing to the varying number of days of operation, the average
yearly output shows results somewhat different from the daily
average output. There is a noteworthy difference between the two
years considered: the average yearly output in 1924 was much below
that shown for 1926 in all States. The highest average is shown in
all cases for West Virginia, while the States of Virginia and Kentucky
come in the second and third place. The lowest average is shown for
Kansas, Tennessee and Alabama, and (in 1926) Ohio. These yearly
averages, it should be noted, are a result of the daily output and
the regularity of operation, and thus do not indicate as well as the
daily averages the productivity of coal-mining.
It may be stated that in the United States the high-wage States
are, as a rule, at the same time districts where the productivity is
relatively large, and vice versa, a low level of earnings usually
corresponds to relatively low productivity.
When the average output in the United States is compared with
the corresponding figures calculated for other countries, it will be
easily ascertained that the "productivity", as shown by the average
daily output per worker, is in the United States by far the
highest in the whole world. It is about twice as high as in South
Africa, more than thrice as high as in the most productive
European coal district (German Upper Silesia), more than four
times as high as in Great Britain, and eight times as high as in
India or Japan.
§ 9. In conclusion, a few remarks may be made on the subject
of the "wage cost" of production of coal in the United States.
Official statistics contain no information on this point, and as
a matter of fact, the data available do hardly permit of any accurate
calculations. However, a rough approximation may be attempted on
the basis of the statistics of earnings of representative mines. It
should be observed that these earnings, as defined in the American
statistics 2, correspond fairly well to the concept of "actual earnings"
(excluding employers' contributions to social insurance) outlined in
the present enquiry.

1
These States are Montana, Utah, North Dakota, and Wyoming.
With regard to Utah, however, the daily average is probably too high
because of the practice of men going into mines to shoot coal and load
mine cars on days when mines as a whole are not in operation. The
maximum daily output in 1926 was 6.5 metric tons (Montana) and the
annual output 1,124 tons (Utah).
2
Cf. above, S 3.

— 278 —
In the absence of data relative to the total wages bill, the method of
the estimate should be to divide the amount of average earnings per
man per day by the tonnage of average output per man per day. Now,
the average earnings of all mine-workers taken together are not given in
the American wage statistics. In order to obtain this average, it is
therefore necessary to use the same method as is employed in the
American statistics themselves, in the calculation of the average
earnings for all States. Given the average earnings of all miners and
loaders, as well as the average earnings of all other (inside and outside)
employees, a general average for all employees may be obtained by
weighing each of the former averages by the number of employees
in each group. This calculation can be effected in respect of
bituminous mines only, the result being as follows :

Average for miners and loaders . . .
Average for other employees . . . .
Weighted average for all employees

1924

1926

6.60
5.92
6.36

6.46
5.70
6.19

These averages refer to the representative mines covered by the
wage statistics. It should now be remembered that the ratio of
miners and loaders to other employees is about the same in the mines
covered and in all mines of the United States ; consequently the
weights used are applicable to the country as a whole.
If then the average earnings per start (day) given in the American
statistics are really representative, as there is sufficient reason to
assume, then also the above averages for all employees may be
applied to the United States as a whole.
Dividing the above amounts by the average tonnage produced
per day, and converting them into terms of gold francs, the average
wage cost of a ton of bituminous coal* raised will be :
In 1924
In 1926

? 1.55 = 8.04 gold francs.
? 1.52 = 7.86 gold francs.

ft should be emphasised that these results are only rough estimates
because the average earnings only refer to a half-month period in
some mines (representing little more than a quarter of all mining
employees in the country), while the average output is for the whole
year, and for all mines in the country, and is itself calculated on the
basis of an approximate number of employees. But, strictly speaking,
the corresponding figures calculated for other countries are also
more or less approximate. At any rate, it does not seem inappropriate to compare the general tendency of the average wage cost
in the United States, as shown above, with the corresponding cost
in other countries. It will then be seen that the wage cost in American
bituminous mines is relatively low ; it is not lower than in the

1
As the tables given above show, the earnings received in the anthracite mines are,; in general, somewhat higher than in bituminous
mining, while the average output is less. Consequently, the average wage
cost per ton must be in the anthracite mines considerably higher than
in the bituminous mines.

— 279 —
European districts which show the smallest wage per ton, viz. Poland
and Gez-man Upper Silesia, but it is about at the same level as the
cost in Czechoslovakia and also Japan, and sensibly below the wage
cost of a ton of coal in Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands.
This of course does not necessarily mean that the total cost of a ton
of coal in the United States is lower than in the other countries
mentioned, since the natural, geographical and industrial conditions
in America are very different from those existing in other parts of
the world.
To sum up, the general characteristics of the American coal
industry may be stated to be high money earnings of mining
employees, very high productivity of coal-mines, and relatively
low wage cost of production.

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