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INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series B (Economic Conditions) No. 31

THE WORLD
COAL-MINING INDUSTRY
VOLUME II

SOCIAL

CONDITIONS

GENEVA
1938
Published in the United Kingdom
For the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE (LEAGUE OF NATIONS)

By P. S. KING & SON, Ltd.
Orchard House, 14 Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. i

PRINTED BY ALEEET KÜNDIG
GENEVA

CONTENTS

VOLUME II

SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Page
1

CHAPTER I: The Labour Supply
I.
II.

III.

Number of Workers

Characteristics of the Labour Force
Underground Workers
Women Workers
Young Persons
Trends in Employment

5
5
7
8
9

CHAPTER I I : Wages and Earnings
I.

Sources of Information

Composition of Total Earnings

Earnings in Coal Mining, per Hour, per Shift, and per Year

IY-

Comparisons of Earnings in Coal Mining and Other Industries

Trends of Earnings in Mining Industry and in Other Industries

Movements in Real Wages

Wages in Gold

II.
III.

VI.
VII.

CHAPTER I I I : Employment and Unemployment
I.
II.

The Cyclical Factor

37
39

The Technological Factor

III.

The Structural Factor

IV.

The Shortage of Labour

Summary

—

IV —
Page

CHAPTER IV:

Social Insurance

Section 1 : Workmen's Compensation for Accidents
I.
II.

Compulsory or Optional Insurance

Scope

III.

Risks covered and Benefits
Risks covered
Benefits in Kind
Basic Wage
Compensation in Cases of Temporary Incapacity . . .
Waiting Period
Rate of Compensation for Temporary Incapacity
Duration of Compensation
Compensation in Cases of Permanent Incapacity . . .
Form of Compensation
Rate of Compensation for Permanent Total
Incapacity
Rate of Compensation for Permanent Partial
Incapacity
Compensation in Case of Death
Form of Compensation
Categories of Relatives entitled to Compensation
Rate of Compensation for Death
IV. Financial Resources
Section 2: Compensation for Occupational Diseases
I. Short Account of the Occupational Pathology of Miners
II a. The Occupational Diseases Compensated

59
59
59
61
62
62
63
65
66
67

II b. Compensation of Pneumoconiosis and of Silicosis . .

68
70
71
71
72
73
75
76
76
80

III.

The Incidence of Occupational Disease of Miners . . .

IV.

The Financial Burden represented by Compensation for
Occupational Diseases

Section 3: Compulsory Sickness Insurance
I.
II.
III.

100

Nature of Insurance Schemes covering Miners

100

Scope

101

Benefits
Sickness Benefit
Qualifying Period
Waiting Period
Duration of the Right to Benefit
Amount of Sickness Benefit
Medical and Pharmaceutical Assistance
Forms of Medical and Pharmaceutical Assistance
Duration of Medical and Pharmaceutical Assistance
Medical Assistance for Members of the Insured
Person's Family
Maternity Benefits
Benefits for Insured Women
Benefits for the Wives of Insured Persons . .
Funeral Benefit

101
101
102
102
103
104
106
106
108
109
110
110
Ill
112

V
Page

IV.

Resources
Origin of Resources
Amount and Rate of Contributions

Section 4: Invalidity, Old-Age, and Widows and Orphans' Insurance
I.

Nature of Insurance Schemes covering Miners . . . .
Characteristics of Inter-occupational and Occupational
Schemes
Schemes covering Miners in the Different Countries;
Position of Salaried Employees
Nature and Scope of Schemes applying to Miners . .

II.
III.

IV.

II.

113
113

115
115
115
117
118

Scope of Schemes applying to Miners

119

Risks covered and Benefits
Old Age
Pensionable Age
Qualifying Period
Amount of Old-Age Pension
Invalidity
Definition of the Risk
Qualifying Period
Amount of Invalidity Pensions
Death
Survivors entitled to Pensions
Qualifying Period
Amount of Survivors' Pensions
Resources of Insurance Funds
Rate of Contribution
Distribution of Contributions
Contribution of the Public Authorities

119
120
120
121
123
127
127
129
133
135
135
140
141
143
144
146
148

Section 5: Unemployment Insurance and Relief
I.

113

150

Unemployment Insurance

151

Introduction
Scope
Title to Benefit
Duration of Benefit
The Waiting Period
Benefit Period
Rate of Benefit
Financial Resources
Unemployment Assistance

151
151
152
154
154
155
156
157
159

Section 6: Statistics of Social Charges
Appendix

162
171

—

Page

CHAPTER V: Weekly Rest, Public Holidays, Annual Holidays with Pay
I.

The Weekly Rest
Form of the National Regulations
Determination of the Weekly Rest Day
Length of the Weekly Rest
Exceptions
Compensatory Rest
Increased Rates of Wages for Sunday Work
Special Systems
Payment for Weekly Rest
System of Twice-monthly Rest
The Saturday Half-holiday (English Week-end) .
The Five-day Week
The Four or Five-day Week
II. Public Holidays
Form of National Regulations
Determination of Public Holidays
Making up of Time Lost on Holidays
Increased Rates of Wages for Work on Public Holidays
Payment for Holidays when no Work is Done . . . .
III. Annual Holidays with Pay
Form of the National Regulations
Scope of Regulations
Qualifying Conditions
Minimum Period of Qualifying Service
Continuity of Service
Safeguarding of Holiday Rights in Case of Transfer
from One Undertaking to Another
Length of the Holiday
Length of Holiday for Various Classes of Workers . .
Bituminous Coal
Lignite
Payment during the Holiday
Calculation of the Normal Wage
Date of Payment
Utilisation of the Holiday
Continuity of the Holiday
Accumulation of Holidays
Date of the Holiday
Special Provisions
Effect of Termination of Contract
Cash Compensation
Loss of the Right to Holiday
CHAPTER VI: Hours of Work
Introduction
I. The Development and Structure of National Regulation .
A. Form of National Regulations
Legislative Regulation
Arbitration Awards
Collective Rules
Standards of Employment
Compulsory Rules of Employment
Collective Agreements.
Custom

175
175
175
176
177
178
179
179
181
181
181
182
183
184
184
184
185
190
191
194
195
195
195
196
196
196
198
198
201
201
202
205
205
206
207
208
208
209
211
211
214
214
216
216
217
218
2l8
22l
22l
22l
222
222
223

—

VII

—
Page

Existing Regulation
Australia, p. 224; Austria, p. 224; Belgium, p. 224;
Canada, p. 225; Chile, p. 225; China, p. 226;
Czechoslovakia, p. 226 ; France, p. 226 ; Germany,
p. 228; Great Britain, p. 228; Hungary, p. 229;
India, p. 229; Italy, p. 229; Japan, p. 229;
Netherlands, p. 230; New Zealand, p. 230;
Poland, p. 230; Rumania, p. 231; Spain, p. 231;
Turkey, p. 232; Union of South Africa, p. 232;
United States, p. 232; U.S.S.R., p. 233; Yugoslavia, p. 234.

Scope
A.

235
Definition of Scope as regards Mines
Nature of Premises or Operations
Type of Mine
Type of Coal extracted
Definition of Scope as regards Persons
Methods used
Persons covered
Persons excluded

Normal Hours of Work
A.

233

235
236
239
240
241
241
242
244
251

Definition and Limitation
Underground Workers
Time Spent in the Undertaking
Time Spent in the Mine
Time Spent at the Workplace
Surface Workers
Definition of Normal Hours of Work
Limits to Normal Hours of Work
Distribution of Normal Hours of Work
Distribution over the Week
Distribution over the Fortnight
Distribution over Other Periods
Making up Lost Time
Cases in which Lost Time may be made up . . .
Methods of making up Lost Time

252
252
253
254
262
264
264
266
269
269
271
271
272
272
272

D. Continuous Operations
Definition
Methods of Organisation of Continuous Work. . .
Limits to Hours of Work
Special Provisions for Continuous Work Underground
E. Work in Unhealthy or Dangerous Workplaces . .
Definition of Unhealthy or Dangerous Workplaces
Limits to Hours of Work

274
274
276
277

Work on Sundays and Public Holidays
Sunday Work
Work on Public Holidays

278
278
279
280
282
282
287

Vili
Page

IV.

Extension of Normal Hours of Work
A.

290

Grounds for Extension
Extensions due to the Nature of the Work . . .
Extensions due to Accidental Causes
Extensions for Economic Reasons and in the
Public Interest
Extensions without Specified Reason
Procedure for Authorisation of Extensions . . . .
Extensions permitted automatically
Extensions subject to Permit, Administrative Regulation, or Agreement
Length of Extensions
Methods of Limitation; Limits

fixed

291
292
300
302
304
305
305
306
308
309

Remuneration for Additional Hours

312

Restrictions on Recourse to Extensions

315

Suspension of the Regulations

317

Supervision of Enforcement of Regulations
A.

318

Time-tables
. . .
Contents
Preparation and Amendment of Time-tables . . .
Posting of Time-tables
Registers, Cards and Slips

318
318
319
320
320

Other Methods of Supervision

322

Penalties

322

STATISTICAL APPENDIX
SECTION I :

Number of Persons employed

SECTION I I :

Unemployment and Employment

325
329

SECTION I I I : Wages in the Coal-mining Industry
SECTION IV: Hours of Work in the Coal-mining Industry
1935 and 1936

333
in 1933,
349

QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO GOVERNMENTS

358

INDEX

363

CHAPTER I
THE LABOUR SUPPLY

The general characteristics of the coal-mining industry are the
same in all countries, namely the extraction of coal from the earth
and its preparation for sale. The most important group of tasks in
a coal mine is " work at the face " where the actual dislodging or
stripping of the coal takes place. The character of this work depends
upon the methods employed ; in many mines the labour works with
machines to undercut the coal and for other operations such as
preparing holes for explosion used to dislodge the coal; in other cases
hand picking is the chief method 1. When hand picking is followed,
the hewer or coal getter is the basic occupation both from the
point of view of skill required, and that of the number of persons
engaged. In other mines the machine operators are surpassed in
number by the loaders, whose duties are to load the coal after it has
been broken up into " trucks " or " tubs ". In some mines
mechanical conveyers are used.
" Finally ", in the words of the International Labour Office study
on Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry 2, " the
work at the face requires ' timbering ', that is to say, putting in props
of timber to support the roof when necessary, and ' stone driving ',
i.e. cutting away the stone and earth—operations which are necessary
for ensuring safety and possibility of further cutting of coal.
" Connected with this latter kind of operation, but independent of
the work at the face properly so called, is the work of planning and
repairing roads in order to open new coal-seams. This work requires
the setting up of new timber to support roofs, 'ripping' the roof,
floor, and sides of roads, taking down parts of roofs, ' digging ' up
floors, etc.
" Another class of operations underground is that connected with
the transport of coal to the surface. The tubs loaded and filled at
the face are pushed by hand or drawn by ponies to sidings, where
they are coupled and drawn either by horses or mechanical means to
the shaft bottom. From there, the tubs are hauled to the surface.
" Besides the above three main kinds of work, there are in the mine
1
2

See Vol. I, Chapter II, for discussion of technical methods of mining.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE: Wages and Hours of Work in the CoalMining Industry, Studies and Reports, Series D, No. 18, p. 7.
CR. i l .

— 2 —
several ' auxiliary tasks ', viz. the general supervision of the work;
the supervision required by the safety regulations of the different
arrangements, such as timbering, tram lines, machinery, cages; the
work connected with ventilation, lighting, pumping of water, etc."
The operations performed on the surface are largely analogous
to work in a factory. There are cages by which the coal is hoisted
from the shaft to the surface, weighing machines, unloading
machines, machines for sorting and washing coal, boiler rooms,
power plant, blacksmiths' shops, machine shops for the maintenance and repair of locomotives, cars, tools and machines, railroads, etc. This general description will afford, perhaps, a sufficient
insight into the character of the work above ground.

NUMBER OF WORKERS

The total number of persons gainfully occupied in the coal-mining
industry throughout the world may be estimated at roughly
4 % millions, of whom about a quarter of a million are gainfully
occupied in the lignite industry. These figures relate generally to
about 1931. On the other hand, the number of persons employed
in coal mining at the present time may be estimated at around
3 2 / 3 millions 1.
The figures for all the principal coal-producing countries are
given in table I which covers, for hard coal, every country in which
the number of workers was over about 25,000, or the output of coal
was over 10 million tons 2, and, for lignite, all countries where
1
For most countries, two sources of information are available on the
number of persons engaged in the coal-mining industry—the numbers gainfully occupied as shown by population censuses and the numbers in employment as shown by returns from mining establishments. The former cover
employers, directors, salaried staff and wage earners, whether in employment
or not, at the date of the census, and thus give a figure of the number of
persons attached to the industry; the latest data relate in most cases to
the years 1930-1931. The latter are usually available annually and give the
numbers actually at work : in some countries the data are limited to wage
earners, while in others salaried employees also are included, but the number
of such employees in the coal-mining industry is very small. The figures in
the table relate usually to 1935 and, whenever possible, numbers employed
in coke ovens, briquette works, etc., have been excluded.
2
Except Spain, China (and Manchuria). For Spain, the latest figures
available relate to 1929 when 41,865 operatives were recorded. For China
and Manchuria, Boris B. Torgasheff, a mining engineer, estimates the total
number of workers (including contract workers) in coal mines for the period
before 1930 at (at least) 600,000; this figure includes 100,000 in the Fushun
and Kailan mines (1928), 110,639 in the semi-modern mines (1926) and the
rest in native mines. Leonard G. Ting cites a report of the Geological Survey
of China giving the number of coal-mine workers in China Proper at 171,094
and in Manchuria at 96,000, as well as a report of the Ministry of Industry

— 3—
TABLE

I. —

PERSONS

GAINFULLY

OCCUPIED

AND

EMPLOYED

COAL AND LIGNITE MINING, BY COUNTRIES ARRANGED IN ORDER
OF

NUMBERS

OCCUPIED

Persons gainfully occupied '
Country
Date

Great Britain
United States
Germany
U.S.S.R
France
Japan
India
Belgium
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Netherlands
Union of South Africa
Canada
Australia

. .

1931
1930
1933
(1930)
1931
1930
1931
1930
(1930)
1930
1930
(1930)
1931
1933

Total, coal, 14 countries

Germany
Czechoslovakia
Hungary
Austria
Total, lignite, 5 countries
Total, coal and lignite
(approximately)
. .

1933
1930
(1930)
(1930)
(1930)

Number

Persons
employed
1935

Coal
1,162,889
691,288
521,664 s
330,000 3
308,709
182,558
174,831
168,189
118,624*
61,439 6
37,232
32,594 3
31,496
28,310

769,474
565,202
384,557
492,900
222,565
175,137
179,152
120,613*
69,734*
42,667 *
26,957 *
28,900
26,198
18,833

3,909,043 o

3,122,889'

Lignite
104,046 2
40,500 5
26,234 *
27,794 3
9,953*

47,587
28,956*
27,041 *
23,717 8
9,153 s

208,527 o
4,118,000

136,454
3,259,000

i Including unemployed.
2 Including auxiliary works, e.g. coke ovens and briquette factories.
3 Persons employed.
* Workers employed.
<• Census of industrial establishments: persons employed.
o Sum of number in column, plus 59,220 (1930) in the Saar Territory. The number
employed in the same-countries in 1930 was 3,568,286. (In obtaining the figure for
Germany, the number of persons employed in auxiliary establishments outside Prussia
had to be estimated.)
' The Saar included with Germany.
s 1934.
« The number employed in the same countries in 1930 was 163,324. (In obtaining
the figure for Germany, the number of persons employed in auxiliary establishments outside
Prussia had to be estimated.)
for China P r o p e r which gives t h e n u m b e r of coal-mine workers in 22 provinces
a t 216,080, t h u s indicating a total in both China and Manchuria of u p w a r d s
of 300,000. (Boris B . T O R G A S H E F P : Mining
Labour in China, published
by t h e Bureau of Industrial and Commercial Information, Ministry of I n d u s t r y ,
Commerce and Labour, National Government of the Republic of China,
Shanghai (1930), p p . 72 and 73. Leonard G. T I N G : " The Coal I n d u s t r y in
China ", Nankai Social and Economic Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2, J u l y 1937,
pp. 236-238.)

4 —

the annual output of lignite exceeds 2% million tons or the number
of workers was over 9,000. These countries cover over 95 per cent.
of the world production of both hard coal and lignite. The great
majority (96 per cent.) of these workers are engaged in the mining
of bituminous or anthracite coal: only a little over 200,000 personfe
are engaged in lignite mining, and these are principally confined
to Germany (100,000) and Czechoslovakia (40,000) \
It should be added that for six countries in the table (U.S.S.R.,
Poland, Union of South Africa, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Austria),
for which no recent census data of the gainfully occupied are
available, the numbers employed in 1930 have been utilised.
The table shows a total of 4,118,000 and 3,259,000 respectively,
but when allowance is made for Spain and China and Manchuria
(not included in the table) the total number of persons attached
to the industry may be estimated, as indicated above, at about
4% millions, and the numbers in employment at about 3 2 / 3 millions.
The difference between these two figures is due partly to the difference in date 2, but largely to the number of persons attached to the
industry who were without employment in 1935. The statistics of
unemployment are discussed in Chapter III; the important figure
for our present purpose is that of the numbers employed by the
industry at the present time as shown by the last column of the
table.
The number employed in coal mining in 1935 is largest in Great
Britain, where nearly 800,000 were employed. Next in rank comes
the United States with nearly 600,000, followed by the U.S.S.R.
with nearly 500,000 employed, Germany with about 430,000
(of whom 50,000 in lignite) and France with over 200,000, India
180,000, Japan with nearly 180,000, Belgium 120,000, Czechoslovakia 72,000 (of whom 29,000 in lignite) and Poland 70,000.
Countries with smaller numbers employed include the Union of
South Africa with 29,000, the Netherlands with 27,000, Canada
26,000, and Australia nearly 20,000.
Of the total of 3 1 / 4 millions shown in table I, it should be noted
that nearly 80 per cent, are in the five countries of Great Britain,
U.S.A., Germany, U.S.S.R. and France, thus indicating a high
degree of concentration of the industry in these few countries.
1
In certain countries the numbers employed in lignite mining are not given
separately, but the numbers are very small (viz. Canada, U.S.A., France,
Australia and U.S.S.R.).
2
Partly to the inclusion of owners, directors and in some cases salaried
staff in the former figure, and in one case to the inclusion of those occupied
in coke ovens and briquette works.

— 5 —

Attention has already been called to this predominance of a few
countries in the chapter on coal production.
The table also shows the numbers of persons engaged in lignite
mining in the five principal lignite mining countries. Germany
with 48,000 persons employed, out of about 136,000, is by far the
most important country as measured by the labour employed,
followed by Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia with 29,000,
27,000 and 23,000 respectively, and Austria with 9,000.
In addition to the relative importance of different countries in
the world situation, it is of interest to note the importance of the
coal-mining industry in the economy of the country. Detailed
statistics showing the relative importance of the coal-mining
industry in the different countries have not been compiled, but it
may be stated that on the basis of the population censuses of
1930-1931, the highest proportions are found in Great Britain and
Belgium. In the former, about 5% per cent, of the occupied
population, or nearly 8 per cent, of the occupied male population
are found in coal mining; and in the latter about 4% per cent.
(or 6 per cent, of the occupied male population). In other countries,
the proportions are much lower (e.g. about 1% per cent, and
2~y2 per cent, respectively in Germany and about 1.4 and 1.8
respectively in the United States).
II.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LABOUR FORCE

The total number of persons employed in the industry is, however,
of little significance without some knowledge of the characteristics
of this body of people. The chief characteristics which may be
noticed here are the high proportion of underground workers, the
small proportion of female workers (especially among underground
workers where it is prohibited in most countries) and the small
number of young persons.
Underground Workers
As has been pointed out in Vol. I, Chapter II, the fundamental
operation of coal mining is the extraction of coal from earth and its
bringing to the surface. It is not therefore surprising that the majority of persons employed are employed underground. The special
character of underground work, the working in darkness, the
great risk of accident, etc., have always singled out this group of
workers as one for whom social legislation should be provided.

— 6 —

The available data are assembled in table II. These relate to the
numbers employed in the year 1935. Figures for workers in the few
" open-cut mines " in the U.S.A. are included with surface workers,
while those for open-cut lignite mines in Germany are included
with underground workers, in accordance with the national
classification of these two countries.
For the coal industry (excluding lignite) the proportion of
underground workers may be estimated at about 75 per cent.,
varying from about 66 per cent, in Poland to over 80 per cent.
in the U.S.A. It may be estimated that there are on the whole
about 21/i million workers underground—mostly males. For
lignite mining the conditions are somewhat different ; the seams, as
TABLE

II.

WORKERS

EMPLOYED

UNDERGROUND

AND

ABOVE

GROUND IN COAL MINES, BY COUNTRIES, 1 9 3 5
Workers employed
Underground

Country

Above ground
Total

Number

Per
cent.

Number

Coal
Germany
Belgium
Canada
United States
France
G r e a t Britain
India
Japan
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia

. . . .
. . . .

. . . .

Total coal

281,824
83,377
19,463
467,607
145,895
600,336
128,039
128,275
19,241
46,153
33,087

77.7
69.1
78.4
82.7
67.9
79,6
71.5
73.2
71.4
66.2
77.6

80,855
37,236
5,368
97,595
68,895
153,964
51,099
46,862
7,716
23,581
9,580

1,953,297

77.0

582,751

22.3
30.9
21.6
17.3
32.1
20.4
28.5
26.8
28.6
33.8
22.5

362,679
120,613
24,831
565,202
214,790
754,300
179,138
175,137
26,957
69,734
42,667

23.0

2,536,048

Lignite
Germany
Czechoslovakia
Total lignite

. . . .

31,065 2
19,407

71.0 2
67.0

12,674
9,549

29.0
33.0

43,739
28,956

50,472

69.4

22,223

30.6

72,695

i Including 12,737 (2.3 per cent.) in open-cut mines.
2 Including 20,994 (48.0 per cent.) in open-cut mines.

explained in Vol. I, Chapter II, are not usually deep and in many
cases the lignite is extracted by open workings from the surface. It is
therefore to be expected that the number of underground workers is
much smaller. In Germany nearly 30 per cent, of the workers in
lignite are classified as surface workers ; in addition there are nearly
50 per cent, classified as in open-cut mines. In Czechoslovakia,
on the other hand, the greater part of the lignite is extracted
underground and the proportion of underground workers is about
two-thirds, or nearly as high as in coal mines.
It would be of interest to know the number of underground
workers in different categories, the hewers, loaders, repairers, timberers, haulers, etc., but for many countries data are not available
by occupations. Moreover, as already explained, the great diversity
of mining operations as described in Vol. I, Chapter II, the
different terminology used in various countries, renders any
international comparisons impossible, and even the same terms,
such as hewer, coal-getter, etc., do not necessarily connote the
same operations in different countries.
Women Workers
The number of females in the industry is small; in fact, if the
countries of Western Europe and North America are considered,
female labour may be said to be negligible. There are three countries, however, in which an appreciable proportion of the workers
are women, namely, India, Japan and the U.S.S.R. The latest particulars available show that about 14 per cent, in British India, 10
per cent, in Japan and over 22 per cent, in U.S.S.R. of the workers
are women.
In almost all coal-producing countries the underground employment of women is prohibited. In Japan about 4 per cent, of
underground workers are still women, but here too the number
of women workers has greatly diminished, since it fell from nearly
33,000 in 1929 to about 5,000 in 1935 and has since remained
almost stationary, as the employment of women is now allowed
only in certain mines in which the seam is shallow or which are
almost worked out. In British India, where the underground
employment of women in mines was frequent up to 1929, a regulation promulgated at that date and brought into force by stages, by
restricting each year the proportion of women underground workers,
entirely suppressed their employment on 1 October 1937. The Office
has no information to show ho w many of the 111,500 women employed
in coal mines in the U.S.S.R. are engaged in underground work.

Young Persons
As in the case of women workers, the employment of young
persons is comparatively small in coal mining: those who are
employed are generally surface workers. In fact, the employment
of young persons under 16 years of age underground is prohibited
in many countries. The available data for certain countries are
given in table III. The highest proportion is found in Great Britain,
about 3.8 per cent., followed by France 3.2 per cent, and Germany
2.0 per cent. In the other countries for which data are available
the proportion is very small. Separate statistics for underground
workers are not usually available, but it should be noted that for
Great Britain over half of the young persons under 16 are employed
underground. These boys (to the number of about 17,000) form
somewhat less than 3 per cent, of all underground workers.
TABLE I I I .

PROPORTION OF YOUNG PERSONS UNDER 1 6 EMPLOYED

IN THE COAL-MINING INDUSTRY, IN CERTAIN

COUNTRIES

Young persons under 16
Country

Germany
Canada
United States . . .
France
Great Britain . . .
Japan
Poland
Czechoslovakia
. .

Date

1935
1931
1930
1932
1936
1935
1935
1935

Total employed

381,784
31,496!
691,288 !
248,970
771,193
175,137
69,734
71,623

Number

Per cent.

7,628
35
722 2
8,068
28,945
1,126
0
97

2.0
0.1
0.1
3.2
3.8
0.6
0.0
0.1

i Gainfully occupied: census data.
2 Includes coal-mine operators only: total, all ages, in this group 621,661.

As in the case of women workers there has been a rapid diminution
in the number of children employed in coal mines in recent years,
and it has now almost reached zero in the case, for example, of
Canada, Czechoslovakia, Poland and the U.S.A. As regards underground workers no young persons are employed in Germany; in
France the proportion has decreased from 5.5 per cent, in 1927 to
2.4 per cent, in 1932; and in Great Britain from about 3.5 per cent.
to 2.9 per cent, in the same period from 1927 to 1936.
To sum up in a few phrases the characteristics of employment
in the coal-mining industry, it may be said that about three-quarters
of the workers are employed underground and one quarter above-

— 9 — ground. It is predominantly a man's industry. Apart from one
or two countries in which special conditions hold, underground work
is almost exclusively men's work. Women and young persons are
little employed and then chiefly on surface work.
III.

TRENDS IN EMPLOYMENT

The great changes in the methods of coal mining and in the
demand for coal described in previous chapters have had farreaching results on the number of workers employed in this industry
and it is interesting to note the trends in the employment furnished
by the industry during a series of years. For this purpose, the
statistics of the numbers employed have been extracted for the
years 1913,1920 and 1927 to 1935 for the 14 principal coal-producing
countries and are given in table IV. Figures for each of the
countries will be found in the Statistical Appendix (Statistics)
(tables I and II). Though certain changes in compilation and
in territorial scope render these figures not strictly comparable
TABLE IV. — TRENDS IN NUMBERS OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN COAL
MINING, IN 1 4 PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 1, AND IN LIGNITE MINING

IN FIVE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 3 , 1913, 1920, 1927-1935
Persons employed 3
Year

Lignite minings

Coal mining i
Number

Index *

Number

Index *

1913

3,586,000

97.5

—

1920

4,096,000

111.3

—

1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935

3,905,000
3,653,000
3,679,000
3,595,000
3,296,000
3,182,300
3,095,000
3.157,000
3,139,900

106.1
99.3
100.0
97.7
89.6
86.5
84.1
85.8
85.3

190,000
192,000
210,000
192,000
174,000
164,000
163,000
171,000
171,000

90.5
91.4
100.0
91.4
82.9
78.1
77.6
81.4
81.4

i Germany (including Saar), Australia, Belgium, Canada, United States, France, Great
Britain, India, Japan, Netherlands, Poland, Czechoslovakia, U.S.S.R., and the Union of
South Africa for 1920-1935 ; for 1913 the figures are not strictly comparable owing to changes
of frontiers.
2 Germany, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia.
s In certain countries the figures relate to workers, excluding salaried employees.
* Employment in 1929 is taken as base = 100.0.

— 10 —
throughout the period, they are adequate for the purpose of showing
trends.
Prior to the World War, the coal-mining industry enjoyed a
long period of development and expansion 1 . In 1913 it is estimated
that in these 14 countries the number employed was over 3,600,000.
During the war years the numbers were naturally reduced, but
immediately after the war there was a considerable increase in all
countries except U.S.S.R., and it is estimated that the total
employed rose in 1920 to over 4,100,000. The numbers changed
little from 1920 to 1927, but there was a slight decline and the total
fell in the latter year to about 3,900,000. Since 1927 there has been
in almost every country a continuous and rapid fall to 1933,
when the numbers fell to about 3,100,000. Thus, in six years,
about 20 per cent, of the workers, or nearly 800,000 workers, ceased
to be employed in the industry. In the U.S.S.R., on the other
hand, the situation has been the contrary; the numbers employed
increased from 171,000 in 1920 to 364,000 in 1931 and to 517,500
in 1932. Since 1932 there has been a slight decline, but there are
still nearly three times as many employed in 1936 as in 1920, and
nearly twice as many as in 1927.
Since the lowest figures were reached in 1933 there has been a
slight recovery in one or two countries, particularly the U.S.A.
Thus, the picture of employment in coal mining shows a rise
of about 15 per cent, in numbers employed from 1913 to 1920, a
fall of about 5 per cent, from 1920 to 1927, a drastic fall of about
20 per cent, from 1927 to 1933, and a slight recovery since that date,
leaving the level of employment in 1935 about 13 per cent, below
its pre-war level. When allowance is made for the increase in
population during the last 25 years, the decrease is, of course,
relatively greater. This general description, however, masks certain
marked changes in various countries. The remarkable figures for the
U.S.S.R. have already been commented on. In the U.S.A. and
Great Britain, Germany, Japan, Poland and Czechoslovakia, the
highest figure was reached in 1920; in Australia, Belgium, Canada,
France and South Africa, the highest figure was reached in 19271928; in India and the Netherlands in 1930-1931; and in U.S.S.R.
in 1932. In every country, with the exception of the U.S.S.R.,
South Africa, Netherlands, India, Japan, France, the numbers
employed are lower than in 1913.
1

In Great Britain the numbers employed more than doubled from 1881
to 1911.

— 11 —
In most countries—in seven of the eleven countries shown in
table II—the decline in numbers employed was slightly greater
for workers underground than for surface workers. Comparing 1927
with 1935, the decline in employment underground as compared
with surface was: Germany, 40 per cent, and 26 per cent. ; France, 36
and 20; the Netherlands, 22 per cent, decline as compared with an
increase of 12 per cent. In other countries the differences are not
so marked—for example, Great Britain, 20 and 19; Belgium, 32
and 28; Poland, 40 and 37; Japan, 28 and 25. On the other hand,
in three countries, Canada, U.S.A. and Czechoslovakia, the decrease
is slightly greater for the surface workers. In India a slight increase
(2 per cent.) appeared in the total for employment underground as
compared with a decline of 8 per cent, in the number of workers
employed on the surface.
The great decline which dates generally from 1927 is due to the
factors such as changes in the demand for coal, the increasing
output per worker due to mechanisation and other causes. The
influence of these factors on employment, production, prices, etc.,
is dealt with in other chapters.
For lignite mining, data are available for each of the five principal
countries only since 1927, and a similar movement is shown to that
for coal mining. The number of workers employed rose from about
190,000 in 1927 to 210,000 in 1929 and then fell each year to about
163,000 in 1933, a fall of 22% per cent, in four years. In the last
few years a revival has increased the figure to about 170,000.

CHAPTER II
WAGES AND EARNINGS

In a previous chapter the question of labour costs has been
considered and attention has been drawn to the large part which
wages play in the cost of mining coal. In the present chapter
wages are considered from the point of view of what the workers
actually earn, how these earnings have changed in recent years,
how far they have been affected by changes in employment and
in the cost of living and how earnings in the mining industry
compare with those in other industries.
I.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The statistics of wages in coal mining used in the present chapter
have been obtained by the International Labour Office by means
of special enquiries carried out with the collaboration of the
competent statistical services of the principal coal-mining countries1.
Though the object of the enquiry introduced in 1925 was to
obtain data on a comparable basis, this result has not been entirely
obtained, but the figures have been furnished on a basis sufficiently
uniform to be used for comparative purposes. Difficulties have
arisen especially for certain extra-European countries, of which
several were not included in the early enquiries. Further information as to the scope of the enquiry, the form of questionnaire
adopted and the detailed replies of the Governments will be found
in the Statistical Appendix at the end of this volume.
1
The Office had previously conducted enquiries into wages and hours of
work in the coal-mining industry. The plan for the first enquiry relating to
the year 1925 was drawn up by a committee appointed by the Governing Body
of the International Labour Office on which experts of Governments,
employers and workers were represented, and was devised so that the information obtained should be as far as possible compiled on the same basis in
each country. These enquiries were repeated in respect of the years 1927,
1929 and 1931 in view of the special interest of the International Labour
Conference in the reduction of hours of work in coal mines during these years.
For the purpose of the present Report, the enquiry was repeated for the

— 13 —
The data obtained related solely to aggregate figures for the
respective years \ Information was asked for (for underground
workers and for surface workers respectively) as to aggregate
wages paid for work done, aggregate amounts paid in family
allowances and paid holidays and the estimated value of allowances
(i.e. principally for free or cheap coal and free or cheap housing)
since these elements of remuneration play an important part in
the remuneration of coal-mining workers in many countries. Thus,
the total amount paid out for earnings in cash or in kind was
obtained. Information was also asked as to the total number of
shifts worked and lost, the average number of workers and the
output of saleable and commercially disposable coal. Thus, by
means of these elements, it was possible to calculate, by dividing
total earnings by the number of shifts and the average number
of workers, average earnings per shift and per year for underground
and surface workers separately. The special enquiries mentioned
above also covered hours of work, and by means of these data it
was possible to compute hourly earnings from the earnings per shift.
All these computations have been made by the International Labour
Office from the original returns supplied by the Governments. It will
be found-that these computations differ slightly in some cases
from those published in the national publications of the different
countries, due partly to the different definition of earnings, and
partly to different methods of calculation. It has been necessary,
however, in certain cases to use data of earnings per worker taken
directly from the national publications, especially for countries
years 1933, 1935 and 1936. The results of previous enquiries are given in
the following:
Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry (in 1925). Studies
and Reports, Series D (Wages and Hours of Work), No. 18. Geneva,
1928. 279 pp.
" Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry in 1927 " in
International Labour Review, Vol. XX, No. 4, October 1929 (Wages),
and No. 6, December 1929 (Hours of Work).
" Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry in 1929 " in
International Labour Review, Vol. XXIII, No. 5, May 1931.
" Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry in 1931 " in
International Labour Review, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, September 1933.
Principles and Methods of Wage Determination in the Coal-Mining Industry.
Studies and Reports, Series D, No. 20, Annex I—Comparison of Wages
in European Coal Mines, 1925, 1927 and 1929. Geneva, 1931. 104 pp.
1
The data obtained cover for each enquiry all, or practically all, the mining
workers in each country. This is a considerable advantage compared with
the wage data for other industries, which usually relate to only a selection
of establishments, and the figures are thus fully representative of the coalmining industry in each country. For no other industry are comprehensive
international data of this kind available.

— 14 —
which did not reply to the special Office enquiries for recent years ;
in some cases the value of earnings in kind are not included in
these figures, and the categories of workers covered do not
correspond exactly with those covered by the Office enquiry.
In addition to this information on the actual remuneration of
the workers, information was also obtained as to the amount paid
by employers for compulsory social insurance. These amounts
do not form part of the remuneration at the disposal of the worker
and are therefore not considered in this chapter. They are,
however, considered in the chapters dealing with labour costs
and social insurance.

II.

COMPOSITION OF TOTAL EARNINGS

The coal-mining industry is peculiar in that, in addition to the
money wages paid to the workers for work done, payments in
kind are frequently made, such as coal, either free or at reduced
prices, housing accommodation, also either free or at reduced
prices, or payments in lieu of such accommodation. In most
countries also payments for holidays are made, as well as family
allowances paid to married workers. The total of these items
is described as total earnings, as distinct from money wages, which
relate solely to payments in cash for work done.
In the following table (table I) the relative importance of these
different items in the total earnings is given for the years 1929 and
1935 and 1936. These years have been selected, the first as
representing a period of relative prosperity and the two others as
the latest for which comparative data have been received for the
different countries. The first column shows the proportion of net
money wages, i.e. the amounts received by the worker for work done
after deduction of the workman's contributions to social insurance.
These contributions, which are usually deducted by the employer
from wages, are shown in column 2. Column 3 shows the value
of other allowances in cash and columns 1-3 thus together cover
the amount in cash which the workman receives. The other allowances are given in columns 4, 5 and 6.
These figures must be interpreted with certain reservations, for
the computation of the elements other than money wages is a
difficult matter and it is possible t h a t the methods of estimating
the value of allowances in kind has not been exactly the same in
each of the different countries. It is, however, possible to notice

— 15 —
TABLE I.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF
TOTAL EARNINGS IN COAL MINING

Country
(or district)

Year

Germany :
Ruhr . . .

1929

Upper Silesia

1935
1936
1929

WorkHous- Payers'
Allow- Free ing and ments
Net
other
social ances
and
for
money insurallowin
cheap ances holiwages ance
cash
days
coal
in
contributions
kind
(3)
(i)
W
(6)
(2)
(5)
79.5

13.2

2.9
1

80.9 ! 1 3 . 9
81.2 ! 13.9 !
13.9
78.8

1.5

* 2
* 1

2.7

2.6 |

*
5.2 !
4.9 !
* |

Total
earnings
(Dto
(6)
= 100
O)

2.9

100

2.0

100
100
100

* 2
78.4 ! 14.8 !
6.8 !
100
* 1
78.8 ! 14.6 !
100
6.6 1
*
Belgium . . .
2.0
100
2.1
92.0
3.9
*
*
2.5
100
4.0
3.4
90.1
*
2.5
100
3.7
1.8
3.5
88.5
*
3.2
100
France. . . .
2.1
*
5.1
80.3
9.3
3.9
100
2.6
*
11.9
5.9
75.7
3.6
100
2.6
10.8
3.5
6.0
73.5
100
Great Britain :
2.5
*
1.5
*
2.6
93.4
100
2.4
*
1.5
*
3.1
93.0
100
2.3
1.4
*
2.9
*
93.4
100
0.7
Netherlands .
2.1
1.7
4.2
6.7
84.6
100
0.5
3.3
5.8
1.1
8.2
81.1
100
0.5
3.1
5.4
1.0
7.3
82.7
100
3.9
Poland . . .
2.5
5.3
5.7
7.7
74.9
100
5.2
4.1
6.7
12.0
3.2
68.8
100
4.8
4.1
6.6
11.6
3.2
69.7
100
6.4
Czechoslovakia
2.3
2.8
6.1
1.1
81.3
100
9.3
3.6
2.8
8.4
1.1
74.8
100
8.9
3.4
2.5
8.4
1.0
75.8
i Figures based on statistics including ancillary establishments (cokeries, briquette
works).
2 Included in net money wages (col. i).

1935
1936
1929
1935
1936
1929
1935
1936
1929
1935
1936
1929
1935
1936
1929
1935
1936
1929
1935
1936

general tendencies in these tables. Thus, the amounts deducted
for workers' social insurance contributions varied in 1936 from about
3 per cent, in Great Britain and Belgium to nearly 12 per cent, in
Poland and about 14 per cent, in Germany. Allowances in cash
(chiefly family allowances) varied from about 2% in Czechoslovakia
to about 63/4 per cent, of total earnings in Poland ; allowances in coal,
practically non-existent in the Netherlands, were estimated at about
2y2 per cent, in France and Great Britain, and about 9 per cent, in
Czechoslovakia; other allowances (chiefly housing) were non-existent
in Belgium but amounted to 5-6 per cent, of total earnings in Germany and nearly 11 per cent, in France. Payments for holidays

— 16 —
were fairly uniform ; they varied from 2 to 4 per cent, and were
payable in all countries except Great Britain x.
For the countries included in the table, gross money wages (columns 1 and 2), form the highest proportion of total earnings in Great
Britain where they amounted to about 96 per cent.; and the
lowest proportion in Poland and France where they amounted
to about 80 per cent. If family allowances are included however
(which do not exist in Great Britain) the proportions in these
two countries rise to about 85 per cent. For further analysis of
these data, especially as regards social insurance contributions and
other social charges, the reader, is referred to the chapter on
social insurance.
Figures in this table, it should be emphasised, only show the
percentages which these elements form of total earnings and it
does not follow that a higher percentage in one country than
another means that the amounts paid are absolutely higher in
the first country than in the second. A high percentage may arise
from the fact that wages in cash, which form the largest part of
total remuneration, are relatively low. Similar considerations
apply to the comparison between different countries at the dates
considered, viz. 1929, 1935 and 1936. In a general way, it appears
that the proportion of net money wages has somewhat diminished
and that all other forms of remuneration have increased. This
is due partly to an increase in social services but also to reductions
in wages : if contributions remain constant, while wages are reduced,
the percentage which they form of the total rises. In every country,
the percentage devoted to .social insurance contributions has
increased from 1929 to 1935; especially is this the case in Poland.

III.

EARNINGS IN COAL MINING, PER HOUR, PER SHIFT AND
PER YEAR

The calculations made by the Office from the data furnished
by the different Governments are given in table II for the years
1929, 1933, 1935 and 1936 2. Some of the data, however, have
been taken from national publications, chiefly those for Canada,
Japan and the United States and also for Germany since 1933,
and the data are not quite comparable with those of other countries ;
1
For the extra-European countries, comparable data are not available;
but some information for these countries is given in Chapter IV.
2
Figures for the years 1925, 1927 and 1931 will be found in the sources
cited on p. 13.

TABLE II A.
Country (or district)
and category
Germany:
Ruhr . . .
U p p e r Silesia
Belgium
. .
France
. . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .
Czechoslovakia
United States: bi
tuminous coal
J a p a n : males .
Germany:
Ruhr
. . . .
Upper Silesia
Belgium
. .
France . . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .
Czechoslovakia
Canada . . .
United States: bi
tuminous coal
J a p a n : males .
Union of South
Africa . . . .

AVERAGE EARNINGS PER HOUR AND PER MAN-SHIFT (OR
Currency

Underground

1929
<, 1lrta - p
öunac
-

1933
All
workers

Underground

Surface

All
workers
Earnings

RM.
RM.
Fr.
Fr.
s.d.
Fl.
ZI.
Kö.

1.22
0.91
0.92
0.68
1
7.11
4.96 !
5.38
3.73
1 2i/ 2 0 11
0.74 !
0.56 !
1.33 2
1.13
6.77
5.07
0.669

Yen

0.549

RM. 9.72
7.76
RM. 7.35
6.14
Fr. 57.34 i 39.67 1
29.76
Fr. 42.34
7 4i/ 2
s . d . 10 0 %
i
6.07
4.47 1
Fl.
9.06
ZI. 10.83
50.56
39.31
Kö.

5.44
Yen
s.d.
s.d.

4.81

*
*
*

*
*
*
*
' *
*
*
*

0.98 4
0.76 4
5.38 !
5.33
1 32/5
0.67 !
1.19 2
6.87

0.659 3
0.202 4

0.412

9.36
7.08
51.85
38.62
9 6
5.58
10.25
47.94
5.49 6
5.38
1.90

3
5

2 oy47
3 3V

Underground

3
3
0
0
0
5

*
*

*
*
•
*
*
*
*
*

per hour
1.00 4
0.80 4
5.20 l
5.35
1 32/6
0.66 !
1.16 2
6.65

0.399 3

0.410 3
0.171 4

*
*

3.95 x
3.90
0 11 Vi
0.53 !
1.03
5.19

Earnings per man-s
6e
8.02 6
6
7.82 6
6.43 5 6 7.42
5.14 6 6 5.85 5 6 6.37 6
5
6.11 5
41.56 ! 30
43.06 ! 31.56 l 39.41
31.22
38.20
31
41.79
41.65
4
9 4 / 5 10 2V5
10 0 %
1 31/3
5.36 !
4.26 !
4.99
5.34 '
4
9.22
7
8.23
9.31
9.77
51.29
40.24
48.36
49.69
39
6
4.41
*
*
*
3.35

*
*
*

1 These averages include an estimate of non-money earnings. —
work in Upper Silesia and Dombrowa. — s Figures based on selected
basis of statistics in national publications. — s Figures taken from
(cokeries, briquette works, etc.). — ' Non-Europeans. — s Europeans

3.40

*
*
*

3.35
1.58

3
5

1 11 '
3 5y48

*
*
*
*

2 Figures obtained by dividing earni
establishments. — * Figures calcula
national publications. — « Averag
and non-Europeans.

— 18 —
items other than payments in cash not being taken fully into
consideration. Separate figures are given for surface and underground workers.
In table II A the lower half gives earnings per shift computed
by dividing gross earnings by the number of shifts, and the upper
half gives earnings per hour computed by dividing these earnings
per shift by the average time of presence in the mine for underground workers and the actual duration of work for surface
workers *.
It will be noticed that in all cases wages of surface workers are
lower than those of underground workers : the latter are to a much
greater extent skilled or semi-skilled workers and almost exclusively men, whereas the former contain more unskilled workers,
and also cover in certain countries a proportion of women 2. In
some cases, older workers who are no longer fit to work underground
are employed on the surface. For hourly earnings, the proportion
between earnings of surface workers and underground workers
is about 3 to 4; for earnings per shift, it is about the same, except
for Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland, where it is about 4 to 5.
These proportions remained fairly constant from 1929 to 1936.
In addition to earnings per hour and earnings per shift which
are readily computed from the original data of the enquiry, it is
possible to give some indication as to the average annual earnings
per worker in coal mining. As is noted in the chapter on employment and unemployment, there is considerable irregularity in
coal-mining employment, and the relatively high level of daily
earnings in some cases does not necessarily mean that this is
the same for annual earnings ; for daily earnings are not necessarily
obtained on each working day throughout the year. Some indications of the extent of this can be seen from the following table
(table II B), which shows the average number of shifts per year
and per worker for recent years, and on the other hand the annual
earnings per worker, distinguishing underground and surface
workers. The first of these figures has been obtained, as a general
rule, by dividing the total number of shifts worked by the average
number of workers, and the second by dividing the aggregate
earnings by this average number of workers 3.
1
For further details on the compilation of the statistics of hours of work
for2 underground and surface workers, see Appendix.
See Chapter I for information as to the employment of women in coal
mines.
3
For further details on this subject, see Appendix.

TABLE II B .

Country (or
district)

Currency

Germany :
Ruhr
Upper Silesia .
Belgium
. . . .
France
Great Britain 3 . .
Netherlands . . .
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Canada
United S t a t e s : bit u m i n o u s coal .
Union of South
Africa

(1)

AVERAGE

Underground

Surface

RM. 2,638
2,287
1,781
RM. 2,009
1
Fr. 17,463 1 2 , 5 0 1 !
8,482
Fr. 11,415
£ s . d . 125 13 3 105 11 8
1,636 ! 1,229!
Fl.
2,818
3,083
ZI.
13,869 12,087

Kö

£s.d.
£s.d.

TABLE

EARNINGS PER YEAR, PER

1929

I I B.

(2)

All

Under-

workers

ground

Germany :
Ruhr
U p p e r Silesia . . .

öunace

1,812 2 1,713 2 '
2,578
1,960
1,490 2 1,348 2 7
15,957
1 1 , 9 9 3 ! 9,222 !
9,711 7,985
10,577
121 17 7 117 4 5 99 5 14
1,338 ! 1.145
1,514
2,156 2,004
3,002
9,528 9,765
13,489
*
*
1,385 2
1,253*

8 4

*
*

8'
10'

AVERAGE

All

workers

Underground

1,786 2 ' 2,089 2 1,8
1,453 2 ' 1,705 2 1,4
11,143
l l , 6 3 4 i 9,0
9,174
9,990 8,2
113 13 4 126 3 5 10
1,276
l , 1 5 0 i l,4
2,105
2,120 1,9
9,580
9,893 9,9
2
802
*

*
26 11 9 B
47 11 9 6

*
*

NUMBER O F MAN -SHIFTS P E R

1929
Country (or district)

WORK

1933

YEA

1933

Underground

Surface

All
workers

Underground

Surface

All
workers

Underground

271
273
305
270
250
270
285
274

295
290
315
285
286
275
311
308

275
277
308
274
257
271
293
281
*

232
244
279
233
234
256
221
186
213

257
259
292
256
273
256
244
243
213

237
247
283
240
242
256
228
198
213

260
268
280
239
248
249
228
199
241

France
Great Britain 3 . . .
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia....
*
Canada
*
United S t a t e s : bitumi*
*
*
*
*
*
219 s
nous coal
*
*
*
*
*
277«
Union of South Africa
*
i These averages include an estimate of non-money wages. — 2 Figures taken from national publication
of numbers of workers, not strictly comparable with the averages for other countries. — * Figures taken f
8 Europeans and non-Europeans. — ' Averages covering workers in ancillary establishments (cokeries, b
days of operation compiled by the U.S. Bureau of Mines : figures slightly higher by definition than the number
lost during the days when mine was working.

— 20 —

The data, it should be emphasised, cannot be regarded as more
than very approximate, since apart from possible differences in
the scope and method of estimating aggregate wages bill and total
shifts worked, to which attention has already been called, the
differences in the methods of estimating the " average annual
number of workers " make the figures not strictly comparable
from one country to another. Moreover, they do not allow for
the fact that a mining worker may be employed in more than
one mining establishment during the course of the year. They
can be considered, however, as giving a rough indication of the
average amount drawn by a mining worker in the course of a
year in the form of wages and the other elements in remuneration
noted above, as well as the relation between annual earnings and
earnings per shift.
These various data on earnings are significant, however, in
their relation to those for other industries and in relation to their
changes in the last ten years which are considered in the next
sections.
IV.

COMPARISONS OF EARNINGS IN GOAL MINING AND OTHER
INDUSTRIES

It would, no doubt, be of great interest to be able to compare
earnings in coal mining with those in other industries in the different
coal-mining countries, but the question is complicated by the
great variety in the character of employment and in the remuneration of workers in the coal and other industries and the different
methods of computing wages which it is necessary to take into
account if the relations between earnings are to be correctly
interpreted.
In table III some indications are given as to average wages in
industry, chiefly manufacturing industries, on the one hand for
men, skilled and unskilled, on the other hand for workers of both
sexes. These figures are far from being comparable with those of
miners' earnings, since they are compiled by different methods
and relate sometimes to rates and sometimes to earnings 1 . As is
pointed out above, miners' earnings include estimates for various
1
Rates, the only data available in certain cases, refer to standards, or to
minima applied to certain occupations and it is difficult to say how far they
are representative of wages actually paid to all workers in the industry;
earnings are usually more representative since they give the wages actually
paid to all workers in the establishments covered but they are often based
on a selection of establishments in which earnings may be higher than those
which would be given by all establishments.

TABLE III.

AVERAGE WAGES PER HOUR (RATES OR EARNINGS) IN MANUFAC
COAL-MINING COUNTRIES

1929
Country

Currency

Nature
of the
data

Males
skilled

Germany

. . . .

United S t a t e s :
B.L.S
N.I.C.B. . . .
France (all towns)
Great Britain . .
Japan4 . . . .
Poland
Czechoslovakia .

Rpf.

rates

Rpf.

earnings

Cents

earnings

Cents
FT,

s. d.
Yen
Zl.
Kö.

unskilled

Males
and
females

Males
skilled

unskilled

Males
and
females

*
58.9

*
0.223

*
4.37

55.0 ;
40.1
51.8
4.50 I
*
*
*
0.276
0.74

M
skilled
78.3
7

78.6 | 62.3
73.7 x

1101.1 | 79.4
1
96.6x

J 66.8
48.6
)
62.5
4.40 |
*
rates
earnings
*
*
earnings
0.285
earnings
minimum
*
rates 6
earnings

1933

46.0
49.1

*
0.240
0.66

66.2
6
4.41
1
0
0

4.47

i Calculated by the International Labour Oillce by weighting the figures of skilled and unskilled wor
by the International Labour Olllce from statistics of establishments (total wages paid divided by total hou
— * Statistics of Imperial Cabinet. — s Minimum rates generally lower than rates actually paid. — e Figu
earnings by average number of hours worked; for adult males the average is about Is. 4'/2d.

— 22 —

items not covered by money wages. Such items are not usually
included in the wages statistics of other industries. Payments in
kind are of less importance in these industries, yet paid holidays
are now fairly common, and no account is usually taken in the
wages statistics of these industries of this element.
It is also desirable to confine the comparison to earnings per
hour, since this is a fixed unit of time, whereas the shift, day
and week are periods of varying length. A comparison of the data
in tables II and III will show that miners' wages are in many
countries superior to those in manufacturing industries. In making
such comparisons, however, it must be kept in mind that mining
workers, especially in those countries covered by table III, are
principally adult males, very few women and young persons being
employed. It would therefore be more appropriate to compare mining
wages with those of adult males in other industries if such information were available. Moreover, especially among underground
workers, the proportion of skilled and semi-skilled men is greater
than in many other industries. An exact comparison would require
separate statistics for the different categories of workers, skilled,
semi-skilled and unskilled, but this information is not available for
the coal-mining industry, where averages for all underground and
all surface workers only are available.
If comparisons between males are made, it will be seen that in
many cases hourly earnings in mining are higher than those in
industry. Thus in the United States in 1936, average hourly
earnings of underground coal miners were about 79 cents and of
surface workers about 66 cents, whereas the figure for skilled workers
in manufacturing industries was about 68 cents and for unskilled
43 cents. It should be noted, however, that in 1933 in this country,
the position was reversed, the drastic fall in miners' wages in this
year bringing them below wages in manufacturing industries.
In Germany hourly earnings of underground workers are estimated
at about 80 Pf. in Upper Silesia and 1.00 RM. in the Ruhr, whereas
hourly rates of wages for skilled workers in industry in general are
estimated at 78.3 Pf. and for unskilled 62.3 Rpf. In France a
similar relation (6.08 fr. and 5.08 fr. respectively) holds. In Great
Britain the average hourly earnings of underground workers were
Is. 32/5d. in 1935, while the average hourly earnings of males in
other industries may be estimated in October 1935 at about Is. 21/2d-1
1
For adult males, the figure has been estimated by the Economist (4 September 1937) at about Is. 4%d. Since 1935, however, there has been a
considerable rise in coal miners' wages, in Great Britain.

— 23 —
In Japan, on the other hand, hourly earnings of men in mining
were about 0.2 yen compared with about 0.26 yen in industries 1.
The outstanding example of higher wages is, however, in Poland,
where average hourly earnings in coal mines amounted in 1935 and
1936 to about 1.16 zloty for underground workers and 0.97 zloty for
surface workers, whereas the average hourly wages for men in
manufacturing industries is given as 0.70-0.71 zloty in these years.
In all these examples, it should not be forgotten, as already stated,
that the average wages in industry are probably somewhat too low
as compared with those of coal mining, since account is not always
taken of those subsidiary items of remuneration such as holidays
with pay, etc., which are allowed for in nearly every case in coal
mining.
Though this rough comparison would tend to show t h a t hourly
wages are in general higher than those in manufacturing industries,
it would, however, be erroneous to conclude from this that mining
workers enjoy an annual income from their work higher than t h a t
of workers in other industries. It was noted in the previous section
that the number of shifts worked on an average per worker per
year was much inferior to that of the number which could have
been worked, i.e. about 300 per annum, and that this difference
varied considerably from one country to another, and even in the
same country from one year to another. In other branches of
industry, the factors determining irregularity of employment, for
example the number of hours actually worked per day and the
number of days worked per year per worker, are of importance if
one desires to determine the annual earnings of the workers in
these industries, but unfortunately practically no information is
available to make calculations similar to those which have been
made for the mining industry. Statistics are in fact available for
many industries as to the actual hours worked per worker per day
or per week, but information as to the number of days actually
worked on an average per year per worker in different industries
in these countries is practically non-existent. If seasonal industries,
however, are left on one side, it would appear from the information
available as to unemployment and short time that the average
number of hours and days worked per worker per year is in years
of normal activity somewhat higher in other industries than in
coal mining. To the extent that this is so, the difference between
1
It should be noted, however, that the figures for mining in Japan do not
include all the allowances, etc., included in the statistics of other countries.

— 24 —
the hourly wages of mining workers and other industries is to some
extent compensated by this fact.

TREND OF EARNINGS IN MINING INDUSTRY AND IN OTHER
INDUSTRIES

The previous paragraphs have summarised the position as regards
the remuneration of mine workers for certain years. In this section
it is proposed to discuss the general trend in earnings in coal mining
during the last ten years, namely from the years 1927 to 1936,
and to compare these changes with the changes in earnings
of other industrial workers in so far as such information is
available.
This analysis is made in the following tables (tables IV and V).
In the first table, total earnings per hour and per shift in coal
mines have been expressed in the form of index numbers with the
year 1929 as base 100. The figures have been calculated by the
Office by using in general the same series of earnings as those
given in table II. The table also gives the available information
concerning the general movement of wages in industry in general,
figures which are compiled and published regularly by the International Labour Office in the International Labour Review and the
Year-Book of Labour Statistics. Moreover, it should be noted that
for the second half of the table some of the series have a scope
considerably beyond that of manufacturing industries and include
in some cases transport, commerce, mining and even agriculture ; the
scope of the series is indicated briefly in the table. Although the
reservations made in the previous section concerning differences
in the character and scope of these data apply also to the figures
in this table, they are of less importance when it is a question of
comparing fluctuations in time in the form of index numbers.
It will be noticed t h a t earnings in coal mining have declined
generally since 1929 and 1931, but a tendency to rise is noticed in
recent years. In two countries, United States and Great Britain,
coal-mining wages were in 1929 also below those of 1926 or 1927.
In the former country the decline continued until 1933 when they
showed the biggest fall of any country, but rose rapidly in the
following years, so that in 1936 hourly earnings were even higher
than in 1929. In Great Britain the fluctuations were much less
marked, hourly earnings rose slightly in 1931 and 1933, but a

— 25 —

slight reduction in the hours of work reduced wages per shift
until 1933; in 1936 shift earnings were substantially above those
of 1929, while earnings per hour after a fall in 1929 rose gradually
until 1936. In other European countries—for example, Germany,
Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Poland and Czechoslovakia—
wages rose in 1929 and in several cases until 1931; a general
decline then ensued, somewhat heavy in Germany, Belgium and
Poland; less heavy in the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia; and
still less heavy in France. In 1936, however, a substantial rise
took place in France, both in hourly and shift earnings. Finally,
in Canada and Japan, the fall was considerable from 1929 to 1933
when wages rose until in 1936; at this date, Japanese wages were
at about the same level as in 1929.
If fluctuations in total earnings in coal mines are compared
with those of wages in other industries, it will be seen that the
general movement is similar. In Belgium, France and Canada,
earnings in mining declined somewhat more rapidly than those
in other industries; in other countries—for example, Germany,
Great Britain and Poland—the contrary movement is shown, so
t h a t mining wages in 1936 have declined somewhat less than those
of other industries. In the United States and Japan mining earnings suffered during the depression a larger reduction than those in
other industries, but by 1936 had increased to a slightly higher level.
In a general way, and in spite of certain divergences, the fluctuations
in mining earnings correspond to those in other industries, and
both reflect the changes in the general economic situation of
the country.
The above remarks on table IV concern only earnings per worker,
that is to say, the remuneration which a worker obtains per hour
or per shift when he is in employment. If it is desired to take into
account also fluctuations in the degree of employment, then it is
necessary to have recourse to another measure, viz. the total
amount paid in wages to workers as a whole. This information,
as pointed out above, was a basic element in the enquiry conducted
by the Office and there is therefore no difficulty in showing the
annual changes in the aggregate earnings of mining workers in
the different countries. These figures are given in the form of
index numbers in table V, to which have been added corresponding
data when available for changes in the aggregate wages bill for
industry in general or all economic branches. The latter data are
compiled in different ways in the various countries and are not
strictly comparable with those obtained for the mining industry;

TABLE IV.

INDEX

NUMBERS OF EARNINGS PER HOUR AND PER
IN COAL MINING AND IN OTHER INDUSTRIES

(Base: 1929 = 100)
Manufacturing industries (
economic branches (A

Coal mining

Country (or district) and
category

1927

1929

1933

1931

Earnings

Germany :
Ruhr: underground
surface . .
Upper Silesia: underground
. . . .
Belgium: underground
surface . .
France: underground
surface . .
Great Britain : underground
surface . . . .
Netherlands :
underground .
surface . . . .
Poland: underground
surface . .
Czechoslovakia:
underground .
surface . . . .
United States: bituminous coal:
underground . .
surface
Japan: all males . . .

90
90

100
100

1935

per

94
96

1929

1933

per

hour

83 4
751
80 1
99

1931

Wages

hour

85
100
97
85 1 100 !
90 1
88 1 1 0 0 !
93 !
93
100
104

1927

1936

•

87 4
88 4
79 1
731
78 ! 8 6 !
99
113

f.
\'

100

101

100

108

104

100

106

105

104

121

100

107

102

110
109

100
100

104
103

106
102

114
113

*
*

100

103

102

98
98
95

100
100
100

95
96
94

82
83
97

96 1 1 0 0 1
971
95 1 100 ! 102 1
87 2 1 0 0 2 I O 5 2
88
100
104
98
96

100
100

11739
10839
98 4

100
100
100

102
102

105
101

3
3
4

90
62
84

91 1
95 !
90 2
91

3
3
4

62
73
85

89 1
931
87 2
86
98
101

3
3
4

*
*
97

89 !
\
931
87 2
86
98
101

118
121
101

3
3
4

Earn ings per man -shift
Germany:
Ruhr : all workers .
Upper Silesia: all
workers . . . .
Belgium : all workers

Wages per day (or per hou

81 B6

8166

100

7966

100

83 6e 85 56 86 66

100

104

110

100

Netherlands : all workers

100

Poland : all workers. .

100

Czechoslovakia: all
workers . . . .

100

France : all workers .

Great Britain: all
workers . . . .

Canada : all workers. .

100

101

113

100

107

101

100

108

102

100

104

100

104

101

100

—

100

100' 99'8 95's 95's 95'8 \ 99
100 s 106 104 102 102

100

United States: bituminous coal, all workers 11538 100 3
Japan: all males . . .

Union of South Africa .
All workers
. . . .

*
*

100

91 3

62 3

*
94

i to s See notes to table II A. — 8 Figures for 1926. —
12 Including mining. — l s Per week. — i* Per hour.

*
6

95 .

Including mining and certain branches

TABLE V — INDEX NUMBERS OF AGGREGATE WAGES BILL (NOMINAL VALUE) IN COA
(Base: 1929 =
Country (of district) and
category
Germany :
R u h r : all workers

Coal mining
1927 | 1929 | 1931 | 1933 | 1935 | 1936

100)

Manufacturing industry (I
economic branches (
1927 | 1929 | 1931 | 1933 |

100

U p p e r Silesia: all
workers
. . . .
Belgium: all workers
F r a n c e : all workers .

[ 84

100

80
83
100

100
100
100

64
89
93

*
62
72

*
54
68

*
61
77

*
100

*
111

*
98

Great B r i t a i n : all
workers
. . . .

112

100

101

100

Netherlands : all
workers . . .

100

107

100

Poland : all workers

100

Czechoslovakia: all
workers

100

Canada : all workers.

92 4 100 4

66 4

51 4

62 4

—

100

United S t a t e s : all
workersx . . .

61 2

f 93

100

46 2

70 2

85 2

100

Union of South Africa:
all w o r k e r s 3 . . . .

105 4

100 2

100 4

80 4

70 4

85 4

92"

]

i Bituminous coal mining. — 2 Calculated by the International Labour Office on the basis of census
pay-rolls for intermediate years. •— s Europeans and non-Europeans. — * Based on figures taken from n
culture. — 6 including mining. — ' Including mining and certain branches of transport.

— 29 —
they should be used therefore with even greater reservations than
those of average wages per worker.
The index numbers of aggregate wages bill in coal mines show
reductions considerably greater than those shown by the previous
table of earnings per worker. Statistics of employment and
unemployment are analysed in another chapter, but it may be
said here that the decrease in employment made itself felt even
before reduction in wages and in every country aggregate money
wages fell considerably between 1929 and 1936, with one exception,
the Netherlands, where the reduction began about 1931. In
general, the figures reached their lowest points in the period
1933-1935. Expressed as a percentage of the figure in 1929 the
figure fell to 38 per cent, in Poland in 1935, to 54 per cent, in
Belgium and Czechoslovakia, 51 per cent, in Canada (1933), about
66 per cent, in France and the Netherlands, less than 50 per cent.
in the United States (1933), 77 per cent, in Great Britain (1933)
and 70 per cent, in South Africa. For Germany, comparable
data are not available for recent years, but the figure was about
56 per cent, in 1931. In 1936, however, a significant rise is shown
in all countries except Poland, but the level is still very much
below that of 1929.
If the fluctuations in the aggregate wages bill of coal-mining
workers are compared with the data available for other industries, a
similarity of movement is noticed analogous to that for earnings
per worker. It is to be noted, however, that in nearly all countries
and throughout the period reduction in coal-mining earnings has
been greater than in industrial workers' wages in general. For
the lowest point reached (1935 in general) the fall was for Poland
62 per cent, in mining compared with 55 per cent, in industry, for
France 32 per cent, compared with 15 per cent.; for Great Britain,
23 per cent. (1933) compared with 14 per cent.; forthe Netherlands
34 per cent, compared with 27 per cent, and for Czechoslovakia
46 per cent, compared with 36 per cent. For the United States,
for which the data available are less precise, the fall was roughly
the same in mining as in manufacturing, namely over 50 per cent. ;
the change in Canada is almost identical—a fall of about 50 per
cent, to 1931 in both mining and manufactures. The rise in recent
years in miners' earnings, referred to above, has also occurred in
wages in general, for every country for which data are available.
These changes are due to two factors: changes in the degree of
employment and changes in wage rates. Although there has been
some decline in most countries in earnings per hour (as seen from

— 30 —
table II), the chief factor in this drastic reduction of purchasing
power of mining workers is the fall in employment \

VI.

MOVEMENTS IN REAL WAGES

So far earnings and changes in earnings expressed in national
currency have alone been considered. These data, however, are
significant for an evaluation of the remuneration of the workers
only in so far as account is taken of the changes in the purchasing
power of the currency in which these wages are paid. When index
numbers of wages in a country are divided by index numbers
representing changes in the cost of living, it is possible to estimate
changes in so-called real wages. It should be kept in mind, however,
that cost-of-living index numbers are computed in different
countries by different methods and that they vary greatly in precision and sensitiveness as instruments of measure. Also as regards
their applicability to the wages of mining workers, they are subject
to special reservations. On the one hand, the official index numbers
of the cost of living are generally based on the principal urban
centres of the country and are not sufficiently representative of
fluctuations in the cost of living in mining districts, which are
often situated outside industrial towns. In some countries even,
the index numbers relate to one town only (for example, the
capital) and are therefore still less appropriate for measuring
changes in miners' cost of living. On the other hand, the fact
that coal-mining wages as defined in this chapter include allowances (in some cases substantial allowances) in kind (coal and
housing) makes the general cost-of-living index number which
includes these items of expenditure not strictly applicable
to miners' earnings. Annual estimates of the value of these
allowances from year to year in fact take account, at any
rate to some extent, of the changes in prices of these allowances.
In the absence of accurate information as to fluctuations in the
purchasing power of miners' wages in the various coal-mining
regions, it has been decided to use the usual index numbers for
the calculation of real wages, though it should be understood that
the results are very approximate and can Only give a very general
idea of fluctuations in real wages. The figures are given in table VI
and the figures in brackets indicate those cases in which the cost1

See Chapter III for statistics of employment and unemployment.

— 31 —
TABLE VI.

INDEX NUMBERS OF REAL EARNINGS PER HOUR AND
PER MAN-SHIFT (OR MAN-DAY) IN COAL MINING

(Base: 1929 = 100)
Country (or district) and
category

1927

1931

1929

1933

1935

Earnings per hour
Germany:
Ruhr: underground . . . .
surface
Upper Silesia: underground
surface . . .
Belgium: underground . . .
surface
France: underground
. . . .
surface
Great Britain : underground .
surface . . . .
Netherlands: underground . .
surface
. . . .
Poland: underground
. . . .
surface
Czechoslovakia: underground .
surface . . .
United States: bituminous coal:
underground
surface
Japan: all males
Germany:
Ruhr : all workers
Upper Silesia: all workers .
Belgium: all workers
. . . .
France : all workers
Great Britain : all workers . .
Netherlands : all workers . . .
Poland : all workers
Czechoslovakia: all workers .
Canada: all workers
United States: bituminous coal:
all workers
Japan : all males
Union of South Africa: all
workers

94
94
89
95

100
100
100
100

107
108
109
113

92 !
95 !
(100)
(104)
108

100 !
100 !
(100)
(100)
100

97 !
100 !
(101)
(104)
116

107

100

(%) 1

115
(108)
(113)

103 4

105"

109 4

108*

91 l
96 !
(106)
(112)
124

97 !
(114)
(120)
122

120

118

91 !

(109) 1 (110) 1
(114) ! (115) l
116 s
120 2

(95)i

(100)
(100)

84 2

100 2

100

116

118

(100)
(98)

(100)
(100)

(113)
(108)

(112)
(113)

(106)
(109)

*
*

100 3
100 3
(100)

103 3

81 3
96 3
(106)

*
*

(94)"

116 2

71s

(112)

(115)

Earnings per man-shift
94
92
92

100
100
100

106
109
97

(100)
107
(96)
77
(97)
93 6

(100)
100
(100)
100
(100)
100 5
100 3
(100) 6
100'
100 8

*
(95)
*

104 6 e
1 0 8 so

101 56
107 6 6

(102)
111
(110)
116
(111)
107 6

(106)
116
(108)
117
(111)
103 6

(113)
115
(108)
118
(106)
103 6

104 3
(110) 6
105'
112 s

81 3
(103)

109'
1198

*
6

(112) 6
108-'
116 8

i to s See notes to table II A.

of-living index number is subject to special reservations. Similar
calculations have been made for the aggregate wages bill of
miners and these are given in table VII.
The general movement of the indexes of real earnings both per
hour and per shift is very different from that shown by the movement of nominal wages. Owing to the general reduction of the

— 32 —

cost of living between 1929 and 1933, the reduction in nominal
earnings shown since 1929 is shown to be in nearly every country
a rise in real earnings; in 1936 real earnings per shift per worker
in practically all countries are at a level equal or superior to that
of 1929. The only exception is in fact Belgium, where real earnings
per shift fell in 1933 and 1935 to 92 per cent, of their level in
1929 with a slight rise in 1936. In Great Britain and Poland,
where the fluctuations in nominal wages were very different,
fluctuations in real wages show an almost continuous rise to 1936.
In the United States, on the other hand, the reduction in cost of
living has not been sufficiently great to compensate the particularly
heavy reduction in nominal earnings, and real earnings per shift
show a considerable reduction in 1933. In 1936, however, the
TABLE VII. —

INDEX NUMBERS OF AGGREGATE WAGES BILL
(REAL VALUE) IN COAL MINING

(Base: 1929 == 100)
Country (or district) and
category
Germany:
Ruhr: all workers . . .
Upper Silesia : all workers
Belgium: all workers . . .
France: all workers . . . .
Great Britain : all workers .
Netherlands : all workers . .
Poland : all workers . . . .
Czechoslovakia : all workers.
Canada : all workers . . . x .
United States: all workers .
Union of 3South Africa: all
workers

1927

1929

1931

1933

101
100
63
*
84
100
72
*
89
100
95
75
(109) (100)
(91)
(77)
109
100
95
90
(92) (100) (119)
(96)
68
100
89 • 56
(89) (100)
(87)
(63)
4
4
93
100 2
74 24
65 4
71
100
58 2
*
105 4

100 4

85 4

80 4

1935

193G

*
*

67
(78)
93
(81)
53
(58)
78 4
86 2

72
(84)
99
(88)
56
(60)
103 2

96 4

104 4

i Bituminous coal mining.
2 Calculated by the International Labour Office on the basis of censuses of mines of
1929 and 1935 and pay-roll statistics for intermediate years.
3
Europeans and non-Europeans.
* Indexes based on figures taken from national publications.

increase in nominal earnings has been greater than that of the
cost of living so that together with the reduction in hours
real hourly wages in 1936. were very considerably above those
of 1929.
When changes in the real value of aggregate wages bill are
considered, as shown in table VII, the situation is quite different.
The great reduction in nominal aggregate wages bill already noticed,

— 33 —

due largely to a contraction in employment, has by no means been
compensated by reductions in the cost of living and in every
country the total wages bill shows a substantial reduction between
the year 1929 and the years 1933-1935, amounting in some cases
to about 40 per cent. From 1933-1935 a change is noticed in nearly
all countries, due to some extent to an improvement in employment
but also to wage increases. This improvement, however, has not
been sufficient to bring back the level to that of 1929, except in
the United States and South Africa, where the figures for 1936
are slightly above the figure for 1929, and in Great Britain, where it
is almost the same as in 1929. In Poland it should be noted that
whereas real earnings per worker show the highest increase, this
country is the one which shows .the biggest reduction in the real
value of total earnings, the figures for 1935 and 1936 being little
more than half of those for 1929.
Finally, it should be noted that the figures given in this section
do not indicate either differences in purchasing power or cost of
living as between different countries. For such comparisons, it
will be necessary to have international cost-of-living index numbers
expressing the purchasing power of the different national currencies
and taking account of the different habits and standards of
consumption of the mining workers in various countries. The
computation of such index numbers raises a number of theoretical and practical difficulties for the solution of which data are
not available.
VII.

WAGES IN GOLD

The preceding sections have been confined to a consideration of
mining wages in the currency of their country and comparisons
of the changes which have occurred in earnings and in real earnings
in the different countries during the last ten years. This section
will deal with wages and their movements as expressed in uniform
currency. The data on this subject are of interest primarily in so
far as they bear upon labour costs as an element in international
trade and competition. This question is discussed in Vol. I,
Chapter VIII; it seems expedient, however, to present the wage
data on which that discussion is based in this chapter dealing
with the wage situation.
In converting wages in different countries, it is convenient to
choose a currency which has remained constant in gold content.
CR. II.

— 34 —

For this reason the Swiss franc is chosen at its gold parity up to
September 1936 \
The figures are given in table VIII, which show wages per hour
and wages per shift for the years 1929, 1933, 1935 and 1936,
expressed in gold francs and giving separate figures for both underground and surface workers. The data are approximate, being
based on the average rate of the change throughout the year, but
it will be seen that in 1929 the gold wages of the different countries
can be roughly arranged in four groups. In the first group is Japan,
in which gold wages per hour were about 50 cts. in 1929. The next
group comprises Poland, Czechoslovakia, France and Belgium,
in which gold wages per hour were about double those in Japan,
ranging from 0.66 cts. to 0.76 cts. for surface workers and from
about 0.77 cts: to 1.08 frs. for underground workers. The third
group consists of the European countries of Germany (the Ruhr),
Great Britain and the Netherlands, where gold wages are considerable higher than in the previous group, ranging from about 1.09
frs. to 1.18 frs. for surface workers and from about 1.46 to
1.55 frs. for underground workers. Finally, there are the two
countries of Canada and the United States, with gold wages about
double those of the previous.group. If earnings per shift are taken
instead of earnings per hour, the same order of countries obtains.
In the years 1933 to 1936 changes in the rates of the exchange and
to a certain extent changes in earnings modified considerably these
relations. Wages in Japan, due to the effect of the devaluation of
the yen, fell to about one-third of what they were in 1929 or 18 cts.
per hour. At about the same level as Japan were the wages of
coloured workers in South Africa (for which information for 1929
is not available). For the second group, gold wages showed relatively
little change in Poland, Czechoslovakia and France, but in Belgium,
owing to the effect both of the devaluation of the belga and reductions in earnings, gold wages fell considerably, though they still
remained considerably higher than those of the first group. The
figures for the Netherlands and Germany (although not quite complete for the latter country) show only a small reduction in these
years from their 1929 level. For Great Britain, however, principally
due to the effect of the devaluation of the pound in 1931, gold wages
declined considerably. Similar results are seen in Canada and the
United States, but these two countries still remain the countries^in
1

The Swiss franc was devalued in September 1936, and in the tables for
the year 1936 the average exchange rate for the period prior to the devaluation
has been used.

— 35 —

TABLE V i l i .

AVERAGE EARNINGS PER HOUR AND PER MAN-SHIFT

(OR MAN-DAY)

EXPRESSED

A COMMON

(GOLD SWISS FRANC) IN
1929
Country
(or district)

COAL MINING

1933

1935

1.46
1.10
1.00 !
1.08
1.52
1.55 1
0.77 2
1.02

1.09
0.82
0.69 1
0.75
1.16
1.18 x
0.66
0.76

3.48 3 2.85
0.48 4
Underground
and surface

1.18*
0.91 4
0.75 !
1.07
1.09
1.41 !
0.69 2
1.03

per hour

1.20 4
0.96 4
0.55 ! 0.52 l
0.78
1.07
0.80
0.97
1.11 ! 1.39 x
0.60
0.67 2
0.78
0.86

11.23 4 6
8.50 4 6
7.26
7.72
11.97
11.72
5.95
7.19
28.00*

1.52 3 1.48
0.17 4

27.98
4.56

3
4

2.54 e
4.14'

8.90

02 4 6

5.51
7.64
8.04
10.48
5.35
7.25
16.76
12.40
1.58

3
4

1.63 e
2.92'

Underground
and surface
p ir

*
*

0.16

Underground
and surface

1.20 4
0.97 4
0.39 ! 0.57 !
0.78
1.22
1.06
0.71
1.09 ! 1.39 !
0.56
0.67 2
0.86
0?67

*
*

Earnings
Germany :
Ruhr. . . .
U p p e r Silesia
Belgium . . .
France . . . .
Great Britain .
Netherlands . .
Poland . . . .
Czechoslovakia
Canada
. . .
United States :
bituminous
coal . . .
J a p a n : males .
Union of South
Africa . . .

1936

Under- Surface Under- Surface Under- Surface Under- Surface
ground
ground
ground
ground
Earnings

Germany :
Ruhr. . . .
U p p e r Silesia
Belgium . . .
France . . . .
Great Britain .
Netherlands . .
Poland . . . .
Czechoslovakia
United S t a t e s :
bituminous
coal . . .
J a p a n : males .

CURRENCY

0.43 !
0.90
0.80
1.09 !
0.56
0.67

2.44 3 2.06
0.18 4

Underground
and surface

manshift
9.06 4 5
7,24 i s
3.82
7.60
7.19
10.29
5.08
6.11
13.86 4 .

1.60

1.43 o
2.52'

9.05
7

3 2

4 6

4.18
8.71
7.88
10.21
5.06
6.12

—
*

1.69

1.45 8
2.55'

i Averages including an estimate of non-money earnings.
s Figures obtained by dividing earnings per shift by a weighted average of hours of
work in Upper Silesia and Dombrowa.
3 Figures based on selected establishments.
* Figures based on data taken from national publications.
6 Including ancillary establishments.
8 Non-Européens.
' Europeans and non-Europeans.

— 36 —

which the gold value of earnings was the highest. Whereas the range
in 1929 between the highest and the lowest (United States and
Japan) was about 6 or 7 to 1, in 1936 the relation was more nearly
12 to 1.
These relations between country and country, although only
very approximate, are suggestive, but it would be erroneous to
draw any final conclusions from them without taking account of
the reservations made in this chapter and the various factors
such as the capacity of production and methods of coal production
which are discussed in Vol. I of this Report.

CHAPTER III
EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

After the war the coal-mining industry passed through an acute
period of depression, the extent of which has already been analysed
in Vol. I of the present Report. The resulting situation for
the workers was often extremely serious, especially as the general
economic depression was superimposed on the existing slump in the
coal-mining industry in several of the important coal-producing
countries. Thus, cyclical unemployment aggravated the consequences of an unemployment which was due to deeper and more permanent causes. Even in 1928, before the general depression, the
percentage of unemployment among miners in Great Britain was
22.3, and Poland in 1927 had 20,000 miners out of work.
The development of unemployment from 1929 to 1936 in the
principal coal-producing countries is shown in the table contained
in the Statistical Appendix of this volume. Data concerning unemployment are not available, however, for Japan or the United States,
and those for France are far from representative. Moreover,
while the available data bring out the development of unemployment in general, they do not show its exact intensity. Except for a
very few countries, the statistics do not supply separate figures
for short time, which was an important consequence of the
depression in the mining industry, as in others.
The statistics may be of two types, showing either the percentage
of unemployment or the absolute number of workers unemployed.
The figures showing the percentage of miners out of work have
the advantage of bringing out more clearly than the absolute
figures the seriousness of unemployment, and of thus providing a
better basis for comparisons, in so far as comparison is possible
at all. Such figures are available for Belgium, Canada, Great
Britain and the Netherlands.
In Belgium the mining industry passed through a serious depression. The number of workers completely unemployed has, however, remained relatively low. From 1932 to 1935 it fluctuated

— 38 —

between 5.4 and 7.8 per cent., and in November 1937 it was 3.5 per
cent. On the other hand, the proportion of workers on short time
was high: about 30 per cent, in 1932 and 1933, 27.3 per cent, in 1934,
and 22.2 per cent, in 1935. A great improvement took place in
1936, when the figure fell to 6.3 per cent., and in 1937 (November),
when it reached 1.3 per cent. The percentage of unemployed
workers in the coal mines of Canada was 7.2 in 1930, and fluctuated
between 11.1 and 12.8 from 1-931 to 1936; in April 1936 it exceeded
20 per cent., falling again in March 1937 to 17 per cent, and in
November of that year to 5.8 per cent. In Great Britain the percentage of coal miners unemployed, including these temporarily stopped,
was quite high even in 1929, which was a prosperous year; it was
then 16.2. The situation became worse in the following years, and the
proportion of miners unemployed reached the record figure of
34 per cent, in 1932. It fell when trade in general improved, but
the annual average percentage of unemployment was still 21.8 per
cent, in 1936. It had fallen to 11.5 per cent, in December 1937.
In the Netherlands the data do not distinguish between full-time
unemployment and short time. The percentage of unemployment
rose rapidly from 2.9 in 1931 to 26.4 in 1932, and continued until it
reached 73.1 in 1935 (21.3 per cent, of mining days were lost through
unemployment). The percentage was still 60 in June 1936, but it
fell to 8.2 in December of that year and to 4.1 in November 1937
(4.1 per cent, of mining days were lost through unemployment).
For the other countries included in the table, the figures refer
either to the absolute number of registered unemployed persons
or to the absolute number of applicants for employment registered
with the employment exchanges. Although these figures do not
reveal the ratio of unemployed persons to the total number of
workers employed in the industry in question, they at least show
the trend of unemployment during the period under consideration.
A study of these figures confirms the seriousness of the slump.
In Czechoslovakia, where there was practically no unemployment
in coal mines before the depression, it became relatively serious
in 1932 (15,675); in 1933 it reached 17,471; the figure then fell
to 12,603 in 1936 and 4,124 in November 1937.
In Germany the number of unemployed miners reached its
highest point in 1932, when it was three times the 1930 figure
(211,955 as against 66,061), and fell again to the relatively low
figure of 6,726 by September and 11,268 in December 1937. In
Poland unemployment was fairly high in 1932, when more than
20,000 miners were out of work. During the following years the

— 39 —
number was round about 30,000, and it was not until 1936 t h a t it
fell to 26,000, declining to about 18,000 by the end of 1937.
A comparison of these figures shows that, generally speaking,
unemployment in the mining industry remained serious until quite
recently.
The aggregate figures for unemployment obviously
cannot clearly reveal the extent to which it was due to the different
factors concerned: cyclical, technological and structural.
The
action of these three factors was combined, and their relative
importance varied at different stages of the depression and in
different countries.
In the following pages an effort will be made to describe each
of these factors, and to discover what influence it had on unemployment in the mining industry.
I.

T H E CYCLICAL FACTOR

In many cases the business cycle was not the starting point of
the slump in the coal-mining industry, but its influence can
certainly be traced in practically every country. As a result of the
decline in industrial production, the world consumption of coal
decreased appreciably, and the reduction in demand meant a
decline in the amount of coal extracted.
Although it is impossible to isolate the influence of the
cyclical factor, an attempt will be made to assess its importance
by comparing the trend of the cyclical depression with t h a t
of the slump in the mining industry, using as a basis the
employment figures. These figures show more clearly than
the unemployment figures the general trend of the depression.
Unemployment figures are not available for a certain number
of coal-producing countries and are fragmentary for others.
Besides, even in countries in which unemployment was particularly
serious in mines, and in which data are available, the decrease in the
number of workers employed was greater than the increase in unemployment shown in the statistics. This is due in part to the fact
that a certain number of workers changed, or tried to change, their
occupation, and if they found temporary employment elsewhere
they were not shown in the unemployment statistics for the mining
industry. Moreover, during the depression the number of workers
who died or were pensioned off was far in excess of the number of
new workers engaged, which was kept at a strict minimum. Again,
countries like France, which employed foreign workers, repatriated
a large number of those workers, and they are therefore not shown

— 40 —

in the unemployment figures. It must be remembered, however,
that the employment figures are subject to reservations similar
to those already made with regard to the unemployment figures.
In practically every case they show the total number of workers
employed without making a distinction between those working
full time and those on short time. The depression may therefore be considered in general as having been more serious than
is revealed in the employment figures.
The following table provides a basis for comparing the level of
employment in coal mines with the general level of employment
in a certain number of countries. It should be noted that the
" general " series available in the different countries and quoted
in the following tables differ widely in economic scope; some cover
only manufacturing industry, while others include mines and
branches of transport and commerce, and in a few cases agriculture;
again, some series relate only to manual workers and others also
include salaried employees. Further, several of the general series
are not based on complete returns, as most of the coal series are,
but only on samples which may not be quite representative 1 .
All these differences have, of course, an influence on the fluctuations
shown by the series and this must be taken into account when
comparing, country by country, employment in coal mines with
employment in general.
In order to facilitate the analysis of the data given in the table,
it has been thought desirable to classify the countries in groups
according to the trend of employment in the coal-mining industry.
(1) Countries in which the decrease in employment in mines was
constant, and continued even after the revival in general economic
activity. These countries include Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France,
Great Britain and Poland.
In Belgium the maximum number of persons employed in mines
was 174,533 in 1927. From that time onwards the figure fell
gradually during the whole period covered by the table. The index
fell from 100 in 1927 to 69 in 1936, whereas the general index of
employment reached its minimum of 78.2 in 1933, and has risen
again to 85.3 in 1936. In Czechoslovakia the number of workers
employed in coal mines also fell steadily from 76,916 in 1921 to 57,648
1
For two countries, Belgium and the Netherlands, the indices are calculated on the percentage of employed and not on the number employed
as in most other cases.

— 41 —

TABLE

—

FLUCTUATIONS
AND

EMPLOYMENT

GENERAL,

COAL

MINING,

1927-1936 *

(Basis: 1927 = 100)
Countries
and industries
Belgium :
Coal
In general.
Canada :
Coal
In general.
Czechoslovakia
Coal
I n general.
France :
Coal i
In general.
Coal

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

. .

93.6
100.2

87.0
100.0

89.0
96.6

87.5
87.4

79.2
78.2

77.3
81.1

72.0
78.3

69.1
79.9

. .

101.6
106.9

99.9
113.5

98.0
107.3

93.6
96.8

90.6
82.3

87.6
80.1

87.2
91.8

88.0
95.0

. .

100.06 10t.5
100.06 100.7

101.6
98.3

95.2
92.9

89.3
83.1

81.7
75.9

76.1
75.5

74.0
77.1

93.3

93.4

93.6
100.0
100.0

85.9
92.5
91.7

79.6
80.9
85.0

76.5
79.4
81.7

71.6
76.9
76.4

68.6
73.5
73.3

92.6
103.5

97.7
105.0

88.6
101.9

70.1
95.2

58.7
85.6

59.3
84.3

62.5
91.3

65.33
93.63

91.7
100-0

93.4
102.0

91.0
97.9

84.7
94.2

80.0
93.5

77.1
96.7

77.0
101.2

75.2
103.7

loto1

95.6
110.4

85.5
95.1

64.6
93.0

57.7
96.8

60.0
105.9

70.5
120.5

73.2
124.8

99.9
102.0

99.9
101.7

99.8
99.7

99.3
92.1

94.0
80.8

89.1
79.0

82.8
77.8

78.8
73.8

100.06 110.9
100.06 100.3

105.0
87.0

96.6
74.1

82.9
63.5

67.4
63.0

65.2
68.2

61.5
71.5

98.1
102.3

94.4
104.3

87.6
102.3

74.1
97.8

63.3
90.9

64.1
95.1

68.1
106.7

77.7
119.0

89.9
99.9

86.2
106.0

84.8
92.5

77.7
78.2

69.5
64.8

68.9
69.7

74.6
79.7

74.5
81.4

U.S.S.R.:
Coal '
In general 8 . .

103.8
107.8

108.5
114.3

109.7
138.9

133.1
180.6

176.4
212.5

197.1
205.2

201.0
217.2

229.7

. .

Germany 2 ;
Coal
In general. .
Great
Britain:
Coal
In general. .
Japan * :
Coal
In general. .
Netherlands :
Coal
In general. .
Poland 5 :
Coal
In general. .
Union of S. Africa
Coal
In general. .
United States:
Coal
In general. .

.
:

* Unless otherwise indicated, t h e figures relating to coal are t a k e n from t h e Statistical
Appendix of this volume, and those " in general " from Year-Booh of Labour
Statistics,
1937.
i Figures for employment in industry as a whole have been compiled only from 1930
onwards.
2 Statistik des Deutschen Reichs: Die Krankenversicherung, years 1929, 1933 and 1935
(not including s u b s t i t u t e funds).
s Not including t h e Saar.
* Summary of Labour Statistics, 1936. Imperial Cabinet, Bureau of Statistics. Tokyo,
1936.
6 Abridged Statistical Year-Booh of Poland, 1937.
6 Basis of the index: 1928 = 100.
' Socialisticeskoje stroitelstvo S.S.S.R. (Statistical Year-Book), Moscow, 1935. NarodnoKhozjaistvennyi plan (National Economic Plan) for t h e years 1935 and 1936. Moscow.
8 7'rud v S.S.S.R.
Stalisticeshij spravolnih,
1936. Moscow. Basis of the index: 19261927 = 100. The d a t a cover every branch of economic activity except agriculture,
forestry and fishing.

— 42 —

in 1928; in 1936 it was only 72 per cent, of this latter figure. The
position in France is similar to that in Belgium : the number of workers employed in mines has declined steadily since 1927, when it was
312,966. For a few years after that the index remained steady at
about 93, and then fell gradually until it reached 68.7 in 1936. The
number of workers employed in the industry in 1936 was only about
two-thirds of the 1927 figure. It should be noted, however, that
there was an improvement in the last months of 1936 and the beginning of 1937, apparently as a result of the general economic revival. In
Great Britain the employment situation in coal mines was extremely
serious even before the general depression. The maximum number
of workers employed was 1,248,222 in 1920. From 1921 to 1923
the figure declined, rising again in 1924. Thereafter it fell steadily
until 1936, except for a slight improvement in 1929. In 1936 the
number of workers employed was about 25 per cent, lower than in
1927 (1,023,885) and 40 per cent, lower than in 1920. By comparison
with 1920, the decrease in the number of workers employed in
1936 was almost half a million. The trend of employment in general
did not follow the same movement, the minimum being reached in
1932, when it was only 6.5 per cent, lower than in 1927. The index
had risen again to 108.8 by 1936. In this country, therefore, the
cyclical factor would seem to have been, relatively speaking, of
minor importance, the slump being due mainly to the influence of
other factors. In Poland, which became an important coalproducing country after the war, the number of workers employed also decreased; employment in the mining industry fell
from 164,557 in 1920 to 112,700 in 1928. In 1929 it had risen
to 11 per cent, above the 1928 figure, but it fell again in the
following years, and in 1936 it was only three-fifths of the 1928
figure.
(2) Countries which were affected by the depression but in
which employment improved after the general economic recovery
(Australia, Canada, Germany, India, Japan, the Netherlands, the
Union of South Africa and the United States of America).
In Germany the index figure for all wage earners insured in
sickness funds throughout the country rose from 100 in 1927 to
105 in 1929, falling to 84.3 in 1933 and rising again to 93.6 in 1935.
The figure for 1936 is not yet available, but according to other
statistics the total number of wage earners in employment in 1936
had reached the 1929 level and was therefore higher than in 1927.
The index of employment in coal mines, which was 97.7 in 1929 (1927

— 43 —
= 100) fell to 58.7 in 1932. It subsequently rose, but in 1936 it
was still only 67.4 per cent, of the 1927 figure.
Japan had 342,873 miners in 1920. In 1927 the number had
fallen to 239,167 and in 1932 to 137,975 (58 per cent, of the 1927
figure). It subsequently rose, and the index in 1935 as compared
with 1927 was 73. The decline was much more marked than in
the case of employment in general, for which the minimum in 1931
was only 7 points below the 1927 figure; since 1933 the curve has
risen considerably above the 1927 level (25 per cent.).
In the Union of South Africa the index number of the persons
employed in coal mines fell from 100 in 1927 to 63.3 in 1932 and
rose again to 83.1 in 1936. Employment in general as compared
with the 1927 figure remained constantly higher than the figure
for employment in coal mines.
In the United States the data mentioned for employment in the
coal-mining industry refer to bituminous coal as well as anthracite.
The slump occurred in that industry before the general depression
set in, and in 1929 the volume of employment had fallen by 13.8 per
cent, as compared with 1927. The index of employment then fell
appreciably to 68.9 in 1933, but rose again to 74.6 in 1934 and
was 74.5 in 1935. During 1935 the decrease in the number of
workers as compared with 1927 was almost 200,000. The number
of workers employed in manufacturing industry as shown by the
general index had increased by 6 per cent, in 1929, but the sub' sequent decline was more marked than in the mining industry
(64.8 in 1932). The economic recovery raised the index to 84.1
in 1935 and 91 in 1936.
(3) Countries in which there has been a marked increase in
employment. This includes only one country, the U.S.S.B.
The
development of the coal industry under successive five-year plans
is at the same time an integral part of these plans and a natural
consequence of them, for the development of national industries
necessitated an increase in the supply of coal. The number of
workers employed in mines rose from 205,086 in 1927 to 412,000 in
1934, being an increase of 100 per cent. It should be noted, however,
that since t h a t date there has been a very slight tendency for the
number of workers in coal mines to decrease, partly as a result
of the Stakhanov movement. Employment in general increased
to an even more marked degree than employment in mines, and
there was no sign of a decline at the end of the period under
consideration.

— 44 —

The figures discussed above refer to black coal only. The
statistics of employment in lignite mines given in table II of the
Statistical Appendix cover the five principal lignite-producing
countries: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary and Yugoslavia. In these five countries the total number of persons employed
in that industry fell from 210,056 in 1929 to 170,905 in 1935, being
a decrease of 19 per cent.
It may be concluded from the above analysis that the cyclical
factor certainly played a part in the fluctuations in the volume of
employment in mines but that it was far from being the only factor.
It cannot explain the reduction of 980,000 in the number of workers
employed in coal mines in the countries under consideration
(excluding the U.S.S.R.) in 1935 as compared with 1929, and the
reduction of 1,300,000 as compared with 1927. This reduction,
which brought the general index of employment in mines from 100
in 1927 to 80.4 in 1935, has on the whole been more marked than
the reduction in employment in industry as a whole. As was
already pointed out, it occurred in many countries before the
cyclical fall in the volume of employment, and in several countries
employment in coal mines continued to follow a downward trend
after the business cycle passed its lowest point.
II.

THE TECHNOLOGICAL FACTOR

The progress made in recent years in the mechanisation and •
rationalisation of mining has already been analysed in Vol. I
of this Report.
This progress is an extremely important factor in reducing the
volume of employment. In all the mining areas where such progress has been made the number of workers now required to produce a given quantity is lower than formerly. It may be impossible
to measure the extent of this unemployment, but its importance
can be deduced from the progress of mechanisation and from the
increase in individual output.
Mechanical methods of coal-getting were developed in a number
of mining districts immediately after the war. Mechanisation is
advantageous not only as a method of reducing the cost of production and increasing output, but also as a means of facilitating
the very strenuous work of the miners. The degree of mechanisation so far reached, however, varies considerably from one
country to another and even from one coalfield to another in the
same country. It depends not only on the spirit of initiative of

— 45 —

the mine-owners and on the amount of capital available for investment but also on the nature and quality of the coal deposits.
The index of mechanical coal-cutting rose from 100 in 1927 to
122.1 in Belgium, 142 in France, 121 in Germany, 240 in Great
Britain and 110 in the United States in 1935 or 1936. It must be
noted, however, that notwithstanding the relatively extensive
development of mechanical methods in British mines, the latter are
still far behind those of other countries in this respect. The percentage of coal extracted by mechanical coal-cutting in 1936 was
only 55 in Great Britain as compared with 79 in the United States,
92 in France, 97 in Germany and 98.5 in Belgium. In the U.S.S.R.
the index rose from 100 in 1928 to 469 in 1936, when the proportion
of coal obtained by mechanical means was 77.4 per cent.
A direct result of this rapid mechanisation was a corresponding
increase in labour productivity. Table II shows the development of output per man-day and the changes in the number of
workers employed at the surface and underground in the mines of a
certain number of countries. The figures for output refer to .the
output per worker per shift, except in the case of Japan and the
U.S.S.R., where they_ refer to the worker's annual output.
The figures in this table show that in most cases the average productivity of miners has steadily increased. This is the case, for
example, in Belgium, where the index rose from 100 in 1927 to
155 in 1936, in Czechoslovakia, where it was 146.1 in 1936; in
Germany, where it was 151.1 in the same year; and in Poland
(Upper Silesia), where it reached 198.8. In Great Britain there
has only been a slight increase in man-shift output (114.6). In
France it increased to 143.9 in 1935 but fell again to 141.6 in 1936.
In Japan also the index of labour productivity reached 152.1
in 1934 and fell to 142.2 in 1935. In the United States the index,
after rising to 114.5 in 1932, fell again below the 1927 figure. This
would seem to be due to the reduction in hours of work in 1933
and 1934, but in spite of a further reduction in 1935 output increased again that year to 98.8. In the U.S.S.R. man-shift output
rose from 100 in 1927 to 172.1 in 1935.
The curve of the index for the volume of employment, whether
underground or at the surface, has usually followed a different
trend from that of man-shift output, since there was a marked
decrease in employment during the period under consideration.
Notwithstanding the constant increase of labour productivity in
Germany and Poland, however, there was an increase in employment at the end of the period ; in Great Britain, on the other hand,

— 46 —
TABLE II.

OUTPUT PER MAN-SHIFT AND EMPLOYMENT IN CERTAIN

COUNTRIES, 1927-1936 *
(Basis: 1927 = 100)
Country

1927

1929

1932

1934

1935

100

112.3

118.7

143.3

151.1

100
100

86.3
89.2

78.5
84.9

70.8
80.4

67.9
78.0

100

104.5

107.3

120.9

134.5

100
100

102.0
98.2

88.1
84.3

76.3
73.2

74.1
71.8

100

114.5

129.2

141.6

143.9

100
100

92.9
94.5

76.2
88.4

66.9
83.9

64.3
80.0

100

112.3

143.3

148.1

149.5

. .

100
100

95.3
95.0

54.3
63.3

57.6
70.8

59.6
74.3

100

105.7

107.0

111.7

104.0

. .

100
100

93.6
92.7

79.3
82.8

75.8
81.7

73.7
80.6

100

106.8

145.0

152.1

142.2

. .

100
100

101.4
95.8

68.3
65.5

87.1
74.2

90.9
77.7

100

122.6

116.4

132.9

140.8

100
100

102.4
116.9

103.2
123.1

85.1
115.5

78.4
11.8

100

123.4

130.0

187.6

194.2

100
100

112.1
102.2

81.9
81.7

53.2
66.2

59.7
62.9

100

106.5

114.5

94.2

100
100

84.7
84.3

67.5
66.4

75.2
80.0

76.2
78.0

100
100

117.9
108.5

122.9
176.4

147.7
200.1

172.1

Belgium :
Output
Workers :
Underground
. .
Surface i
. . . .
Czechoslovakia :
Output
Workers :
Underground
. .
Surface
France :
Output
Workers :
Underground
. .
Surface 2 . . . .
Germany (Ruhr) :
Output
Workers :
Underground
Surface
Great Britain:
Output
Workers :
Underground
Surface
Japan :
Output
Workers »:
Underground
Surface

Netherlands :
Output
Workers:
Underground
. .
Surface
Poland (Upper Silesia):
Output
Workers :
Underground
. .
Surface
United States * :
Output
Workers :
Underground
. .
Surface
U.S.S.R. :
Output
Workers s

* Unless otherwise indicated, t h e figures on man-shift o u t p u t are taken from t h e sources
mentioned in Vol. I, Chapter V, and those relating t o t h e labour force from Chapter I
of this Vol.
i These figures refer to men only. The number of women working at t h e surface fell
from 7,444 in 1927 to 2,658 in 1935 (from 100 to 35.7).
a Including women, t h e number of whom fell from 10,648 in 1929 to 5,440 in 1935
(almost 50 per cent..).
s In t h e case of women t h e index number fell from 100 in 1927 to 12.7 in 1935 for
underground workers and to 69.5 for surface workers.
* Bituminous coal.
5 These figures refer to all workers employed in mines, as t h e separate statistics for
underground and surface workers are very fragmentary. The number of women has
increased considerably, being 19.300 at the end of 1927 and 99,500 at t h e end of 1934.

— 47 —
where there has been no considerable increase in man-shift output,
employment has steadily decreased.
The influence of mechanisation and of increased productivity in
reducing employment may be illustrated by the fact that in a
large colliery producing from 300 to 500 tons a day a coal-cutting
machine can be attended by from three to six machine drivers,
whereas 50 hewers would be required to produce an equivalent
tonnage. Similarly, every drill hammer can do the work of from
six to eight hand labourers. In those of the United States mines,
where hand loading has been entirely replaced by machine loading,
the number of man-days per ton of coal has fallen by 35 per cent.
in the last ten years. This means an important reduction in
the number of workers required, but a fraction of this decrease
is offset by the fact that additional workers are required to
look after the machinery and also by the fact that certain preparatory operations, such as the washing, screening and crushing
of coal, have become more important than formerly. That is one
reason why the decrease in the number of surface workers is less
marked than that in the number of underground workers. In
Germany the proportion of surface workers rose from 21 per cent.
of the total in 1927 to 25.1 per cent, in 1936, in Great Britain
from 18.67 to 20.1 per cent., and in France from 27.5 per cent.
in 1927 to 32 per cent, in 1935. In Poland the increase in the
percentage is very slight and in the United States there was no
increase. In the U.S.S.R., on the other hand, the percentage of
surface workers in the Donetz Basin fell from 29.7 in 1930 to
25 in 1934.
Mechanisation is not the only method used for increasing output ;
many other forms of rationalisation have been applied, such as the
concentration of undertakings and abandoning the less productive
workings, reorganising working methods, reducing the amount of
preparatory work, introducing larger cutting faces, time and
motion study, bonus systems of remuneration, etc.
As a result of all these methods, the number of workers required
in mining enterprises is now much lower than it formerly was.
Even if the world output of coal were to return to the 1929 level,
which it has now almost reached, the volume of employment
would certainly not reach the figure of that year.
But it would be a mistake to think t h a t the influence of mechanisation or of the increase in output means nothing more than a
reduction in employment. On the contrary, technological progress
has permitted the mining undertakings in certain countries to

— 48 —

compete successfully with mines that are not mechanised. The
acquisition of new machinery, therefore, if it has not increased
the volume of employment, has at least kept it at the same level.
Countries like Great Britain, in which the increase in output has
been slight, have by no means remained immune from a decline
in the volume of employment. Indeed they have been handicapped
on the international market and this has meant a decrease in
production and consequently in the volume of employment.
Speaking more generally, the fall in the cost of production
resulting from increased productivity has been such as to favour the
consumption of coal as compared with other forms of energy and
therefore to increase to some extent the volume of employment in
the industry.
But the steady decline in employment in mines cannot be
attributed solely to the technological factor ; there remains a third
factor which seems to have played a decisive part—the structural
one.
III.

THE STRUCTURAL FACTOR

Employment in the coal-mining industry is seriously affected
by the structural factor—that is to say, by changes in the demand
for coal. This demand may be transferred from one country
to another or it may be transferred from coal to some other source
of energy, or it may be affected by changes in the methods of
using coal.
The first of these causes of structural unemployment occurs in
certain countries only, where exports decreased to the profit of
other countries. The other two causes are of a more general
nature and affect all the coal-producing countries. The most
striking example of structural unemployment due to the transfer
of demand to other countries is Great Britain. For a variety of
reasons, analysed elsewhere, several foreign countries reduced
their purchases of coal from Great Britain and promoted home
production or else entered into international agreements with the
producers of other countries. British exports of coal declined
steadily; the index, excluding bunker coal, fell from 100 in 1927
to 68.8 in 1936. This naturally meant cutting down production
and therefore reducing the number of workers employed. During
this period, 1927-1936, Great Britain's share in the world exports
of coal fell by 8.5 per cent, while the share of Germany increased by
30 per cent.

— 49

Coal has also suffered from the competition of other sources of
power, which have replaced it for various industrial and domestic
uses, and in particular fuel oil, natural gas, and hydro-electric energy.
This has led in all the highly industrialised countries to a reduction in the proportion to which coal is used for providing energy
and even to the reduction, to some extent, in the absolute quantity
of coal consumed. The electrification of many railways and the
increased use of oil fuel for ships have deprived the coal industry
of part of its best markets and have tended to cause a decline in
production. Before the war almost the whole (96.6 per cent.)
of the world mercantile marine used coal. In 1937 the tonnage
driven by coal was only 48.6 per cent, of the total, or a decrease
of 50 per cent. Of the new vessels built in recent years, only 20
per cent, use coal fuel.
The world output of power from all sources increased by 6.8 per
cent, from 1927 to 1936, but the output of power from coal fell
by 3.8 per cent. A study of the position in the principal coalproducing countries shows in nearly every case a reduction in the
amount of power produced from coal and an increase in the amount
produced from oil fuel. In Germany the total consumption of energy
fell by 3.4 per cent, from 1930 to 1935 and that of coal by 4.3 per
cent. In Great Britain the decline in the total consumption of
energy from 1930 to 1934 was 6.9 per cent., and the decrease in
energy obtained from coal was 11.1 per cent. In these two
countries the consumption of energy from heavy oil during the
same period rose by 22.2 and 25.4 per cent, respectively. In the
United States the total output of power decreased by 13 per cent.
from 1927 to 1935 but t h a t of power from coal fell by 29 per cent.
while that obtained from mineral oils increased by 7 per cent.
The consumption of energy produced from coal in the U.S.S.R.
increased from 59.4 to 67.4 per cent, from 1932 to 1935.
There has also been a relative reduction in the amount of coke
used as a raw material in blast furnaces, as a consequence of the
substitution, to an increasing extent, of melting scrap for pig
iron in the manufacture of steel.
In addition, the rationalisation effected in the use of coal, as a
result of technical improvements, had the same effect as the transfer
of demand to other products, and was a great factor in the decline
in the output of coal in certain countries. Its importance is
pointed out in Chapter V of Vol. I of the present Report.
Such, in brief, are the main influences of structural changes,
CR. II.

— 50 —
the details of which have been explained in different chapters of
Vol. I of the present Report. In most of the important countries
the consumption of coal is declining and the volume of employment
is necessarily affected adversely.
The following table shows, for certain countries, the ratio (as
a percentage) of the number of workers employed in coal mines
to the number of wage earners in general. These percentages are
not comparable from country to country because the other economic
branches covered are by no means always the same 1 .
TABLE III.

RATIO OF MINERS EMPLOYED TO THE NUMBER

WORKERS EMPLOYED IN GENERAL

(Percentages)*
Czechoslovakia Germany

Year

1927 . .
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936

2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.0

2.8
2.5
2.6
2.4
2.1
1.9
2.0
1.9
1.9

Great
Britain

Japan

10.2
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.2
8.7
8.1
7.8
7.4
7.0

12.6
12.3
10.9
11.3
8.7
7.5
7.1
7.4
7.4

Poland

13.3
14.8
16.1
17.5
17.5
14.3
12.8
11.5
10.6

U.S.A.

U.S.S.R.

9.2
8.2
7.4
8.4
9.1
9.8
9.1
8.6
8.1

2.3
2.2
2.2
1.8
1.7
1.9
2.2
2.1

—
•

—

* Percentages calculated from the figures in table I, p. 41.

The percentage has decreased steadily in Great Britain, falling
from 10.2 in 1927 to only 7.4 in 1935. In Germany and
Japan there has also been an appreciable decrease, but the figure
remained stationary or even rose slightly at the end of the period;
it declined from 2.8 to 1.9 in Germany, and from 12.6 to 7.4 in
Japan from 1927 to 1935. In Czechoslovakia, the United States
and the U.S.S.R. the percentage has risen and fallen, but in every
case the ratio of miners to the total is lower at the end of the
period than it was at the beginning.
This table—which is subject to the reservations mentioned
above—brings out in a very striking fashion the influence of
1
Manufacturing industry in U.S.A., Japan and Poland (including mines
in the latter country); most of the non-agricultural branches in Great Britain
and U.S.S.R. and most of the agricultural and non-agricultural branches in
Germany and Czechoslovakia (but excluding mining in the latter country).

— 51 —
structural unemployment. During the years under consideration
and even before the depression there was, in effect, not only an
absolute reduction in the number of miners in the important
producing countries, but the ratio of miners to the total number
of industrial workers was falling. This cannot be attributed to
technical progress alone any more than to the cyclical depression,
for technical improvements were being made also in many other
branches of industry. It may, therefore, be concluded t h a t in
coal mining in particular, the volume of employment was influenced
by special factors which did not act to the same extent in other
industries.
IV.

T H E SHORTAGE OF LABOUR

In recent years unemployment has given place in several
countries to a phenomenon which, while not peculiar to coal
mining, has been particularly marked in this industry. This
phenomenon is the shortage of labour which is a consequence of
the depression and sometimes even exists simultaneously with it.
In the mining industry special attention is paid to the worker's
age at the time of engagement. This is particularly true in the case
of hewers, whose work is difficult and strenuous and who must
possess special physical strength. The machinery introduced in
mines demands quickness of reaction, adaptability and mechanical
knowledge which an older miner generally does not possess. After
a prolonged spell of unemployment, a certain number of the older
miners remain outside the production process, either because of their
advanced age or because of the difficulties of their readaptation to
their occupation. It should also be noted that the present requirements of this particular occupation often lead to the dismissal
of older miners and thus increase unemployment and the shortage
of labour at the same time. For the same reason, it is usually
impossible to transfer unemployed workers from other occupations
to coal mines, because they could not adapt themselves to the type
of work.
In Belgium in December 1936, out of 2,064 applicants for employment registered as underground workers, only 861 were considered
suitable for employment in coal mines, the remainder being workers
over 50 years of age, or disabled persons, or former underground
workers suitable only for surface work. When 675 of those workers
applied to mining undertakings, only 27 were immediately taken
on, in spite of the large number of vacancies.

— 52 —
During the depression the apprenticeship of younger workers is
often neglected, for reasons of economy, so that when vacancies „
occur there are not a sufficient number of applicants for them.
This has been brought out by enquiries made in Belgium and
France into the labour problem in mines. The Belgian enquiry 1
brings out the fact t h a t young workers tend less' and less to be
attracted to coal mining as an occupation because it is strenuous
and dangerous and the remuneration is no higher than can be
earned in other industries. The French enquiry indicates that a
young worker who enters the mine as soon as he leaves school often
becomes attached to the occupation and remains in it, but " if he
leaves the coalfield where he was brought up, he escapes for good
from the influence of the mine, and it is then impossible for him to
readapt himself, not so much to mining work, but to the conditions
of life which it involves" 2.
Various measures have been taken to deal with the labour shortage
in countries suffering from it. In Belgium, at the beginning of 1937
the National Office for Placing and Unemployment advocated the
introduction of foreign labour. At the same time efforts are being
made to train young workers for mining work and to adapt to that
occupation unemployed workers who cannot hope to find work in their
own trades. In France, the factory inspectors were instructed to study
the unemployment lists with the help of the Coal Mines Committee
so as to find former miners who were available and suitable for
employment in the mines. Instructions issued by the Minister of
Labour on 22 January 1937 provide facilities for foreign workers
resident in France to obtain employment in mines. By an agreement drawn up in February 1937, the Government, the Coal Mines
Committee, and the Miners' Federation undertook to do all they
could to help recruiting for the mining industry.
In the U.S.S.R. the recruiting of workers raises another problem
which is not, like the preceding one, a consequence of the depression :
t h a t of fluctuations in labour supply. In 1937, in the Donetz Basin,
the number of workers engaged was 290,000 and the number of
those who left the mines was 291,000. The number of departures
is particularly marked at seed-time and harvest. This considerable
1

Bulletin mensuel de l'Office national du placement et du chômage, 15 January
1937.
2
Annales des mines, Vol. XI, 4 m e livraison, 1937, p. 101. The French
enquiry also revealed the fact that the shortage in France was aggravated
by the policy of repatriating foreign workers during the depression.

— 53 —

and rapid turnover in the number of workers available makes it very
difficult to ensure the proper development of the mining industry
and the maintenance of the desired rate of output. It is said to be
due to the inadequacy of the accommodation and comforts (baths,
etc.) in mining undertakings, and sometimes also to the fact that
earnings are lower than those in other occupations which are less
strenuous 1.
In order to overcome these difficulties, steps are being taken in
some of the mining undertakings to improve working conditions
and secure greater stability in the labour supply. A recent Decree
of the Council of People's Commissaries (February 1938) provides
various inducements to members of kolkhozes and their families
if they accept employment in mines.
V. SUMMARY

The coal-mining industry is one of those that was most severely
affected by unemployment. In some countries unemployment
was acute in that industry before the general economic depression
began. The revival of economic activity in most other industries
has been accompanied by only a slight improvement in the volume
of employment in coal mines, though in a few countries unemployment has recently given place to a problem of labour shortage.
The decline in the volume of employment in this industry may
be attributed to the combined influence of three factors: the
business cycle, technical progress and structural changes. The
decrease in the consumption of coal as a result of the general
economic depression and the industrial slump led to the dismissal
of large numbers of coal miners in most countries. Technical progress and other forms of rationalisation have in every country
brought about an appreciable increase in man-shift output so that
the amount of labour required for the extraction of a given quantity
of coal has fallen. The resulting unemployment is all the more
serious because occupational rehabilitation is particularly difficult
for miners. Further, the competition of other sources of power
and improvements in the use of coal, which have reduced 'consumption and led to a transfer of demand from one producing
country to another, constitute an important factor in the slump
through which the industry has recently passed.
1

Industria, 15 February 1938.

— 54 —

It is difficult to say which of these is the dominant factor.
The period considered is, relatively speaking, too short to determine
exactly the effects of the cyclical factor. The technological
factor cannot be isolated with the help of the statistics at present
available in the various countries. Nor can the structural factor
be closely determined, but a careful study of the main facts
mentioned in the present chapter clearly shows its importance.
It can at least be said that each of these factors is partly responsible
for the decline in employment in the mining industry.

CHAPTER IV
SOCIAL INSURANCE

INTRODUCTION

Social insurance and the other social services that supplement
or replace it are intended to protect the workers against certain
risks to which they are exposed. The risks involved in their working
and living conditions bear more heavily on workers in the coal
industry than on those in other occupations. These risks are still
numerous and serious notwithstanding technical improvements,
social reforms and the systematic efforts made to prevent accidents
and diseases. That is why the miners show particular interest in the
institutions that exist to cover their occupational and social risks,
for these institutions provide some compensation for the strenuous
and exhausting nature of their work.
From the outset mining has taken the form of a large-scale
industry involving the settlement of a very dense population in the
environment of the mines. The spirit of solidarity of the miners
and the desire of the undertakings to recruit and keep near the pits
an ample and stable supply of labour rapidly brought into being
various mutual aid and provident institutions which later developed
into friendly societies and miners' pensions funds. These were the
precursors of the modern social insurance funds, and in many
countries a relatively complete system of social insurance existed
for miners at a considerably earlier date than for workers in other
occupations.
The course of development has not been the same in every mining
country. There are countries in which workers in the mining
industry are protected by one or more occupational insurance
schemes, whereas in others workers in mines are covered by general
inter-occupational social insurance schemes, and it has been left
to the initiative of the workers themselves and of the undertakings
concerned to supplement the protection which such systems of
insurance can provide. A complete survey of the national insurance

— 56 —

institutions which are responsible for covering the occupational
and social risks of miners would reveal a great variety of institutions
differing widely as'to their age and origin, their field of activity and
their methods of operation. The nature of the institutions changes
from country to country according to the degree of industrialisation
and the habits and conditions of life of the working population.
A survey of the special insurance institutions for workers in the
mining industry would also reveal a surprising variety in the age
and origin of the institutions in different countries. Side by side
with insurance funds or associations dating back for half a century
and retaining their original characteristics, dealing only with shortperiod risks and with the workers of a single undertaking or a
single mining region, there are vast insurance institutions to which
the workers of several or often of all the mining districts in the
country are automatically affiliated and which provide long-term
benefits. A similar variety can be found in the origins and organisation of the insurance institutions. Some important mining countries entrust the administration of miners' insurance to one or
more institutions that are public administrative bodies, whereas in
other countries the administration is left—either entirely, or
in collaboration with public institutions—to funds set up for the
purpose and managed jointly with the help of the employers and
workers concerned, or sometimes to separate funds attached to
various large mining undertakings. But the community of aims is
more important than the diversity of origin and structure. All
these institutions are intended to cover the risks inherent in the
miner's occupation, which dominate his occupational career and
every phase of his existence and that of his family.
The present chapter contains a description of the protection
granted in the chief mining countries to workers in the mining
industry and their families in the form of workmen's compensation
for accidents and occupational diseases, or against one or more of
the following risks: sickness, invalidity, old age, death and
unemployment.
In most countries the legislation governing insurance for workers
in the coal industry is very complex, and a complete discussion
would require considerable space. In this general Report on conditions in the coal-mining industry, therefore, it has been found
impossible to give more than an analysis of the main provisions
of the compensation or insurance schemes for workers in the
coal-mining industry in the chief mining countries.

— 57 —

This
1.
2.
3.
4.

chapter contains six sections:
Workmen's compensation for accidents;
Workmen's compensation for occupational diseases;
Compulsory sickness insurance ;
Compulsory invalidity, old-age and widows' and orphans'
insurance ;
5. Unemployment insurance and relief;
6. Statistics of social charges.

Section 1. —Workmen's Compensation for Accidents
I. — Compulsory or Optional Insurance

With respect to the provision which they make for securing the
payment of compensation, national workmen's compensation laws
may be classified according as they render insurance compulsory
(except that in some cases large employers may, subject to safeMODE OF INSURANCE

Optional
Country

Compulsory

With

Without

Guarantee fund
Belgium
Canadian mining provinces (a) . .
Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Great Britain
India
Japan
Netherlands
South Africa
U.S.S.R
U.S.A. (b):
Ala
Other mining States

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

(a) Alberta (Alta.); British Columbia (B.C.); Manitoba (Man.); New Brunswick (N.B.);
Nova Scotia (N.S.); Saskatchewan (Sask.).
(6) The mining States are as follows: Alabama (Ala.); Illinois (111.); Indiana (Ind.);
Kentucky (Ky.); Ohio; Pennsylvania (Pa.); Virginia (Va); West Virginia (W. Va.).

— 58 —

guards, be allowed to carry their risk themselves), or as they
leave insurance optional, relying in case of the employer's bankruptcy on a guarantee fund, or merely on the privileged rank of
the claim, to protect the injured worker's rights.
Coal mining is treated for the purposes of insurance on the
same footing as other industries. Where insurance is organised
by industry there is an accident fund for the mining as for each
other industry (e.g. Germany).. British legislation offers an
exception: here insurance is compulsory for coal mining alone
among all branches of economic activity.

II. — Scope

While there is some variation in the scope of workmen's compensation laws, especially so far as agricultural and domestic
workers are concerned, all, without exception, cover coal miners.
The inclusion of coal miners or coal mines results from a definition
of the scope
(i) in terms of the contract of employment (Great Britain,
South Africa, U.S.S.R.);
(ii) by reference to broad fields of economic activity (France,
Netherlands) ;
(iii) in terms of public and private employments (American
mining States);
(iv) by enumeration of undertakings (Belgium, Canadian
mining provinces, Czechoslovakia, Germany, India, Japan,
Poland).
Workmen's compensation laws commonly exclude from their
protection certain classes of persons who, though they work in
undertakings within the scope of the law, differ, in some particular,
from regular or normal wage earners, e.g. casual workers employed
otherwise than for the purpose of the employer's trade or business,
outworkers, and members of the employer's family.
More important, especially in connection with coal mining, is
the exclusion, under the laws of certain countries, of non-manual
workers (e.g. mining engineers) whose salary is sufficiently high
to enable them, in theory at least, to insure themselves individually.
Such exclusions are found in the laws of the following countries:
Belgium: 24,000 francs a year; Great Britain: £350 a year; India:
300 Rs. a month; South Africa: £600 a year.

— 59 —
III. — Risks covered and Benefits
RISKS COVERED

There are differences in the formulas used in workmen's compensation laws to define the circumstances of the accident for
which compensation can be claimed but, as the result of judicial
interpretation, these differences have come to be of little practical
importance.
A large group of laws have adopted the definition: " accident
arising out of and in the course of employment " (Belgium, Canadian
mining provinces, Great Britain, India, South Africa, American
mining States). This definition requires that a twofold condition
as to cause and as to time must be satisfied.
The French law lays down the same conditions but as alternatives :
" accident arising out of or in the course of employment ".
In Czechoslovakia, Japan and Poland, it is sufficient for the
accident to occur in the course of employment.
The laws of Germany, the Netherlands and the U.S.S.R. use a
very general expression: " accident in connection with employment ".
In several countries accidents occurring on the journey to and
from the workplace are also compensable (Czechoslovakia, Germany,
Netherlands, Poland).
The laws of the countries here considered also cover a more or
less extensive variety of occupational diseases, but this aspect is
dealt with in Section 2 of this chapter.
BENEFITS IN KIND

The benefits in kind which workmen's compensation may
provide are all directed to the restoration of the injured worker
to a condition in which he becomes again an effective wage earner.
These benefits may be considered as comprising three elements,
of which the first—medical aid—is fundamental, while the second
—supply of surgical appliances—and the third—vocational
rehabilitation—are complementary.
Medical aid comprises medical and surgical treatment by a general
practitioner and, where necessary, by a specialist, and the supply
of drugs and curative appliances; the treatment is given as the
circumstances require, at home, in the consulting room or in
hospital.

— 60 —

Medical aid is provided as a matter of right for injured workers
in all the countries here considered except Great Britain and India.
In the former of these two countries, however, the vast majority
of workers covered by workmen's compensation is also liable to
health insurance and as such is entitled to treatment by a general
practitioner and to free medicines, and also in some cases to part
of the cost of hospital treatment.
The duration of medical aid or its cost are limited in Japan,
South Africa and the American mining States. These maxima
are as follows:
Japan
South Africa:
Europeans
Natives
U.S.A.:
Ala
Ind
Ky
Ohio
Pa
Va
W. Va

3 years
1 year but not more than £100
£25
90 days but not more than $200
90 days
90 days but not more than $400
$200
90 days (extended in special cases)
60 days (180 days in special cases)
$800

The supply of surgical appliances means the supply of artificial
limbs and other prosthetic and surgical appliances, especially those
required to improve working capacity. Provision is sometimes
made for the replacement of appliances when worn out by normal
use.
The provision made by the laws for the supply and renewal of
surgical appliances is as follows:
Country

(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)

Belgium
Canadian mining provinces
Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Great Britain
India
Japan
Netherlands
Poland
South Africa
U.S.S.R
U.S.A.:
111., Pa., W. Va. . •. . .
Other mining States . .
Additional compensation is paid to cover the probable
Appliances are kept in repair for one year.
In practice.
Europeans only.

Supply

Renewal

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes (c)
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes (d)
Yes
Yes
No
cost of renewal.

Yes (a)
No (b)
Yes
No
Yes

No
Yes
No
Yes
No

— 61 —
The purpose of vocational rehabilitation is to take over the injured
worker as he leaves hospital and render him fit to resume his old
occupation, to train him, if necessary, for a new occupation, and, if
possible, to place him in employment. Explicit legal provision is
made for vocational rehabilitation in five countries, namely, Canada,
France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United States, but this
service is in practice granted in some other countries as well.
In Canada the workmen's compensation boards of the mining
provinces may take measures to assist the injured worker to resume
employment.
In France an injured worker who cannot resume his former
occupation, or cannot do so without retraining, is entitled to be
admitted free of charge to a school of vocational rehabilitation
maintained by compulsory contributions from employers.
In Germany an injured worker is entitled to vocational training
with a view to the restoration or increase of working capacity
in cases where he has been seriously prejudiced by the accident in
the exercise of his occupation or of an occupation which he can
reasonably be expected to take up ; he is also entitled to assistance
in obtaining employment.
In the Netherlands, if the management of the State Insurance
Bank is of opinion that the working capacity of an injured worker
to whom a pension has been granted, provisionally or finally, can
be increased by training, it may provide training, together with
any necessary allowance to supplement the pension meanwhile.
The Bank also assists in the reinstatement of the worker in
employment.
In the United States vocational rehabilitation is provided, not
under workmen's compensation law, but under State schemes subsidised and supervised by the Federal Government. The competent
State authority decides in its discretion which cases are to be
rehabilitated. The service consists essentially of the provision of
training and of assistance in obtaining employment. It may also
include any necessary curative measures and the supply of artificial
limbs. Vocational rehabilitation on a more or less extensive scale
is in operation in all the mining States.
BASIC W A G E

Every workmen's compensation law must contain rules for
determining the mode of reckoning the remuneration which is the
basis for calculating compensation (basic wage). These rules may,

— 62 —

in particular, define the elements to be included in remuneration'
(remuneration in kind as well as in cash), the period over which
it is to be calculated (e.g. the year previous to the accident),
specify the adjustments to be made on account of interruptions
in earning due to sickness and unemployment, and fix the maximum
and minimum limits of the remuneration to be taken into account.
Only one feature of these provisions will be dealt with here, namely,
the maximum limit of the basic wage. This feature is most
important, since, if the limit is below the current wage level, the
compensation paid will, in many cases, be a smaller proportion
of remuneration than the nominal percentage mentioned in the law.
The maximum basic wage does not coincide with the maximum
remuneration which serves, in certain laws, to limit their scope:
the former applies to manual, as well as to non-manual, workers
and is, in some cases, lower than the latter.
Save in the case of Japan, all workmen's compensation laws
provide for either a maximum basic wage or for absolute maximum
rates of compensation.
The maximum basic wage rates are as follows :
Belgium: 20,000 francs a year.
Canada:
N.B., N.S.: $1,500 a year;
Other mining provinces: $2,000 a year.
Czechoslovakia: 12,000 Kö. a year.
France:
Permanent incapacity and death only: 8,000 frs. a year;
remuneration in excess of 8,000 but less than 18,500 frs.
is taken into account to the extent of 1¡i of the excess,
and remuneration in excess of 18,500 to the extent of
1
/ 8 of the excess.
Germany: Temporary incapacity: 3,600 RM. a year;
Permanent incapacity and death: 7,200 RM. a year, but
the insurance institution of each industry, e.g. mining,
may raise this limit.
India: 200 Rs. a month.
Netherlands: 8 fis. a day.
Poland: 174 zi. a week.
South Africa: £400 a year.
U.S.S.R. : Permanent incapacity and death only : 450 roubles a month.

In Great Britain and the American mining States absolute
maxima are prescribed for the rates of compensation.
COMPENSATION IN CASES OF TEMPORARY INCAPACITY

(a) Waiting Period
Workmen's compensation laws commonly provide that no compensation shall be payable unless the incapacity lasts a specified
number of days, but they frequently add that, if the incapacity

— 63 —

lasts some time longer, compensation shall be payable as from the
first day after the accident. The provisions of the laws as to the
waiting period are as follows:
Country

Waiting
period
(days)

Payment from
first day if
incapacity lasts

Belgium . . .
Canada:
Alta. 1
Man. } . .
Sask. J
3
15 days
B.C
6
7 days
N.B. I
N.S.
f ' •
—
3
Czechoslovakia
4
11 days
France . . . .
3
—
Germany . . .
3
4 weeks
Great Britain .
7
—
India
Japan
. . . .
2
3 days
Netherlands .
3
29 days
Poland . . . .
South Africa:
4 weeks (a
3
Europeans .
6
7 days
Natives. . .
U.S.S.R. . . .
U.S.A.:
4
4 weeks
7
31 days
Ala
Ill
7
—
Ind. I
29
days
7
Ohio [ • •
7
4 weeks
Ky
7
43 days
Pa
7
22 days
Va
W. Va. . . .
(a) Waiting period is reduced to 2 days or 1 day if incapacity lasts over 2 or over 3 weeks
respectively.

(b) Rate of Compensation for Temporary Incapacity
Temporary incapacity is usually associated in compensation law
with a condition necessitating medical aid, and accordingly temporary incapacity is under many laws deemed to be total in all
cases.
In some countries, however, express provision is made for cases
of temporary partial incapacity (Belgium, Canadian mining provinces, American mining States). Moreover in Czechoslovakia,
Germany and Poland, incapacity of an intermediate character,
between the end of medical aid and the final determination of
permanent incapacity, may be total or partial.

— 64 —
RATES OF PERIODICAL PAYMENTS FOR TEMPORARY
TOTAL INCAPACITY
Country

Percentage of basic wage

1st 4 w e e k s : 50 (a)
thereafter: 6 6 % (a)

Belgium
Canada:
Alta. 1
Man. !•
Sask. J
B.C.
N.B
N.S
Czechoslovakia . . .
France
Germany
Great Britain
Japan
Netherlands

. . .
. . . .

Poland
South Africa:
Europeans . . . .

Natives
U.S.S.R
U.S.A.:
Ala
Ill
Ind
Ky
Pa
Ohio
Va
W. Va

66%
62 y2
55
66%
1st 4 weeks: 6 6 %
thereafter: 6 6 %
50 (o)
Healing period (max.
26 weeks): 50
thereafter:
66%
50-75
30-60
60
1st 6 weeks: 80
thereafter: 70
I n c a p a c i t y lasting u n d e r
4 weeks: 50
over 4 weeks: 66 2 / 3
1st y e a r : 60; + 35 of
wages over £240
yearly
N e x t 6 m o n t h s : 50;
+ 25 of wages over
£240 yearly
60
1st 20 d a y s : 50-100
thereafter: 66%-100
55 (a)
50 (a)
55
65
65
66%
55
66%

Maximum payment
without dependants'
allowances
10,000 frs. yearly
13,333 frs.
$1,333 yearly
$1,250
$ 825
$1,000
24 Kö. daily
8,000 Kö. yearly

—
1,800 RM. vearly
4,800 RM. " ,,
30s. weekly
60 R s . m o n t h l y

—

6.40 fis. daily
5.60 fis.
„
87 zi. weekly
116 zi.

£200 yearly
£160
£ 96

—
$18
weekly
$15
$16.50
,,
$15
$18
$18.75
„
$14
$16

(a) Plus family allowances or dependants' allowances.

In Great Britain a distinction is made between total and partial
incapacity, but not between temporary and permanent incapacity.
In most countries the percentage of wages represented by compensation for total incapacity (or the percentage of the reduction

— 65 —
of wages in cases of partial incapacity) is uniform for all persons
whose remuneration does not exceed the maximum basic wage.
Where the maximum basic wage is exceeded, however, the compensation will of course represent a proportion of the actual wage which
diminishes as the excess increases.
In Great Britain, India and South Africa the percentage of
wages paid in case of incapacity decreases gradually as the basic
wage rises.
The percentage of wages paid in case of temporary incapacity
does not in all countries remain uniform until the beneficiary
recovers or is declared to be permanently incapacitated.
Thus, in Belgium, Germany, Poland and the U.S.S.R., the
percentage is raised after a certain number of weeks. In the
U.S.S.R. in particular the proportion of wages payable for the
first 20 days of incapacity varies from 50 to 100 per cent., according
to the length of service in the undertaking, and to the status of
the worker (trade unionist or not, shock worker or not). After
20 days the compensation is raised in all cases to 100 per cent.
of wages, save in the case of non-trade unionists, for whom the
proportion is fixed at 662/3 per cent.
In the Netherlands and South Africa the opposite tendency is
exemplified, the initial rate being higher'than the subsequent one.
In several countries provision is made for the addition of certain
allowances to compensation in respect of dependent children of
the injured worker. In Belgium and France these allowances
are payable under the compulsory family allowances scheme;
they vary with the number of children but are independent
of the rate of wages. In the American mining States of Alabama
and Illinois also dependants' allowances are incorporated in
compensation.
(c) Duration of Compensation
All the laws except that of Great Britain establish a distinction
between temporary and permanent incapacity, which affects the
form, the relative stability, and in some cases the rate, of compensation. The change from temporary to permanent incapacity
is made either when the need for curative treatment has ceased
and the definitive results of the injury can be ascertained, or
when the incapacity has lasted a fixed maximum period.
In Belgium, the Canadian mining provinces, France, the Netherlands and the U.S.S.R., temporary incapacity payments cease
CR. II.

— 66 —
only when the beneficiary is either fully restored or found to be
permanently incapacitated: there is no time limit.
The laws of several countries provide that temporary incapacity
payments shall cease at the end of the prescribed period, irrespective of the condition of the injured worker.
India
Japan
South Africa:
Europeans
Natives
U.S.A.:
Ala

5 years
6 months
18 months
6
„
300 weeks

Ü ». I

««• ••

Ind. 1
Pa. \

500

Va. J
Ohio
W. Va

312
78

The position is more complicated in Czechoslovakia, Germany
and Poland, where (as for that matter in Japan) the sickness
insurance scheme is responsible for the payment of sickness benefit,
by way of compensation for incapacity, for a certain number of
weeks. Here compensation traverses three phases. In the first
phase, which corresponds in principle with the duration of medical
aid, sickness benefit is payable; in the second, a pension of a
provisional character replaces the sickness benefit and continues
until the definitive effects of the injury can be ascertained; and
in the third the pension is placed on a permanent basis, though
remaining subject to review. Maximum periods are fixed for the
duration of the first two phases as follows:
Country

First phase

Second phase

Czechoslovakia

52 weeks

Germany

Poland

Ditto

2 years from end of
medical aid
2 years from time of
accident
Ditto

„

COMPENSATION IN CASE OF PERMANENT INCAPACITY

At the transition from temporary to permanent incapacity,
compensation is placed on a stable basis, being subject to modification, if at all, only by the procedure of review at fairly long
intervals. The form and amount of compensation may also

— 67 —

change and therewith the rate at which the economic loss is
indemnified. Those laws which do not establish a distinction
between total and partial incapacity in temporary cases must do
so when the incapacity becomes permanent and the degree of
incapacity has to be evaluated.
(a) Form of Compensation
The purpose of cash compensation is to replace, in part at least,
the loss of wages suffered by the injured worker. It is natural,
therefore, that in permanent, as in temporary, cases, compensation
should take the form of periodical payments continuing for the
duration of the incapacity or until death.
In certain countries, however, it has been found preferable to
dispose of permanent cases by the payment of a lump sum. This
form of compensation has the advantages of liberating the insurer
from all further liability and, by ending all possibility of litigation,
of preventing or curing compensation neurosis. In certain cases
the lump sum may be used by the beneficiary to establish himself
in business. On the other hand, the lump sum appears as a
crude device in that it cannot be varied to take account of unforeseen developments in the beneficiaries' earning capacity, does not
vary with the victim's age, and finally is very apt to be squandered
by an inexperienced beneficiary.
The laws of the following countries provide for the payment of
pensions for the duration of incapacity: Belgium, Canadian mining
provinces, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Netherlands, Poland,
U.S.S.R., U.S.A.1 (Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia).
Under most of these laws, however, commutation may be proceeded
to in exceptional cases in the interest of the beneficiary, or where
the incapacity is slight.
In Great Britain the weekly payment in respect of incapacity
may be commuted for a lump sum at any time by agreement or
after six months if the employer so demands.
In four American mining States compensation for permanent
incapacity is in the form of periodical payments which are limited
in total amount and in duration (Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky,
Virginia). These periodical payments are therefore more like lump
sums paid out in instalments than pensions.
1

Only in case of permanent total incapacity; when incapacity is only
partial, compensation is awarded in the form of periodical payments as in the
other five mining States.

— 68 —
In India and Japan compensation for permanent incapacity is
invariably in the form of a lump sum.
In South Africa compensation for Europeans is in the form of
a pension where the incapacity reaches 70 per cent., consists
partly of a pension and partly of a lump sum where the incapacity
is between 40 and 70 per cent., and is payable entirely as a lump
sum where incapacity is 40 per cent, or less; compensation for
natives is always in the form of a lump sum.
(b) Rate of Compensation for Permanent Total Incapacity
(i) Pensions
Where compensation is in the form of a pension the percentage
of the basic wage paid as compensation is, in almost all countries,
the same for permanent incapacity as for temporary incapacity, or,
where the rate for temporary incapacity rises or falls after a certain
number of weeks, the same as that rate as modified (Belgium,
Canadian mining provinces, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, U.S.S.R., American mining States).
In Great Britain, as already mentioned, no distinction is, in practice, made between temporary and permanent incapacity, and the
rate of compensation remains the same throughout the duration of
incapacity unless the weekly payments are commuted for a lump
sum.
The laws of France and the U.S.S.R. form exceptions. In
France, whereas compensation for temporary incapacity is fixed
at 50 per cent, of the daily wage, the proportion of the basic wage
paid in case of permanent total incapacity is 662/3 per cent. In
the U.S.S.R. the change is in the contrary direction: the rate of
the periodical payment, which is generally 100 per cent, of the basic
wage during temporary incapacity, is reduced, when the incapacity
becomes permanent, to a figure varying from 75 to 80 per cent.
according to the number of years of mining work.
The rate of pensions continues without change during permanent
incapacity, except in three American mining States. In Alabama,
after 400 weeks of incapacity (including temporary total incapacity)
the payment is continued for a further 150 weeks at the fixed rate
of $5.00 weekly. In Illinois, after 416 weeks of incapacity the
payment is reduced from 50 per cent, of wages (plus 5 per cent, for
each child), to 48 per cent, of wages. In Pennsylvania, after
500 weeks of incapacity, the payment is continued at the fixed
rate of $30.00 monthly.
The dependants' allowances granted under the workmen's com-

— 69 —
pensation laws of Alabama and Illinois and the family allowances
granted in Belgium and France under the general scheme of family
allowances are payable during permanent total incapacity 1 as well
as during temporary incapacity. The German and Polish laws
provide for the payment of a children's allowance in all cases of
permanent incapacity in a degree exceeding 50 per cent, and 662/3
per cent, respectively.
Numerous laws enable increased compensation to be paid in
cases of permanent total incapacity where the injured worker
requires constant attendance.
In Czechoslovakia, Germany,
RATES OF PENSIONS FOR PERMANENT TOTAL INCAPACITY

Country

Belgium
Canada:
Alta.
Man.
Sask.
B.C.
N.B
• N.S
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Germany . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .
South Africa:
Europeans

.
.
.
.
,

U.S.S.R. . . .
U.S.A.:
Ala
Ill
Ind
Ky
Ohio . . . .
Pa
Va
W. Va. . . ,

Percentage
of basic
wage

Maximum pension
without dependants'
allowances

6 6 % (a)

13,333 frs. yearly

66%

$1,333 yearly

62%
55
66%
66% .
6 6 % (b)
6 6 % (a)
50-75
70
6 6 % (a)

$1,250
„
$ 825
„
$1,000
,,
8,000 Ké. yearly

50; + 25 of
wages over
£240 yearly
75-80
55 (a)
50 (a)
55
65
66%
65
55
66%

4,800 RM. yearly
30s. weekly
5.60 fis. daily
116 zl. weekly
£160 yearly
338-400 roubles m o n t h l y
$18.00 weekly {d)
$15.00
$16.50
(/)
$15.00
(8)
$18.75
$15.00
(h)
$14.00
(i)
$16.00

(a) Plus family or dependants' allowances.
(6) On wage up to 8,000 frs. a year; I62/3 per cent, on part of wage between 8,000 and
18,500 frs.; 81/3 per cent, on excess. Plus family allowances.
(c) After 400 weeks, further 150 weeks at $5.00 weekly.
(<i) Max.: 550 weeks.
(e) After 416 weeks pension continues at 48 per cent, of basic wage.
(/) Max.: 500 weeks; $5,000.
(g) Max.: 416 weeks; $6,000.
(h) After 500 weeks, pension continues at $30.00 monthly.
(i) Max.: 500 weeks; $5,600.
1

In A l a b a m a and Illinois only for t h e first 400 and 416 weeks respectively.

— 70 —

Poland, the Netherlands and the U.S.S.R. the pension is raised in
such cases to a maximum of 100 per cent, of the basic wage. In
Belgium the maximum is fixed at 80 per cent, of the wage. French
law provides for a uniform addition of 3,000 francs a year to the
pension. In South Africa the additional allowance is fixed by the
magistrate in his discretion.
Under most laws the periodical payment is subject to an absolute
maximum, which is prescribed either directly or indirectly by
limiting the basic wage. A minimum payment is also common,
especially for apprentices, who, in case of permanent incapacity,
are usually attributed a basic wage such as they would probably
have earned if they had not been injured.
The laws of four American mining States, as has been mentioned,
limit not only the duration of periodical payments, but their total
amount; moreover payments made during temporary incapacity
are included when reckoning the total duration or amount.
(ii) Lump Sums
The lump sums payable in India and Japan in case of permanent
total incapacity are fixed at 42 months' wages and 600 days'
wages respectively. Periodical payments received during temporary incapacity are, in India, deducted from the final lump sum.
In South Africa the lump sum payable to a native varies from
£75 for workers earning £60 a year or less, up to £633 for workers
earning £400 a year or more.
(c) Rate of Compensation for Permanent Partial Incapacity
In general the form of compensation and the proportion of the
economic loss indemnified are the same whatever the degree of
incapacity, but there are some exceptions.
Reference has already been made to a peculiar feature of South
African legislation, namely, that pensions are payable in severe
cases, lump sums in slight cases and part pension and part lump
sum in medium cases. In other countries also it is a frequent
practice to replace the pension by a lump sum where the pension
would be very small.
In Germany, the Netherlands, and Poland, no compensation at
all is payable if the permanent incapacity is less than a certain
degree—20 per cent, in the first country and 10 per cent, in the
other two countries.

— 71 —
The proportion of the economic loss indemnified is in France
reduced from 2/3 to % where the incapacity, is less than total.
In the American mining States the rate of compensation is the
same whatever the degree of incapacity. The weekly payment is
a uniform proportion of the basic wage, e.g. 662/3 per cent., but
the number of payments is proportional to the degree of incapacity,
as shown in a schedule of injuries and corresponding numbers of
payments. Thus, for the loss of an arm, the number of payments
is generally fixed at some figure between 200 and 250 inclusive
of the healing period.
Family allowances in Belgium and France are not payable automatically unless the incapacity is total, but when the partially
disabled worker returns to employment they are, of course, resumed.
As already noted, the children's allowances provided for under
German and Polish legislation are only payable if the incapacity
exceeds 50 per cent, and 662/3 per cent, respectively. The dependants' allowances provided under the laws of Alabama and Illinois
are added to the weekly payments during partial as during total
incapacity.
"
COMPENSATION IN CASE OF DEATH

Compensation of death consists of two elements: funeral benefit,
and a pension or lump sum designed to replace in part the support
which the deceased worker afforded to his dependent relatives.
(a) Form of Compensation
With few exceptions the form of compensation is the same for
death as for permanent total incapacity. The exceptions are
Great Britain and Illinois, where compensation for death is a lump
sum, and South Africa, where, for Europeans, it is partly a lump
sum and partly a pension.
Classified according to the form of compensation payable in
case of death, the countries therefore are as follows:
Pensions in Belgium, the Canadian mining provinces, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, South
Africa (for children), the U.S.S.R., the U.S.A. (Ohio, Pennsylvania,
West Virginia) ;
Periodical payments of limited duration in the U.S.A. (Alabama,
Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia);
Lump sums in Great Britain, India, Japan, South Africa (for
adults) and the U.S.A. (Illinois).

— 72 —

It should be observed that in Great Britain and India the lump
sum is not paid directly to the dependants but is administered on
their behalf by a judge.
(b) Categories of Relatives entitled to Compensation
The possible beneficiaries of compensation in case of death
include not only the widow or widower and the young children of
the deceased, but also, if in fact they were dependent on him,
relatives in the ascending or descending line and brothers and
sisters; as a rule, however, these other relatives are only entitled
to benefit in the absence of the first-mentioned group.
Widow or Widower
The laws may be divided into four groups according to the
conditions under which they award compensation to the widow
or widower:
(a) Widow and widower are entitled to compensation without
proof of dependence on earnings of deceased (Belgium,
France, India);
(b) Widow is entitled to compensation without proof of dependence, but widower only if incapable of work and dependent
(Czechoslovakia, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, South
Africa, American mining States);
(c) Widow and widower are only entitled to compensation on
proof of dependence (Great Britain, U.S.S.R.).
(d) Widow and widower are only entitled to compensation on
proof of dependence, and widower must moreover be incapable of work (Canadian mining provinces).
Where the widow's compensation is paid in the form of a pension
it generally ceases on remarriage, when she receives a lump sum
equal to two or three years' pension instalments.
Children
Children under a prescribed age are, like the widow, generally
presumed to have been dependent on the earnings of their deceased
parent. Under many laws the age limit is waived or raised by a
few years if the child is incapable of work or is still attending
school.

— 73 —

Country

Belgium
Canada:
N.B
Other mining provinces
Czechoslovakia
. . . .
France
Germany
Great Britain

Normal
maximum age
18
16(a)
16
15
16
15
15

Country

India
Netherlands
Poland
South Africa
U.S.S.R
U.S.A.:
Ala., Ind., Pa.,. Va .
111., Ky., W. Va. . .

Normal
maximum age
15
16
17(a)
16
16
18
16

(a) 18 for girls.

Other Relatives
Compensation is, as a rule, only granted to parents and
grandparents, grandchildren and brothers and sisters in the absence
of a widow or widower and children and if dependence is proved.
Moreover the compensation is often on a lower scale than for the
immediate family. In the U.S.S.R. however, all persons who were
totally dependent on the deceased have an equal claim to
compensation.
(c) Rate of Compensation for Death
All the laws fix a maximum total for the pensions or lump
sums which may be awarded to the dependents of a deceased worker,
the maximum being expressed in terms of the basic wage or as an
absolute sum in currency. Except in Great Britain, India, South
Africa, and the American mining State of Illinois, a funeral benefit
is payable in addition.
The distribution of the pensions or lump sums among the
dependants may be effected by either of two methods.
According to the first method, fixed shares are allotted to the
widow (or widower) and to the children respectively, and, in the
absence of the foregoing, to other relatives who were supported
by the deceased (Belgium, Canadian mining provinces, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, and the American
mining States of Alabama, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and West
Virginia).
According to the second method, where any persons totally
dependent on the deceased are left, the maximum compensation in
terms of the basic wage is always awarded, and is divided by the
competent authority among the dependants; in the absence of

— 74 —
persons totally dependent, the compensation is shared among any
partial dependants. With some variations of detail, this method
is adopted in Great Britain, India, Japan, South Africa, and the
American mining States of Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio and Virginia.

RATES OF PENSIONS FOR DEATH

(Percentages refer to basic wage)

Widow or
widower
where
children
are left

Country

Belgium . . .
Canada:
Alta. . . .
B.C. . . .
Man. . . .
N.B.

. . .

N.S
Sask. . . .

Maximum
for all
children
where
widow
is left

Maximum
for other
relatives
where no
widow or
children
are left

Maximum
for all
dependants

Maximum
funeral
benefit

45%

75%

750 frs.

30%

$35 monthly $39 monthly
for 4 children
$35
$30 monthly
$40
$39 monthly
for 4 children
$30
$39 monthly
$30

$30
$40

(«) ?40

„

$65 monthly $65 monthly

$125

$45

$100
$150

$65
66%%

$40

Discretion- $69 monthly
ary
$45 monthly
66%%
Discretion66%%
ary
20%
66%%
30%
60%
20%
80%.

Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Germany . .

20%
20%
20% (b)

Netherlands .

30%

Poland

30%

36%%

20%

37-40%

94-100%

U.S.S.R.
U.S.A.:
Ala.
Ind.
Ky
Ohio
Pa
Va
W.Va.

(o)
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)

. . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

46%%
40%
60%

$30
$45
Not prescribed
Not prescribed
Not prescribed
65%
|
45%
Not prescribed
$30 monthly $5 monthly 50% of-supfor each
port rechild
ceived
$35

Plus lump sum of $100.
40 per cent, if invalid.
Max.: 300 weeks; $5,000.
Max.: 335 weeks; $4,000.
Max.: 416 weeks; $6,500.

$100
$100

$125

900 kö.
200 frs.
20% of
yearly
wages
60%
One month's
wages
66%%
One month's
94-100%
wages
20-40
roubles
6 5 % (e)
5 5 % (c)
6 5 % (d)
6 6 % % (e)
65%
5 5 % (c)

$125
$150
$150
$200
$200
$150
$150

—

75 —

AMOUNT OF LUMP SUMS FOR DEATH
(Periods signify multiples of basic wage)

Country

Great Britain .

Widow or
widower
where
children
are left
3 years
(maximum
£300)

Maximum
for all
children
where
widow
is left

Maximum
for other
relatives
where no
widow or
children
are left

£300

3 years
(£300)

India

N o t prescribed

Japan . . . .
South Africa:
Europeans

N o t prescribed

Natives
U.S.A.:
111. . .

18 months
(maximum
£375)

(b)

£600
30 m o n t h s
(4,000 Rs.)
400 days

2 years
(£500)

4 years
($3,750)

Maximum
funeral
benefit

£15 (a)
50 R s . (a)
30 yen
No benefit

18 m o n t h s
(£375)

N o t prescribed
4 years (maximum
$5,500)

Maximum
for ail
dependants

4 years
($5,500)

£5 (a)
$150 (a)

(a) If no dependants are left.
(6) Children receive pension. Max.: 70 per cent, of total incapacity pension in respect of deceased.

IV. — Financial Resources

In most countries the whole cost of workmen's compensation is
borne by the employers, each of whom pays an insurance premium
proportional to the wages bill and the degree of risk of his undertaking (Belgium, Canadian mining provinces, France, Great Britain,
India, Netherlands, South Africa, American mining States).
In the U.S.S.R. workmen's compensation is not financially
separate from other branches of social insurance, a single contribution being payable for all branches, and the entire cost being
borne by the undertaking.
In the remaining countries compensation is paid by sickness
insurance for a certain number of weeks after the accident, and
thereafter by accident insurance. Employers and workers contribute
to sickness insurance in equal shares, but the cost of accident
. insurance is borne by employers alone in proportion to their wages
bills and the degree of risk of their undertakings. Benefits are paid
by sickness insurance for the first four weeks in Czechoslovakia and
Poland, and six months in Japan. In Germany, unless accident

— 76 —

insurance decides to intervene earlier, an injured worker receives
sickness benefits until his injury is healed, but not for more than
26 weeks. In Poland, if the incapacity lasts over four weeks, the cost
of benefits paid by sickness insurance is refunded by accident
insurance, while in Germany accident insurance refunds the cost
of benefits paid by sickness insurance from the forty-sixth day
after the accident and onwards.
The order of magnitude of the charges borne by employers in
respect of workmen's compensation is illustrated in the following
table of premium rates in certain countries.
PREMIUM RATES FOR ACCIDENT INSURANCE OF MINERS

Year

Premium
(in per cent.
of wages)

Canada:
Alta
N.S

1935
1935

4.6
4.5

Czechoslovakia:
Bohemia

1936

2.15-3.85

Moravia and Silesia

1936

2.54-4.55

Slovakia

1936

5.11-7.00

1935

4.7

1935

3.0

1934

4.5

Country

. . . .

Germany
Great Britain

U.S.A

. . .

Remarks

Coal mines
Coal mines
Coal mines; minimum
and maximum rates
Coal mines; minimum
and maximum rates
Coal mines; minimum
and maximum rates
All mines
Coal mines; figure represents
average
compensation paid
per miner employed
as percentage of
average wages
Bituminous coal mines

Section 2. — Compensation for Occupational
Diseases
I. — Short Account of the Occupational Pathology of Miners
The occupational pathology of miners in general, and of coal
miners in particular, is determined by risks which vary with the
type of work engaged in. Proof of this is shown by the fact that
the pathology of coal miners, for instance, does not correspond

— 11 —

exactly to that of workers in metalliferous mines, or, for instance,
in anthracite mines. Without, however, going into further detail
in this connection, which would probably lead unduly far, it is
sufficient to mention that the causes of injury may be summarised
as follows:
1. Absence of sunlight;
2. Variation in the atmospheric oxygen content (especially lack
of oxygen);
3. Atmospheric moisture (humidity); temperature (heat);
4. Vitiated air;
5. Atmospheric pollution:
(a) natural gases given off by the seams traversed, oxidation
of coal and other organic substances ; respiration of men
and animals ; combustion of light sources and of engines ;
explosive gases liberated subsequent to blasting; spontaneous combustion of coal;
(b) toxic gas, methane (CH4) (" fire damp "), carbon dioxide
and nitrogen (N2C02) (" black damp ") ; carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide; oxidation of the coal and other
carbonaceous substances; gases liberated subsequent to
blasting or spontaneous combustion of the dust, etc.;
sulphuretted hydrogen; sulphur dioxide; nitrous fumes;
6. Dust. Apart from the danger of explosion should be mentioned
the risk to the workers from dust inhalation (pneumoconioses)
due to dust coming from the coal face, transport of material,
etc.
7. Repeated chills due to sudden passing, without precaution
from hot stalls to relatively cold galleries;
8. Methods of work and working posture (posture, tools, cramped
posture) ;
9. Danger of infection or infestation.
Legislative authorities do not appear to have made provision
for all these sources of injury. Under the influence of the particular
conditions affecting their respective countries, they have, on the
other hand, restricted their action to inscribing in the compensation
schedule one or several diseases or injuries. An analysis of the
various schedules in force shows the most frequent inscriptions to
be the following: miner's nystagmus, a form of neurosis encountered

— 78 —
almost exclusively amongst miners, and now attributed to inadequate lighting in the mine galleries, the other factors incriminated
(working posture, defective refraction of the miner's eyes, etc.)
being but of secondary importance ; respiratory diseases due to the
inhalation of dust, and covered by the term " miner's phthisis "
or " silicosis ", or the more general designation " pneumoconioses ".
These diseases are determined by the nature of the dust inhaled,
by the method of work (wet working), etc.; injuries due to the
awkward and trying position in which the miner is obliged to work,
and which leads to undue pressure on certain restricted portions
of the body (elbows, knees, etc.), as well as other injuries due to
the action of pneumatic tools (diseases of the muscles, bones and
joints); skin diseases due to dust, to damp heat, to friction, etc.,
which favour inflammation of the skin (forms of dermatitis) ; apart
from forms of acute poisoning (generally classed as accidents)
caused by gas, chronic forms of poisoning should be mentioned
here : due to carbon monoxide, to " mine gases ", sulphuretted
hydrogen, nitrous fumes, etc. ; in conclusion there may be mentioned,
simply with a view to its inclusion, ankylostomiasis, which has
now, however, almost completely disappeared in the mines of most
countries. A more rarely occurring risk is that of spirochetosis.
Obviously the incidence of these diseases varies in accordance
with the type of working, and particularly in accordance with the
technical organisation of the mine (lighting, ventilation, airconditioning, campaign against dust, measures of personal hygiene,
etc.). The use of pneumatic tools is accountable for the incidence
of diseases of the muscles and the joints; but more especially so
where the tools are unduly heavy, where the air pressure is too
high, or where they are used mainly by young workers not skilled
in their use. In mines in which installation is defective, and where
water drips from the roof and the walls of the galleries, forms of
eczematous dermatitis (" water itch ") are met with amongst the
workers, these conditions not being found in dry, well-ventilated
galleries.
*

Occupational diseases of miners are compensated either by the
formula of the general coverage of the occupational risk (" Blanket
Coverage "), when the workmen's compensation legislation applies
to the mining industry, or by a schedule appended in general to
the Workmen's Compensation Act. In the latter case the schedule
may comprise one or several occupational diseases of miners, fre-

— 79 —
quently respiratory diseases due to dust (" miner's phthisis ",
" silicosis ", " pneumoconioses "). Nevertheless, compensation for
these diseases, and particularly for silicosis, is applied in certain
countries by means of a special Act or " scheme " incorporated in
the general workmen's compensation legislation (see later). Analysis
of a Compensation Act devoted to occupational diseases reveals
certain special provisions differing from those provided in the
workmen's compensation legislation. The most important of these
is that under the term " mines " it is not always explicitly stated
whether coal mines are intended or metalliferous mines. In case
of doubt, the legislative measures will nevertheless be mentioned.
The provisions of interest for our purpose, whether issued within
the system of general coverage of the occupational risk, or within
that of schedule coverage, are almost always similar to those
included under workmen's compensation (see Section 1 of this
chapter). It is, however, opportune to draw attention to two
or three particular points met with in certain legislation and connected with special aspects characteristic of occupational disease
which distinguish it from industrial accidents. It is sufficient to
mention briefly that in the case of occupational diseases certain
legislative systems, especially those of Anglo-Saxon countries,
make provision for a certain duration of work—in other words, right
to compensation is only accorded provided the claimant has been
engaged in the industry covered for a certain length of time.
Other legislative measures make provision for a period of " waiting
time " which is longer than that fixed in the case of accidents, this
with a view to excluding diseases difficult to define, or certain
diseases of short duration, or etiologically of doubtful or difficult
diagnosis. In certain cases it is specified that even where it is a
question of temporary incapacity lasting beyond the waiting time,
the benefit is only accorded after the lapse of a fixed period.
Certain legislative measures limit the employer's liability to a
certain period of time laid down in advance for each disease. It is
obvious that it is essential to provide in the case of workers who
leave an unhealthy occupation and subsequently fall victims to a
disease due to the occupation in which they were formerly employed,
the possibility of obtaining compensation, but it may be asked
whether in certain cases the delay fixed is not unduly short, and
whether in the case of diseases with a notoriously prolonged
period of latency it is not essential to ensure that this limit should
only be set subsequent to the most careful consideration.
Assessment of incapacity in no wise differs from that which

— 80 —
applies in the case of accidents. Nevertheless, it must be admitted
that the medical man is, in the case of occupational diseases,
confronted with much greater difficulties than those encountered
in the case of accidents. It is also essential to note the fact that
there is a growing tendency, in connection with legal compensation
for diseases, to restrict compensation to forms of total incapacity
with a higher limit in extent than that fixed in the case of accidents
(for instance, in recently enacted legislation, this limit has been
fixed at 20 per cent.).
It suffices to mention in passing that certain Acts contain special
provisions in regard to the settlement of disputes; participation
of qualified experts; compulsory hospital treatment for victims of
occupational diseases; compulsory assent of dependants to postmortem examination. With regard to the question of administrative
procedure, it should be recalled that in certain cases compensation
for occupational diseases is assured by a special fund which covers,
as the case may be, all occupational diseases (Belgium) or special
diseases (for instance, silicosis in Great Britain).
II a. — The Occupational Diseases Compensated

It should be stated that, apart from the countries enumerated
below, certain further legal provisions dealing with compensation
for occupational diseases of miners exist in other countries: Cuba,
Mexico, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, United States of America
(Pennsylvania, Wisconsin).
AUSTRALIA
Commonwealth
Act No. 24, of 14 August 1930, respecting workmen's compensation (L.S.,
1930, Austr. 5).
Ankylostomiasis.
Any employment involving
exposure to hookworm infection.
Nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
(miner's beat knee).
Mining.
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheath.
1
Forms of poisoning due to gas (carbon monoxide, nitrous gas, etc.) are
not included in view of the exceptional character of the chronic forms and the
compensation, as accidents properly so called, of the acute forms. The number
of cases quoted in the statistical tables is moreover insignificant, with the
result that their omission does not involve any important difference in the
general impression conveyed.

81
Dermatitis produced by dust or caustic
Any industrial process, or corrosive liquids, etc.
Silicosis.
Queensland
Acts dated 1916-1923 respecting workmen's compensation. Act of 5 November 1925 [L.S., 1925, Austr. 5).
Silicosis.
Ankylostomiasis.
Nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
(miner's beat knee).
Mining.
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Miner's itch.
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheath.
South Australia
Act No. 2103, dated 30 November 1932, respecting workmen's compensation.
Ankylostomiasis.
Mining.
Western Australia
Acts of 1912-1924 respecting workers' compensation. Amendment Act
dated 16 January 1925 (L.S., 1925, Austr. 2) and Proclamations dated 30
January and 27 February 1925, amended by Act No. 35, January 1935 (L.S.,
1935, Austr. 1).
Silicosis.
Pneumoconiosis.
Tuberculosis.
Trade spasms and cramps.
Ankylostomiasis.
Nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
\ Mining.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
(miner's beat knee).
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheath.
Dermatitis.
Northern Territory
Ordinance No. 6, dated 13 May 1931, respecting workmen's compensation
(L.S., 1931, Austr. 1).
Any employment involving
Ankylostomiasis.
exposure to hookworm infestation.
Nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
Mining.
(miner's beat knee).
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheath.
CR. II.

— 82 —
Dermatitis produced by dust or caustic
Any industrial process.
or corrosive liquids etc.
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheath.
CANADA
Alberta
Act of 1918 respecting workmen's compensation, and subsequent amendments.
Pneumoconiosis (silicosis).
1
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand > Mining.
(beat hand).
J
British Columbia
Act of 1936 respecting workmen's compensation (revised Statutes of B.C.,
Chap. 312).
Ankylostomiasis.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulosis of the patella
(miner's beat knee).
Mining.
Acute bursitis over elbow (miner's beat
elbow).
Inflammation or ulceration of the skin or
mucous membrane by sulphur or
sulphur gases.
Infected blisters.
Any process involving continuous friction, rubbing or
vibration, and causing blisters.
Manitoba
Act respecting workmen's compensation (consolidated text dated 1924,
amended by the Act dated 7 April 1936).
Silicosis.
[
Mining.
Ankylostomiasis.
[
New Brunswick
Compensation Act 1918. Revised Statutes 1927, Ch. 157, and Registration
thereunder dated 15 December 1932.
Ankylostomiasis.
Mining.
Nova Scotia
Act dated 1 April 1932 respecting workmen's compensation.
Ankylostomiasis.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
Mining.
(miner's beat knee).
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Ontario
Act respecting workmen's compensation (consolidated text dated 1927 and
subsequent amendments).
Silicosis.
[ M- •
Ankylostomiasis.
[ mmineBursitis.
Any process involving continuous rubbing, pressure
or vibration of the parts
affected.

— 83 —
Infected blisters.

Any process involving continuous friction, rubbing
or vibration causing blisters
or abrasions.

Saskatchewan
Act respecting workmen's compensation, dated 2 February 1929, amended
by the Act dated 16 April 1937.
Miner's phthisis.
1
Silicosis.
| Mining.
Ankylostomiasis.
J
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Act respecting compensation for occupational diseases, dated 1 June 1932
(L.S., 1932, Cz. 1).
Diseases of the muscles, bones or joints Undertakings in which pneuin workers handling, drills, hammers,
matic machines or apparapneumatic rivetting tools, or other
tus are used.
apparatus of this kind.
Mining.
Ankylostomiasis.
Serious pneumoconiosis caused by quartz Mining involving work in hard
quartz.
dust. If serious pneumoconiosis occurs
simultaneously with pulmonary tuberculosis, the tuberculosis is, for the
purposes of compensation, deemed to
be a disease due to dust.
Nystagmus, when of a serious and com- Mining.
plicated form.
GERMANY
Third Order, dated 16 December 1936, to
cover occupational diseases (L.S., 1936, Ger.
Serious or recurring occupational diseases
of the skin necessitating change of
occupation or abandoning of all occupational activity.
Diseases of the muscles, bones and joints
due to work with pneumatic tools.
Serious pneumoconiosis (silicosis).
Pneumoconiosis (silicosis) occurring in
conjunction with pulmonary tuberculosis when the general clinical picture is
serious and the pneumoconiotic lesions
constitute the essential cause of the
active and progressive evolution of
tuberculosis.
Ankylostomiasis.

extend accident insurance to
3).
All undertakings subject to
workmen's compensation,
including mines.
Idem.
Idem.

Mines.

GREAT BRITAIN
Act respecting workmen's compensation, dated 22 December 1925 (L.S.,
1925, G.B. 3) and Orders made under this Act (1927, 1929, 1932, 1934, 1935).
Ankylostomiasis.
Nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis or acute bursitis
at or about the knee (beat knee).
' Mining.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis or acute bursitis
over the elbow (beat elbow).
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheaths.

— 84 —
Silicosis.

Mining . . . of silica rock. All
underground operations in
coal mines.

JAPAN
Circular No. 55 of 3 July 1935 issued under the Factories Act (1923) and
the Act respecting relief of miners (1931).
Conjunctivitis due to dust.
Inflammation of the tendon sheaths.
Silicosis.
Nystagmus 1 .
POLAND
Ministerial Order 29 September, 1937 (L.S., 1937, Pol. 5).
Silicosis.
Mines.
U.S.S.R.
Order No. 75 respecting compensation for occupational diseases.
4 January 1929.
Ankylostomiasis.
1
Pneumoconiosis.
> Mining.
Nystagmus.
J
Chronic inflammation of the synovial
membrane of the knee, elbow and
Mine workers, wrist.

Dated

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
Act No. 59 of 1934 respecting workmen's compensation.
Ankylostomiasis.
Working miners other than Asiatic and Native labourers.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
It is necessary to group the States in accordance with the legislative system
in force: (1) States in which the system of general coverage of occupational
risk exists (California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Missouri,
New York, North Dakota, Philippine Islands, Territory of Hawaii, Wisconsin,
and the District of Columbia. To these should be added also Maryland, where
the courts have issued a definition of occupational diseases)
; (2) States in
which the schedule system of occupational diseases exists 2.
Kentucky
Carroll's Statutes 1930 as amended 1934, § 4880.
Inhalation in mines of noxious gases or smoke commonly known as
" bad air ".
1
This list of diseases is supplemented by a formula " all other diseases
considered as resulting from employment ".
2
Only those States in which the Act specifies diseases affecting miners are
mentioned. The State of New York possesses a schedule of occupational
diseases but in view of the fact that under 28 of the schedule is found the
wording " some and all occupational diseases ", this State has here been
grouped with those possessing general coverage of the occupational risks.

— 85 —
Michigan
Act No. 61, 1937.
Miners' diseases including only cellulitis, bursitis, ankylostomiasis,
tenosynovitis and nystagmus. Silicosis.
Minnesota
' Statutes 1927, § 4327.
Ankylostomiasis.
Miner's nystagmus.
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis of the hand
(beat hand).
Sub-cutaneous cellulitis over the patella
M. .
(miner's beat knee).
mining.
Acute bursitis over the elbow (miner's
beat elbow).
Inflammation of the synovial lining of
the wrist joint and tendon sheaths.
North Carolina
Michies's Code 1935, § 8081.
Blisters due to the use of tools or appliances during occupation.
Bursitis of the knee or the elbow due to intermittent pressure during
employment.
Miner's nystagmus.
Injuries of the bones due to constant or intermittent pressure during
employment.
Synovitis and tenosynovitis due to trauma during employment.
Silicosis.
Ohio
Page's General Code, 1932, § 1465-1468.
Primary tenosynovitis of the tendon sheaths of the flexor or extensor
muscles of the hand due to frequently repetitive motions or vibration.
Prepatellar bursitis due to continued pressure.
Silicosis.
Pennsylvania
Act 1937.
Silicosis or anthraco-silicosis (miner's asthma).
Porto Rico
Acts of 1935, No. 45.
Infection or inflammation of the skin
on contact with compound cutting
oils or lubricants, dust, liquids,
fumes, gases or vapours.

Any industrial process involving the handling or use of
compound cutting oils or
lubricants or involving contact with liquids, fumes,
gases or vapours.

Rhode Island
General Laws, 1923, Ch. 92, Article VII, as amended by Ch. 2358, Acts
of 1936.
Miners' diseases comprising only cellulitis, bursitis, ankylostomiasis,
tenosynovitis and nystagmus.
Incapacity due to blisters or abrasions *.
Infection or inflammation of the skin or of the eyes or other external
surface on contact of the oral or nasal cavities 1with cutting oils, lubricants, dust, liquids, fumes, gases or vapours .
1

The Act does not specify the occupations in which the disease must occur
in order to constitute proof of its occupational character.

— 86 —
Washington
Act 18 March 1937, Ch. 212.
Miners' diseases including cellulitis, bursitis, ankylostomiasis, tenosynovitis and nystagmus. Silicosis is covered by the inscription " in any
industry where intense dust prevails ".

II b. — Compensation of Pneumoconioses and of Silicosis
The pulmonary diseases of miners (" miner's phthisis ", " pneumoconioses ", " silicosis ") are most frequently compensated under
a general Workmen's Compensation Act, the disease coming within
the general coverage system (Blanket Coverage) as in certain States
of the United States, or being expressly specified in a schedule.
It must also be remembered that many systems of legislation
only afford compensation for permanent incapacity and death.
The Draft Convention (Occupational Diseases) (Revised) 1934 only
covers " incapacity or death ". Moreover in certain countries the
legislation in force fixes the maximum amount payable in cases of
silicosis.
Finally, in certain cases compensation is given legal effect by
means of special legislative provisions, as, for instance, in Great
Britain and in New Zealand.
In Great Britain, legislation in force accords compensation for
silicosis or silicosis accompanied by tuberculosis when contracted
" in all underground operations in coal mines " under the Various
Industries Scheme (dated 30 April 1931; and amendment dated
29 January 1935) issued in execution of Article 47 of the 1925
Workmen's Compensation Act, extended by the Act of 1 August
1930 \
Compensation is accorded in the case of compulsory suspension
from employment, of total disablement or of death, subject to
certain conditions relative to duration of work in the processes
covered and to the period of latency preceding the outbreak of
the disease, etc.
Thus, when the worker has been employed in the processes
covered during a period or periods amounting to not less than five
years, silicosis or silicosis accompanied by tuberculosis is deemed
to be due to this employment unless the employer proves the
contrary. In other cases the onus of proof that the disease is due
to employment rests on the workmen or his dependants.
1
Compensation is not accorded for tuberculosis alone or for suspension
merely on account of inadequate physique.

— 87 —

On the other hand, the disease must have been certified at latest
within three years following either cessation of employment in
an industry or process inscribed in the scheme under which compensation is claimed, or receipt of weekly payments under the scheme.
Beyond this limit the miner, or his dependants in case of death,
are no longer entitled to compensation.
Compensation can only be claimed on the basis of a certificate
issued by the Medical Board for silicosis, unless compensation is
paid by agreement between the parties on the basis of another
medical certificate.
Certificates issued by the Medical Board concern compulsory
suspension from employment, total disablement, and death.
The certificate of compulsory suspension from employment is
issued where the Medical Board finds that the worker, though not
totally disabled, is suffering from silicosis, tuberculosis or silicosis
accompanied by tuberculosis to such a degree as to make it dangerous for him to continue work in the industry or process covered
by the scheme. Where tuberculosis is present (alone or with silicosis), suspension is also a measure of protection for the other
workers. In the case of compulsory suspension, the certificate
indicates the stage which the disease has reached, and further,
whether the workman's general physical capacity for employment
is impaired, and, if so, to what degree and the class or character
of work outside the dangerous industry or process for which he
is fit.
In the case of total disablement, the certificate requires the
Medical Board to certify the date from which the total disablement is to be reckoned as having commenced. Should the Board
be unable to certify such date, the date of total disablement is
deemed to be the date on which the certificate is issued.
The certificate of death is only delivered by the Medical Board
subsequent to post-mortem examination of the worker, the only
exception to this rule being where the worker was in receipt of
weekly payments under the compensation scheme, and only then
provided the Medical Board is satisfied that a post-mortem examination is unnecessary. It should be mentioned that the Board
merely certifies whether or not death was caused by silicosis or
by silicosis accompanied by tuberculosis, and does not certify the
actual cause of death apart from the disease.
If in any case (fatal or other) the Medical Board is satisfied that
the silicosis or silicosis accompanied by tuberculosis could not,
owing to the shortness of employment, have been contracted in

— 88 —
the industry or process in question, the certificate must bear an
indication to this effect.
Benefits granted in the case of total disablement or of death are
substantially those provided under similar circumstances under the
Workmen's Compensation Act, but there are in addition some
benefits accorded in cases of suspension from employment which
vary according to whether the workman's general physical capacity
for employment is or is not, in the view of the Medical Board,
impaired by the disease.
In the first case, the workman receives during impairment by
reason of the disease a weekly payment fixed in the same way as
compensation for partial incapacity due to an accident under the
Workmen's Compensation Act. In the second case, if the workman
is unable to obtain suitable employment (other than that prohibited)
at a rate of remuneration not less than what he was earning, he is
entitled, while he remains out of such employment, to a weekly
payment to be fixed by agreement, or in default of such agreement,
by arbitration, provided that the amount does not exceed 50 per
cent, of the workman's average weekly earnings prior to suspension
and is not payable for more than 13 weeks in all.
Liability for compensation devolves upon the employer who last
employed the workman in one of the processes coming within the
scheme in accordance with the provisions of the Workmen's Compensation Act.
The employer may insure against his liability by entering into
a contract with an insurance company, or may belong to a mutual
insurance association of employers in the coal-mining industry. One
of these two alternatives is compulsory unless the employer maintains
a special Trust Fund for meeting all his compensation liabilities.
Medical procedure as regards compensation is based on the
operations and decisions of the Medical Board, the organisation
of which is regulated by the Silicosis and Asbestosis (Medical
Arrangements) Scheme dated 1931, and subsequent amendments.
This Board consists of specially aualified medical practitioners
appointed by the Secretary of State, and has for its task the
supervision of the working of the medical arrangements, carrying
out of the various medical examinations, and delivery of the certificates provided under the various schemes for compensation of
silicosis and asbestosis. (For further details see Workmen's Compensation for Silicosis, Studies and Reports, Series F (Industrial
Hygiene), No. 16, International Labour Office, Geneva, 1937,
pp. 60-65).

— 89 —
In New Zealand, the " Pensions Act 1926 ", No. 56 dated 29 September 1926 (and later amendments), is applicable to any miner
who, while working as a miner in New Zealand, has contracted
" miner's phthisis " (this term includes pneumoconiosis and tuberculosis of the lungs and any other disease of the respiratory organs
associated with, or a sequal to pneumoconiosis), any other occupational disease or heart disease (amendment to the Act No. 26
of 4 September 1936).
The Act accords a pension during the whole duration of total
incapacity for work or serious and permanent (though not total)
incapacity, provided that the miner fulfils a certain number of
conditions and has amongst other requirements been employed as
a miner for a period of not less than 2% years prior to the date of
his application.
The medical practitioners appointed by the Pensions Fund are
entrusted with the requisite examinations for assessment of the
degree of incapacity and with the delivery of certificates.
The benefits are paid without contribution on the part of the
participant. Reasonable funeral expenses are also paid provided
that no payment is made unless application for same is lodged
within 12 months after the date of death.
The claim for a pension accompanied by a certificate duly drawn
up by the appointed medical practitioner, and, where necessary,
by proof that the disease has been contracted in New Zealand,
must be lodged with the Commisioner who makes the final decision
in regard thereto. The latter may from time to time require
re-examination of a pensioner by a medical practitioner, and may
terminate his pension as a result of such re-examination. Such
termination shall not bar the applicant from applying for a fresh
pension should the incapacity recur.

HI. — The Incidence of Occupational Disease of Miners
Few countries furnish statistics of occupational diseases giving
a satisfactory idea of the frequency of the various affections from
which working miners suffer.
Complete data of this kind nevertheless exists in the case of
two countries: Germany and Great Britain. Here again, however,
even in the case of these two countries, coal miners are not treated
separately from other miners (except in Great Britain, and then
only as regards silicosis).

— 90 —
GERMANY

Occupational diseases of miners, compensated for the first time
during the period 1930-1935 inclusive, are distributed as follows :

1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935

OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES OF MINERS
Fatal cases

1,812
1,007
752
504
451
587

«3

2,921
3,886
4,470
4,857
5,151
5,632

351
176
125
81
89
122

cu to

Total

1,109
2,879
3,718
4,353
4,700
5,045

ilicosis

2;§a

tal

Partial disablement

Sài

o; co

S.2

t/¡

•o

4
5
5
4
8
9

Intal
di»utilement

ilicosis

sä
Number
compens
first

umber of cases
rried over from
receding year

TABLE I.

355
181
130
85
77
131

79
28
38
33
30
50

65
77
63
61
80
73

1,291
703
508
316
254
325

21
16
13
9
10
8

1,377
298
584
386
344
406

For the period in question it is therefore seen that the average
annual incidence of these diseases is as follows:
154
6

Cases of disablement
609
83

160

692

Fatal cases

Silicosis. . . .
Other diseases .
Totals

Total

763
89
852

silicosis representing 75.94 per cent, of the cases of silicosis compensated in all the industries covered, and the total occupational diseases
compensated amongst miners constituting 47.57 per cent, of the
general total for diseases compensated.
Of 100 cases of silicosis compensated for the first time, 20.18 represent fatal cases and 79.82 cases of disablement.

— 91 —
Table II shows the incidence of diseases of miners compensated
for the first time and classified as fatal cases or cases of disablement
(total and partial), and calculated per 1,000 workers employed,
per 100 cases of disease notified and compensated.

TABLE II.

COMPENSATION FOR OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
OF MINERS

1930

Number of insured miners . . .
Number of cases of occupational
diseases compensated for first
time
Per 1,000 insured
Per 100 cases of all occupational
diseases notified in mines . .
Number of cases of occupational diseases compensated
in all industries
Of which:
Fatal cases
Per 1,000 insured
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases amongst miners compensated for first time . .
Cases of total disablement
Per 1,000 insured
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases amongst miners compensated for first time . .
Cases of partial disablement . . .
Per 1,000 insured
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases amongst miners compensated for first time . .

1931

1932

1933

1934

669,167 537,507 458,257 470,351 503,623

1,812
2.70

1,007
1.87

752
1.64

504
1.07

451
0.89

35.41

41.47

49.44

40.94

41.82

55.66

43.90

42.56

40.06

43.14

355
0.51

181
0.33

130
0.28

85
0.18

77
0.15

19.59

17.97

17.29

16.86

17.07

80
0.11

28
0.05

38
0.08

33
0.07

30
0.05

4.45

2.78

5.05

6.55

6.65

1,377
0.71

798
0.67

584
0.82

786
1.27

344
1.48

75.96

79.25

77.66

76.59

76.28

— 92 —
Table III permits of comparison of the incidence of occupational
diseases of miners with that of accidents for the same category of
workers.

TABLE III.

MINES: INCIDENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES OF
MINERS COMPARED WITH THAT OF ACCIDENTS

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

9,889
14.78
1,812
2.70
18.32

7,464
13,89
1,007
1.87
13.49

4,446
9.70
752
1.64
16.91

3,982
8.47

4,576
9.09

Fatal cases:
Accidents
P e r 1,000 workers.
Occupational
diseases
P e r 1,000 workers.
P e r 100 accidents

1,483
2.22
355
0.51
23.93

923
1.72
181
0.33
19.60

611
1.33
130
0.28
21.29

Total
disablement:
Accidents
P e r 1,000 workers.
Occupational
diseases
P e r 1,000 w o r k e r s .
P e r 100 accidents

51
0.08
80
0.11
156.86

37
0.07
28
0.05
75.67

24
0.05
38
0.08
158.33

8,355
12.49
1,377
2.05

6,504
12.10
798
1.48

16.48

12.27

Cases
Per
Cases
Per
Per

of accidents
1,000 workers. . . .
of occupational diseases
1,000 workers. . . .
100 accidents
. . .

Partial disablement :
Accidents
P e r 1,000 workers
Occupational diseases
. . . .
P e r 1,000 workers
Percentage of accidents with
p a r t i a l disablement . . .

504

451

1.07
12.65

0.89
9.85

644

759

1.37

1.51

0.18
13.19

0.15
10.14

0.06

0.05

0.07
122.22

0.05
125.00

3,811
8.32
584
1.27

3,311
7.04

3,793
7.53

386

344

0.82

0.67

15.32

11.75

9.07

— 93 —
Table IV provides statistics of incidence of silicosis amongst
miners, fatal cases, cases of total and partial disablement, and
figures relative to 100 cases of disease compensated and to 100 cases
of silicosis in the industries covered.

TABLE IV.

CASES OF SILICOSIS IN MINES
1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

Cases notified
Per 100 cases of all notified
diseases — mines
Per 100 cases of silicosis notified
in all industries
Cases compensated for first time .
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases, compensated
—
mines
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis in all industries . .

4,515

1,970

1,233

987

812

88.29

81.13

81.06

80.17

75.46

73.28

63.04

64.75

65.40

64.03

1,721

907

671

430

353

94.97

90.06

89.22

85.31

78.27

75.45

64.92

62.19

63.14

67.62

Fatal cases
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis — mines
Per 100 cases of silicosis in all
industries
Total disablement
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis — mines
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis in all industries . .
Partial disablement
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis — mines
Per 100 compensated cases of
silicosis in all industries . .

351

176

125

20.39

19.40

18.62

18.83

19.54

74.05

65.91

62.18

56.64

54.76

4.59

3.08

5.66

7.67

8.21

41.57

35.44

54.28

67.34

68.18

1,291

703

508

316

254

75.02

77.52

75.72

74.50

72.25

79.88

66.88

62.87

64.82

72.15

— 94 —
GREAT BRITAIN
The occupational diseases of miners compensated for the first
time in the course of the years 1930-1935 inclusive are distributed
as follows:
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES OF MINERS,
0>

—

—
—

7
2
1
3

—

—
—
—
1

c.Sa
o e '—
3»

S
M

2
S3

a
a

Inflamm
synovia
of wris

Së

T3
B

Beat i

Beat

35
51
30
41
85
94

3
o
rt ,

Beat

1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935

s»

o t- S?
^ 3 "
9 » s,

Epithel»
can

Derm

5 rf8 CD
^

Ulceratic
corneal
of thi

ÍH

3
^3

aS
o3

Ulcer
of the

1930-1935

Nysta

TABLE V.

3,066
2,729
1,962
1,535
1,745
1,839

1,448
1,289
1,266
1,238
1,200
1,189

3,554
3,147
3,076
3,111
3,686
4,149

441
451
403
435
554
581

298
327
317
366
328
358

a
•3

+J^¡

To these cases it is necessary to add about 24 cases during the
period under review, but in all probability these were not cases
affecting the coal-mining group.
As regards incidence of diseases compensated amongst miners,
the annual average for the period 1930-1935 expressed as a proportion of the total for all diseases compensated for the first time,
affecting all occupational groups covered, is as follows: Dermatitis,
2.90; ulceration of the skin 7.30; ulceration of the corneal surface
of the eye 16.16; epitheliomatous cancer 0.46; nystagmus 100; beat
hand 89.08; beat knee 98.23; beat elbow 97.34; inflammation of
the synovial lining of the wrist joint 78.56. For the last five
affections the incidence per 1,000 employed workers is respectively:
26.06 for nystagmus, 15.4 for beat hand, 41.9 for beat knee, 5.7 for
beat elbow, and 4.3 for inflammation of the synovial lining of the
wrist joint.
The general average for miners' diseases is 76.97. It is thus
shown that in accordance with the above figures the five last
affections may be considered as the diseases of most frequent
occurrence amongst British miners.
Table VI gives the number of persons employed, the diseases
amongst miners compensated for the first time and classified as
fatal cases and cases of disablement; the number expressed as a

— 95 —
proportion of 100 cases of occupational disease compensated for
the first time and of the total number for the period under review
(that is to say, comprising the cases carried over from the preceding
year) for all persons covered in the various occupational groups,
seven in number.
TABLE VI.

1930

Number of workers employed .

MINES

1931

1932

1933

1934

933,813 862,314 807,848 781,361 784,643

Cases of occupational diseases
16,849 16,829 16,021 15,209 15,187
compensated
7,068
6,733
7,583
8,844
7,996
Of which for the first time . .
1.95
1.94
1.93
1.84
1.95
Per 1,000 workers
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases compensated for
80.03
77.44
74.46
74.59
81.58
first time (7 groups) . . .
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases compensated
—
88.22
85.88
83.87
83.63
87.58
grand total 1 (7 groups) . .
Of which:
2
1
5
1
3
Fatal cases
0.021
0.011
0.061
0.012
0.030
Per 100,000 workers. . . .
Per 100 cases of occupational
diseases of miners (first
0.022
0.014
0.070
0.039
0.012
time)
Per 100 cases of occupational
14.70
4.00
11.53
6.66
5.00
diseases compensated —
grand total (7 groups) . .
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.01
Per 100 cases of grand total 16,847 16,828 16,016 15,208 15,184
(7 groups)
7,063
6,732
7,581
8,842
7,995
Cases of disablement
. . . .
1.98
1.94
1.93
1.84
1.95
Of which for the first time .
Per 1,000 workers
44.11
44.26
49.93
Per 100 cases compensated 52.49
47.51
of total partial disablement
(mines)
83.86
83.61
85.85
87.57
Per 100 cases of occupational 86.19
diseases compensated —
grand total (7 groups) . .
i The expression " grand total " implies cases compensated during the year under review together
with those continued from previous years.

— 96 —
Table VII permits of comparison between occupational diseases
and notified and compensated accidents affecting miners. (For
silicosis see table VIII.)

TABLE VII.

MINES: OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES COMPARED
WITH ACCIDENTS

Number of workers employed
Cases of accidents and
diseases
Per 1,000 employed .
Cases of disease per
1,000 employed . .
Cases of diseases as
percentage of accidents
Fatal cases (accidents
and d i s e a s e s ) . . . .
Per 1,000 employed .
Cases of death (disease)
as percentage of accidents
Cases of disablement
(accidents and disease)
Per 1,000 employed .
Cases of disablement
(disease) as percentage
of accidents
. . . .
Cost (in £ sterling):
Accidents and disease
Of which occupational disease represents . . . .
Per 100 accidents .
Cases of disease per
100 cases in grand
total for accidents and
occupational diseases
of 7 groups

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

933,813

862,314

807,848

781,361

784,643

770,091

208,717
22.35

188,712
21.88

171,283
21.20

163,551
20.93

174,945
22.30

178,010
23.12

1.84

1.95

1.88

1.94

1.93

1.98

8.78

9.79

10.31

10.25

9.50

9.37

1.125
0.12

997
0.11

912
0.11

902
0.11

909
0.11

1.237
0.16

0.17

0.10

0.54

0.11

0.33

0.16

207,592
22.23

187,715
21.76

170,371
21.08

162,649
20.81

174,036
71.92

176,773
22.95

8.11

8.96

9.40

9.35

8.72

8.63

3,001,449 2,941,189 2,785,219 2,573,696 2,659,652 2,892,433
506,069
16.83

540,225
18.37

505,598
18.14

426,607
16.53

446,129
16.77

445,566
16.03

7.88

8.91

8.98

7.89

8.55

— 97 —

(Cases carried over from the previous year are
1930
1931
1932
'
Number of cases compensated
41 (11) 68 (18) 159 (54)
Per 100 cases of silicosis, all schemes:
Of total . . . .
6.19
7.64
14.66
Of year under review
. . . .
8.82
12.19
22.01
Of which:
Fatal cases
. . . .
8
17
30
Per 100 cases of silicosis in mines
(compensated) .
19.51
25
18.86
Per 100 cases of silicosis compensated under all schemes:
Of total . . . .
1.20
1.91
2.76
Of year under review
. . . .
8.88
13.38
22.00
Cases of disablement
.
33 (11) 61 (18) 129 (54)
Per 100 cases bf silicosis in mines:
Of total . . .
80.48
89.71
81.13
Of year under
review. . .
73.33
86
71.42
Per 100 cases of silicosis under all
schemes :
Of total . . .
4.98
6.86
11.90
Of cases of disablement .
5.76
8
13.56
Cost (in £ sterling):
Fatal cases
. . . .
2,417
5,003
8,661
Cases of disablement
2,198
3,942
8,953
4,615
8,945
17,614
Total. . .
Per 100 fatal cases
under all schemes
9.68
15.35
27.83
Cases of disablement
per 100 cases of disablement under all
schemes
7.77
7.72
14.28
Cases affecting miners
as percentage of general total . . .
8.66
10.69
18.78

within parentheses)
1933

1934

1935

257 (103) 385 (192) 596 (328)
18.37

24.63

30.88

25.58

34.40

41.48

10.89

9.87

8.55

2.00

2.43

2.64

18.18
27.53
26.28
229 (103) 347 (192) 545 (328)
89.10

90.12

91.44

81.81

80.31

80.97

16.36

22.20

28.23

18.34

24.40

31.39

7,142
16,451
23,593

9,855
26,899
36,754

13,787
40,092
53,879

18.14

30.50

29.29

23.54

29.29

39.84

21.58

30.08

6.473

ANALYSIS OF CEKTIFICATES ORANTED UNDER THE VARIOUS INDUSTRIES (SILICOSIS) SCHEMES

FOR 1936 AND 1937 1

Total
Disablement or suspensions: N u m ber of applications for certificates
N u m b e r of certificates granted . .
D e a t h s : N u m b e r certified as due
to t h e disease

1937
Anthracite
mines

Total

1936
Anthracite
mines

643
286

230
132

674
319

311
182

i Information received at the moment of going to press.
CR.II.

IV. — The Financial Burden represented by Compensation for
Occupational Diseases

It is possible to present here certain data as to total cost of
compensation of occupational diseases affecting miners on the basis,
once again, of detailed statistics provided by Germany and
Great Britain.
In Germany the annual average cost of occupational diseases was,
for the period 1930-1935, RM. 5,672,524.60 distributed as follows:
3,863,645.53 for sickness benefits, etc. (of which 382,018.46 represented medical treatment of sick workers, etc.), and 1,808,564.31
expenses of fatal cases, pensions to dependents, etc., whilst the cost
for cases of accidents amongst miners amounted to RM.
50,982,417.18.
The expenditure for miners' diseases represents 59.04 per cent.
of the expenditure involved for all diseases affecting the whole
occupational category and 62.02 per cent, of the expenditure for
those diseases compensated in the group designated " industrial
corporations ".
The cost of occupational diseases represents 11.52 per cent, of the
cost of accidents as affecting miners: 2.82 per cent, of the cost of
accidents for the group " industrial corporations " and 2.01 per cent.
of the cost of total accidents for all categories covered. (Expenditure
on prevention, expenses of procedure, administration, etc., are not
included in the above figures.)
It may be said that since 1932 the cost of diseases in proportion
to that of accidents has remained approximately the same (3.7 as
against 3.8).
The cost of occupational diseases compensated in Great Britain
is given in table IX.

— 99 —
TABLE IX.

MINES: COST OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES IN £ STERLING

Total amount paid for
occupational diseases
Per £100 expended for
accidents and occupational diseases in
group entitled
" mines "
. . . .
Per £100 expended on
all occupational diseases in the 7
groups
Amount paid for fatal
cases
Per £100 expended for
occupational diseases affecting mines
Per £100 expended for
all fatal cases affecting the 7 groups .

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

506,069

540,225

505,598

426,607

446,129

445,566

16.83

18.37

18.14

16.53

16.77

16.03

86.23

87.55

86.93

84.15

75.70

81.10

611

220

949

300

1,040

516

0.12

0.04

0.18

0.07

0.23

0.11

7.15

5.25

11.29

5.92

17.50

12.37

504,549

424,307

445,089

445,050

(89,335)

(72,902)

(88,812)

(112,467)

87.87

84.56

83.44

81.18

Amount paid for cases
of disablement . . .
505,458 540,005
Of which cases compensated for first
time
(143,180) (130,447)
Per £100 expended for
all cases of disablement affecting the
7 groups
86.65
88.11

The burden on the mining industry (coal mining) calculated
simply on the basis of the compensation paid was as follows: 2s. 8d.
per ton of coal raised to the surface in 1930; 3s. 2d. in 1931 ; 3s. 2d. in
1932; 2s. 9d. in 1933; 2s. 8d. in 1934; and 3s. Id. in 1935.
The cost of compensation paid per person employed was 64s. 3d.
in 1930 for mines (docks 61s. Id.; maritime transport 27s. 6d.;
factories 8s. 10d.; for the 7 groups of industries covered the cost
was 17s. 10d.). In 1931 for the mines it was 68s. 3d. (docks 54s. 4d. ;
maritime transport 22s. 10d.; factories 8s. 5d.; cost of all 7 groups
17s. 7d.) ; in 1932,68s. lid. for mines (docks 50s. ; maritime transport
21s. lid.; factories 7s. 9d.; and for all 7 groups 17s. Id.); in 1933,
65s. lid. for mines (docks 50s. 9d.; maritime transport 22s.;
factories 7s. 5d.; for all 7 groups 16s. Id.); in 1934, 67s. lOd. for
mines (docks 48s. lid., maritime transport 31s. 2d.; factories
7s. 10d.; for all 7 groups 16s. 5d.); in 1935, 75s. Id. for mines

— 100 —
(docks 51s.; maritime transport 32s. 2d.; factories 8s. 2d.; for all
7 groups 17s. 2d.).
In regard to the cost of compensation for silicosis examination of
tables 11 and IV for Germany suffices to show that cases of total disablement are all due to silicosis and that the same is true of almost all
fatal cases compensated. The same holds good to a lesser extent
as regards cases of partial disablement.
For Great Britain the cost of compensation of silicosis is found in
table VIII.

Section 3. — Compulsory Sickness Insurance
I. — Nature of Insurance Schemes covering Miners
In most of the important mining countries, workers in coal mines
are covered by compulsory sickness insurance. This is the case in
Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, the
Netherlands, Poland and the U.S.S.R. In other mining countries
which have at present no general compulsory sickness insurance
scheme, workers in mines may become voluntarily affiliated to
friendly societies or mutual insurance funds subsidised by the public
authorities.
In the countries with compulsory sickness insurance, workers
in coal mines are insured under the general compulsory scheme.
This is the case in Czechoslovakia, Germany, Great Britain, the
Netherlands, Poland (excluding Upper Silesia) and the U.S.S.R.
In France, however, miners are still affiliated to a special insurance
scheme, which was set up in 1894 and was co-ordinated with the
general scheme under the Social Insurance Act of 1930. In the
Netherlands sickness insurance for miners is the subject of a special
public order.
In many countries miners, although subject to the general
compulsory sickness insurance scheme, are automatically affiliated
to special mining funds. Such funds exist, for instance, in
Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland (Upper
Silesia). In the U.S.S.R., miners' insurance is also on an occupational
basis and is administered by three federations of workers in the coal
industry. In other important mining countries, such as Great
Britain, Japan and Poland (excluding Upper Silesia), miners are
affiliated to inter-occupational insurance funds under the same
conditions as workers in other occupations.

— 101 —
II. — Scope
In every country with compulsory sickness insurance, mining
undertakings are included in the scope of the insurance scheme
and all workers employed in these undertakings are compulsorily
insured.
In certain cases, however, there is a limit to the wages taken
into account for insurance purposes and workers whose wages
exceed that limit are not compulsorily insured.
In other countries, the limit applies only to non-manual workers,
whereas manual workers remain liable to insurance irrespective of
the amount of their wages. The limit for non-manual workers is
fixed as follows:
Germany: 3,600 RM. a year;
Great Britain: £250 a year;
Japan: 1,200 yen a year;
Poland: 725 zloty a month.

Insurance is usually compulsory for apprentices, even if they
are not paid a cash wage, but in Great Britain apprentices who are
not remunerated in cash are not liable for insurance.

III. — Benefits
The compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to workers
in mines usually provide the insured persons with cash benefits
during a specified period of incapacity for employment and also
with medical and pharmaceutical benefits which are intended to
restore the health and working ability of the patient as rapidly
and completely as possible. Under certain laws, these principal
benefits are supplemented by others, such as medical attendance
for members of the insured persons' family, maternity assistance
for insured women or the wives of insured men, and funeral benefit
in the event of the death of the insured person or a member of
his family..
SICKNESS BENEFIT

The purpose of sickness benefit is to provide the insured person
with a certain minimum income during the period when he is
deprived of his normal earnings because of his state of health.
Such benefit is payable to insured persons compelled by sickness

— 102 —
to absent themselves from their occupation. Sometimes sickness
benefit is granted only under certain conditions, such as membership
of the insurance fund for a certain period before the insured person
became ill. Sickness benefit is rarely provided for a short absence
from work ; the right to benefit is acquired only when the insured
person has been incapacitated for employment for several consecutive days.
Insured persons who satisfy the necessary conditions receive
benefit during a specified period of incapacity, the minimum rate
of benefit being fixed by the legislation.
(a) Qualifying Period
In compulsory sickness insurance, sickness benefit is generally
payable to an insured person who is unfit for his employment,
irrespective of the length of his period of membership of the
insurance institution and of the amount of the contribution paid
into his account.
In quite a number of laws, however, an insured person who
has recently joined an insurance fund is not entitled to cash
benefits until he has completed a qualifying period involving
either a specified period of membership or the payment of a certain
number of contributions during a certain period preceding his
application for benefit, or both of those conditions together.
Under British legislation, for example, an insured person must
have been continuously insured for 26 weeks and have actually
paid 26 weekly contributions, before becoming entitled to sickness
benefit at the reduced rate; he must have been insured for 104 weeks
and have actually paid 104 weekly contributions before being
entitled to benefit at the full rate.
(b) Waiting Period
An insured person who is unfit for work and who fulfils all the
other conditions for obtaining benefit is usually not entitled to
that benefit on the very first day of his incapacity for employment.
In order to ensure that the insurance institutions are not overburdened by the necessity for paying benefits for very short
periods of incapacity, where the administrative expenses would be
out of all proportion to the social service rendered to the insured
person, it is prescribed that benefit is payable only after the
incapacity for employment has lasted for a certain number of
consecutive days.

— 103 —
Except in the U.S.S.R., sickness benefit is not actually paid
from the first day of incapacity but only on the expiration of the
following waiting periods :
Czechoslovakia: 3 days;
France: not less than 4 days;
Germany: 3 days;
Great Britain: 3 days;
Japan: 3 days;
Netherlands: 2 days (no waiting period if the illness lasts for more
than 28 consecutive days) ;
Poland: 3 days.

(c) Duration of the Right to Benefit
Sickness benefits are intended for insured persons who are
temporarily unable to perform their ordinary work; they are
payable for such time as this incapacity continues or for the period
prescribed by the legislation. The length of the period is fixed
in such a manner as to enable the great majority of invalids to
receive benefit until they are cured. In the case of workers in
the coal industry, it is particularly important to have a sufficiently
long period during which benefits are payable because both the
morbidity rate and the average duration of cases of sickness are
longer for these workers than in most other occupations.
In the compulsory sickness insurance schemes covering miners,
the period during which benefits are paid generally varies from
26 to 52 weeks, which may or may not be consecutive. When
that period elapses, sickness benefit is no longer payable but, if
incapacity persists, it is replaced in an increasingly large number
of mining countries by an invalidity pension, which is either
temporary or permanent according to circumstances.
The minimum statutory period during which sickness benefits
are payable is as follows:
Czechoslovakia: 1 year;
France: 6 months;
Germany: 26 weeks;
Great Britain: 26 weeks;
Japan: 6 months;
Netherlands: ordinary benefit, 6 months; extended benefit, 1 month,
and an additional month for each year of employment in the
mining industry up to a total of 9 months;
Poland: 26 weeks.

In the U.S.S.R. the obligation to pay sickness benefit generally
continues until the insured person is cured or is certified as being
permanently incapacitated. In the case of casual workers who
have been employed for less than ten months during the twelve
months preceding the first day of incapacity, benefit is payable

— 104 —
for not more than 75 consecutive days unless the disease is
occupational in origin or due to an industrial accident.
It would be erroneous to assess the value of any given insurance
scheme for miners simply on the basis of the length of the period
during which benefits are payable under the legislation. The
payment of benefits at a higher rate for a short period may be more
useful than the payment of lower benefits over a longer period.
Moreover, the period of benefit may be extended beyond the statutory minimum by the granting of supplementary or optional
benefits.
In Germany, for example, sickness benefit may be continued
as a supplementary benefit for one year and, in Poland, for 39 weeks.
In the U.S.S.R. the occupational federations which administer the
insurance scheme may refrain from applying the statutory limitations normally governing the payment of benefits in the case of
certain groups of casual workers.
(d) Amount of Sickness Benefit
A miner who is compelled by sickness to absent himself from
work—and the morbidity rate is higher for miners than in most
other occupations—suffers an economic loss, for he is deprived of
the wages on which his own livelihood and that of his family
depend. Sickness benefit does not make good this loss but is
always less than the normal earnings of the worker.
In compulsory sickness insurance schemes, the amount of the
benefit which replaces the worker's wages is fixed in the light of
two different conceptions. According to the more widespread of
these, the insured person must be enabled to retain his position in
his social group by means of benefits which bear a certain relationship to his normal standard of existence, as shown by the amount
of his wage. The benefit is then equal to a specified proportion of
his basic wage and represents a larger or smaller fraction of his
actual earnings, subject always to a maximum beyond which
earnings are not taken into consideration in the computation of
benefits.
Under the other conception, a narrower view is taken of the
purpose of sickness benefit, which is intended merely to provide
the insured person with the main necessities for existence during
his period of inactivity. The benefit is therefore fixed at a flat
rate, irrespective of the insured person's earnings or standard of
living.

— 105 —
This latter view has been adopted in Great Britain, where the
weekly sickness benefit at the full rate, during the first 26 weeks
of incapacity, is 15 shillings for men, 12 shillings for unmarried
women- and 10 shillings for married women.
In other important mining countries, sickness benefit varies and
depends in principle on the normal earnings of the insured person
during a certain period preceding his illness. The more nearly
the earnings taken into account for this purpose approach his
actual earnings, the closer is the relationship between the benefit
and the insured person's usual income.
The statutory benefit is a fixed proportion of the wage for insurance purposes (basic wage) and thus represents a larger or smaller
fraction of the insured person's normal earnings. The extent to
which this graded benefit covers the insured person's needs depends
on the degree of correlation between the basic wage and actual
earnings.
In compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to miners
and paying benefits at graded rates, the fraction of the basic wage
payable in the form of sickness benefit varies from 50 to 66 2 / 3 per
cent.
The percentage is as follows:
Czechoslovakia: about 66% per cent, of the average daily wage;
France: 50 per cent, of the basic daily wage;
Germany: 50 per cent, of the basic daily wage (no account taken
of daily wages in excess of 10 RM.);
Japan: 60 per cent, of the daily wage;
Poland: 60 per cent, of the actual wage (up to a maximum of
90 zloty a week) ;
Upper Silesia: 50 per cent, of the basic daily wage.

In the Netherlands, the ordinary benefit payable for not more
than six months depends on the wage group in which the insured
person is classified. The minimum rate of benefit (for a daily wage
of less than 1 florin) is 0.53 florin a day and the maximum (for a
daily wage of 7 florins or over) is 5.08 florins a day. The extended
benefit payable when the right to ordinary benefit expires is usually
60 per cent, of the average wages in the insured person's wage
group in the case of miners with dependants, and 40 per cent, in
other cases.
In the U.S.S.R. the benefits j>ayable to trade union members vary
between two-thirds of wages and the full wage, account being
taken of the duration of the illness and of the services rendered in
the undertaking. Workers who are not members of trade unions
are entitled to half their wage for the first thirty days of incapacity
and two-thirds thereafter.

— 106 —
In all these insurance schemes, the benefit is proportionate to the
basic wage but is not adapted to individual needs. It may,
however, be adjusted to meet individual needs by means of supplementary benefits whereby the sickness benefit is increased beyond
the statutory minimum, account being taken of family allowances
or of the duration of the disease or of the low rate of wages received
by the insured person. Provision may also be made for increasing
the statutory benefit above the minimum rate in the case of all
insured persons, either by raising the daily or weekly rate of benefit
or by paying benefits in respect of Sundays and public holidays.
MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL ASSISTANCE

The essential purpose of any system of sickness insurance is to
hasten on the recovery of the invalid and restore his complete
working capacity. This is done by providing him with suitable
individual medical attendance and with the benefits of collective
medical organisation.
All the compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to
miners grant the insured person a definite right, within more or
less wide limits, to medical attendance and the supply of drugs at
the expense of the insurance scheme. The fundamental importance
attached to this form of assistance is shown by the fact that it is
generally available for every insured person unconditionally.
(a) Forms of Medical and Pharmaceutical Assistance
The forms of medical and pharmaceutical assistance provided for
insured persons by the medical service of the insurance scheme, or
at the expense of the scheme, differ from country to country. In
some schemes the assistance consists merely in general, medical
attendance, whereas in others it is more extensive and includes
the consultation of, or attendance by, specialists, surgical treatment,
special curative treatment, dental treatment, etc. Whatever may
be the definition of medical assistance, an insured person obviously
cannot claim assistance that would involve costs for the insurance
institution out of all proportion to the nature and seriousness of the
disease; the insurance scheme can guarantee only the necessary
treatment, but it must at the same time be adequate and appropriate to the circumstances of the case.
The insurance scheme also provides drugs and other therapeutic
requirements prescribed by the medical practitioner in attendance.
An insured person must receive such drugs as are necessary for

— 107 —
proper treatment, irrespective of their price, and the practitioner
is therefore obliged to prescribe drugs of adequate quality in sufficient quantities. On the other hand the necessity for ensuring the
proper use of the resources of the insurance fund involves strict
observance of the principles of economy and efficiency in this field
as in every other. In accordance with these principles insured
persons must receive the most appropriate pharmaceutical assistance
in each particular case, without involving useless expenditure for
the insurance institution.
Medical attendance, which is usually provided either in the
doctor's consulting room or in a dispensary, or in the patient's home
if he is unable to go out, may and in certain cases must be replaced
by hospital treatment. This form of assistance is particularly
important in countries in which the mining sickness insurance funds
have their own hospital equipment. During periods spent in hospital
the sickness benefit is usually suspended entirely or in part, but
if the patient has a family to maintain a certain allowance is granted
for this purpose.
Most of the laws concerning compulsory sickness insurance
authorise the insurance institutions to supplement the guaranteed
minimum amount of medical or pharmaceutical assistance by
additional benefits. The nature and extent of these benefits depend
on the standard reached by the statutory benefits and also on the
resources available in the insurance fund in excess of the minimum
required for normal benefits.
The following table shows the forms of assistance provided as
compulsory benefits and those t h a t are optional in several compulsory sickness insurance schemes:
Country

Compulsory benefits

Optional benefits

Czechoslovakia. . . Medical attendance, drugs and Hospital treatment,
other therapeutic requireadmission to sanaments.
toria and assistance to convalescents.
France
Medical attendance, drugs and Various types of suphospital treatment.
plementary assisThe patient pays a proportion of
tance in accordthe medical and pharmaceuance with the rules
tical expenses.
of each fund.
Germany
Medical attendance, drugs and Attendance at home
other therapeutic requireby a nurse, assisments, hospital treatment
tance to convaleswhere necessary.
cents and the supProportion paid by the insured
ply of artificial
person: 0.25 RM. in each case
limbs.
of sickness and 0.25 RM. for
every pharmaceutical prescription ordered before the
eleventh day of incapacity.

— 108 —
Country
Great Britain . . .

Compulsory benefits
General medical attendance,
drugs and therapeutic requirements.

Japan

Medical attendance, drugs, medical appliances and hospital
treatment; attendance by a
nurse at home and the use of
an ambulance, where necessary.
Medical attendance, drugs and Hospital treatment.
bandages.
The patient pays part of the
cost of spectacles, bandages
and similar therapeutic requirements.
Medical attendance, drugs, therapeutic requirements, artificial limbs, hospital treatment
and dental treatment.
Share paid by the insured person: 0.20 zloty for each consultation, 0.10 zloty for each
prescription, 0.30 zloty for
special pharmaceutical products and from 50 to 75 per
cent, of the cost of artificial
limbs when the price exceeds
a certain figure.
Medical and orthopaedic treatment, hospital treatment and
maintenance in curative establishments or rest homes.
The patient pays 20 per cent.
of the cost of board in rest
homes.

Netherlands

Poland

U.S.S.R.

(b) Duration of Medical and Pharmaceutical

Optional benefits
Dental
treatment,
spectacles,hospital
treatment, artificial limbs, etc.
(these are granted
as a general rule
only to persons
who have been insured for three
years or over).

Assistance

Benefits in kind are usually provided from the beginning of t h e
illness until at least the end of the period during which sickness
benefit is payable.
In many compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to
miners the right to medical and pharmaceutical assistance continues
so long as such assistance is required without any time-limit.
This is the case, for example, in Great Britain, where persons
who cease to be insured retain their right to medical and pharmaceutical assistance in respect of any disease occurring during a
specified period after the cessation of insurable employment; this
period is usually 21 months.

— 109 —
The other compulsory insurance schemes covering miners fix the
minimum period during which insured persons are entitled to claim
medical and pharmaceutical assistance at from 26 to 52 weeks, and
in most of these countries the assistance may be prolonged by way
of supplementary benefits. Recent laws on the subject set no limit
to the right to medical assistance when the insured person returns
to work but continues his treatment and is therefore not entitled
to sickness benefit.
(c)

Medical Assistance for Members of the Insured Person's Family

The miner's family must also be protected by the insurance
scheme. The risk of sickness exists not only for the wage earner
himself, but also for his relatives who live with him and are maintained by him. Illness among members of his family is an economic
risk for the wage earner because he must usually pay the cost of the
necessary medical and pharmaceutical assistance. What is more
serious is that the illness interferes with hygienic conditions in the
miner's home and constitutes a danger to his health and earning
capacity.
For that reason many of the compulsory sickness insurance
schemes applying to miners provide medical assistance for members
of the insured person's family. This is the case, for example, in
Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and
the U.S.S.R.
The definition of members of the insured person's family for the
purposes of medical assistance under the insurance scheme is not
the same in every country, and the duration of the period of
assistance differs, as is shown in the following table:
BENEFICIARIES AND DURATION OF MEDICAL ASSISTANCE FOR THE
INSURED PERSON'S FAMILY
Country
Czechoslovakia . .
France
Germany . . . .
Netherlands . . .

Beneficiaries
Duration of assistance
Wife or husband, children and in Not more than one
some cases other members of the
year.
family living in the household.
According to the rules of each According to the
fund.
rules of each fund.
Wife or husband and children Not more than 13
maintained by the insured perweeks.
son.
Wife or husband, children under 12 months — period
16 or incapacitated, adult daughmay be extended
ters looking after the insured
in order to prevent
person's household, grandchildinvalidity.
ren maintained by the insured
person, and in certain circumstances brothers and sisters.

— HO —
Country
Poland . .

Beneficiaries
Wife or disabled husband of the
insured person, children and
grandchildren up to the age of
16 living with and maintained
by the insured person; in addition, other more distant relatives
if registered with the insurance
fund not less than 6 weeks before
falling ill; under certain conditions other persons living in the
household for not less than 6
months.

Duration of assistance
Not more than 13
weeks.

In the U.S.S.R. medical assistance is provided for members of
the insured person's family in cases of necessity when the absence
of the insured person involves a danger for the life or health of the
patient, provided that it is impossible to admit the patient to
hospital and that no other member of the family can provide the
necessary assistance. When these conditions are fulfilled members
of the insured person's family receive medical assistance in the
same form as the insured person himself.
MATERNITY BENEFITS

Maternity benefits may be paid to insured women only, or also
to the wives and in some cases the daughters of insured persons.
(a) Benefits for Insured Women
In most of the compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying
to miners, the insurance institutions have to provide assistance to
insured women in the event of childbirth. They provide free
attendance by a midwife and, if necessary, medical attendance, and
pay an allowance during the period of absence from work before
and after childbirth. In some countries other benefits are also
provided: an allowance for a layette and a nursing bonus. In
addition, when an insured woman is incapacitated for longer than
the normal period as a result of her confinement, the necessary
medical attendance is provided by all the compulsory sickness
insurance schemes.
Obstetrical assistance includes the attendance of a midwife and,
if necessary, medical attendance, as well as the supply of drugs and
other therapeutic requirements. Apart from certain differences
of detail these benefits are supplied in Czechoslovakia, France,
Germany, Japan, Poland and the U.S.S.R. In most of these
countries the insurance scheme may provide for the admission of

— Ill —
the insured person to a maternity home and take such other
special measures as may be required in individual cases.
During the rest period prescribed or permitted by the legislation
concerning the employment of women before and after childbirth,
an insured woman .may, under all the compulsory sickness insurance
schemes, claim the payment of a special pregnancy allowance.
In most of the schemes this allowance is payable for the duration
of the statutory rest period. The amount of the allowance varies
between 50 and 100 per cent, of the basic wage, except in those
countries where it is fixed at a flat rate.
As women workers are not permitted to work during a certain
period after childbirth, they must necessarily be granted a cash
allowance for their own maintenance and for that of the child
under satisfactory hygienic conditions. All compulsory sickness
insurance laws make it obligatory for the insurance institutions
to pay this confinement allowance and most of them fix the period
at 6.weeks after childbirth. The amount of the allowance, like the
amount of the pregnancy allowance, varies from 50 to 100. per cent.
of the basic wage, the fraction being generally the same in the two
cases. Under some laws, however, the allowance is fixed at a flat
rate with no reference to wages.
Sickness insurance schemes are also required to pay a nursing
bonus to mothers who nurse their children, so as to maintain their
morale and enable them to have the necessary additional food.
The amount of the bonus may be fixed at a flat rate or at a fraction
of the basic daily wage which varies between one-eighth and onehalf. The period during which the nursing bonus is payable
varies under different laws from 12 weeks to 9 months, reckoned
either from the date of the confinement or from the date at which
the confinement allowance ceased to be payable.
(b)

Benefit for the Wives of Insured Persons

Most of the compulsory sickness insurance schemes covering
miners provide maternity benefits for the wives of insured persons.
This is the case in Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain,
the Netherlands, Poland and the U.S.S.R. In some of these
countries maternity benefit is also provided for other members of
the insured person's family, such as daughters, granddaughters
and sisters living with and maintained by the insured person.
In most of these cases the maternity benefit for members of the
family is compulsory and takes the form either of a flat rate of
benefit or—and this is the almost universal rule—free attendance

— 112 —
by a midwife and, if necessary, by a doctor and the supply of"
drugs under the same conditions as for insured women. In some
countries this obstetrical assistance, which, in principle, is provided
in kind, is supplemented by allowances paid over a certain period
or by nursing bonuses. In Germany, for example, the wife of an
insured man receives a confinement allowance of 10 RM., a daily
allowance of 0.50 RM. for 4 weeks before and 6 weeks after childbirth, and a nursing bonus of 0.25 RM. for not more than 12 weeks.
Polish legislation also provides for a maternity allowance and a
nursing bonus, and in the U.S.S.R. the insurance schemes provides
maternity benefit for members of the insured person's family
in the form of a sum of 45 roubles for the layette and a nursing
bonus of 10 roubles a month for not more than 5 months.
FUNERAL BENEFIT

Most of the compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to
miners provide for the payment of funeral benefit on the death
of an insured person, or of a former insured person; this benefit
is payable to the family or sometimes to other persons who make
the funeral arrangements.
The amount of funeral benefit may be a flat rate or may vary
according to the wage of the insured person, as is shown in the
following table.
AMOUNT OF FUNERAL BENEFIT UNDER SICKNESS INSURANCE
SCHEMES

Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Japan
Netherlands
Poland
U.S.S.R

30 times the basic daily wage.
Each fund is free to fix the amount of the
benefit.
20 times the basic daily wage (the sickness fund
may increase the amount to 40 times that
wage.)
30 times the basic daily wage (minimum
30 yen).
90 florins.
3 times the weekly wage.
20 to 40 roubles according to the place where
the funeral is held.

Under certain insurance laws an allowance of a different kind
is payable on the death of the wife or of a child under age of the
insured person; this allowance may be compulsory or optional.
The amount varies according to the wage of the insured person
and in many schemes according to the age of the deceased.

— 113 —
IV. — Resources
The resources of compulsory sickness insurance schemes may be
supplied by the insured persons, their employers and the public
authorities.
In most of such schemes covering miners, contributions are
collected from the insured persons and their employers, and in a
certain number of countries the State also makes a contribution.
ORIGIN OF RESOURCES

The resources of the insurance scheme are supplied by the
insured persons, their employers and the public authorities in
France, Great Britain and Japan.
In France the public authorities pay a lump sum subsidy of
varying amount. In Great Britain the financial contribution of
the State covers one-seventh of the cost of benefits and the administrative expenses in respect of insured men and one-fifth in the
case of insured women. In Japan the State subsidy is equal to
one-tenth of the cost of the insurance scheme, with a maximum
of 2 yen for each insured person annually.
The actual insurance contribution, leaving out of account the
subsidy which may be granted by the public authorities, is usually
shared equally between the insured person and the employer.
This is the case in Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain
(in the case of insured women the employer's fraction is slightly
higher than that of the insured person), Japan (except in dangerous
occupations or for insured persons with low wages), the Netherlands
and Poland (excluding Upper Silesia).
In the U.S.S.R. the total contribution is paid by the undertaking,
there being no deduction from wages in respect of insurance
contributions. Under the new rules for the financing of the
insurance scheme, which were drawn up in March 1937, the cost
of the medical assistance provided for insured persons comes out
of the budget of the State and the local authorities.
AMOUNT AND R I T E OF CONTRIBUTIONS

The compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to miners
may be divided into two groups according to whether the contribution is at a flat rate for all the insured persons or for each category
of insured persons, or whether the contribution varies with wages.
The contribution is at a flat rate independent of wages in Great
CR. II.

— 114 —
Britain, being 9d. a week for male insured persons and 8y2d. a
week for women.
In other compulsory sickness insurance schemes applying to
miners the contribution varies with wages, in which case the
wage for insurance purposes may be either the actual earnings of
the insured person, subject to a certain maximum, or the basic
wage for the wage group in which the insured person is classified.
When the insured persons are graded in wage groups the basic
wage may be a selected figure between the limits for each group
or may be the minimum or maximum for the group.
Another point of difference may be noted in connection with
the rate of contributions: the rate may be fixed uniformly for all
the insurance institutions to which miners are affiliated, or each
institution may be left free to fix its own rate of contribution
subject to the observance of a legal maximum and of a certain
maximum limit of wages for contribution purposes.
By way of example it may be mentioned that in Poland (excluding
Upper Silesia) the rate of contribution for sickness insurance is
uniform for all the district social insurance institutions, being
5 per cent, of actual wages, up to a maximum of 90 zloty a week
for manual workers and 4.6 per cent, for salaried employees.
In the U.S.S.R. the contribution is also fixed at a uniform rate
for all workers in the coal industry; it is 9 per cent, of wages and
is intended to cover the entire expenditure of insurance benefits
with the exception of the invalidity, old-age and widows' and
orphans' pensions paid to persons not engaged in wage-paid
employment and with the exception of the cost of medical assistance
to insured persons.
In the other schemes covering miners, where the contributions
vary according to the wages, the insurance institutions are to
some extent free to fix the rate of the total contribution according
to their requirements. This is the position in Czechoslovakia,
France, Germany, Japan and the Netherlands.
In Czechoslovakia the weekly contribution may not exceed
four-tenths of the basic daily wage, but with the consent of the
competent central authority it may be increased to 8 per cent, of
the basic wage. For all sickness insurance institutions the contribution is equal to about 5.6 per cent, of the basic daily wage
up to a maximum of 36 Kc. a year.
In France the maximum rate of contribution is 3.8 per cent.
of wages up to a maximum of 15,000 francs a year; as a temporary
and exceptional measure it has been increased to 4 per cent.

— 115 —
In Germany there is no maximum rate of contribution, but the
rate actually in force among the sickness funds for miners is about
5 per cent, of the basic daily wage up to a maximum of 10 RM.
In Japan the rate of contribution may not exceed 3 per cent.
of the basic wage.
In the Netherlands there is no absolute maximum laid down
for the rate of contribution, but wages are taken into account
for the purpose of contributions up to a maximum of 7.25 florins
a day only.

Section 4.— Invalidity, Old-Age, and Widows'
and Orphans' Insurance
I. — Nature of Insurance Schemes covering Miners
The risk of old age and, to an even greater extent, the risks of
invalidity and premature death, have extremely serious consequences for all workers whose livelihood depends on wage-paid
employment, for when their employment ceases the source of
income of the worker and his family dries up.
In every country it is now recognised that workers must be
effectively protected against this possibility. The protection may
be organised in the form of a general scheme covering all workers
or in the form of occupational schemes restricted to given categories
of workers.
These schemes may be either compulsory insurance schemes for a
specified group of persons or schemes of systematic assistance
supplied by the public authorities to those who apply for it, without
any necessity for paying contributions.
CHARACTERISTICS

INTER-OCCUPATIONAL

AND

OCCUPATIONAL

SCHEMES

When the protection against the risks of invalidity, old age and
death is given in the form of a scheme covering all workers, the
benefits are in accordance with the average requirements of the
insured population as a whole. The pensionable age, the definition
of invalidity, the rights of survivors, and the other conditions for
the payment of benefits, are drawn up to meet the average situation
of the great mass of the workers covered. Whatever may be the
social value of the protection which is guaranteed to the persons

— 116 —
concerned, it is obvious that a general inter-occupational scheme
cannot take account of the special nature of the risks to which
miners are exposed.
A scheme organised on an occupational basis, on the other hand,
can provide protection that is suited to the actual needs of the group
of workers concerned.
As a general rule, miners lose their working strength some 10,
or even 15 years earlier than workers in other occupations, so that
in occupational schemes for miners the pensionable age must be
lower than any schemes for workers in general.
It must also be remembered that it is extremely difficult to train
for any other occupation a miner who is obliged to give up his
occupation before the pensionable age because his physical or
mental powers are impaired. It is only in exceptional cases t h a t
such a worker, even if he has any appreciable earning capacity
left, can become a skilled worker in some other occupation, and
thus earn reasonable remuneration. Miners who become unfit for
mining work are at a disadvantage on the general labour market
as compared with other workers. That is why most occupational
insurance schemes provide miners with invalidity pensions when
they are incapacitated for that particular occupation. This pension, together with the wage which they may be able to earn from
some employment in work other than mining, compensates them
for the permanent loss suffered through their inability to continue
the difficult and dangerous work to which they devoted the best
years of their lives. It is clear that such a system is possible only
under an occupational insurance scheme in which the definition
of invalidity covers every case in which a miner has become unfit
to continue his own occupation.
The question of the rights of survivors has also certain peculiar
characteristics in the case of miners which must be taken into
account in any occupational scheme. With few exceptions, the
rights of survivors depend on the length of service of the deceased
father of the family; if he dies prematurely, the benefits payable
to survivors are inadequate. But among miners premature death
is more frequent than among workers in general. If miners' insurance is in the form of an occupational scheme, account can be
taken of this circumstance, and the survivors of miners who die
at an early age can be provided with substantial benefits.
Such are the main arguments usually advanced in favour of
occupational.invalidity, old-age and widows' and orphans' insurance
schemes for miners. It should be added that a similar form of

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protection is demanded by various other categories of workers
in certain countries, but no other occupation can claim, as
miners can, t h a t the services rendered are of fundamental importance for every branch of industry.
SCHEMES

COVERING

MINERS

THE

DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES;

POSITION OF SALARIED EMPLOYEES

Among the principal mining countries there are six which guarantee protection to miners by an occupational insurance scheme:
Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, the Netherlands^ and Poland,
together with Germany, which has an occupational scheme and a
general scheme applying to miners, so that they are guaranteed
benefits in the event of occupational incapacity and additional
benefits for the loss of earning capacity in general, while their
survivors have the advantages of the two types of insurance.
In the following countries miners are covered by general insurance schemes applying to all workers or non-contributory schemes :
Canada, Great Britain, the Union of South Africa, the United
States, and the U.S.S.R.
For the purposes of protection against old age, invalidity and
death, salaried employees or non-manual workers in mining undertakings are assimilated to mining workers in certain States, whereas
in others special measures have been taken for their protection.
In France the same occupational scheme covers workers and
salaried employees in the mining industry.
In Germany, on the other hand, salaried employees in mines
are covered by a special scheme which replaces the general salaried
employees' scheme. Originally this system applied to all salaried
employees in the mining industry, but as from 1 January 1938
it applies only to salaried employees engaged in actual mining
work, and the other salaried employees in mining undertakings
are now affiliated to the general salaried employees' scheme.
This latter solution has been adopted for all salaried employees
in the mining industry in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands
and Poland.
In the other principal mining countries (Canada, Great Britain,
the Union of South Africa, the United States and the U.S.S.R.)
1
In the Netherlands, those miners who have been members of the general
scheme, by reason of having been previously engaged in some other calling,
remain under that scheme, but are insured in addition under the occupational
scheme; conversely, other miners who fulfil the conditions of the general
scheme may claim benefits equal to those provided by that scheme.

— 118 —
salaried employees in the mining industry are covered by the
general insurance or non-contributory schemes in the same way
as mine workers.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF SCHEMES APPLYING TO MINERS

The schemes applying to miners may be either insurance schemes
or pension schemes financed by the public authorities.
The insurance schemes have two main characteristics. In the
first place the resources—or at least a large fraction of the resources
—required for the payment of benefits are provided by contributions
paid into a fund administered separately from public funds. In
addition, every applicant who complies with certain conditions
laid down in the legislation has a definite right to specified benefits,
which are due irrespective of his personal economic situation.
In the case of non-contributory pensions, on the other hand, the
sums required for the payment of pensions come out of the general
funds of the State, and the right to a pension is granted only to
those whose income is inadequate and who satisfy certain other
specified conditions.
Insurance schemes exist in the following principal mining
countries: Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and the U.S.S.R. All these schemes cover the risks
of old age, invalidity and death.
In Great Britain the insurance scheme also covers these three
risks, but the risk of old age is covered only until the claimant
reaches the age of 70, after which a pension is payable by the
State.
In the United States the Social Security Act of 1935 establishes
a federal scheme of old-age benefits. Beneficiaries under the scheme
will receive (from 1942 onwards) old-age pensions paid out of the
general funds of the Federal Government, but the legislation
recognises their definite right to the statutory benefits, and no
discretion is left to the competent authorities as to the granting
or the amount of the pensions. On the other hand, workers and
employers are required to pay special taxes on wages, the proceeds
of which go to the Federal Treasury, which must then provide the
sum required for the payment of benefits. It should be noted that,
in addition, practically all the States in the United States have
introduced non-contributory old-age pension (old-age assistance)
schemes in accordance with the Social Security Act. The maximum
rate of a non-contributory pension is higher than the rate of the

— 119 —
pension payable under the Federal old-age benefit scheme during
its initial stage, and many retired workers will, for a number of
years, be entitled to supplement the benefits of old-age insurance
by that of old-age assistance.
Canada and the Union of South Africa have non-contributory
pension schemes covering the risk of old age.
II. — Scope of Schemes applying to Miners

In the case of non-contributory pension schemes, the scope is
automatically defined by the conditions for the granting of benefits.
Pensions are payable to all persons who satisfy certain requirements;
in particular, husbands and wives may draw pensions simultaneously. The provisions on this subject will be discussed later.
The scope of insurance schemes is generally defined in such a
way that in principle all workers employed by mining undertakings
are covered. Some States, however, exclude workers whose annual
earnings exceed a specified figure.
In Germany, for example, a salary limit of 7,200 RM. a year
has been fixed in the case of salaried employees only.
In Great Britain (general scheme), any non-manual worker
earning over £250 a year from his occupation is excepted from
compulsory insurance.
In the Netherlands the limit of earnings for salaried employees
in mining undertakings is 2,000 florins a year, but it is only for the
purposes of entering insurance that this limit is automatically
applied. Compulsorily insured persons whose earnings rise beyond
that limit remain compulsorily insured unless they apply to be
released.
In other countries there is no limit of earnings beyond which
insurance ceases to be compulsory. It should be noted, however,
that in schemes in which earnings are taken into account in computing contributions and benefits, such earnings are taken into
consideration for that purpose up to a given maximum only.

III. — Risks covered and Benefits

Systems of non-contributory pensions usually cover the risk of
old age only, whereas insurance schemes provide benefits for premature invalidity and death.

— 120 —
OLD AGE

(a) Pensionable Age
It is generally recognised that miners very often wear out their
strength at an early age, and t h a t their average occupational life
is shorter than that of other workers. That is one of the chief
reasons why many countries have organised miners' insurance on
a strictly occupational basis. Only such a scheme can fully take
account of the special needs of miners and fix the pensionable age
at a figure corresponding to the exigencies of that occupation.
(i)

General Schemes

In most general insurance schemes the pensionable age is the
same for miners as for all other workers, but in some schemes the
age is lower for women. Only a few of them have special regulations
applying to miners.
In Canada (non-contributory pensions) the pensionable age is uniformly fixed at 70 years.
In Germany (general scheme), Great Britain (general scheme), the
Netherlands (general scheme), Poland (general scheme for the whole
country except Upper Silesia) and the United States (Federal old-age
benefits) the old-age pension is payable at the age of 65 years. The
same is true of the insurance schemes for non-manual workers or salaried
employees in Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland, and also in the Union
of South Africa (non-contributory pensions), where the pensionable age
for women is only 60 years.
The pensionable age is 60 years in Poland (general scheme for Upper
Silesia) and the U.S.S.R. (general scheme), and in both these countries
the pensionable age for women is 55 years.
Under certain general insurance schemes the old-age pension
may be claimed at an earlier age.
In Belgium (salaried employees' insurance) an insured man may
claim his pension at the age of 55 and an insured woman at the age of 50,
but in that case a reduced pension is granted.
In Poland (salaried employees' scheme) the same possibility is offered,
provided that the insured man has paid not less than 480 monthly
contributions (420 in the case of an insured woman).
Some general schemes have special provisions concerning miners,
whereby the pensionable age is lower than the normal under certain
conditions.
In Poland (general scheme), any miner who has paid 750 weekly
contributions at a special rate may claim an old-age pension at the age
of 60 years.
In the U.S.S.R. (general scheme), every underground worker is
entitled to a pension at the age of 50 years.

— 121 —
(ii)

Occupational Schemes

Occupational schemes fix a general pensionable age and a lower
pensionable age for miners who satisfy certain conditions concerning
length of service and the nature of their work.
The general pensionable age is:
65 years in Germany (miners' scheme and scheme for salaried
employees in mines);
60 years in Belgium (miners' scheme), Czechoslovakia (miners'
scheme), the Netherlands (miners' scheme), Poland (special
provisions for miners in the general scheme);
55 years in France (miners' scheme).
The pension may be claimed 15 years before the pensionable
age in Germany and 5 or 3 years before the pensionable age in
other schemes, when the following conditions are fulfilled:
Belgium (miners' scheme) : miners who have been employed on underground work for 30 years or over may claim a pension at the age of 55.
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme): any insured person who has contributed for 30 years or over may claim his pension at the age of 55 years.
France (miners' scheme) : a miner or salaried employee in a mining
undertaking who has spent 30 years in mining work, including not less
than 20 years underground, is entitled to an allowance equal to the
normal pension, and known as a temporary allowance, when he reaches
the age of 50 years. This allowance becomes payable only as from
1 January 1940. During the period from 1936 to 1939, the minimum
age at which the temporary allowance may be claimed falls by one year
annually from 54 to 51 years.
Germany (schemes for miners and salaried employees in mines) *:
a pension may be paid on request to an insured person who has reached
the age of 50 years and has paid 300 monthly contributions, provided
that he was engaged on essentially mining work for not less than
180 months.
Netherlands (miners' scheme): miners with 25 years of service underground are granted a pension at the age of 55 years.
Poland (special provisions for miners in the general scheme) : insured
persons in respect of whom 750 weekly contributions have been paid,
and who have ceased to be employed in an insurable occupation for
two years or over, may claim a reduced pension at the age of 57 years.
(b)

Qualifying

Period

Generally speaking, an insured person claiming an old-age
pension must have been insured for a certain minimum period.
A regulation of this kind is indispensable in any scheme which
1
According to a special provision applying only to salaried employees in
the mining industry, these persons may, if they have reached the age of 60
years and been unemployed for one year or over, be granted a pension for
the subsequent duration of their unemployment.

— 122 —
guarantees a fixed or minimum pension, or a fixed basic pension,
or a fixed supplement payable by the public authorities. It is
clearly impossible to give such a guarantee unless the insured person
makes some adequate return. That is why the legislation on the
subject makes the payment of pensions conditional on the payment
of a certain number of contributions or on a certain period of
membership of the insurance scheme, or on a certain period of
employment in an insurable occupation. Whatever form these
rules may take, they prevent an insured person who has not completed a certain minimum period in insurance from claiming
a pension.
It should be noted that if no such restriction existed the right to
a pension might be acquired by casual employment in which the
worker engaged simply in order to obtain a pension, and this
would expose the insurance funds to the risk of unjustified claims.
In non-contributory old-age pension schemes similar considerations have led to the adoption of rules whereby a pension is payable
only to persons who have resided or worked in the country for a
certain number of years. As the pensions come from public funds,
this condition is sufficient to give the State a guarantee that the
pensioner has helped during the required period of residence to
constitute these resources, for every inhabitant must at least pay
indirect taxes and increase by his labour the taxable income of the
country.
In insurance schemes where the amount of the old-age pension
is not fixed, a qualifying period is unnecessary, for the amount
of the pension depends entirely on the amount of the contributions
standing to the insured person's name. This is the case in the general
scheme in the Netherlands and in the salaried employees' insurance
scheme in Belgium.
The length of the qualifying period varies in different schemes
from 30 years (or an equivalent period, such as 360 months or
1,500 weeks) to 3 years (or 36 months, or 150 weeks).
The qualifying period is 30 years of mining employment in the Belgian
miners' scheme and the French miners' scheme, in order to claim the
normal pension.
In the U.S.S.R. (general scheme) the qualifying period is as a general
rule 25 years of employment, but it is reduced to 20 years in the case
of workers who have spent not less than 10 years on underground work.
In the South African non-contributory pensions scheme, an applicant
for a pension who is of foreign nationality must show proof that he lived
in the Union for 25 of the 30 years preceding his claim. In the case
of British subjects, 15 years of residence during the 20 years preceding
the claim are sufficient.

— 123 —
In Canada, every applicant for a non-contributory pension must
show that he has been resident in the Dominion for 20 years and in
the Province for the last 5 years.
The qualifying period is 15 years (180 monthly contributions or
750 weekly contributions) in the following schemes:
Czechoslovakia (miners' insurance): 180 monthly contributions.
An insured person who has contributed for 30 years (360 monthly
contributions) may claim his pension at the age of 55 years.
France (miners' scheme): 15 years of mining work for a proportionate
pension.
Germany (general scheme) : 750 weekly contributions 1 ; pensions insurance for miners and salaried employees in mines: 180 monthly contributions.
Poland (general scheme for the whole country except Upper Silesia) :
750 weekly contributions.
The qualifying period is 10 years (120 monthly contributions)
in the Netherlands (miners' scheme).
The qualifying period is 5 years in Great Britain (general scheme),
but it is sufficient for the insured person to have actually paid 104
weekly contributions during that period, and to have paid or be
deemed to have paid on account of unemployment or incapacity
117 weekly contributions within the last three years.
In Poland (general scheme for salaried employees) the qualifying
period is 60 monthly contributions. In the general scheme for workers
in Upper Silesia it is only 4 years, or 200 weekly contributions.
The Federal old-age benefit scheme in the United Stales applies to
all claimants who can show that, in respect of employment after 31 December 1936 and before they attain the age of 65, the total amount
of their remuneration was not less than 2,000 dollars, and that the
remuneration was received for service performed on some 5 days, each
in a different year.
(c)

Amount of the Old-age Pension

The old-age pension may be a single sum or may be made up
of several components. Some of them have two, three, four or
five component parts calculated in different ways or coming from
different sources.
In non-contributory systems, old-age pensions as a rule consist
of a single sum. The pension is a single amount in Canada,
Great Britain, the Union of South Africa, the United States and
the U.S.S.R.
Pensions of this type, however, are drawn up in accordance
with very different conceptions: there may be a flat rate for all
1
A law of 21 December 1937 has raised the number to 780 weekly
contributions.

— 124 —
insured persons, or the amount of the pension may be fixed
separately for each individual case. In the latter alternative the
circumstances taken into account may be the economic situation
of the pensioner during his working life (pension varying with
earnings), or his economic situation at the time when the pension
is allocated (pension varying with the pensioner's resources).
In Great Britain there is a flat rate of old-age pensions paid by
means of an insurance scheme up to the age of 70, and on a
non-contributory basis after that age.
The pension amounts to 10s. a week. The insurance scheme also
covers the wife of an insured person, who receives a pension of 10s. a
week when she reaches the age of 65.
The amount of the pension depends on earnings in the United
States (Federal old-age benefits) and in the U.S.S.R.
In the
United States the actual wage is taken as a basis for calculating
the pension, whereas in the U.S.S.R. the amount of the pension
is fixed according to the average wage of the occupational group
to which the pensioner belonged.
United States (Federal old-age benefits): The monthly pension is
calculated on the basis of the total wages earned by the pensioner during
the period from 1 January 1937 to his sixty-fifth birthday. It is onehalf per cent, of that total for the first $3,000, one-twelfth per cent.
for the fraction from $3,001 to $45,000, and one twenty-fourth per cent.
for any sum beyond that figure. The monthly pension may not be
less than $10 or more than $85.
U.S.S.R. (general scheme): The pension is equal to 60 per cent, of
the annual wage earned by underground miners and 65 per cent, of the
annual wage earned by other workers. Only the first 300 roubles per
month are taken into consideration for this purpose, or the first 450 roubles in the case of underground workers in coal mines. The maximum
pension is therefore 270 roubles a month.
In Canada and in the Union of South Africa the amount of the
pension, which is a single sum, is adjusted to the economic situation
of the claimant at the time when the pension is allocated. The
competent authority fixes the pension at a figure which seems to
correspond to the claimant's circumstances, subject to a fixed
maximum. Any income from other sources is deducted from the
amount of the pension allocated.
Canada (non-contributory pensions): The maximum amount of the
pension is $240 a year. Any other income in excess of $125 is deducted
from the pension granted.
Union of South Africa (non-contributory pensions): The maximum
annual pension is £42 for Europeans and £22 for coloured persons. The
personal income of the pensioner, including the pension, may not exceed
£72 or £39 for the two categories mentioned. The limit of £72 for white
persons is increased by £12 in respect of each child below the age of 16.

— 125 —
In systems which provide an old-age pension comprising two
components, each component is variable.
In Belgium (salaried employees' insurance) the old-age pension is
formed by the accumulation in an individual account of the contributions paid, together with á supplement paid by the State. The supplement is equal to 50 per cent, of the pension, with a maximum of
1,200 francs a year.
In France the old-age pension paid by the Mine Workers' Pensions
Fund also falls into two parts. The first comes from the accumulation
in an individual account of a fraction of the contributions paid, whereas
the second, which comes from the so-called " solidarity fund ", into
which all the other resources are paid, is intended to bring the pension
up to an annual amount varying from 2,384 to 6,500 francs, according
as the insured person has spent from 15 to 30 years' service in the mines 1.
In the Netherlands (general scheme) the basic amount is computed
by multiplying the total value of the contributions paid by 260 and
dividing the product by the number of weeks spent in insurance. The
supplement is equal to 11.2 per cent, of the total contributions paid,
but it may not be less than 20 per cent, of the basic amount.
The old-age pension in the following schemes comprises three
components: a basic amount, a variable supplement and a bonus
for children.
Czechoslovakia: In the salaried employees' insurance scheme the
basic amount is 3,600 Kc. and the supplement ranges from 2 to 50 Kc.
a year for each monthly contribution, according to the salary group.
A bonus equal to one-eighth of the pension is paid in respect of each
child under the age of 18 years (in certain circumstances under the age
of 24).
Germany : The basic amount in the general insurance scheme and
in the pensions scheme for miners is 72 RM. a year. The pensioner's
right to the basic sum under the miners' scheme is suspended when
he is entitled to a pension under the general scheme.
The supplement in the general scheme varies from 0.08 to 0.50 RM.
a year in respect of each weekly contribution, and in the miners' pension
scheme from 0.90 to 3 RM. a year in respect of each monthly contribution. In both cases the minimum is 72 RM. a year. In both
schemes a bonus of 90 RM. a year is payable for each child under the
age of 15.
In the insurance scheme for salaried employees in mines the basic
amount is 360 RM. a year. The supplement ranges from 0.25 to 3 RM.,
according to the value of each contribution paid. A bonus of 90 RM.
is payable in respect of each child under the age of 18 years.
1
It should be added that this pension, which normally consists of two
components, is supplemented by a third in the case of miners who, at the age
of 55 years, have spent more than 30 years in the mines: they receive an
annual supplement of 78 francs in respect of each year of employment beyond
the thirtieth and completed before attainment of the age of 55, and a further
supplement of 120 francs for each year of employment completed after that
age.

— 126 —
Poland (salaried employees' scheme): The basic amount is equal to
40 per cent, of the monthly salaries on which contributions were paid.
The basic salary varies from 60 to 800 zloty.
The supplement depends on the number of contributions paid beyond
the 121st month. It is equal to one-sixth per cent, of the basic monthly
salary and varies between 0.10 and 1.20 zloty a year for each contribution
month.
The bonus for children is 10 per cent, of the basic amount in respect
of each child under the age of 18 years.
The pension thus constituted may not exceed 60 per cent, of the basic
salary.
(General workers' scheme: special provisions for miners.) The basic
amount is from 10 to 16 per cent, of the average wages of all wage
earners in respect of whom contributions were paid during the year
preceding that in which the pension is granted.
The supplement is equal to 10 per cent, of the average wage of the
pensioner. When he has paid contributions for more than eight years
the supplement increases progressively for each additional year. The
supplement payable to pensioners who contributed for 36 years is 40 per
cent, of the average wage.
A bonus equal to 10 per cent, of the pension is payable in respect
of each child maintained by the pensioner *.
There are certain schemes which provide old-age pensions
containing four or five different components. This group includes
Belgium (miners' scheme), Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme), Netherlands (miners' scheme) and Poland (general scheme in Upper Silesia).
Belgium (miners' scheme): The old-age pension comprises:
1. the basic pension formed by the accumulation of contributions;
2. a supplement equal to 188 per cent, of the basic pension, paid
out of the "supplements fund";
3. a State contribution equal to 50 per cent, of the pension (including
the supplement). This contribution is increased by one-third for
underground workers. It may not exceed 1,200 francs a year.
The pension thus formed is then adjusted on the basis of a scale
according to whether the pensioner is married or not, whether or not
he continues to work, and whether he was an underground or a surface
worker. The final rates are shown in the following table:
Miners who have ceased to work
Miners who
still work

Married
Single

: . .

Underground

At the surface

Frs.

Frs.
5,100
2,400

6,300
4,308

Frs.
3,504
2,400

Every pensioner is entitled to a free supply of 3,400 kilogrammes of
coal annually.
1
Pensioners with very low incomes receive, in addition to their pension,
a special allowance of from 12 to 48 zloty a year.

— 127 —
These pensions are payable after 30 years' service. Insured persons
who have between 20 and 30 years' service when the pension is granted
receive a reduced pension. The supply of coal is reduced in the same
proportion.
Czechoslovakia: In the mine workers' insurance scheme the basic
amount is 300 Kc. a year.
The supplement is 7 or 7.50 Kc. a year in respect of each monthly
contribution, according to whether the contribution was paid before or
after 30 June 1936.
A bonus equal to 10 per cent, of the pension is granted in respect
of each child under the age of 17 years.
To each pension the State adds a subsidy of 500 Kc.
Netherlands (miners' scheme): The old-age pension comprises a basic
amount, a supplement, a bonus for advanced age, and a bonus for
each child.
The basic amount varies according to the wage group. It is 100 florins
a year in Group III.
The supplement depends on the number of monthly contributions
paid and varies from 0.34 to 0.85 florins a year for different wage
groups.
The annual bonus for advanced age in Group III is fixed at 0.75 florins
for each monthly contribution in excess of 120. When contributions
were not paid in Group III the bonus is calculated by a special method.
The bonus for each child is 20 florins a year.
Poland (General scheme in Upper Silesia): The pension consists of
a basic amount (160 zloty a year), supplemented by a State subsidy
(100 zloty a year), a supplement depending on the amount of the contributions paid and a bonus in respect of each child under the age of 18 years
(one-tenth of the pension, including the State subsidy).
INVALIDITY

(a)

Definition of the Risk

Nature of the Incapacity
The definition of invalidity will differ according to whether the
insurance scheme covers general incapacity for work or occupational
incapacity. In the latter case the insured person is entitled to
benefits if his state of health no longer permits him to carry on
his usual occupation, whereas in the other case benefits are payable
only if his physical or mental faculties are so impaired that he is
unable to engage in any wage-paid employment which may
reasonably be required of him.
The importance for miners of a definition of invalidity that
provides them with pensions for occupational incapacity was shown
above. A miner who is obliged for health reasons to give up his
career and enter some fresh occupation can claim compensation
for the loss resulting from his change of occupation. During the
period when he worked as a miner the other workers in his new
occupation were obtaining the necessary training a n d acquiring

— 128 —
a sum of knowledge and experience which gives them advantages
in that occupation which the newcomer, as a general rule, can
never hope to equal.
Degree of Incapacity
However the risk may be defined, the right to benefits depends on
the seriousness of the injury. There are very few laws which restrict
benefits to cases of total incapacity. It is very frequently provided
that an insured person who has still a certain capacity for work
must nevertheless receive a pension. In some insurance schemes
this residual capacity is not defined and it is then left to the bodies
responsible for assessing incapacity to decide in each particular
case whether the degree of incapacity is sufficient to merit a pension.
In order to secure the greatest possible uniformity in the decisions
in such cases a certain minimum degree of incapacity for which a
pension may be granted is sometimes prescribed in the legislation.
In that case every applicant who has lost a specified fraction of
his capacity must receive a pension. This fraction varies in different
insurance schemes; it may be two-thirds (662/3 per cent.) or
one-half (50 per cent.), the latter being the more liberal solution.
Basis of Comparison
It is impossible to assess the degree of incapacity unless one has
some basis of comparison : the loss of capacity must be determined
in relation to complete capacity. The latter may be the capacity
of a worker in general or of a worker belonging to a specified group.
The first of these solutions is adopted in laws which stipulate
that benefits are payable only for complete incapacity. In this
case the claimant must be unfit for any gainful occupation, even
as an independent worker, and the authority responsible for
assessing incapacity is theoretically obliged to take as a basis for
determining the degree of incapacity all the forms of employment
that are open to a person of the same category as the claimant.
Only a small minority of insurance schemes have adopted this very
strict conception. More frequently the laws define in some detail
the types of activities that may be used as a basis of comparison
when assessing the degree of incapacity. It may be laid down that
the capacity of the claimant must be compared with the activities
of normal wage earners. Many laws state that the comparison should
be made with normal wage earners having the same occupational
skill or the same experience as the claimant.
In the case of miners it is desirable that account should be taken

— 129 —
only of workers engaged in mining undertakings. It is often laid
down by law or established by the practice of the courts that for
purposes of comparison only mining undertakings in the district in
which the claimant lives should be taken into consideration. The
purpose of such a provision is to exclude the possibility of injustice
which might arise if the claimant's capacities were assessed in the
light of employment which is not really available for him.
Duration of Incapacity
Some laws lay down the rule that incapacity must be permanent
before benefits can be granted. That does not mean that the insured
person is necessarily incapacitated for all time, but simply that the
authority responsible for determining the existence of invalidity
must, in the case of prolonged illness, decide whether or not the
incapacity is likely to end at an early date. If it is, no benefits are
payable, whereas in the other alternative, benefits must be granted.
Under other laws the position is slightly different because pensions
are payable for temporary invalidity. In these circumstances an
insured person who is temporarily incapacitated is not guaranteed
the right to an invalidity pension, but such a pension may be paid
from the outset of his incapacity if it is found that a long period
must elapse before he is likely to recover.
In countries with compulsory sickness insurance covering the
same scope as invalidity insurance, the sickness scheme is always
required to provide benefits during the initial period of temporary
invalidity, and benefits under the invalidity scheme are as a rule
not payable for temporary invalidity until after a certain period
has elapsed.
Table I (pp. 130-131) shows the provisions concerning the definition of pensionable invalidity in the various insurance schemes.
(b) Qualifying Period
The necessity for completing a qualifying period exists in practically all invalidity insurance schemes, as is only natural in view
of the purpose of such a period. The length of the qualifying
period, however, is always shorter than in old-age insurance, and
varies between twelve and two years. In some schemes the length
of the qualifying period is graded according to the age of the
insured person.
The length of the qualifying period is twelve years in:
Poland (special provisions for miners in the general scheme), where
600 weekly contributions must have been paid at a special rate, and not
CR. II.

TABLE I

Country and scheme

Nature of the
incapacity

Degree of
incapacity

Belgium
General salaried employees' scheme.
Miners' occupational
scheme.

General incapacity for work.
Occupational
incapacity.

Total incapacityTotal incapacity 1 -

Czechoslovakia
Miners' occupational
scheme.

Occupational
incapacity.

Underground
Mining work perform
workers : 40% or by the insured person.
over ; surface workers : 50% or over.
—
Work as salaried em
undertaking.

General salaried employees' scheme.
France
Miners' scheme.

Germany
General scheme.
Pensions scheme for salaried employees and
workers in mines.

Occupational
incapacity.

Basis of compa

Absolute incapacity.
Any surface or unde
in a mining undertakin

General incapacity for work.

66%% or over.

Earnings of a work
employee of the same c
same district.

General incapacity for work.

More than 66%%.

Earnings of a norma
same category in the

—

Former employment
in other employment es
ar for persons of the
employed in a mining

Occupational
incapacity.

Great Britain
General scheme.

Netherlands
Miners' scheme.

General incapacity for work.

Occupational
incapacity.

General scheme, incluGeneral incapading salaried employ- city for work.
ees in mines.
Poland
Special provisions for
miners in the general
scheme.
General scheme for salaried employees.
Upper Silesia
General scheme.
Miners' occupational
scheme.
U.S.S.R.
General scheme.

Total incapacity-

Any trade or occup
reasonably be conside
with the previous occ
insured person.

—

The mining work
insured person was prev
or any other mining w
reasonably be required
Earnings of a work
category at his place

66%% or over.

General incapacity for work.

Over 50% s .

Earnings of a work
category.

Occupational
incapacity.

Over 50%.

Earnings of a norm
the same category.

General incapacity for work.
Occupational
incapacity.
General incapacity for work.

66%% or over.
Total.

Earnings of a work
category.
Any employment in

Any work 4.

i The pension is withdrawn from any pensioner who earns 450 francs a month (or about one-third o
pension
is reduced by a third if he earns between 200 and 449 francs a month.
2
Salaried employees other than technical employees in mining undertakings are governed by the defin
Insurance Act, which requires occupational incapacity of 50 per cent.
s An insured person who has not completed the special qualifying period for miners but has comple
receives an invalidity pension in accordance with the general scheme if his loss of earning capacity is 662
* Insured persons who are incapacitated for their own occupation but can use their remaining work
training for that occupation and are paid an invalidity pension until trained.

— 132 —
less than 50 during the last four years. This last condition is not
required of insured persons in respect of whom 1,000 or more weekly
contributions have been paid.
The qualifying period is ten years in France and the Netherlands.
In France (miners' occupational scheme) the requirement is not less
than ten years of work in the mine, including 500 days of actual work
during the two years preceding the illness or infirmity causing incapacity x .
In the Netherlands (miners' scheme) the worker must have paid 120
monthly contributions, including not less than 24 during the last period
of membership of the scheme.
The length of the qualifying period is five years in the following
schemes :
Czechoslovakia (salaried employees' insurance): 60 monthly contributions.
Germany (general scheme): 250 weekly contributions; (pensions
insurance for salaried employees and workers in mines): 60 monthly
contributions.
Poland (salaried employees' insurance and Tarnowske Gory fund):
60 monthly contributions.
The qualifying period is four years in the following schemes:
Poland (general scheme covering the whole country except Upper
Silesia): 200 weekly contributions in the course of the last ten years,
including not less than 50 during the last three years. This last condition
is not required of insured persons in respect of whom 1,000 or more
contributions have been paid. (General scheme in Upper Silesia): 200
weekly contributions.
A qualifying period of three years is required in the following
schemes :
Netherlands (general scheme): 150 weekly contributions.
Poland (Pszczyna fund): 36 monthly contributions.
The qualifying period is two years in the following schemes:
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme): 24 monthly contributions.
Great Britain (general scheme) : 104 weeks in insurance, with 104 actual
contributions. In addition, the insured person must have paid not less
than 50 weekly contributions during the first twelve months of a period
of 18 months expiring on 1 January of the year during which the risk
materialises. If this latter condition is not fulfilled, but the number
of contributions paid during the first twelve months above-mentioned
is not less than 36, the insured person is entitled to reduced benefits.
1
Under a Decree of the 30 June 1931 insured persons with less than 10 years
employment in the mines to their credit, have the right to a special pension
of not less than 600 francs a year, provided that for two years they have been
members of the Miners'Pensions Fund, or either of that Fund or of the general
scheme.

— 133 —
The qualifying period is graded according to the age of the insured
person in Belgium and the U.S.S.R.
Belgium: Every applicant must have spent a certain time in mining
work.
Age of applicant

Length of
mining service

Under 40 years
10 years
40-44 years
12 ,,
45-50 „
15 „
51-55 „
.
18 „
Over 55 years
20 „
U.S.S.R. (general scheme): the provisions concerning the qualifying
period, which do not apply to insured persons of less than 20 years
of age, vary for underground workers (manual or technical), for other
categories of workers (manual or technical) and for salaried employees
who are not technical workers. They also vary for different age groups
as is shown below:
Qualifying
Qualifying
Qualifying
Age
20-22
22-25
25-30
30-40
40-50
Over 50

(c)

period for
underground
workers
(years)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Amount of Invalidity

period for
other
workers
(years)
2
2
3
5
1
8

period for
salaried
employees
(years)
2
2
4
6
9
12

Pensions

Invalidity pensions are usually calculated in accordance with
the same rules as old-age pensions. This is the case for all the
schemes in force in Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Poland, and for
the general scheme in the Netherlands.
In the other insurance schemes analysed in this report there
are special provisions for the calculation of invalidity pensions.
In Belgium (miners' scheme) the pension includes an allowance of
from 133.60 to 200 francs for each year of service, according to the
family responsibilities of the miner and the nature of his work in the
mine. The pension may not be less than 3,200 francs a year. In the
case of miners engaged in underground work for thirty years or over,
the pension is increased to 4,308 francs for single men and 6,300 francs
for married men. Each pensioner receives 113.3 kgs. of coal for each
year of service, with a maximum of 3,400 kgs. a year.
Pensioners who have not completed the qualifying period (20 years)
entitling them to reduced old-age benefits, are entitled to claim that the
National Fund should pay into the pensions fund on their behalf the
minimum contributions for old-age and survivors' insurance, thus
enabling them to claim an old-age pension at the age of 65 years.
Disabled workers with more than twenty years' mining service are
entitled to an old-age pension under the miners' scheme at the age of
60 or, in the case of underground workers, at the age of 55. For this
purpose any disabled worker who has not reached the required age

— 134 —
may claim that the National Fund should pay the sum of 144 francs
a year into the miners' scheme to be accumulated in his name.
In the salaried employees' scheme the invalidity pension is 1,500 francs
a year, with a bonus of 300 francs a year for each child under the age
of 18 years.
In France (miners' scheme) a disabled worker is entitled to a monthly
allowance of 394 francs for a period not exceeding five years. When
this period has expired he is entitled to an annual pension of 4,724 francs
until he is entitled to an old-age pension, when he may claim whichever
pension is the higher.
Miners who have not completed the term of service required by the
occupational scheme, but who satisfy the conditions required by the
decree of the 30 June 1931, receive a pension which is calculated according
to special provisions and which may not be less than the following
minimums :
Length of membership
of miners' fund or of
general scheme
2 years
'3
„
4
„
5
,
6
„ or more

Minimum
annual pension
(francs)
600
700
800
900
1,000

The pension is increased by 100 francs for each child under 16 years
of age, who is not earning wages, and who is maintained by the pensioner; the pension continues to be paid for not more than 6 years.
In Great Britain (general scheme), the weekly disablement benefit
is 7s. 6d. for men, 6s. for unmarried women and 5s. for married women.
In the Netherlands (miners' scheme), the invalidity pension consists
of the same elements as the old-age pension without the bonus for
advanced age. When 300 monthly contributions have been paid the
pensioner has the right to a bonus calculated in accordance with special
provisions.
In Poland (Tarnowske Gory Fund) the invalidity pension comprises
a basic sum of 160 zloty a year and a supplement proportionate to the
number of contributions paid. The average pension is 900 zloty a year.
In the Pszczyna Fund the invalidity pension varies with the number
and amount of the contributions paid in respect of the insured person
during the whole of his working life.
In the U.S.S.R. (general scheme) the invalidity pension varies with
wages. It fluctuates according to the length of mining service and the
degree of incapacity between 35 and 80 per cent, of the wage taken into
account for insurance purposes in the case of underground workers,
including technical employees, and between 34 and 70 per cent, of that
wage in the case of surface workers. The pension may be as much as
100 or 90 per cent, of the wage respectively for the two groups if the
pensioner requires the assistance of another person.
The maximum wage for the purpose of calculating pensions is
450 roubles a month for underground workers who have been employed
uninterruptedly underground in the same mine for two years immediately preceding their disablement, and 300 roubles in the case of other
workers.
The pensions of workers belonging to shock brigades is increased by
3 per cent, for each year of work in those brigades, even if this increase
brings the pension above the statutory maximum.

— 135 —
DEATH

Every complete system of social insurance must compensate the
survivors for the economic consequences of the death of the insured
person. As his labour maintained the family his death represents
a permanent economic loss for which the only equitable form of
compensation is periodic payments to replace his wages.
It is not only under insurance schemes that pensions are provided
for survivors. The great majority of the American States and the
Canadian provinces provide non-contributory allowances for the
support of dependent children and their mothers or foster-mothers,
that is to say, orphans and children whose father is dead or permanently incapacitated. The allowance varies with the number
of children and the means of the family; it ceases when all the
children have reached working age.
Insurance schemes not only provide survivors' pensions but
often additional benefits such as funeral benefit, allowances of coal,
free medical treatment, etc. These subsidiary benefits will be
ignored in the present study.
Widows' pensions are generally paid for life, but in every case
they are withheld if the widow re-marries. There are quite a number
of insurance schemes which pay a lump sum to a widow on remarriage; this sum is generally a multiple (from two to five times)
of the annual amount of the widow's pension.
Orphans' pensions are always withdrawn when the orphan
reaches a certain age or, in the case of a girl, when she re-marries.
In every country the legislation sets a limit to the aggregate
pensions that may be granted to survivors. In addition there is
quite often a provision to the effect that pensions are withheld
so long as those concerned receive a survivors' pension from some
other branch of social insurance (e.g. accident insurance). It is
impossible in this brief study to consider all the points mentioned
above. It must suffice to analyse the conditions concerning the
survivors who are entitled to pensions, the qualifying period to be
completed by the insured person before the survivors can claim
a pension and the amount of the pensions paid.
(a) Survivors entitled to Pensions
Different insurance laws give different definitions of the scope
of survivors' pensions. The survivors who are entitled to a pension
always include the widow and orphans of the deceased, but the
conditions governing their rights vary considerably. There are also

TABLE II.

PERSONS ENTITLED TO SURVIVORS' PENSION
Widow

Belgium
Miners' occupational
scheme.

Czechoslovakia
Mine workers' scheme.

Salaried employees'
scheme.

France
Miners' scheme.

Widower

Widow.

Up to
actually m
not related

Widow married before the
deceased drew his pension.

Widow married for 6 months
or more, or 1 year or more if
the husband was a pensioner
or 60 years of age at the date
of the marriage. No condition
of duration when child is
born of marriage.

Widow aged 55 or over if
married not less than 3 years
before the deceased ceased to

Invalid widower maintained by
the deceased woman.

Up to 1
legitimated
gitimate c
or illegitim
insured w
case of c
earn a livi
Up to 18
tions of rel
children a
before the
or received
children ; c
marriage u
ditions laid
(up to 24 ye
continue th
Up to 1
or recognis

contribute. This condition is
not required if he ceased to
contribute because of an industrial accident or if a child
has been born of the marriage.
Germany
Genera] scheme.

Miners' scheme :
(a) Workers.
(b) Salaried employees.

Great Britain
General scheme.

Invalid widow of 65 years
or over, until she re-marries.

Widow.
Widow.

Widow.

Indigent invalid widower maintained by the
deceased woman.

Same provisions
as in general
scheme.

Up to 15
legitimated
dren ; reco
children; il
of an insur
Same con
Same co
years.

Up to 14
children; il
living in th
deceased; c
marriage o
adopted ch
mated chi
payable up
children w
studies.

TABLE II.

PERSONS ENTITLED TO SURVIVORS' PENSION
Widow

Netherlands
General scheme.

Miners' scheme.

Poland
Provisions of general
scheme applying to
miners.

Widower

Up to 1
or legitima
insured m
an insured
or legitima
tained by h
maintained
before deat
legitimate
sured wom
deceased).
Up to 1
children.

Invalid widow or widow
over 60 years, provided that
the deceased had not completed his 60th year or been in
receipt of an invalidity pension
at the date of the marriage.

Widow, provided that marriage took place before the
invalidity pension was granted
and that if the insured man
was 50 years old at the time
of the marriage his wife was
not more than 15 years
younger than him.
Widow aged 50 or invalid.

Widower maintained by the deceased and aged
50 or invalid.

For bo
girls, 18;
of an .insu
timate or i
of an insur
recognised

Salaried employees'
scheme.

General scheme in
Upper Silesia.
U.S.S.R.
General scheme.

Widow, when marriage took
place before the insured person
was 55 or received a pension,
provided that the marriage
has lasted for 6 months. No
condition of duration if death
is due to an accident.

Invalid widower
maintained by the
deceased.

Widow aged 60 or invalid.

Invalid, indigent widower.

Widow maintained by the
insured person and unable to
earn a living or aged 55 years
or over or responsible for
looking after children, brothers
or sisters of the deceased
under 8 years of age.

Widower maintained by the deceased and unable
to earn a living
or aged 60 or responsible for looking after children,
brothers or sisters
of the deceased
under 8 years of
age.

before th
acquired t
sion. Ext
for studen
and to 21
other scho
children u
living.
Up to 1
legitimated
dren of an
also illegiti
insured wo
ted one ye
the pension
tension up
Children

Children
when the
studies). N
incapacitat
scribed age

— 140 —
schemes which guarantee survivors' pensions to widowers or to
other members of the family of the insured person.
Widows. — Certain schemes grant pensions to every widow who
was legally married; others stipulate that the widow must be
incapacitated or have reached a certain age. There are sometimes
other restrictions concerning the date or duration of the marriage,
the existence of children of the marriage, etc.
Widowers. — Some schemes grant a pension to the widower of a
deceased insured woman, but in practically every case the condition
is laid down that the widower must be unable to earn his living
and have been maintained by his wife until the time of her death.
Children. — In the case of orphans certain laws provide pensions
not only for legitimate children but also for adopted children or
sometimes, ignoring the question of relationship, to any child
maintained by the deceased in his household and at his own expense.
In every case it is laid down that the orphans' pension is payable
only up to a certain age, which is often 15 years. There are also
schemes which pay pensions up to the age of 18 or even 24 years or
which have special provisions for prolonging the right to a pension
beyond the age limit in the case of orphans who continue their
studies or who are incapable of earning a living.
Other survivors. — In some schemes the right to a survivors'
pension is guaranteed to other persons who lived with the insured
person, such as parents, grandparents, brothers or sisters. This
may be an absolute right or it may be granted only when the insured
person leaves no widow or orphans.
Table II (pp. 136-139) gives a general survey of the provisions of
the different schemes concerning the persons entitled to survivors'
pensions.
(b) Qualifying Period
In practically all the schemes the right to a survivors' pension
is conditional on the insured person having completed a specified
qualifying period.
This rule does not exist in Belgium in the salaried employees'
scheme, where there is no qualifying period for old-age or for
survivors' insurance.
The qualifying period is the same as for invalidity insurance in
Czechoslovakia (all schemes), Germany (all schemes), the Netherlands (miners' scheme), Poland (all schemes) and the U.S.S.R.
(general scheme).

— 141 —
In the following schemes there are special provisions concerning
the qualifying period for survivors' pensions.
Belgium (miners' scheme): the husband must have been employed
in mining work for at least one year.
France (miners' scheme) : survivors are not entitled to pensions under
this scheme unless the deceased was employed for 15 years in mining
work. They may, however, claim the pensions provided under the
general scheme if the deceased was registered for not less than one
year and paid 60 daily contributions during the calendar quarter
preceding the accident or the determination of the disease causing his
death.
Great Britain (general scheme): in general survivors are entitled to
a pension if the deceased was insured for the 104 weeks preceding his
death and if he had paid 104 contributions. In addition if the deceased
had completed 4 years of insurance 78 contributions must have been
paid or deemed to have been paid during the last 3 years. For lengthy
insurance special rules apply.
Netherlands (general scheme): survivors' pensions are payable if
not less than 40 weekly contributions had been paid or if the deceased
was in receipt of a pension at the time of his death.
(c)

Amount of Survivors''

Pensions

The pensions due to survivors may bear a certain ratio to the
invalidity pension to which the deceased insured person was or
would have been entitled, or they may be fixed amounts independent
of that pension.
The latter solution has been adopted in Belgium, Great Britain,
France, the Netherlands and Poland. In the last three countries,
however, it applies only to orphans' pensions and not to widows'
pensions. The amounts of the pensions are shown below.
Belgium (miners' scheme):
Widows' pensions: 1,200 or 840 francs a year, according to whether
the miner had spent more or less than 30 years in a mining undertaking.
A widow aged 60 receives 3,000 francs a year if she has been married
for 10 years and if her husband spent 30 years or more in mining work.
When this latter condition is not fulfilled but the insured person had
more than 20 years' service to his credit, the figure of 3,000 francs is
reduced by 100 francs in respect of each year by which the husband's
length of service falls short of 30.
Orphans' pensions: 630 francs a year for each of the first four half
orphans. If there are more than four children, the pension becomes
progressive and reaches 990 francs a year. If there are eight children,
it is 720 francs for each full orphan.
France (miners' scheme) :
Orphans' pensions: 72 francs a month for each half orphan and
144 francs a month for each full orphan.
Pensions for grandchildren or ascendants: Same rates.

— 142 —
Great Britain (general scheme):
Widows' pensions: 10s. a week, with a bonus of 5s. for the first child
and 3s. for every other child.
Orphans'1 pensions : 7s. 6d. a week for each orphan.
Netherlands (miners' scheme):
Orphans' pensions: 3 florins a month for each half orphan and 6 florins
for each full orphan.
Poland (Tarnowske Gory Fund):
Orphans' pensions: 11 zloty a month; 14.50 zloty a month for each
full orphan.
(Pszczyna Fund): 10 zloty a month; 20 zloty for a full orphan.
In the other insurance schemes here considered, the survivors'
pension depends upon the invalidity pension of the insured person.
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme):
Widows' pensions: 50 per cent, of the pension of the deceased.
Orphans' pensions: 20 per cent, of the invalidity pension, or 40 per
cent, for a full orphan.
In addition to the pension, the widow receives a Government supplement of 250 Kc. a year. Each orphan is entitled to a supplement of
10O Kc., or of 200 Kc. in the case of a full orphan.
(Salaried employees scheme):
Widows' (and widowers') pensions: 50 per cent, of the invalidity
pension, with a minimum of 3,000 Kc. a year.
Orphans' pensions: 25 per cent, of the invalidity pension; 50 per cent
for full orphans.
Ascendants' pensions: 25 per cent, of the invalidity pension for both
parents or for a single parent.
France (miners' scheme):
Widows' pensions: 50 per cent, of the pension of the deceased.
Germany (general scheme) :
Widows' or widowers' pensions: A basic amount of 72 RM. plus fivetenths of the supplement received by the deceased.
Orphans' pensions: A basic amount of 36 RM. plus four-tenths of the
supplement received by the deceased.
(Scheme for mine workers and salaried employees in mines): 1
Widows' pensions: Five-tenths of the pension of the deceased .
Orphans' pensions: Two-tenths of the pension of a deceased worker *
or four-tenths of the pension of a deceased salaried employee.
Netherlands (general scheme):
Widows' pensions : Six-fifths of the basic amount of the insured person's
pension.
1
This pension is payable without the basic amount (of 72 RM. a year) if
the survivors are at the same time in receipt of benefits under the general
scheme. In that case the supplement is also reduced. It is at present prohibited for anyone to receive orphans' pensions simultaneously under the general
scheme and the miners' scheme, only the former being paid.

— 143 —
Orphans' pensions: The orphans receive between them six-fifths of
the basic amount.
(Miners' scheme):
Widows' pensions: If 120 monthly contributions have been paid, half
the pension of the deceased, not including the supplement for children.
After 60 monthly contributions, half the above-mentioned widow's
pension.
Poland (salaried employees' scheme):
Widows' pensions: Three-fifths of the pension of the deceased.
Orphans' pensions: One-fifth or, in the case of full orphans, two-fifths
of the pension of the deceased.
(General scheme, excluding Upper Silesia) :
Widows' pensions under the special provisions for miners: Half the
pension of the deceased, with a supplementary allowance for indigent
persons of from 12 to 39 zloty a year.
(General scheme for Upper Silesia):
Widows' pensions : 40 per cent, of the basic pension and the supplement,
with a State supplement of 100 zloty a year.
Orphans' pensions: Each orphan receives 20 per cent, of the basic
pension with the supplement, together with a State supplement of 50 zloty
a year.
(Tarnowske Gory Fund and Pszczyna Fund):
Widows' pensions: 60 per cent, of the invalidity pension of the
deceased, supplemented in the Tarnowske Gory Fund by a monthly
allowance of 8 zloty.
U.S.S.R. (general scheme):
1 claimant: 50 per cent.
2 claimants: 75 per cent.
3 claimants: 100 per cent.
More tJian 3 claimants: 125 per cent., in the invalidity pension which
the deceased would have received as a disabled person of the second
group.
rv. — Resources of Insurance Funds
The resources of non-contributory pensions schemes come out
of the general funds of the State or the public bodies concerned
(Canada, Union of South Africa, and old-age assistance schemes
in the United States).
The Federal old-age pensions in the United States are paid out
of the Federal Treasury, which receives, however, the proceeds of
a special tax on wages paid by workers and their employers.
Insurance schemes obtain their resources from contributions
which are usually payable by insured persons and their employers.
This joint effort is essential in order to accumulate the considerable
sums required by pensions schemes providing adequate cover for
the risks involved.

— 144 —
In many schemes the contributions of the insured persons and
their employers have not been considered sufficient and the State
has accepted the obligation to assist in providing the resources
of the insurance scheme. Its contribution may go to increase the
assets of the scheme or may take the form of a supplement to
the pensions paid.
The rate of contributions in the different schemes will first be
mentioned, after which the distribution of contributions over the
parties concerned will be analysed and reference will then be made
to the subsidies paid by the public authorities.

RATE OF CONTRIBUTION

The rate of contribution required depends not only on the
amount of the benefits guaranteed to the insured persons but also
in large measure on two other important factors : the value of the
State subsidy, and the limit up to which wages are taken into
account for insurance purposes.
When the State pays a large subsidy, the rate of contribution
may be lower than in schemes which are not subsidised or receive
only a small amount from the public authorities.
Similarly, when only wages up to a certain maximum are taken
into account for the payment of contributions and this maximum
is lower than the average actual earnings, a considerable fraction
of the remuneration received by the workers—to which insurance
benefits should eventually bear a certain relation—is not taken
into account for calculating contributions. In these circumstances
contributions must naturally be at a higher rate than would be
the case if they were based on a larger fraction of actual
earnings.
In considering the rates given below, therefore, account must
be taken of the value of the benefits guaranteed, the amount of
the State subsidy and the limit of wages for insurance purposes.
In some schemes, such as those in force in Great Britain and
the Netherlands, contributions are entirely unrelated to wages.
Great Britain (general scheme) :
Men : 9d. a week (invalidity), l i d . a week (old-age widows' and orphans'
insurance).
Women: 8%d. (invalidity); 5%d. (old-age and orphans).
Netherlands (general scheme):
The contribution for miners is 0.60 florins a week.

— 145 —
The rate of contributions depends on wages in the following
schemes :
Belgium (miners' scheme):
11 per cent, of actual wages, not including allowances in kind.
/Salaried employees' scheme):
7 per cent, of the insured salary (maximum: 18,000 francs a year).
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme):
66 Kc. a month. A supplementary contribution is collected from
employers which is provisionally fixed at 2.5 per cent, of actual earnings,
and a supplementary contribution from workers, at present fixed at
1 per cent, of the basic wage for the purposes of sickness insurance.
(Salaried employees' scheme):
Eleven salary groups. The monthly contributions vary from 12 to
250 Kc. for the different groups, being equal to 10 per cent, of the average
salary in each group. The maximum salary for insurance purposes
is 42,000 Kc. a year.
France (miners' scheme):
15.5 per cent, of the insured wage (maximum: 15,000 francs a year).
Germany (general scheme):
5 per cent, of the upper limit of each of the eight wage groups (nine
groups as from 1 January 1938). Wages up to 42 RM. a week (48 RM.
from 1 January 1928) are taken into account for insurance purposes.
(Salaried employees' scheme):
4 per cent, of the upper limit of each of the seven salary groups. The
maximum insured salary is 500 RM. a month.
(Pensions scheme for mine workers):
The rate of contributions varies in different districts; since 1931
the average has been 9.8 per cent, of the maximum insured wage (225 RM.
a month). From 1 January 1938 it has been fixed at 9 per cent, of the
actual wage.
(Pensions scheme for salaried employees in mines):
The position is the same. Since 1931 the average rate has been
10.85 per cent, of the insured salary, plus 1.96 per cent, of that salary
for employees engaged in underground work. The salary limit is the
same as in the general salaried employees' scheme. From 1 January
1938 the rate is fixed at 16 per cent, of the insured salary.
Netherlands (miners' scheme):
The contribution is 10 per cent, of the upper limit of each of the
four wage groups. The maximum wage for insurance purposes is
6 florins a day.
Poland (salaried employees' scheme):
6.5 per cent, of the insured wage * (with a maximum of 800 zloty a
month).
1
This is a temporary rule; normally the rate is 8 per cent, of the insured
wage.

C R . II.

— 146 —
(General scheme, excluding Upper Silesia):
Under the special provisions for miners, the contribution amounts
to 4.8 per cent, of the insured wage 1 (72 zloty a week).
(General scheme in Upper Silesia):
Contributions varying from 0.40 to 3.90 zloty a week in eight wage
groups. The maximum insured wage is 2,700 zloty a year.
(Miners' scheme in Upper Silesia):
Tarnowske Gory Fund: the monthly contributions vary from 3.60
to 15 zloty in the six wage groups. The maximum insured wage is
225 zloty a month.
Pszczyna Fund: Contributions vary from 3.50 to 12 zloty a month
in five wage groups.
United States (Federal old-age benefits):
The combined taxes imposed on workers covered by the Federal
old-age benefit scheme and on their employers amount to 2 per cent.
of wages for the years 1937-1939. This rate will rise by 1 per cent.
in each triennial period thereafter, reaching 6 per cent, in 1949.
DISTRIBUTION OF CONTRIBUTIONS

Contributions are payable by the insured persons and their
employers, and in most countries State subsidies are also paid.
The proportion contributed by each of these will now be considered.
The resources of the insurance scheme are supplied entirely by
the insured persons and their employers in the special schemes
for salaried employees in Czechoslovakia, Germany and Poland,
where the employer is authorised to deduct half the total contribution from the insured persons' salaries.
The Federal old-age benefit scheme in the United States should
also be mentioned in connection with this group, since the taxes
on wages paid by employers and workers are equal.
In subsidised schemes the State may either pay a fraction of
the contributions or make a special payment. In the latter case
the contributions may be divided in equal proportions between
insured persons and their employers, or the shares may be unequal.
• In some schemes in which there is a State subsidy, only the
employers are required to pay contributions. This is the case in
the general scheme in the Netherlands, where the employers alone
contribute and the State makes fixed payments over a certain
number of years so as to build up the resources of the scheme.
The State shares in the payment of contributions with the
insured persons and the employers in the following scheme:
France (miners' scheme):
The insured person and his employer between them pay 11 per cent.
of the insured wage and the State pays 4.5 per cent. Thus eleven
1

Temporary rule; the normal rate is 5.8 per cent, of the insured wage.

— 147 —
thirty-firsts of the total contribution are paid by the insured person,
the same fraction by the employer, and nine thirty-firsts by the State.
The contribution is divided equally between the parties concerned
and supplemented by a State subsidy in the following schemes:
Germany (general scheme):
The total contribution is supplemented by a fixed annual subsidy
from the Federal Government, which also provides the basic amount
for each pension.
Great Britain (invalidity scheme for men):
The joint contributions of the employers and workers are supplemented
by an annual payment from the State equal to one-seventh of the expenditure on benefits, and on local administration. The State also meets
the entire cost of central administration and makes an additional
subsidy to help to meet the high cost of benefits to the unemployed.
(Old-age and widows' and orphans' scheme for men):
In addition to the sums received by way of contributions, the insurance
scheme obtains in principle from the State the difference between
expenditure and contribution income and in particular a refund of its
expenditure in respect of risks that materialised before 4 January 1926.
Netherlands (miners' scheme):
Fixed annual payments from the State.
Poland (general scheme in Upper Silesia):
The State pays a supplement to each pension.
There are other schemes subsidised by the State in which the
employers' contribution is larger than the worker's contribution.
These include the following:
Belgium (miners' scheme):
Thirteen twenty-secondths of the total contribution are paid by the
undertakings and nine twenty-secondths by the insured persons. The
State contributes towards benefits.
(Salaried employees' scheme):
The employers pay four-sevenths and the insured persons threesevenths of the total contribution. The State contributes towards
benefits.
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme):
There is a fixed contribution and a fluctuating contribution. The
former is shared equally between the insured persons and their employers.
The fluctuating contribution in the case of employers is 2.5 per cent.
of actual wages and in the case of workers 1 per cent, of the wages taken
into account for sickness insurance purposes. There is also an annual
fixed subsidy paid by the State, and the insurance scheme receives the
yield of a special tax.
Great Britain (sickness and invalidity insurance for women):
The weekly contribution is 4%d. for the employer and 4d. for the
insured person, which means that nine-seventeenths of the contribution

— 148 —
are paid by the former and eight-seventeenths by the latter. The State
refunds to insurance institutions one-fifth of the expenditure on benefits
and local administration.
In the following schemes the worker's contribution is larger than
the employer's contribution.
Germany (scheme for mine workers and salaried employees in mines):
The insured persons pay three-fifths and the employers two-fifths of
the total contribution. The Federal Government pays a fixed annual
sum. This arrangement has been changed since 1 January 1938: in
the case of workers, the insured person's share is now one-third and the
employer's share two-thirds of the total. In the case of salaried employees these proportions are reversed.
Great Britain (old-age and orphans' insurance for women):
Insured persons pay 3d. and their employers 2%d. a week, being a
ratio of six-elevenths to five-elevenths of the total. The State pays a
sum equal to that expended in covering the risks that matured before
4 January 1926; it also pays a fixed annual sum.
Poland (general scheme, excluding Upper Silesia):
The insured persons pay 2.9 per cent, and the employers 1.9 per cent.,
which means that twenty-nine forty-eighths of the total contribution
are paid by the insured person and nineteen forty-eighths by the
employer. The State contributes towards benefits 1.
CONTRIBUTION

OF THE

PUBLIC

AUTHORITIES

No contribution is made by the public authorities to the salaried
employees' schemes in Czechoslovakia, Germany and Poland. The
same is true of the Federal old-age benefit scheme in the United
States, where the combined taxes on wages are fixed at a rate which
has been computed as being sufficient to cover the expenditure on
Federal pensions.
In the U.S.S.R. (general scheme) the whole cost of invalidity,
old-age and widows' and orphans' pensions, which was borne by the
undertakings concerned up to 1 April 1937, has now been taken
over by the public authorities, except in the case of persons who
continue in employment.
The subsidies paid in other countries may go to swell the capital
available for covering insurance risks or they may be used to cover
a fraction of the expenditure. In some schemes a fixed payment
is made, while in others the amount varies according to the needs
1

This is only a temporary system. Normally the total contribution represents 5.8 per cent, of actual wages, of which 3.6 is paid by the insured person
and 2.2 by the employer. In other words, the insured persons normally pay
eighteen twenty-ninths of the total and the employers eleven twenty-ninths.

— 149 —
of the insurance fund. In some cases the subsidy is constituted by
the yield of special taxes.
France (miners' scheme) is the only country in which the State
pays part of the contribution (cf. the previous section).
The subsidy paid by the public authorities goes to increase the
capital in the following schemes:
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme):
The insurance fund receives from the State a fixed annual subsidy of
90 million Ko., in addition to the yield from a tax on mining products
(cf. below).
Germany (miners' scheme):
The Federal Government pays an annual sum of 105 million RM. to
the Miners' Insurance Institution: 99 millions are used for the insurance
of mine workers and 6 millions for the insurance of salaried employees
in mines. Since 1 January 1938 the whole sum is used for the mine
workers' scheme.
(General scheme):
The Federal Government pays an annual contribution of 200 million
RM., which was increased to 207 millions as from 1 January 1938. The
share of the Federal Government in the payment of benefits will be
mentioned later.
Great Britain (sickness and invalidity insurance) :
The State pays to insurance institutions a varying amount bearing
a fixed ratio to the expenditure on benefits and on local administrative
expenses. The ratio is one-seventh in the case of insured men and
one-fifth in the case of insured women. The State also covers the
whole cost of the central administration of the scheme.
(Old-age and widows' and orphans' insurance.)
The State meets the expenditure involved in covering risks that
matured before 4 January 1926. From 1937 onwards it also pays an
annual subsidy starting at £15 million and rising by 1 million each
year thereafter until 1943. From 1944 to 1946 inclusive the annual
subsidy will be £21 million, after which the amount will be fixed by
Parliament.
Netherlands (general scheme):
The State pays to the insurance institution through a special fund:
1. A sum sufficient to meet the deficit in the operating account for
the previous year;
2. A subsidy which amounted to 1 million florins in 1936 and will
increase by 1 million annually in successive years;
3. A sum depending on the yield of certain taxes and on the expenditure of the State on unemployment insurance.
(Miners' scheme):
From 1923 onwards the State pays to the mining fund a sum of
400,000 florins annually for a period of 75 years.
Poland (general scheme, excluding Upper Silesia):
The State pays a subsidy varying according to the number of pensions
paid. It is calculated at the rate of 24 zloty a year for each invalidity,
old-age or widows' pension and 12 zloty for each orphan's pension.

— 150 —
The payments made by the public authorities go towards
benefits in the following schemes :
Belgium (salaried employees' scheme):
The State pays a supplement on each old-age pension which is equal
to 50 per cent, of the amount of the contributions accumulated in the
individual account of each insured person.
(Miners' scheme):
The State contributes towards benefits in accordance with special
provisions for the different categories of pensions. In 1936 it paid
approximately 58 per cent, of the total pensions.
Germany (general scheme):
The Federal Government pays the basic amount of each pension,
which is 72 RM. a year for invalidity, old-age, widows' or widowers'
pensions and 36 RM. for each orphan's pension.
Poland (general scheme for Upper Silesia):
The State supplements each invalidity, old-age, widow's or widower's
pension by a fixed amount of 100 zloty a year and each orphan's pension
by 50 zloty a year.
The insurance schemes of Czechoslovakia and France are subsidised
by the yield from special taxes.
Czechoslovakia (miners' scheme):
The insurance fund receives the yield of taxes on the production and
imports of mining products.
France (miners' scheme):
The subsidy consists in a fraction of the tax on the production and
imports of coal not exceeding 100 million francs a year. To this is
added the yield of certain other taxes.

Section 5. — Unemployment Insurance and Relief
Measures for the relief of the unemployed may be conveniently
divided into two parts: (a) unemployment insurance; (b) unemployment relief, including special assistance schemes and relief works.
The distinction between unemployment insurance and unemployment assistance is not always very clearly marked in the different
countries but, according to the definitions of " benefit " and " an
allowance " inserted in the Unemployment Provision Convention
1934, it may be said that unemployment insurance benefit is a
payment related to contributions paid in respect of the beneficiary's
employment whether under, a compulsory or a voluntary scheme
and an assistance allowance is provision which is neither benefit
nor a grant under the ordinary arrangements for the relief of desti-

— 151 —
tution, but which may be remuneration for employment on relief
works. A further important distinction is that under an unemployment insurance scheme benefit is paid as a right on the fulfilment
of certain conditions irrespective of the need of the claimant,
whereas unemployment assistance allowances may be paid only
on condition that the need of the claimant is proved.

I. — Unemployment Insurance
INTRODUCTION

Unemployment insurance is either compulsory or voluntary.
In compulsory schemes all persons in the employments covered
by the laws and regulations in force are insured, while in voluntary
schemes State subsidies are paid to unemployment insurance
societies (usually associated with trade unions) in respect of
members insured, on conditions prescribed by the laws and regulations in force. The following table shows the coal-mining countries
which have compulsory and voluntary unemployment insurance
respectively :
Countries with
compulsory
schemes

Countries with
subsidised
voluntary schemes

Australia (Queensland)
Belgium
Germany
Czechoslovakia
Great Britain and Northern
France
Ireland
The Netherlands
Poland
Union of South Africa
United States
Naturally, in countries with voluntary insurance only a proportion of the insurable persons actually insure themselves. Few
figures are available on this subject, but by way of example it may
be mentioned t h a t in Belgium, according to the census of 31 December 1930, of the total number of manual workers and salaried
employees in mines, only 37.4 per cent, of the former and 14.4 per
cent, of the latter were insured against unemployment.
In addition to the above schemes there are, in Japan, mutual
aid societies established by the municipalities of Tokyo, Kobe
and Nagoya which, however, provide benefits almost exclusively
for day labourers.
SCOPE

As a rule, unemployment insurance legislation applies to all
wage earners and salaried employees, with certain specified

— 152 —
exceptions. In South Africa, however, the Unemployment Benefit
Act 1937, which came into force on 1 January 1938, applies only
to certain scheduled industries, the Governor-General being empowered to add industries to or to delete them from the schedule. The
schedule included in the Act does not include coal mining. In all
other coal-mining countries coal miners are included.
It should be noted, however, that certain classes of workers
are usually excluded from the scope of unemployment insurance
laws. Such exclusions are more numerous in compulsory schemes
than in voluntary schemes. They include young persons under a
prescribed age, persons who exceed a prescribed age, persons
employed only occasionally or subsidiarily in employment liable to
insurance, members of the employer's family, etc. Non-manual
workers who receive a salary at a rate exceeding a specified amount
are usually excluded. This is the case, for example, in Germany
(7,200 RM., per annum), Great Britain (£250 per annum) and
Kentucky ($2,600 per annum or $50 per week). In Poland there
is a special scheme covering non-manual workers engaged in
administrative, technical, commercial or supervisory work, the
principal exceptions being civil servants and persons engaged in
non-manual work as a subsidiary occupation.
A further limitation which, however, is not likely to be of any
importance in respect of coal mining, is applied in Poland and in
many of the schemes in the United States where persons employed
in undertakings employing less than a specified number of workers
(5 in Poland, 8 in some of the United States schemes) are excluded.
TITLE TO BENEFIT

Benefit is payable to all insured persons who are involuntarily
unemployed. The involuntary nature of the unemployment is
usually determined by prescribing (a) conditions which have to
be fulfilled by a claimant for benefit, (b) the circumstances in which
an insured contributor who is not at work is deemed to be not
unemployed, and (c) circumstances which disqualify a contributor
from receiving benefit.
The first condition is a qualifying condition, the object of which
is to prove that the claimant is really engaged in insurable employment. This condition is fulfilled when the claimant can prove that
he has been in insurable employment for a specified number of
weeks in a prescribed period preceding the claim. The proof
generally takes the form of showing that contributions have been

— 153 —
paid in respect of the claimant for the specified number of weeks
in the prescribed period. The qualifying condition is 30 weeks
in the previous two years in Great Britain, 52 weeks in the previous
two years for a first claim in Germany, 26 weeks in the previous
twelve months in Poland. In Belgium, claimants must have been
members of an unemployment society for at least a year and have
paid their contributions regularly during that time, in Czechoslovakia
they'must have been members of the society for three months and in
France for six months, while in the Netherlands the period varies
from society to society.
The second condition is that the claimant applies for benefit
in the prescribed manner and proves that he has, in fact, been
unemployed on each day on which he claims to have been unemployed. This conditions is fulfilled by regular registration at an
employment exchange or some other office approved for the purpose.
The third condition is that the claimant is capable of and available for work. The employment exchange keeps a check on this.
A claimant for benefit must be prepared to accept any employment
which is considered suitable in his case and it is therefore necessary
to define what is meant by suitable employment or what is meant
by unsuitable employment. This definition usually lays down
certain conditions which must be fulfilled by any job offered to
the applicant, and which may differ according to whether the
employment is in his usual occupation or in a different occupation
and in the district where he habitually works or in a different
district. If the conditions are not fulfilled the applicant is justified
in refusing to accept the employment and does not forfeit his
right to benefit by so doing. In some countries a claimant may be
obliged, from the beginning of his unemployment, to accept
employment in an occupation other than that which he usually
follows, while in other countries this is not insisted upon until a
certain period has elapsed.
A fourth condition is, or may be, imposed in certain countries,
namely, attendance at a course of instruction either for purposes
of rehabilitation or for vocational training.
Benefit may be paid not only in respect of total unemployment
but also in respect of short time. The rules governing this matter
vary greatly from country to country. Thus, in Belgium and Great
Britain, for example, insured persons who are working less than
the usual number of days per week are entitled to benefit on the
same conditions as wholly unemployed persons; in Great Britain
they must prove that they are continuously unemployed and "con-

— 154 —
tinuous unemployment " is defined as any three days of unemployment in a period of six consecutive working days, and two periods
of three days each separated by not more than ten weeks are not
regarded as breaking the continuity. In France the Government
pays subsidies to voluntary insurance funds in respect of benefit
paid to workers who are employed for less than four days or 32 hours
per week, or for one week only out of every fortnight or in exceptional cases in accordance with some other system of rotation.
Benefit is not paid, however, unless the unemployment affects the
whole of an undertaking or of a department of the undertaking.
In Germany a person temporarily stopped is ordinarily regarded
as being still in employment and therefore not entitled to benefit.
The question whether a break in the employment relationship has
occurred is decided by the length of the stoppage in relation to
the preceding period of employment. By a Decree of 30 June 1937
of the President of the National Institution for Employment
Exchanges and Unemployment Insurance, benefit in respect of
short time is no longer granted to persons under 30 years of age
unless they have at least one relative dependent upon them. In
Poland the Minister of Social Welfare may extend the right
to benefit to workers whose weekly earnings do not exceed the
full wages for three days at the agreed rate owing to restriction of
production but this benefit is paid only if the Minister declares that
the expenditure involved is covered by the budget of the Employment Fund for the year in question. In Queensland any worker
who has been working intermittently for a longer period than two
months and who is employed on the average for one week in every
two weeks is entitled to benefit. A claimant is also entitled to
benefit subject to the usual conditions in respect of days of
unemployment in each fortnight after the first fourteen days of
unemployment immediately succeeding the application. In other
respects, the rules concerning short-time workers are similar to
those for casual workers.

DURATION OF B E N E F I T

(a)

The Waiting

Period

At the outset of the period of unemployment there is a waiting
period during which no benefit is paid. This period is three days
in Great Britain, seven days in Czechoslovakia, ten days in Poland
and usually two or three weeks in the United States schemes.

— 155 —
In Germany the normal waiting period is fourteen days
for claimants without dependants, seven days for claimants
with one, two, or three dependants and three days for claimants
with four or more dependants, but in certain circumstances these
periods are reduced or abolished; and in Queensland the normal
waiting period is fourteen days but in certain circumstances this
period may be reduced to seven days or no waiting period at all.
Provision is usually made, however, so that if an insured person
has short periods of employment in a period of unemployment
he shall not be subject to a waiting period, at any rate of the same
length, at each subsequent claim. It may be added that in Germany
the waiting period was abolished in August 1935 in respect of
claims by short-time workers in certain coal mines. This abolition
continued in force until the end of March 1937.
(b)

Benefit Period

There are three methods of determining the length of the benefit
period. One is to lay down a maximum period of benefit per year
which may vary for different classes of persons, the second is to
make the benefit period proportional to the number of contributions
paid or the amount of employment in a given period preceding the
claim and the third is to make the maximum benefit in a particular
year proportional to earnings in a given period preceding the
claim. Sometimes two of these systems are combined ; for example,
in addition to a normal maximum benefit period benefit may be
paid for additional days either in proportion to the previous
employment or to the earnings of the claimant.
The benefit periods are as follows:
Belgium. — The benefit period is fixed by each unemployment
society but must not exceed 30 days in a period of 6 months.
Czechoslovakia. — 26 weeks or 6 months, which may be extended
to 39 weeks and in exceptional cases for a further 13 weeks.
France. — 120 days in 12 months.
Germany. — 20 weeks, but insured persons with means are entitled
to benefit for only 36 days.
Great Britain. — 156 days, which may be considerably extended in
the case of claimants who have a favourable contribution record during
the previous five years.
Netherlands. — Varies from fund to fund, but as a rule 60 days per
year.
Poland. — 13 weeks per year, which may be extended to 17 weeks.
In the special scheme for non-manual workers the normal benefit
period is six months, which may be extended to 9 months.

— 156 —
United Slates. — The benefit period varies from State to State; it
is determined on the basis of a ratio rule, that is to say, the duration
of benefit depends upon the length of the previous employment or the
previous earnings of the claimant subject to a maximum, which is
12.weeks in West Virginia, 13 weeks in Pennsylvania, 15 weeks in
Indiana and Kentucky, and 16 weeks in Alabama, Ohio and Virginia.
In most States an additional benefit period is provided for on the
basis of long records of employment.
RATE OF B E N E F I T

The rate of benefit may be calculated in various ways: (a) a flat
rate for all insured persons; (b) a flat rate for all insured persons in
each of a series of age and sex groups; (c) a flat rate for all insured
persons in each of a series of wage and salary groups; and (d)
a rate proportionate to wages or earnings. Benefit may also vary
in accordance with the cost of living in different parts of a country.
The rates now in force are as follows:
Belgium. — The rates vary according to the society to which the
insured person belongs subject to a maximum amount, and a supplementary payment is made by the National Employment and Unemployment Office the amount of which depends upon the commune in which
the insured person resides; a further supplementary payment is made
by way of family allowance if the need is proved. Taking into account
all these payments, the total benefit may amount in communes of the
first category to 18.40 Belgian francs per day for a married man without
children rising to 43.60 francs for a married man with eight children;
the corresponding figures for the other four categories of communes
are 17.85 and 53.05, 16.80 and 42.00, 15.75 and 40.95, and 14.70 and
39.90. In no case may the benefit exceed two-thirds of the wages or
in certain cases three-quarters of the wages.
Czechoslovakia. — Varies according to fund, the minimum ranging
from 2 to 3 crowns per day for the first 26 weeks and from 2 to 2y2 crowns
per day for the subsequent 13 weeks according to the period of membership of the fund and family responsibilities with a maximum of twothirds of last earnings.
France. — Varies from fund to fund but the maximum amount
upon which a State subsidy is paid, exclusive of any supplementary
allowances paid by the communes or the departments, is 8 French
francs per day for unmarried workers. A family allowance is also paid
amounting to 4 French francs per day for the wife or husband of the
unemployed worker and each parent and child if these persons are
dependent on him or her, and are not in receipt of wages, or are earning
less than 4 French francs per day.
Germany. — Benefit varies according to the wages received by the
claimant while in employment and also according to the size of the
town or locality in which he resides. There are eleven wage and salary
groups and the basic benefit varies between 4.50 RM. and 5.10 RM.
per week in the lowest wage and salary group to between 8.40 RM.
and 12.30 RM. in the highest; to this must be added an allowance for
dependants varying from 3.30 RM. to 3.60 RM. for the first dependant,

— 157 —
from 1.50 RM. to 2.40 RM. for the second dependant and from 1.80 RM.
to 2.70 RM. for the third dependant and over. The benefit must not
exceed 80% of the wages or salary re'ceived by the claimant during the
previous 26 weeks.
Great Britain. — Males of 21 years of age and under 65, 17s. per
week; 18 years and under 21, 14s.; 17 years and under 18, 9s.; 16 years
and under 17, 6s. The corresponding amounts for females are 15s.,
12s., 7s. 6d. and 5s. Family allowances are paid amounting to 10s. for
an adult dependant and 3s. for each child.
The Netherlands. — Each fund fixes the rate of benefit after approval
by the competent Ministry, but if a fund wishes to obtain from the
Government a subsidy at a higher rate than 100 per cent, the following
maximum rates are prescribed according to the commune in which the
workers reside; in communes of the first class the maximum benefit
is 0.40 fi. per day for unmarried workers living with their parents,
1.20 fl. for unmarried workers with households of their own, and 1.90 fl.
for married workers; the corresponding figures for communes of the
second class are 0.50, 1.50 and 2.50, and for communes of the third
class, 0.60, 1.80 and 2.60.
Poland. — Manual workers: For single workers 30 per cent, of wages;
for workers with one or two dependants 35 per cent, of wages; workers
with three, four or five dependants, 40 per cent, of wages; and workers
with over five dependants 50 per cent, of wages. The maximum wage
on which the percentage is calculated is 6 zloty per day. Non-manual
workers: Single workers 30 per cent, of basic earnings; workers with
dependent families 40 per cent, of basic earnings, to which must be
added 10 per cent, of the benefit for each dependant up to a maximum
of 40 per cent, of the basic earnings; the minimum benefit is 30 zloty
per month.
United States. — 50 per cent, of wages subject to a maximum of
$15 a week. Provision is also made in most States for a minimum rate
(Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia and West Virginia $5 per week or
three-quarters of the wages, Ohio and Pennsylvania no minimum).

FINANCIAL

RESOURCES

There are three possible groups of contributors, namely, the
employers, the workers and the Government. All three of these
contribute in Great Britain, Poland (manual workers) and Queensland; only the employers and workers contribute in Germany and
Poland (non-manual workers) ; in the United States the employers
contribute in all States, the employees in some States and the
Governments only for admmistrative expenditure. In voluntary
unemployment insurance schemes the employers make no contribution but the workers contribute and receive a subsidy from the
State.
With regard to the rate of contribution, various systems of
determining these are in force as in the case of benefit rates.

— 158 —
Belgium :
Workers: varies from society to. society subject to a minimum fixed
by the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare and subject to a maximum
of 3 francs per week.
Government : the contribution is equal to two-thirds of the contributions
of the insured persons according to the scale in force before 31 May 1933.
Czechoslovakia :
Workers: varying from fund to fund.
Government : three times the trade union benefit paid to unemployed
married workers with children, two-and-a-half times the benefit paid to
married workers without children and twice the benefit paid to single
workers, subject to a maximum of 15 crowns per person per day.
France :
Workers: varying from fund to fund.
Government: 60 per cent, of the total benefits paid under the rules
of the funds up to 10 per cent, of the number of days on which work
might have been done, 70 per cent, of the total benefits in respect of
the days between 20 and 30 per cent, of that number and 90 per cent.
of the total benefits in respect of the days in excess of 30 per cent, of
that number.
Germany :
Employers and workers each pay one-half of the contribution which is
fixed at 6% per cent, of the basic wage.
Great Britain :
The Government, employers and workers each pay 9d. per week for
males aged 21 and under 65, 8d. for young men aged 18 and under 21,
5d. for boys aged 16 and under 18, 8d. for women aged 21 and under 65,
7d. for young women aged 18 and under 21, 4%d. for girls aged 16 and
under 18, and 2d. for boys and girls under the age of 16.
The Netherlands :
Workers: varying from fund to fund.
Government: 100 per cent, of workers' contributions (in exceptional
cases 150, 200 or 300 per cent.), half the payment being recovered from
the communes.
Poland :
Manual workers:
Employers : 1.5 per cent, of wages in'the case of non-seasonal workers,
and 2 per cent, of wages in the case of seasonal workers.
Workers : 0.5 per cent, of wages in the case of non-seasonal workers
and 2 per cent, of wages in the case of seasonal workers.
Government: 50 per cent, of the aggregate employers' and workers'
contributions.
United States:
Alabama:
Employers: 2.7 per cent, of wages.
Workers : 1 per cent.

— 159 —
Kentucky :
Employers : 2.7 per cent, of wages.
Workers: Not exceeding 50 per cent, of employer's contribution.
Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia:
Employers: 2.7 per cent, of wages.
Workers: No contribution.
In Alabama, Indiana, Ohio and West Virginia merit rating is to be
introduced at a later date. -

II. — Unemployment Assistance
In countries which have no unemployment insurance scheme
it is clear that some other provision is necessary for the relief of
the unemployed. But even where an unemployment insurance
scheme is in force the insurance cannot provide benefit for all the
unemployed during the whole time of their unemployment if the
unemployment lasts beyond a certain period. Moreover, certain
workers are not covered by the insurance scheme at all, especially
in those countries where insurance is voluntary. Consequently,
most countries have found it necessary to make arrangements
for the relief of the unemployed who are not entitled to insurance
benefit.
Assistance schemes are of the most varied nature including not
only cash allowances but also relief in kind and relief works. Other
forms of relief include labour service for the unemployed, the provision of rehabilitation and training facilities, etc. It is not possible
to give a complete description of all forms of relief for the unemployed, but a few examples of assistance schemes are given
below :
Australia. — Unemployment relief is provided by the individual
States and is of three main types: (1) sustenance or rations; (2) emergency
or intermittent relief work; and (3) employment on public relief works.
In the majority of States unemployment relief funds are raised by a
special graduated tax on income and wages and in some cases part of
the funds is also obtained from Commonwealth grants and loans. In
South and Western Australia special taxation is not imposed, moneys
for the relief of unemployment being voted by Parliament as and
when required. The decrease in unemployment in recent years has led
to progressive reductions in the expenditure and consequently in the
special taxation imposed. Thus, for example, the rates in Victoria for
the year 1937-1938 represent a reduction of 20 per cent, on the rates
levied in 1936-1937 which themselves represented a reduction of 15 per
cent, on the rates levied in 1934-1935. The annual value of this concession
is estimated at £A320,000. Reductions have also been made in the rates
of taxation in New South Wales.

— 160 —
Belgium. — Unemployed workers who are insured under the voluntary
insurance scheme and who have exhausted their right to benefit under
the rules of their unemployment society are entitled, if in need, to
receive an assistance allowance of the same amount as the unemployment
benefit. If the applicant has some resources the allowances paid are
reduced proportionately to the amount of these resources. The cost
of these allowances is borne partly by the State, partly by the provinces
and partly by the communes; the provincial contribution amounts to
10 per cent, of the expenditure of the National Employment and Unemployment Office subject to a maximum of 60 million francs per year, and
the amount payable by the communes is 20 million francs per year
plus 2.5 per cent, of the amount of the daily allowances and the family
allowances paid by the National Employment and Unemployment
Office to unemployed persons residing in the commune in question.
Canada. — The Dominion Government makes grants-in-aid to the
provinces to assist them in paying cash allowances and in financing relief,
works, and makes loans to enable them to finance their own share of
cash allowances. For the three months April to June 1937 the grants-inaid from the Dominion Government were fixed at a total of $1,839,500
per month, representing a reduction of $506,157 as compared with
the previous quarter.
According to an estimate appearing in the Statistical Summary
published by the Bank of Canada, the total expenditure for the relief
of unemployment in Canada (Dominion, provincial and municipal)
amounted to $592 million during the six fiscal years 1931-36. These
expenditures included: public works, including Dominion expenditures
for relief and relief projects $231 million; cash allowances and
miscellaneous relief $361 million.
Czechoslovakia. — After an unemployed person insured under the
voluntary insurance scheme has exhausted his right to benefit relief is
given in kind to the value of 10 crowns per week to unmarried persons
and 20 crowns per week to married persons.
In 1936 the Government put into effect a scheme of assistance for the
children of unemployed persons. The scheme applies to children between
the ages of 6 and 14, and also to some extent to unemployed persons in
poor health up to 21 years of age.
France. — The National Unemployment Fund, set up as a temporary
institution by the Circular of the Prime Minister of 20 August 1914, has
since been maintained on a permanent basis. Its object is to facilitate
the working of the unemployment funds of the communes and departments by refunding them a part of their expenditure. The communal
and departmental unemployment funds are unemployment relief
institutions existing only in certain communes or departments, where
they function intermittently, that is to say, whenever the communal
or departmental authorities consider it necessary. A small number of
unemployed persons who have exhausted their claim to allowances from
the public unemployment funds may receive assistance from municipal
welfare or assistance offices subsidised by the State for this purpose.
Assistance is given only to persons dependent on their work for a livelihood and on condition that they need the assistance. The total amount
paid in allowances to unemployed persons in 1935 amounted to over
1,618 million francs, of which about 1,032 million francs came from
subsidies, and during the first ten months of 1936 it amounted to
1,680' million francs, of which about 1,010 million francs came from
subsidies. During these two periods the average number of unemployed

— 161 —
in receipt of assistance was 425,000 and 438,000 respectively. On
28 February 1937 the Government issued a Decree providing for
additional payments to departments and communes which were particularly affected by unemployment in 1936 and had received State
subsidies averaging over 70 per cent, in respect of assistance in that year.
Germany. — Emergency assistance is provided on proof of need for
unemployed persons who are able to work and who have exhausted their
right to unemployment benefit. The assistance allowances must not
exceed the rates of unemployment benefit nor must they exceed the
rates of relief paid in the commune of residence to unemployed persons
who have exhausted their right to both unemployment benefit and
emergency allowances. The period during which emergency assistance
is given is 32 weeks or for persons over 40 years of age 45 weeks. The
entire cost is borne by the Institution for Employment Exchanges
and Unemployment insurance. A system of winter relief has been
established during the last few years financed by means of monthly
collections in the streets, voluntary levies on wages and salaries and
gifts in kind.
Great Britain. — An assistance scheme for the unemployed was
established in 1934. Its scope is wider than that of the insurance schemes
and covers not only those who are insured and have exhausted
their right to benefit but also certain workers who are outside
the insurance schemes altogether. An Unemployment Assistance Board
is set up to assist all such persons who are in need of work, to
promote their welfare and in particular to make provision for the
improvement and re-establishment of the condition of such persons
with a view to their being in all respects fit for regular employment, and
to grant unemployment allowances to such persons. Allowances are
granted only on proof of need. The present scale of allowances came
into operation on 16 November 1936. It is provided that any worker who
is head of a household and has dependants and has no available resources
will be assessed at not less than the insurance benefit rate.
Japan. — For many years district committees have played an
important part in relief work. These committees work on a voluntary
basis and there has consequently been little co-ordination or regulation
of their activities. In order to bring this about the Government issued
an Imperial Ordinance which came into force on 15 January 1937. This
Ordinance provides that members of the committee in charge of a district
shall make a survey of the inhabitants and their living conditions,
especially of those in need of relief. With the exception of Tokyo and
Yokohama, the work of the district committees is to be supervised
by the prefectural Government.
The Netherlands. — Relief for the unemployed who are not in receipt
of unemployment benefit under the voluntary insurance scheme is
provided by the communes which may receive subsidies from the
Government provided they comply with the regulations laid down by the
Minister for Social Affairs. Relief may be given either in the form of cash
allowances or of employment on relief works. Any able-bodied person
who is involuntarily unemployed may be employed on relief works but
assistance allowances may be granted to able-bodied unemployed
persons only if they ordinarily belong to industries in which, in the
opinion of the Minister for Social Affairs, there is widespread unemployment. Unemployed persons not belonging to such industries are
assisted by the communes alone without any State subsidy.
c.R. n.

— 162 —
Poland. — The central committee for the relief of unemployed persons
in winter was established by the Government on 25 September 1936.
Collections in cash are made in industry, commerce, banking and handicrafts and among real property owners, members of the liberal professions
and public services and salaried employees. Appeals are made for gifts
in kind to agricultural undertakings and those commercial and industrial
undertakings which are in a position to supply products useful to
unemployed persons. In order to qualify for relief, applicants must
show that before becoming unemployed they lived exclusively on their
earnings, that they are able to work and that they did not lose their
employment through their own fault; that they have lived for at least
three months in a district covered by the relief scheme; that they are
not in receipt of any statutory allowances paid by social insurance
institutions; that they are not in receipt of pensions; and that they have
no private income or other means of livelihood. Relief may also be
granted to young persons with vocational knowledge who have never
been in paid employment.
United States. — Since the spring of 1933 the Federal Government has
spent large sums of money on the relief of the unemployed and, through
specialised administrative agencies, has assumed the direction of relief
activities throughout the country. The relief takes various forms
and includes: (a) relief works; (b) direct relief either in cash or in kind;
(c) enrolment in the Civilian Conservation Corps for employment on
afforestation, flood prevention and similar work; (d) relief for transients,
that is to say, persons who have been in residence for less than twelve
months in the State in which they apply for relief; (e) grants to assist
co-operative and self-help associations for the barter of goods and
services; and (/) establishment of the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation
to buy surplus agricultural products and distribute them to the needy
unemployed. The Chairman of the Appropriation Committee of the
House of Representatives, in presenting the Deficiency Appropriation
Bill early in 1937, stated that since 1933 a total of $15,232 million had
been expended by the Federal Government for relief purposes, this sum
including about $3 or $4 billion of recoverable loans.

Section 6. — Statistics of Social Charges
The social charges of the coal-mining industry are taken to mean,
for the purpose of this chapter, the cost of social services which
is borne directly by the revenue of the industry, to the exclusion
of the cost which is borne indirectly through taxation. The social
services in question comprise the various branches of social insurances, family allowances, and holidays with pay.
Social insurance schemes applying to miners exist in all the
coal-producing countries, whether within or outside Europe. Workmen's compensation for accidents and occupational diseases is
found in every country, but in Canada, India and South Africa
it is the only branch of social insurance in operation. Coal miners

— 163 —
are compulsorily insured in Japan against sickness, in the United
States against old age and unemployment and in Belgium against
old age and death. Sickness insurance and invalidity, old-age and
survivors' insurance exist in Czechoslovakia, France, the Netherlands and the U.S.S.R. Insurance against all the physical risks,
and compulsory unemployment insurance as well, are found in
Germany, Great Britain and Poland.
Besides compulsory insurance schemes there are in operation in
several countries different forms of State subsidised voluntary
insurance—e.g. sickness insurance in Belgium and unemployment
insurance in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France and the Netherlands.
The cost of compulsory social insurance is in general defrayed
by more or less equal contributions from the insured person and
the employer; often, and especially in the case of pension insurance,
there is a State subsidy. Employers alone, however, are liable
for the cost of workmen's compensation; nevertheless, in Czechoslovakia, Germany and Poland, benefits in slight cases are paid by
the sickness funds and are thus at the charge of employers and
insured persons jointly. It may further be noted that the worker
is not required to contribute to any branch of social insurance in
the U.S.S.R., or to unemployment insurance in most of the United
States. Social insurance contributions are, as a rule, proportional
to wages; a notable exception is found in Great Britain where
contributions to health, pension and unemployment insurance
are payable at a flat rate independent of wages.
The questionnaire on wages and hours of work addressed to the
Governments asked for the total amount of workers' and employers' social insurance contributions. The workers' contributions
are deducted from gross money wages at the time of payment,
and the employers' contributions are payable in addition to gross
money wages. The figures returned by the Governments appear
to be confined to compulsory insurance (including, however,
workmen's compensation, even where insurance is optional)1.
The payments which the worker makes to mutual benefit societies
or insurance companies do not therefore enter into these figures:
the payments are made by the worker himself out of his net money
wages which, in the countries where social insurance is undeveloped,
might be expected to leave a certain margin for that purpose.
Excluded also are the State subsidies to social insurance, for
though they are very considerable in certain countries it is imprac1

The figures received are given in the Statistical Appendix at the end
of this volume.

— 164 —

See Chapter V.

Employers'
insurance
contributions

I|++||+++++ ++++

++++I|I++I1

i Information for 1935.
2 Information for 1929.
Holidays with pay introduced in 1936.

Payments
for
holidays

Il+l

Allowances
in
cash

Belgium1 . . .
Canada . . .
Czechoslovakia .
France . . . .
Germany 2 :
Ruhr . . . .
Saxony . . .
Upper Silesia
Saar . . . .
Great Britain .
British India. .
Japan
. . . .
Netherlands . .
Poland . . . .
South Africa
United States .

Workers'
insurance
contributions

+I++ + + + + + I I + + I |

Country

|I++I|I++++ ++I+

ticable to determine the extent to which they constitute a charge
on the coal-mining industry.
Among the other social charges of which the Governments were
asked to supply figures, the principal item is constituted by allowances in cash, chiefly family allowances, which are paid in
the European countries except Great Britain and the U.S.S.R.
The rate of family allowances depends on the number of children
in the family and does not vary with wages. Holidays with pay
are granted to miners generally in all the European countries
(except Great Britain), where their cost represents from two to
three per cent, of wages1.
The statistics given in the following tables have been drawn
from the replies of the Governments to the enquiry in respect of
the years 1929 and 1935, the form of the questionnaire having
been the same on both occasions.
Not all the Governments to which it was addressed replied to
the questionnaire, and of the Governments which did reply, some
gave no figures for certain items of social charges, either because
such items do not exist in their respective countries or because the
information was not available. The following list shows the items
for which figures were ( + ) or were not (—) furnished by the Governments which replied.

— 165 —
Canada and Japan supplied details of social charges in response
to the questionnaire for 1931, but figures for 1929 are not available:
the data for 1931 are not included in the tables but are given in an
appendix. Moreover, from official sources in the possession of the
Office it has been possible to assemble, for Germany and the
United States data in more or less comparable form, so far as
social insurance contributions are concerned; these data are also
presented in an appendix.
For the purposes of the tables, the information supplied by the
Governments has been arranged under four heads:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

the worker's social insurance contribution;
the employer's social insurance contribution;
allowances in cash (mainly family allowances) ;
paid holidays.

Adding (1) and (2), we have the joint social insurance contribution,
while the sum of (2), (3) and (4) gives the total social charges
borne by the employer. These elements form the substance of the
tables, in which the absolute totals appear successively as an average
charge per miner, per mille of wages, and per ton of commercially
disposable coal. All the figures entering into the calculations are
taken from the replies of the Governments to the questionnaire.
Table I shows the average social charges per worker x per year
for the years 1929 and 1935. They are computed by dividing the
aggregate amount per annum on account of workers' social insurance contributions, employers' social insurance contributions,
allowances in cash and paid holidays, respectively, by the average
number of workers employed for the year.
Table I consists of eight columns, besides that which contains
the list of countries. The first six columns show, in the currency
of the country concerned, (1) the average joint contribution paid
by workers and employers for social insurance, which is obtained
by the addition of (2) the average worker's contribution and (3) the
average employer's contribution; (4) in the fourth column appears
an average figure for allowances in cash and (5) in the fifth a like
figure for paid holidays, while (6) the average total social charges
borne by the employer, being the sum of columns (3), (4) and (5), is
given in the sixth column. For the purpose of comparison, the
figures of column (6) are, in the seventh column, converted into
Swiss francs. ' Finally, in the eighth column the charges in Swiss
1

For the methods of computing the average number of workers, see
Chapter II and Statistical Appendix.

— 166 —
francs are presented in the form of index numbers, the British
figure being taken as basis.
The rates at which the sums in the national currencies were
converted into Swiss francs were as follows:
Country

Belgium
Czechoslovakia
France
Germany
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland

Currency
unit

1929
(Swiss francs)

1935
(Swiss francs)

Fr.
$
KÖ.
Fr.
RM.
£
Fl.
ZI.

0.14

0.1
3.1
0.13
0.2

0.15
0.2
1.2
25.2
2.1
0.58

15.1
2.1
0.58

It will be seen that the value of the currencies of France, the
Netherlands and Poland remained the same in 1935 as in 1929,
in terms of Swiss francs, whereas those of Belgium, Czechoslovakia
and Great Britain depreciated by about 30, 13 and 40 per cent.
respectively, so that their charges in Swiss francs would have
appeared to have diminished to that extent even if they had
remained the same in national currency as in 1929.
Arranged in the order of the magnitude of the social charges
borne by employers in 1929, as shown by the index numbers,
the countries appear as follows : Netherlands, Germany (average
of 4 districts), Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain,
Belgium.
The range of variation from the lowest to the highest index
number was from 84.5 to 312.5, or about 1 to 4.
Comparing the figures in national currency for 1935 with those
of 1929, one will observe that those for France and Great Britain
have increased appreciably, that the Polish and Netherlands figures
have increased slightly, and that in Czechoslovakia, on the contrary,
there has been a substantial reduction.
These developments, to which must be added the depreciation
of certain currencies, have, however, hardly altered the position
of the countries ranked according to the index number of their
charges in Swiss francs. Their order in 1935 was as follows:
Netherlands, Poland, France, Czechoslovakia, Canada, Great
Britain, Belgium.
It will be observed that Czechoslovakia and France have changed
places, while Germany has dropped out and Canada has been

— 167 —
included. The proportion of the lowest to the highest index number
—76.7 to 406—rose to about 1 to 51/,,.
The index numbers in table I illustrate strikingly a consequence
of the dependence of the scale of the charge for a social service on
the scale of wages. Social insurance contributions (except in
Great Britain) and the cost of holidays are directly determined by
the level of wages, while the rates of family allowances too are fixed
with due regard to the general level of wages. Therefore, in a country
where wages (expressed in Swiss francs) are high, the charge for
a social service will likewise be high, and conversely. Hence it can

TABLE I.

AVERAGE

SOCIAL CHARGES PER WORKER PER

YEAR

IN COAL MINES IN 1929 AND 1935
Average Average Average Average Average
of
joint
employer's cost
of
allow- cost
contri- worker's
contri- contripaid
ances
bution
bution
bution in cash holidays
Currency (2) + (3)
unit
National currency

Country
and
districts

(1)

1 (2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Average social charges
of employer
(3) + (4) + (5)

(6)

Average social charges per worker per year in coal mines,
Belgium . . .
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Germany:
Ruhr . . .
Saxony (a) .
U p p e r Silesia
Saar . . . .
Great Britain .
Netherlands .
Poland . . .

Fr. 1,043.04 330.91
712.13
Kö. 2,178.95 820.11 1,358.84
Fr. 1,358.82 543.25
815.57
RM.
))
1 )

£
Fl.
ZI.

688.34
663.39
563.15
1,994.38
9.968
262.40
551.33

Fr.

1,134.14 367.11

767.03

267.49

—

84.5
179.1
134.3

596.54
516.00
461.23
401.90
171.28
535.19
320.41

348.3
301.3
269.3
234.6
100
312.5
187.1

1929

341.07
347.27
74.97
74.88
497.12
318.39
345.00
27.81 57.19
430.00
271.75
291.40
52.46 40.50
384.36
991.02 1,003.36 796.97 209.15 2,009.48
3.171
6.797
6.797
—
101.91
160.49
63.16 31.20
254.85
232.19
319.14 157.64
75.65
552.43

Average social charges per worker per year in coal mines,
European
countries :
Belgium . .
Czechoslovakia . .
France . . .
Great Britain
Netherlands.
Poland . . .
Non-European
country:
Canada . . .

144.69
306.83
230.02

— 1,033.49
321.36
374.99 311.73 2,045.56
334.52
— 1,150.09

•

(7)

Base:
Great
Britain
= 100
| (8)

Swiss
francs

1935

1,034.52

103.45

76.7

Kö. 2,069.19 824.88 1,244.31 277.90 358.16 1,880.37 244.45 181.2
913.02 372.74
Fr. 1,464.50 551.48
— 1,285.76 257.15 190.6
12.693 3.757
8.936
8.936 134.93 100
£
—
—
Fl.
ZI.

248.67 99.97
589.61 245.63

—

-r

148.70
343.98

71.49
137.35

40.79
84.11

260.88
565.44

547.85
327.96

406.0
243.1

46.85

—

46.85

145.24

107.6

(a) Including charges in respect of workers in ancillary establishments.

— 168 —
happen that the employers' charges of one country with a restricted
range of social services but with a high wage level may be greater
(in Swiss francs) than those of another country with an extensive
system of social services and a lower wage level.
Table II shows the average social charges per mille of gross
money wages per year for the years 1929 and 1935. Gross money
wages consist of net money wages plus workers' social insurance
contributions paid during the year. The figures for each country
in this table are obtained by dividing the charges for the year on
account of workers' social insurance contributions, employers'
social insurance contributions, allowances in cash and paid holidays
respectively, by the gross money wages, and multiplying the
quotient by 1,000.
There are six columns of figures in table II, each of which represents the ratio of an element, or combination of elements, of social
charges to gross money wages. Thus (1) the average joint contribution of workers and employers is obtained by the addition of
(2) the average workers' contribution and (3) the average employers'
contribution; in columns (4) and (5) are shown the average costs
of allowances in cash and paid holidays respectively, and (6) in
the last column is given the sum of the figures in the third, fourth
and fifth columns, that is to say, the total social charges borne
by the employer.
The order of the countries in 1929 according to the magnitude of
their social charges in proportion to gross money wages was as
follows: Poland, Germany (average of 4 districts), Netherlands,
Czechoslovakia, France, Belgium, Great Britain.
The proportions varied from 58.08 per mille of gross money wages
to 222.63, or from about 1 to 3 3/4.
During the interval between 1929 and 1935 a notable increase
took place in the proportion of social charges in all countries in
respect of which figures are available for both years. In four of
these six countries the increase was about 30 per cent, and in the
remaining two about 50 per cent. ; it was not accounted for by any
one item, but was spread over workers' contributions, employers'
contributions and other social charges.
The increase having been an all-round one, the relative position
of the countries was the same in 1935 as in 1929, but for the omission
of Germany, and the inclusion of Canada at the bottom.
The wide differences in the ratios of social charges to money
wages correspond to differences in wage policy.
A high ratio of social charges to money wages means that a

— 169 —
large proportion of the revenue available for the remuneration
of labour is either pooled for meeting risks to which all the workers
are exposed, or, in the case of paid holidays, is set aside in order
to serve a purpose recognised to be socially desirable. A considerable part of remuneration is thus earmarked to meet particular
expenses, and is not at the free disposal of the worker. Such a
policy is especially expedient when the real value per worker of
the revenue available for remuneration is comparatively low,
since it becomes important to ensure that essential needs are always
met, and consequently remuneration must, to a considerable extent,
be distributed according to need.
On the other hand, where the real value per worker of the revenue
available for remuneration is high, it affords a margin sufficient to
enable the worker to make his own provision against certain risks

TABLE II.

AVERAGE SOCIAL CHARGES PER MILLE OF GROSS MONEY

WAGES IN COAL MINES IN 1929 AND 1935
Average
joint
contribution
(2) + (3)

Country and district
I

(1)

Average
worker's
contribution
I

(2)

Average
Average
employer's cost of
contriallowances
bution
in cash

Average
cost of
paid
holidays

(5)

(3)

(4)

A verage social charges per mille of gross money wages in coal mines,
Belgium . . .
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Germany :
Ruhr . . .
Saxony . .
U p p e r Silesia
Saar . . .
Great Britain .
Netherlands .
Poland . . .

69.48
184.73
150.35

22.04
69.53
60.11

47.44
115.20
90.24

21.41
31.79
37.01

26.43

287.96
308.43
309.95
172.52
85.18
189.77
222.19

142.68
148.03
149.57
85.73
27.10
73.70
93.58

145.28
160.40
160.38
86.79
58.08
116.07
128.61

31.36
12.93
28.88
68.94

31.33
26.59
22.29
18.09

45.68
63.53

22.57
30.49

Average social charges per mille of gross money wages in coal mines,
E u r o p e a n countries:
Belgium . . .
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .
Non-European
country:
Canada . .

112.06
251.41
190.80
108.49
227.83
355.22

36.27
100.22
71.85
32.11
91.59
147.99

75.79
151.19
118.95
76.38
136.24
207.23

48.41

26.43
33.76
48.56

43.52

65.50
82.74

37.37
50.67

Average
social
charges of
employer
(3) + (4)

+ (5)

(6)

1929
68.85
173.42
127.25
207.97
199.92
211.55
173.82
58.08
184.32
222.63
1935
102.22
228.47
167.51
76.38
239.11
340.64

48.41

— 170 —
at least, and, in particular, sufficient for the maintenance of a
family comprising several children. Here, therefore, the proportion
of the remuneration which must be pooled may be smaller.
Table III shows the average social charges of the different
countries per ton of " commercially disposable coal " 1 in 1929
and 1935. It is intended to be read in connection with the tables and
analysis of total labour costs as given in Chapter VIII of Vol. I.
Social charges indeed constitute only a part, if a very important
one, of total labour costs, and, although in certain countries high
social charges are counterbalanced by low money wages, both these
factors must be considered in order to form a correct idea of the
TABLE III.
AVERAGE SOCIAL CHARGES BORNE BY EMPLOYERS PER METRIC
TON OF COMMERCIALLY DISPOSABLE COAL IN 1 9 2 9 AND 1 9 3 5

Currency
unit

Country and district

Average Average Average
cost of
employer's
cost of
contripaid
bution allowances holidays
in cash
National currency

(1)

(3)

(2)

Average social charges
of employer
(1) + (2) + (3)
Base:
Swiss
francs
Great Britain
= (6)
100
(4)
|
(5)
|

Average social charges borne by employers per metric ton, 1929
Belgium
. .
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Germany:
Ruhr . . .
Saxony . .
U p p e r Silesia
Saar . . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .

—

Fr.
KG.
Fr.

4.55
5.14
4.81

2.05
1.42
1.97

1.18

RM.

1.06
2.57
0.80
5.04
0.026
0.52
0.95

0.23
0.21
0.14
4.00

0.23
0.43
0.11
1.05

,,
£
Fl.
ZI.

—

0.20
0.47

0.10
0.23

6.60
7.74
6.78

0.92
1.16
1.36

139.4
175.8
206.1

1.52
3.21
1.05
10.09
0.026
0.82
1.65

1.82
3.85
1.26
2.02
0.66
1.72
0.96

275.8
583.3
190.9
306.1
100
260.6
145.5

Average social charges borne by employers per metric ton, 1935
European
countries :
Belgium
. .
Czechoslovakia
France . . .
Great Britain
Netherlands .
Poland . . .

£
Fl.
ZI.

3.81
5.39
4.77
0.032
0.38
0.92

Non-European
country:
Canada . . .

0.09

Fr.

Ko.

Fr.

0.10
0.23

5.14
8.14
6.72
0.032
0.66
1.52

0.51
1.06
1.34
0.48
1.39
0.88

106.3
220.8
279.2
100
289.6
183.3

—

0.09

0.28

58.3

1.33
1.20
1.95

1.55

—

0.18
0.37

—

F o r definition, see Statistical Appendix.

•

—

•

— 171 —
competitive situation. The interest of showing the social charges
separately lies in the special character of these items of remuneration, which, by ensuring the satisfaction of certain essential needs,
contribute particularly to industrial, as well as social, efficiency.
Concerned as it is solely with the commercial aspect of social
charges, table III contains only those items which are paid by the
employer. The first four columns show, in national currency,
(1) the average employer's contribution, (2) and (3), the average cost
of allowances in cash and paid holidays respectively, and (4) the
average social charges borne by the employer, represented by the
total of the three preceding columns. This total is then (5) converted
into amounts in Swiss francs which (6) in the final column appear
as index numbers based on the British figure.
The rates of exchange used are the same as those used for table I.
It will suffice here to recall the devaluation of the Belgian, British
and Czechoslovak currencies which occurred between 1929 and
1935, and which was particularly important in the case of the
two former countries.
In 1929 the order of the countries according to the index numbers
of the charges borne by employers was as follows : Germany (average
of 4 districts), Netherlands, France, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Belgium, Great Britain.
The index numbers varied from 100 to 339 (average of 4 German
districts), or from about 1 to 3 x / 3 .
A comparison of the Swiss franc figures for 1935 with those for
1929 reveals that in all the six countries included in both halves
of the table the average social charge per ton of commercially
disposable coal has decreased. In the case of France, it is true, the
decrease has been negligible, but the reduction in the other countries ranged between 9 and 44 per cent. In spite of these
changes, reinforced in certain cases by the effect of depreciation,
the rank of these countries as determined by their index numbers
remained unchanged in 1935.

APPENDIX
A. — Social Charges in Canada and Japan 1931
The Governments of Canada and Japan furnished particulars of social
charges in the coal-mining industry in reply to the questionnaire for 1931,
but no such figures are available for 1929. These particulars are set out
below in the same form as that in which the materials of tables I, II

— 172 —
and III have been presented. Neither Government returned figures in
respect of allowances in cash or paid holidays.
I. — AVERAGE SOCIAL CHARGES P E R W O R K E R P E R Y E A R , 1 9 3 1
Canada
«)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Average joint contribution (2) + (3) . .
Average worker's contribution
Average employer's contribution . . . .
(3) in Swiss francs1

Japan
(Yen)

—
—
45.30
226.50

36.26
8.38
27.84
69.60

i 1 dollar = 5 Swiss francs ; 1 yen = 2.5 Swiss francs.
I I . — A V E R A G E SOCIAL CHARGES P E R MILLE OF GROSS MONEY W A G E S , 1 9 3 1

(1) Average joint contribution (2) + (3) . .
(2) Average worker's contribution
(3) Average employer's contribution . . . .
III.

Canada

Japan

—
—
46.47

105.73
24.46
81.27

AVERAGE SOCIAL CHARGES P E R METRIC TON OF COMMERCIALLY
DISPOSABLE COAL, 1 9 3 1

In Swiss francs *

Canada
(Í)
0.112
0.56

Japan
(Yen)
0.169
0.422

i 1 dollar = 5 Swiss francs ; 1 yen = 2.S Swiss francs.

B. — Estimated Social Insurance Contributions in Germany and
the United States
Germany
From official statistics it has been possible to extract the following
figures of contributions to all branches of social insurance in the mining
industry in 1935.
The number of insured workers in all mines was 612,669 of whom
407,461 or two-thirds were coal miners.
The average social insurance contribution per worker in all mines
in 1935 (cf. table I) was:
Average joint contribution
RM. 591.00
miner's
„
RM. 281.22
employer's „
RM. 309.78
The total wages bill of the coal-mining industry in 1935 was
RM. 788,166,000. Assuming that the contribution rates were the sanie
in coal mines as in all mines we have (cf. table II) per mille of gross
money wages:
Average joint contribution
„
miner's
„
,,
employer's ,,

305.9
145.6
160.3

— 173 —
The total production of coal in 1935 was 144,003,000 metric tons.
On the same assumption we have (cf. table III) per ton of coal produced:
Average joint contribution
RM. 1.67
„
miner's
„
RM. 0.80
„
employer's ,,
RM. 0.87
N.B. — The figures for commercially disposable coal would of course
have been slightly higher.
United States
Until 1936 the only branch of social insurance in operation in the
United States was workmen's compensation. From January 1936,
however, taxes on account of unemployment compensation began to be
levied in all States, and from January 1937 taxes became payable by
workers covered by the Federal old-age insurance scheme and by their
employers.
Workmen's compensation. •— The following statistics relate to that
charge upon the bituminous coal-mining industry which is represented
by workmen's compensation insurance premiums; they concern the
period from April 1934 (when the seven-hour day came into force) until
January 1935. The figures are taken from reports of the National
Recovery Administration, and appear to cover about two-thirds of the
total bituminous coal produced in the United States during the period.
The compensation premiums totalled $8,700,000, the amount of coal
produced was 161 million metric tons and the wages bill was $195 million.
Hence we have as average employer's contribution for workmen's
compensation:
45 per mille of gross money wages;
$0.054 per metric ton of coal produced.
Federal old-age insurance. — From 1 January 1937 onwards taxes
at the rate of one per cent, of gross money wages have been payable
under the Social Security Act by miners, all of whom are beneficiaries
under the Federal old-age insurance scheme, and by their employers
respectively. Taking as basis the production and wages figures used above
for the calculation of the workmen's compensation charges we have:
Per mille of gross money wages :
Miner's contribution for old-age insurance
Employer's „
„
„

. . .
. . .

10
10

Per metric ton of coal produced :
Miner's contribution for old-age insurance
Employer's
,,
„
„
„

. . .
. . .

$0.012
$0.012

State unemployment compensation. — From 1 January 1936 onwards
taxes began to be collected under the Social Security Act from employers
in the coal-mining industry in all States on account of unemployment
compensation. The rate of the tax was 1 per cent, of the wages bill
in 1936, 2 per cent, in 1937 and 3 per cent, thereafter. Under the laws
of Alabama and Kentucky the miners themselves are required to contribute 1 per cent, of their wages, but in the other coal-mining States the
whole cost is borne by the employer. The typical situation in 1938
is therefore that employers alone are contributing to unemployment
compensation schemes at the rate of three per cent, of their wages bills.

— 174 —
Hence, assuming once more that the production and wages figures
used for the calculation of the workmen's compensation charge are
still valid, we have as employers' contribution for unemployment
compensation:
30 per mille of gross money wages;
$0.036 per metric ton of coal produced.
Summary. — Assembling the foregoing estimates we arrive at the
following inclusive figures in respect of workmen's compensation, old-age
insurance and unemployment compensation for 1938.
Per mille of gross money wages (cf. table II) :
Average joint contribution
95
„
miner's
„
10
,,
employer's „
85
Per metric ton of coal produced (cf. table III) :
Average joint contribution
$0.114
„
miner's
„
$0.012
,,
employer's „
$0.102
N.B. — The figures for commercially disposable coal would of course
have been slightly higher.

CHAPTER V
WEEKLY REST, PUBLIC HOLIDAYS, ANNUAL HOLIDAYS
WITH PAY

INTRODUCTION

Any study of conditions of labour in the coal-mining industry
would be incomplete if it did not extend to cover the question of
absences duly authorised by regulations. It is impossible to deal
with any absences but those allowed for by regulations, and under
this heading have been included the weekly rest, public holidays,
and annual holidays with pay.
The questions hereinafter dealt with in this chapter are not
treated with a view to the elaboration of any international regulation on the subject. In point of fact, coal mines come within the
scope of the 1921 Convention on the weekly rest in industry,
a Convention which has been very generally ratified by the coalmining countries. Coal mines are also covered by the Draft Convention of 1936 on holidays with pay. Moreover, the question of
public holidays does not seem to lend itself to solution by international regulation, given the extreme divergency of such holidays,
which vary according to religious, national, district, or local usage.

I. — The Weekly Rest
FORM

NATIONAL

REGULATIONS

The weekly rest is regulated either by general Acts covering all
employed persons, and therefore including miners, or special Acts
applying only to persons employed in mines, or by legislative
decrees or administrative regulations, or by the clauses of collective
agreements, or again by arbitration awards. In the case of Federal
States the laws or regulations may extend to the whole of the
territory or may lie within the competence of the separate States
or provinces. Thus the question is covered by a great variety of
provisions.

— 176 —
The general Acts establishing the system of the weekly rest are
those of Belgium, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany,
Italy, Poland, Rumania, Spain, and Yugoslavia. In the United
States the weekly rest is governed by State legislation, except in the
District of Columbia and the Philippine Islands.
Acts special to the mining industry which include the system
of the weekly rest among their provisions are those of Austria,
India, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the Union of South
Africa.
In Chile the weekly rest is provided for in a general manner by a
Legislative Decree. In Japan the operative provisions are the
regulations concerning the employment and relief of miners.
In A ustralia the provisions concerning the weekly rest are included
in arbitration awards.
In many cases legislation is supplemented by collective
agreements. Such is the case in particular in Germany (in the form
of collective rules), the Netherlands, and Rumania. In the U.S.S.R.
the weekly rest is based partly on legislation and partly on orders
regulating hours of work. In Great Britain the situation is still
more complicated. The weekly rest is granted by custom, but not in
virtue of the only Act on the question, which has fallen into disuse,
namely, the Lord's Day Observance Act of 1677. Nevertheless, the
employment of women on Sunday is formally forbidden by the
1911 Coal Mines Regulation Act.
DETERMINATION OF THE WEEKLY REST DAY

The day fixed for the weekly rest is, as might be expected,
generally Sunday. The laws or regulations of certain countries
provide for the formal prohibition of work on Sunday. This is the
case in Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Spain, the Union of South Africa, and Yugoslavia. In other
countries it is compulsory to grant the weekly rest on Sunday, with
very few exceptions. This is the case in Chile, Czechoslovakia,
France, Italy, and Poland.
The legislation of Asiatic countries does not provide for Sunday
as the day of weekly rest. The system adopted in China and India
is to lay down the principle of one day's rest per week (China), or to
prohibit employment on more than six days in the week (India).
In Yugoslavia legislation provides that, at the request of
three-quarters of the persons employed in any undertaking, the
Minister of Social Affairs may fix some other day than Sunday as

— 177 —
the rest day for the undertaking in question. Japan and the
U.S.S.R. have special systems. Furthermore, in certain countries
the week's rest may be arranged, either as a general rule or as an
exception, to include the grant of a half day or a whole day of rest in
addition to the weekly rest day. These provisions will be considered
separately, as will also the exceptions provided for in all the laws
and regulations and in the collective agreements on the question.
LENGTH OF THE WEEKLY REST

Most of the laws and regulations define the weekly rest period by
fixing the hour at or before which it must commence and the hour
at which work may be resumed. A period of 24 hours is generally
fixed, but the hour of beginning the rest varies. The Austrian
and Rumanian legislation, and the collective rules or agreements
for mining undertakings in Germany (Rhenish-Westphalia and
Poland (Upper Silesia) fix the beginning of the rest at 6 a.m. on
Sunday and the resumption of work at 6 a.m. on Monday. The
Canadian, Italian, and Spanish legislation fixes the rest from
midnight to midnight. In Chile the rest must be from 9 p.m. on
Saturday to 6 a.m. on Monday. In Czechoslovakia the rest is of
32 hours.
There is a certain elasticity in the Spanish legislation, which lays
down that the rest period may be calculated in other ways, if the
special needs of particular industries so require, provided that the
length mentioned above is not essentially modified. Nevertheless,
no exception to the prohibition of work on Sunday can be granted
in the case of women. A similar latitude is granted by Italian
legislation, which provides that collective agreements may adopt
another hour than midnight for the beginning of the 24 hours'
rest and that in default of collective agreements, the corporative
inspection service may take such action.
In British coal mines a 24-hour rest is in fact observed, because
the last man leaves the mine at 7 p.m. on Saturday and work is
not resumed until 10 p.m. on Sunday.
In the case of women, who alone are covered by legislation, work
is stopped throughout Sunday and after 2 p.m. on Saturday. The
rest must be uninterrupted until 5 a.m. on Monday, in other words
for 39 hours.
Netherlands legislation allows for a special system for the workers
on the night shift who remain in the mine until Sunday morning.
These workers must receive a rest of at least 30 consecutive hours
CR. II.

— 178 —
after finishing the shift. Nevertheless the Chief Inspector of Mines
is authorised to reduce the length of this rest to 24 hours.
EXCEPTIONS

All the laws, regulations, and collective agreements provide t h a t
certain work must of necessity be done on Sunday, or that certain
events may arise which render work necessary, in particular for
reasons of safety. One or two examples will suffice. Under the
Austrian legislation:
" An exception shall be made for work which admits of no interruption
or which can be carried out only during the stoppage of the undertaking, also for work the urgency of which is justified by a danger
involving a serious threat to the life or health of the staff or which
must be carried out in order to ensure the conservation of the mine and
its continued working."
The definition of authorised Sunday work in the Belgian Act is
as follows :
" (a) Urgent work (in case of force majeure or some necessity which
could not have been foreseen in the normal course);
" (b) The watching of the premises of the undertaking;
" (c) Cleaning, repair, and maintenance work necessary for the regular
continuance of the work of the undertaking and work (other
than that of production proper) required for the regular resumption of the work of the undertaking on the following day;
" (d) Work necessary to prevent the deterioration of raw materials
or products.
" Such work shall be authorised only to the extent to which it is
impossible to carry it out on some other day of the week."
According to the Spanish legislation the following work is
excepted:
" (a) Work which cannot be interrupted either because of the nature
of the needs which it is intended to meet, or for technical reasons,
or because the interruption would be gravely prejudicial to the
public interest or to the interests of the industry itself;
" (b) Indispensable repair and cleaning work for preventing any
interruption during the week in the normal work of the industrial undertaking (in particular, cleaning and repair work which,
if it were not done on Sunday, would prevent the continuance
of industrial operations, paralyse the industries concerned or
be gravely prejudicial to them) ;
" (c) Work justified by some imminent danger or by temporary
circumstances of which it is necessary to take advantage."
In the Netherlands persons over 16 years of age may be employed
on Sunday on the following work : (a) work on pumping, ventilation,

— 179 —
and electric power and light stations and, generally speaking, all
operations necessary for the resumption of work; (6) watching of
the works at the surface; (c) repair work, to the extent to which
such work cannot be done during the week or cannot be postponed
without danger.
Compensation for work on the normal weekly rest day may take
the form of another day's rest, or of an increase in the hourly rate
of remuneration, or again of a combination of these two systems.
The systems are considered below.
COMPENSATORY

REST

Such rest is provided for in the legislation of Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Poland, Rumania, Spain, the United States (State legislation),
and the U.S.S.R.
The Italian legislation provides t h a t the compensation granted
for hours worked on Sunday may not be less than 12 hours' rest.
The Austrian legislation is similar in effect, since it provides t h a t
workers employed for more than 3 hours during the Sunday rest
are entitled to an uninterrupted rest of at least 32 hours during
the following fortnight, this rest must include the following
Sunday unless the conditions of production make it absolutely
impossible.
The New Zealand Act deals with the particular case of persons
whose duties compel them to be present at the mine every day,
even for an extremely short period; they are entitled every year
to at least 12 half-days' or 6 whole days' compensatory rest.
INCREASED

RATES OF W A G E S FOR SUNDAY

WORK

The following are the provisions concerning the rates of wages for
work done on the weekly rest day. A distinction is often made
between the rate corresponding to the normal working day and
t h a t fixed for overtime.
A astraila
All States, except Western Australia: time and a half.
Western Australia: double time.
Austria
Failing a collective agreement: not less than time and a quarter.
Usual provision of collective agreements:
(a) for the first 8 hours worked: time and a half;
(ft) for work in excess of 8 hours: double time.

— 180 —
Canada
In the majority of cases: double time.
Czechoslovakia
The collective agreement for the Ostrava-Karvina bituminous coal
field fixes time-and-a-half rates for all work normally done on Sundays
provided that the workers have not missed more than one shift during
the last fortnight without valid reason, and time-and-three-quarter rates
for overtime.
The collective agreement for the lignite fields of North-West Bohemia
and Falknov provide for time-and-a-half rates for overtime on the
weekly rest day.
France
The collective agreement of 14 December 1936 for the Anzin, Nord
and Pas-de-Calais coalfield provides that, over and above the compensatory rest, a bonus for special service at a rate of time and a quarter
shall be paid for maintenance and safety work carried out on Sunday;
the same bonus is paid for special service on Sunday night for urgent
work of an exceptional nature. These provisions apply only to underground work.
Germany
Collective rules for the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield 1:
(a) manual staff: time and a half;
(b) technical staff: time and a quarter.
Collective rules for the Central German lignite field 2 :
(a) continuous work: time and a quarter;
(b) exceptional work: time and a half.
Great Britain
Overtime rates are payable for work in excess of 6 hours. In Scotland
the rate is time and a quarter. In Nottinghamshire and North Derbyshire certain groups of workers are paid for 7 days' work if they
have worked 6 shifts in the week one of which has covered a part-of
Sunday.
Japan
An increased rate is provided for in addition to the compensatory rest.
Netherlands
For work done .outside the ordinary time-table : double time 8.
New Zealand
The collective agreements usually provide for time-and-a-half rates
for regular Sunday work and double time for other Sunday work.
1
2

See page 193 for Easter Sunday and Whit Sunday.
The increments do not apply if a supplementary shift is worked on Sunday
by the workers, at their own request, in compensation for holidays or for
days lost as a result of some disturbance in the work.
8
See page 193 for Easter Sunday and Whit Sunday.

— 181 —
Poland
The legislation fixes a minimum of time and a half for overtime.
The collective agreement for Upper Silesia provides for time and a
half for all Sunday work 1.
Rumania
Several collective agreements provide for an increase of 40 or 50 per
cent, for overtime worked on the weekly rest day.
The collective agreement for Petrosani and Lonea provides that the
increase shall
be 40 per cent, for the first 8 hours and 100 per cent.
thereafter 2.
Spain
If the work is not of an urgent nature: ordinary overtime rates.
without prejudice to the compensatory rest.
For urgent work: normal rates.
Yugoslavia
Overtime rates are paid for all work done normally on Sunday or
other weekly rest day.
The above figures show t h a t there is great diversity in the
systems of remuneration for work done on the weekly rest day.
This is partly due to the fact t h a t in some cases the work done on
that day gives the right to a compensatory rest, while, in others,
the rest days so lost are not made up.
SPECIAL SYSTEMS

Payment for Weekly Rest
So far as the Office is aware, there is only one country in which the
legislation provides for the payment of a wage during the weekly
rest, when such rest is observed. This is China (Section 18 of the
Factory Act), where, however, the legislation is only just being p u t
into force. According to information received, only the Yangchuang
Paoching Colliery gives pay for rest days, on the basis of two per
lunar month.
System of Twice-monthly

Rest

This system is in force in Japan. Section 10 of the " Regulations
of 3 August 1916 for the Employment and Relief of Miners "
provides t h a t " the holder of a mining right shall provide for
persons under 16 years of age and for women at least two rest days
1
2

See page 193 for Easter Sunday and Whit Sunday.
See page 193 for Whit Sunday.

— 182 —
per month, and at least four rest days if the miners are employed
alternately in two or more shifts between 10 p.m. and 5 a.m."
A circular of the Bureau of Social Affairs, dated 15 July 1926,
provides that a minimum of two days' rest per month shall be given
to all workers, including adult workers. A circular of the same
Bureau, dated 26 February 1929, makes the supplementary
provision that the rest must comprise an uninterrupted period of
24 hours. Previous to this, a circular of the same Bureau, dated 4 April 1916,
had recommended that rest days should be given at periodical
intervals, e.g. on the first and the fifteenth of each month, or on the
first and third Sundays of each month.
Account must be taken, however, of the provisions of section 11
of the Regulation, which provides that in the event of temporary
necessity due to an actual or imminent disaster, or to any other
unavoidable reason, the holder of a mining right may suspend the
application of the provisions of section 10 for a period to be determined in each case. Previous authorisation must be given by
the Chief of the Mines Inspector Bureau, except in cases of urgent
necessity.
The Saturday Half-holiday (English Week-end)
The legislation or collective agreements of several countries
provide for a Saturday half-holiday.
In Australia, both for surface and for underground workers, the
working week includes only 6 hours on Saturday. In New South
Wales and Western Australia it is the practice that underground
workers should be free every other Saturday, except in the case of
pumping work.
In Chile a supplementary half-day's weekly rest may be introduced by agreement between the employer and the workers in
any undertaking. In this case the other working days of the week
may be proportionately increased.
In 'Germany the collective rules for the Rhenish-Westphalian
bituminous coalfield provide that the workers shall be given a halfholiday on Saturday, except in case of urgent work. The collective
rules for the Central German lignite mines provide that work in
general must cease on Saturday at 2.30 p.m., except in undertakings where work must be carried on continuously.
In Great Britain certain categories of workers in Durham and
Northumberland work 11 shifts per fortnight.

— 183 —
In the Union of South Africa the European workers (generally
foremen or supervisors) are entitled to a rest period of about 36 hours
per week, beginning on Saturday at 12.30 p.m.
The Five-day Week
This system is in force in France, Italy 1, New Zealand and the
United States.
In France the Decree of 27 October 1936 on coal mines (surface
work) provides that hours of actual work shall normally be distributed on the basis of not more than 8 hours per day, in such a way
as to give the workers an additional rest day in the week, besides
Sunday. Similarly, the Decree of 25 September 1936 2 on coal
mines (underground work) provides that there shall be no work
on two days of the week, of which Sunday must be one. Hours
worked on the rest day other than Sunday by persons employed
exclusively in maintenance or safety work must be paid at not less
than time-and-a-quarter rates, whenever a compensatory rest
cannot be given.
In New Zealand the majority of collective agreements provide
for the distribution of the authorised 40 hours of work over 5 days.
If a worker works on a Saturday, which is normally a day of rest,
he is paid at the ordinary rate of wages. In certain cases it is
specified that work done at the ordinary rate on Saturday must be
confined to necessary repair and maintenance work. Collective
agreements concerning deputies provide that the normal hours of
work are 40 hours a week, on the understanding that there is no
restriction of work on Saturdays or Sundays which is required on
those days for mine examination, in connection with pumping or
control of fires, or in connection with any maintenance, repair, or
development work which can be carried out only when the mine
is idle.
In all coal mines in the United States collective agreements provide for the distribution of weekly working hours over 5 days at
the rate of 7 hours per day. Consequently, the weekly rest comprises two days per week. It is laid down that the supplementary
day's rest may be taken on any day of the week, according to the
arrangement preferred by the undertaking. Nevertheless, when
a legal holiday occurs during the week the supplementary day's
rest must, generally speaking, be taken on this legal holiday.
1
When the normal working week of 40 hours is divided into 5 days of 8 hours
each.
2
Amended by the Decree of 21 December 1927.

— 184 —
The Four or Five-day Week
This system is peculiar to the U.S.S.R.
The work is spread over a week of 6 days (5 days' work followed by
one day's rest) or of days (4 days' work followed by one day's
rest) as follows :
(a) In undertakings which have adopted the system of the
uninterrupted week of 5 days, the number of rest days granted to
each worker may not be less than 72 a year, including rest days
falling in within the period of regular annual leave.
Workers take their rest in rotation on different days, according
to special schedules drawn up by the management of the
undertaking in agreement with the works committee.
The length of the uninterrupted weekly rest must not be less
than 39 hours, subject to exceptions provided for by the U.S.S.R.
People's Commissariat of Labour. Workers employed in two or
more shifts may accumulate weekly rest days over a maximum
period of four working weeks. In this case the length of each
weekly rest may be more or less than 39 hours, but never less than
24 hours; it must average at least 39 hours over the whole period
covered.
(b) In undertakings which work on the system of the 6-day week
(5 days' work followed by one day's rest), workers are entitled to
a rest day on the sixth, twelfth, eighteenth, twenty-fourth, and
thirtieth of each month. The first day of March takes the place of a
fifth rest day at the end of February.

II. — Public Holidays
FORM OF NATIONAL REGULATIONS

Provisions concerning public holidays are contained either in
legislative texts covering all employed persons, and therefore
including the staffs of mining undertakings, or in special Acts
concerning miners, or in collective agreements or arbitration awards.
In many cases a combination of legislative texts and collective
agreements is in operation.
The following countries have Acts which deal with public
holidays: Austria, Belgium, Canada (Federal and Provincial Acts),
China, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Rumania,

— 185 —
the United States (State legislation), the U.S.S.R., and Yugoslavia.
In Chile and in Spain there are Decrees on the subject.
As in the case of the weekly rest, public holidays are the subject
of provisions in special Acts concerning the mining industry in the
Netherlands and in the Union of South Africa. In New Zealand they
are regulated by collective agreements, in Australia by arbitration
awards or by law. In Great Britain the question is regulated solely
by custom.
DETERMINATION OF PUBLIC

HOLIDAYS

A distinction is made in several countries between legal public
holidays and other public holidays, in most cases religious festivals.
In a few cases legislation or collective agreements definitely
prohibit work on a specified public holiday.
It is obvious that, as in the case of the weekly rest, a compensatory
rest is often granted when the working of the mine makes it necessary, either for certain services or, exceptionally, for the whole
staff, not to observe a public holiday on which normally no work
is done.
As was done above for the weekly rest, compensatory rest
periods, increased rates of pay, and special systems will be dealt
with separately.
In view of the great variety of the days kept as national, regional,
or local holidays and as religious festivals, the information on this
subject will be given in the alphabetical order of the countries
concerned.
A ustralia
In New South Wales the following are generally recognised holidays:
New Year's Day, Anniversary Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, the
King's Birthday, May Day or the local festivaì in celebration of the
8-hour day, Christmas Day and Boxing Day, and Federal or State
Parliamentary election days or any other day or days appointed as
substitutes by the Government. In addition some arbitration awards
provide for one or two extra local holidays.
In Victoria the Act specifies the following days as public holidays:
New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day, Boxing
Day, and Eight Hours' Day.
The holidays recognised in Western Australia are as follows: New
Year's Day, Foundation Day (26 January), Good Friday, Easter
Monday, Anzac Day. May Day, Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.
A ustria
The following are considered legal public holidays: 1 and 6 January,
Easter Monday, Ascension Day, Whit Monday, Corpus Christi, 29 June,
15 August, All Saints' Day, 8 December, Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.

— 186 —
Belgium
The following days are legal public holidays: New Year's Day, Easter
Monday, Ascension Day, Whit Monday, 21 July, 15 August, All Saints'
Day, 11 November, Christmas Day. It is also customary to stop work
on May Day.
These legal holidays are not compulsory for the workers unless they
fall on Sunday.
Canada
The Dominion holidays are: New Year's Day, Easter Monday,
Dominion Day (1 July), the first Monday in September, and Christmas
Day. In addition, the following days are public holidays but are not
uniformly observed: Empire Day (24 May), King's Birthday (9 June),
Armistice Day (11 November), and Thanksgiving Day.
Besides the days fixed by Dominion regulations, each Province is
free to fix other days as legal holidays.
Chile
Rest is granted on the legal public holidays, which include May Day.
The legal public holiday begins at 9 p.m. on the previous day and
finishes at 6 a.m. on the day after.
China
The following list is given for legal public holidays (section 9 of the
Regulations for the administration of the Factory Act): New Year's
Day, 12 March, 29 March, May Day, 27 August, 10 October, 12 November, and any other holidays which may be fixed by the National
Government.
Czechoslovakia
The National Festival on 28 October is treated as a Sunday. On
other public holidays the provisions concerning Sunday work are applicable to the extent to which they regulate the calculation of time-limits
(these holidays are therefore calculated as from 6 a.m.).
Under the Act of 3 April 1925, the following are considered as public
holidays: New Year's Day, Twelfth Night, Ascension Day, Corpus
Christi, 29 June, 15 August, All Saints Day, 8 December, Christmas
Day.
The following are considered as anniversary days of the Czechoslovak
Republic: 5 July, 28 September, 6 July, May Day, and 28 October.
France
The provisions of the Labour Code cover only children, whether
workers or apprentices, under 18 years of age and women. Mines,
open mines, and quarries are covered by the Code.
The employment of these classes of workers is forbidden on legal
public holidays, even for the putting in order of the workshop.
The legally recognised public holidays are as follows: New Year's
Day, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, May Day, the festival of Joan
of Arc (second Sunday in May), the National Festival (14 July), Ascension
Day, Assumption Day (15 August), All Saints' Day, Armistice Day
(11 November), Christmas Day.
It follows from the above provisions that adults do not benefit by
the prohibition of work on legal holidays. The Decrees in application
of the 40-Hour Week Act do not impose an obligation to stop work on
public holidays.

— 187 —
Germany
The national public holidays are the following:
(a) May Day (National festival of the German People);
(b) The fifth Sunday before Easter (Heroes' Commemoration);
(c) The first Sunday after St. Michael (Harvest Thanksgiving Day).
In addition the following are considered as legal public holidays:
New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension Day, Whit
Monday, Penitence Day (Wednesday preceding Trinity Sunday),
Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.
In communes where the majority of the population is Protestant,
the festival of the Reformation, and in communes where the majority
of the population is Catholic, Corpus Christi, are public holidays. The
classification of communes for this purpose is left to the Minister of the
Interior or the authorities designated by him.
The Minister of the Interior, in agreement with the Minister for
Propaganda and Popular Education, has power to issue regulations
concerning the observance of public holidays and of purely religious
festivals.
These provisions are further supplemented by clauses in collective
rules. Thus the collective rules agreement for the Rhineland bituminous
coalfield provide that, over and above the legal public holidays, undertakings may cease normal work on the following religious festivals,
provided that the competent authority is informed two days in advance
after agreement with the staff: Twelfth Night, Corpus Christi, Saints
Peter and Paul, Aanunciation Day, All Saints' Day.
Great Britain
It is customary not to wind coal on bank holidays, which are six in
number in England and five in Scotland. These holidays are in England:
Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, the first Monday in August,
Christmas Day and Boxing Day; if this last day falls on a Sunday,
27 December is a bank holiday.
In Scotland the five days are as follows: New Year's Day, Good
Friday, the first Monday in May, the first Monday in August, Christmas
Day. If New Year's Day or Christmas Day falls on a Sunday, the
following day is a bank holiday.
The district agreements for firemen and shotsmen in South Wales
and Monmouthshire, which provide for either 7 or 12 days' annual
holiday with pay, and for firemen and weighers in Lancashire and
Cheshire, which provide for 14 days' annual holiday with pay, allow
public holidays to be included in annual holiday.
Besides the legal holidays, other public holidays appear in the collective
agreements. Thus the agreements in South Yorkshire provide for
10 holidays in the year.
Italy
The Labour Charter provides that, subject to the technical necessities
of undertakings, collective agreements must include the observance of
civil and religious holidays in accordance with local tradition. Furthermore, the list of festivals is given in the Act of 27 December 1930:
(a) National festivals: the first Sunday in June (celebration of Italian
Unity and of the Constitution); 28 October (Anniversary of the March
on Rome); 4th November (Victory Day).

— 188 —
(b) Legal holidays: New Year's Day; Epiphany; Feast of St. Joseph;
21 April (Anniversary of the Foundation of Rome); Ascension Day;
Corpus Christi; Saints Peter and Paul; Assumption Day; 28 October
(Anniversary of the March on Rome); All Saints' Day; 4 November
(Victory Day); Festival of the Immaculate Conception; Christmas Day.
(c) Civil commemorations: 11 February (Anniversary of the Treaty
and Concordat with the Holy See); 23 March (Anniversary of the
Foundation of Fascism); 21 April (Anniversary of the Foundation of
Rome); 24 May (Anniversary of the Declaration of War); 12 October
(Anniversary of the Discovery of America); 11 November (King's
Birthday).
The Act of 27 December 1930 does not give the workers an absolute
right to cease work. This right exists only if and to the extent to which
the obligation to cease work during the days declared " holidays " by
the Act is prescribed in the collective agreement.
The national collective agreement for the mining industry provides
that the following shall be considered as public holidays: 21 April,
28 October, and the other days recognised by the State, in addition to
two local festivals to be chosen by agreement. The competent organisations may allow the replacement of any public holiday by another,
taking account of local customs.
Netherlands
The legal public holidays are: New Year's Day, Easter Monday,
Ascension Day, Whit Monday, Assumption Day, All Saints' Day,
Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.
New Zealand
The question is regulated by collective agreements, from which the
following provisions may be cited by way of example:
(a) Reefton mines: The following days are public holidays: Good
Friday, Easter Saturday, Easter Monday, the Sovereign's birthday,
Labour Day and local picnic day, and at the end of the year from
24 December to 4 January inclusive.
Workers employed on 25 and 26 December or on 1 and 2 January
must be paid double time, but those employed from 27 to 31 December
inclusive, or on 3 and 4 January, must be paid only the ordinary rates.
All work done on other public holidays must be paid for at double rates.
(b) Green Island mines: The public holidays are: from Good Friday
to Easter Monday, Labour Day, and the Sovereign's birthday (if either
of the two days falls on a Sunday, the following Monday is observed
as holiday), and from 24 December to 2 January inclusive.
Similar provisions as in (a) above for wage increases.
(c) Taratu mines : Public holidays are: from 24 December to 2 January inclusive, Good Friday, Easter Monday, the Sovereign's birthday,
Labour Day and annual picnic day.
Same provisions as above for wage increases.
(d) Liverpool State Coal Mine: Public holidays: from Good Friday
to Easter Monday inclusive, the Sovereign's birthday, Labour Day and
Anzac Day, and Christmas holidays from 24 December to 4 January
inclusive. Picnic day is held on a Saturday.
Payment during public holidays: 25 and 26 December, 1 and 2 January, double rates; 24 December, 27 to 31 December, 3 and 4 January;
ordinary rates; other holidays, double rates.

— 189 —
(e) Waikato coal mines underground officials: Public holidays are the
same as in the miners' agreement, but 5 additional days are granted,
to be agreed upon between the parties, provided that there has been
no absence on account of sickness.
Poland
Work is as a rule prohibited on public holidays.
The legal public holidays are: New Year's Day, Twelfth Night,
2 February, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, 3 May, Ascension Day,
Corpus Christi, 29 June, 15 August, All Saints' Day, 8 December, Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.
The collective agreement for Upper Silesia defines work on public
holidays as falling between 6 a.m. and 6 a.m. on the following day.
Rumania
The Act provides that undertakings shall be closed on the following
days, which are described as legal public holidays: New Year's Day,
Epiphany, 24 January,-St. George's Day, Easter Monday, May Day,
10 May, Ascension Day, Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.
Collective or individual agreements may provide for supplementary
rest days in favour of workers of other religious denominations recognised
by the State, with a view to the celebration of their principal religious
festivals *.
In no case may a worker be compelled by his employer to work on
the festival days of the denomination to which he belongs.
The manager or the workers of any undertaking, or an association
of employers or workers, may make an application for the observance
of a rest day on account of the employer's birthday or any other festive
occasion connected with the undertaking or the association.
Spain
The following are legal public holidays: New Year's Day, 14 April,
1 March, 12 October, and 25 December. The standards of employment
for coal mines also provide for May Day.
Union of South Africa
The Act specifies Christmas Day and Good Friday as public holidays,
reckoned from midnight to midnight.
No work may be performed or caused to be performed on Christmas
Day or Good Friday.
United Stales
The following are customarily recognised as public holidays : New Year's
Day, 1 April, 30 May, 4 July, first Monday in September, 11 November;
Thanksgiving Day (last Thursday in November), Christmas Day.

u.s.s.n.
Work is in principle forbidden on the following festival days: New
Year's Day, 22 January, 12 March, 18 March, 1 and 2 May, 7 and
1

The collective agreement for Sorecani provides that these supplementary
rest days shall be Maundy Thursday and Easter Monday for Catholics, and
Good Friday and Corpus Christi for Protestants. The collective agreement
for Petrosani and Lonea provides Maundy Thursday for Catholics and Good
Friday for Protestants.

— 190 —
8 November (in undertakings which work the 6-day week, 6 hours only
are worked on the eve of festival days, and a full day's pay is granted).
In undertakings working the 6-day week, the festivals of 12 and
18 March coincide with a weekly rest day.
In undertakings which work an uninterrupted week of 5 days no
work may be done on the five days commemorating the Revolution
(22 January, 1 and 2 May, 7 and 8 November).
In addition to the days mentioned above, the trade union authorities
concerned fix 6 special rest days per year, account being taken of local
conditions, the composition of the population, etc.
Yugoslavia
An uninterrupted rest period of at least 36 hours must be given to
the worker for each public holiday, and of at least 60 hours in the event
of two consecutive public holidays.

MAKING UP OF TIME LOST ON HOLIDAYS

Generally speaking, the exceptions to the prohibition of work
on the weekly rest day apply also to public holidays, when work is
prohibited on such holidays. It is therefore unnecessary to recapitulate.
Most laws, regulations, and collective agreements allow
considerable latitude for the making up of time lost on public
holidays. The following further details may be given.
Making up of time lost during the week's work is allowed under
the legislation of Rumania and most of the States in the United
States. In the former country, however, the working day may in no
case exceed 10 hours; the time-table established in accordance with
these provisions, and any changes in the time-table, must be
communicated to the Labour Inspectorate.
In Italy the national collective agreement for the mining industry
provides that, in order to allow workers to be free on important
commemorative festivals, the time so lost may be made up, in the
case of staff who are allowed- by law to take their weekly rest
during the week, by work on the Sunday following or preceding the
festival day, which Sunday in consequence becomes a working day.
For workers who, according to law, must take their weekly rest on
Sunday, the substitution of the festival day for Sunday may be
effected in accordance with the provisions of the Act of 22 February
1934, and in this case the Sunday following becomes an ordinary
working day.
In Austria lost time may be made up during the .fortnight of
working days immediately preceding or following the festival day.
,In France legal or local holidays may be made up by work on the

— 191 —
second weekly rest day. As regards underground work, the Decree
of 25 September 1936 laid down the following conditions:
(a) One day's holiday to be made up in the same or the following
week;
(6) 2 days' holiday to be made up in the same or the two
following weeks;
(c)

3 days' holiday to be made up in the same or the three
following weeks;

(d) 4 days' holiday or more to be made up in the same or the
five following weeks.
INCREASED RATES OF W A G E S FOR W O R K ON PUBLIC HOLIDAYS

It is an almost general rule that work done on a public holiday
does not give the right to increased remuneration if time off is
given in compensation. Moreover, except where specially mentioned,
work regularly done on public holidays is not paid at an increased
rate. In certain cases a distinction is made between the different
holidays in this respect, or there may be variations of rate according
to the holiday.
The extreme variety of the systems in force again makes it
necessary to present the information in the alphabetical order of
countries.
A uslralia
Although work may be done on public holidays, overtime may not
be worked. Any work which has to be done on public holidays must
be paid at higher rates, except for horse keepers, workers on repairs
to vital machinery, and workers engaged on emergency work ; in Western
Australia the exceptions are horse keepers and pumpmen.
In New South Wales the rate of pay for work done on public holidays
is time and a half, 6 hours constituting a full shift, and for overtime
on public holidays (i.e. in excess of 6 hours) it is double time. In
Western Australia all work done on public holidays is paid at double
the ordinary rate, with the exceptions referred to above.
A ustria
The Order of 6 April 1933 provides that work is authorised in mines
on holidays when long and frequent interruptions constitute a danger
to the safety of the undertaking when by reason of bad weather the
working of the undertaking is often interrupted or hours of work are
reduced, and when the work of the undertaking has been interrupted by
exceptional circumstances ; the work may be continued until the normal
situation is restored. The management of the undertaking must inform
the district mining authority at least 3 days in advance of its intention
to have work done on a public holiday.

— 192 —
The collective agreement for the Styrian coal mines provides that
work during normal hours on New Year's Day, Easter Monday, May
Day, Whit Monday, and Christmas Day shall be paid at time-and-a-half
rates, and on Corpus Christi and St. Barbara's Day at time-and-aquarter rates. For work in excess of 8 hours, double time is due on all
holidays.
Canada
Increased rates are paid for emergency work or work which cannot
be suspended on public holidays. The same provisions apply as in the
case of the weekly rest. It is an almost general rule that double rates
are paid for legal holidays. In Nova Scotia there is a collective agreement providing for time-and-a-half rates for work normally carried out
on legal holidays.
Chili
The same provisions are in force as for the weekly rest.
China
The Collective Agreements Act of 28 October 1930, which came into
force on 1 November 1932, provides in Section 11 that: " i t maybe
provided in a collective agreement that wage rates shall be increased
or doubled when the employer requires a worker to work or to continue
to work on public holidays, or when he is on leave, or beyond the normal
hours of work, provided that the increased rates shall in no case be
more than twice the normal rates."
According to information available, legal holidays are, generally
speaking, observed. Moreover, several undertakings have instituted a
set of public holidays of their own. When a worker works on such
days he generally receives double time. In the Kailan mines, however,
the wage is trebled on the holidays at the lunar New Year.
Czechoslovakia
The rate for work in normal hours on holidays in the Ostrava- Karvina
coalfield is time and a quarter, which is granted only when the workers
have not missed more than one shift without valid reason during the
previous fortnight; on 28 October (national festival) the rate is time
and a half. For overtime worked on holidays and anniversaries an
increase of 35 per cent, on the normal rate is paid, or on 28 October
75 per cent.
In the lignite fields of North-West Bohemia and Falknov, overtime
worked on Christmas Day, May Day and 28 October is paid at time
and a half.
In all other cases no work is done upon holidays, no time is made up
and no extra payment is made.
France
Under the collective agreement of 27 October 1936 for the Anzin,
Nord and Pas-de-Calais coalfield, time-and-a-quarter rates are payable
as a special bonus for workers required to do urgent work of an exceptional nature at night during public holidays.
Germany
The collective rules for the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield
provide that double time shall be paid for work done on Christmas Day

— 193 —
(also for work done on Easter Day and Whit Sunday). The rate for
work on other legal public holidays is time and a half. For technical
staff it is time and a quarter for all legal holidays. No increase is granted
for work done on holidays other than legal holidays.
Great Britain
Generally speaking, the collective agreements provide for wage
increases for work done on public holidays. The rate is time and a
half in the South Yorkshire agreement of 7 December 1926. In
Cumberland the rate is time and a quarter for work on Boxing Day,
Easter Monday, Whit Monday, and the first Monday in August.
Netherlands
Work done on public holidays outside the normal time-table is paid
for at double rates. On Easter Day, Whit Sunday, and Christmas
Day the increase on the normal rate is 150 per cent.
New Zealand
(See under " Determination of Public Holidays ", p. 188).
Poland
The collective agreement for Upper Silesia provides that work done
on legal holidays entitles a worker to time-and-a-half rates. Double
time is paid on Christmas Day (also for Easter Day and Whit Sunday).
Rumania
The collective agreement for Petrosani and Lonea provides that
work during normal hours done on holidays entitle a worker to a 40 per
cent, wage increase. Double time is paid on Easter Day, Easter
Monday, Whit Sunday, and May Day, and for any overtime worked
on a holiday..
Other collective agreements cover only overtime, for which an
increase of 40 to 50 per cent, on the normal rate is paid, according to
the agreement.
U.S.S.R.
The Central Council of Trade Unions may draw up lists of undertakings in which the work must by its nature be carried on without
interruption during holidays.
The provision forbidding all work during the five days commemorating
the Revolution is not applicable to undertakings working continuously,
where the work cannot Ée interrupted because of conditions, technical
or other, or to undertakings where the work cannot be interrupted for
reasons of public interest. The same exception is made for indispensable
repair work.
Work done during the Revolutionary holidays is paid for as follows :
(a) In the case of time work, twice the normal rate, plus agreed
supplements such as guaranteed additional pay, bonuses on the
percentage of output, etc. ;
(b) In the case of piece work, double rates.
Yugoslavia
Even normal work done during holidays gives the right to special
payment in the form of a wage increase. In principle only indispensable
work which cannot be interrupted may be done on holidays.
C R . II.

— 194 —

PAYMENT FOR HOLIDAYS WHEN NO W O R K IS D O N E

Such a measure, which is evidence of considerable social progress,
has so far been introduced by law in a very few countries only.
In Germany an Order of 3 December 1937 provides t h a t the
following holidays shall be paid for at the ordinary wage rates
(exclusive therefore of overtime): New Year's Day (unless it falls
on a Sunday); Easter Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day
(unless it falls on a Sunday); Boxing Day (unless it falls on a
Sunday). It is left to collective rules to establish the meaning of the
term " ordinary wage rates ". The Minister of Labour may make
exceptions to this provision in the case of individual undertakings
if the economic situation of the undertaking absolutely necessitates
such action.
An earlier Order (18 May 1934) had laid down similar provisions
for May Day, the national festival of the German people, except
when it falls on a Sunday.
In Rumania the Act of 17 June 1925 provides that, on the
application of an association or group of employers or of workers,
or of an individual employer, the chamber of labour of the district
in which the association has its headquarters may, with the approval
of the Minister of Labour, authorise the closing of the undertaking
on festivals of a particular religious denomination if the majority
of the workers belong to such religion. In this case the workers
do not lose the right to their customary remuneration.
Section 18 of the Chinese Factory Act provides t h a t each worker
is entitled to his normal wage on public holidays. According to
information received, this provision is applied in particular in the
Kailan Mining Administration, the Chung Hsing Coal-Mining
Company and the Liu Ho Kow Company.
In New Zealand certain collective agreements provide t h a t
deputies may be granted the holidays specified in the agreements
concerning miners, without deduction from pay. Since an annual
holiday with pay is not provided for in the New Zealand regulations,
and since the public holidays comprise a fairly long period, these
holidays may be regarded in fact as more in the nature of an annual
holiday with pay.
In the Union of South Africa the regulations provide that when
Christmas Day and Good Friday are not worked European workers
shall still be paid.

— 195 —

IH. — Annual Holidays with Pay
FORM OF NATIONAL REGULATIONS

As regards annual holidays with pay, the part played by collective
agreements is more important than in the case of the weekly rest
and public holidays, for an annual holiday with pay for workers
is a recent institution.
Holidays with pay are provided under a general Act in Austria,
Belgium, China, France, Hungary, Polandx, Rumania, Spain2,
and the U.S.S.R. In Chile the question is dealt with in the same
Legislative Decree as that which regulates the weekly rest and
public holidays. Only one Act special to the mining industry calls
for mention in this connection, namely, the Czechoslovak Act of
1 July 1931 concerning the institution of an annual holiday with
pay for workers employed in the mining of " reserved " minerals,
which-include all coal and lignite deposits.
The question of holidays with pay is the subject of collective
regulation in Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany and the
Union of South Africa (Natal). In Italy it is dealt with by a combination of legislation and collective agreements. In Australia
holidays with pay are governed by arbitration awards. In the
Transvaal in the Union of South Africa the provisions concerning
holidays with pay have been adopted on the initiative of the employers, members of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines. Finally, it has
already been pointed out that the regulations concerning public
holidays for certain classes of workers in New Zealand amount in
practice to a system of holidays with pay.
SCOPE OF REGULATIONS

Where holidays with pay are granted, practically the whole
staff of the mine is as a rule entitled to a holiday. In Great Britain
and in Australia (NewSouth Wales), however, collective agreements
concerning holidays with pay cover only deputies, shotfirers, and
1
The Act provides that in the event of State or economic necessities, the
Minister of Social Assistance may, in agreement with the Minister of Industry
and Commerce, suspend, by an Order issued after consultation with the
chambers of industry and commerce and with the workers' and employers'
organisations concerned, the operation of the provisions of the Act in question
for a specified period not exceeding one civil year.
2
The Decree of 29 June 1937 suspended the application of legislative provisions concerning annual holidays with pay.

— 196 —
waste examiners. In the Union of South Africa they cover only
European workers.
In Germany there are different provisions, in ascending scale,
for surface workers, underground workers, and workers under
18 years of age. In the U.S.S.R. persons employed on particularly
unhealthy or dangerous work are entitled to supplementary
holidays over and above the regular holiday.
QUALIFYING CONDITIONS

The grant of the holiday is in all cases subject to the fulfilment
of certain conditions, the most common of which is the completion
of a minimum period of service in the undertaking concerned. In
principle, such service must be uninterrupted, but absences due,
for example, to sickness, accidents, military service, etc., are not
considered as involving any break in the continuity of service.
Sometimes there are provisions for safeguarding the right to the
holiday if the worker transfers from one undertaking to another.
Minimum Period of Qualifying Service
The minimum period of service giving the right to a holiday is
in general one year. In A ustralia (Western Australia) the formula
used is 267 shifts during the 12 preceding months ; in Chile, 220 days ;
in the Union of South Africa (Transvaal), 312 shifts for workers
entitled to the holiday, other than officials.
A qualifying period of 6 months is obligatory in Germany for
workers under 18 years of age, in Poland for higher staff classified
as " intellectual workers ", and Great Britain (Northumberland)
for deputies. In Belgium and in France a holiday of proportionate
length may be granted at the end of 6 months. In the U.S.S.R.
the grant of the holiday is conditional upon a qualifying period of
5*4 months' work.
Continuity of Service
A certain period of service is compulsory before the right to a
holiday can be acquired. Generally speaking, it is held that such
service should be uninterrupted and, except when there is provision
for the transfer of rights, that the service should have been accomplished in the same undertaking. There is, however, one variant
which should be mentioned. In Germany, although acquired
rights are safeguarded in the event of a worker passing from one
undertaking to another, the period of uninterrupted work in the

— 197 —
same undertaking must be 6 months in lignite mines and 3 months
in the bituminous coal mines of Rhenish Westphalia and Lower
Silesia.
The legislation or collective agreements of several countries
define the absences which are not considered as interrupting
service. These are, for the most part, absence due to temporary
invalidity, sickness, military service, or labour service where such
service exists.
The Belgian Act provides that the following shall be considered
as days of actual work for the acquisition of the right to a holiday:
absences on account of injury or sickness involving the payment
of legal or contractual compensation, and collective absences
involving a stoppage of production.
The standards of employment for the Oviedo mines in Spain do
not consider absences on account of sickness or accident or of
causes recognised by law as entitling the worker to leave his work,
or absences authorised by the employer as interruptions of service.
Nevertheless, in the last case, and whenever the leave of absence
is for a period longer than the annual holiday, the employer may,
if he thinks fit, count such absences as holiday. Furthermore,
when the worker stops work on account of sickness or an accident,
he must have resumed work for 15 days at least in order to obtain
the right to the holiday.
The French Decree of 1 August 1936 gives the following list of
periods which are not deemed to.interrupt service: days of sickness
(provided that the continued incapacity for work does not justify
termination of the contract), maternity leave, compulsory periods
of military training, days of voluntary unemployment, period of
notice (when notice is given by the employer), absences authorised
by the employer, and annual holidays. It should be added that
it is the usual practice of the French courts to treat a strike as
interrupting the continuity of service, and that the period of
service dates only from the day of re-engagement. Furthermore,
the Decree of 1 August 1936 provides that the fact of accepting
another paid employment during his holiday interrupts a worker's
continuity of service for the purpose of qualifying for a holiday
in the future.
The holiday regulations for the Transvaal in the Union of South
Africa provide that if it is not to interrupt the continuity of service,
absence on account of sickness or'accident may not exceed 3 months
in any one year. The collective agreement in Natal regards
continuity as having been broken if the worker is absent without

— 198 —
permission of the management for more than 3 days in all in any
3 months, unless he submits within 3 days of the date on which he
first absents himself a medical certificate of incapacity for work.
The collective rules for the Lower Silesian coalfield in Germany
provide that an absence of not more than 3 years does not invalidate
holiday rights if such absence is due to invalidity.
Safeguarding

of Holiday Rights in Case of Transfer
Undertaking to Another

from

One

A certain number of national regulations contain special provisions safeguarding the worker's right to a holiday in the event of
his transfer from one undertaking to another. The periods of
service accomplished in the various mining undertakings are added
together when calculating the length of the holiday. This is the
case in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland,
Spain, the Union of South Africa (Transvaal), and the U.S.S.R.
The most complete provisions would appear to be those of the
Transvaal. A holiday qualification voucher, mentioning the
number of days' service, or of shifts counting for leave, and the
corresponding number of days' holiday, is issued to the worker who
leaves a mine under the conditions specified in the regulations.
These vouchers, which are valid until two years after the date of
the last day or shift worked as stated in the voucher, may be
utilised in all the coal mines of the Transvaal and the gold mines
in the Witwatersrand affiliated to the Transvaal Chamber of Mines.
In many cases there are greater restrictions. In Czechoslovakia
and Poland the interruption of service in the event of transfer from
one undertaking to another must be less than 14 days in the case
of work in the same mining district, and less than 21 days in the
case of work in another district. In Spain 3 days' interruption
only is allowed in the event of transfer from one branch to another
of the same undertaking. In the Netherlands a worker must have
worked at least 3 months in the new undertaking before he acquires
the right to a holiday.
L E N G T H OF THE

HOLIDAY

The variety of the national systems of regulation as regards
the length of the holiday is so great as to make any international
comparison impossible. One criterion only is possible, namely,
t h a t of the relation between the length of the holiday and the length
of service, the graduation being often on an annual basis. Within

— 199 —
this wide framework the length of the annual holiday varies from
a minimum of 3 days for one year's service to a maximum of
30 days for the oldest workers (Rumania).
It should also be
mentioned t h a t in Germany young persons, and in the U.S.S.R.
workers engaged in particularly dangerous or unhealthy work, are
entitled, as has already been mentioned, to specially favourable
treatment.
A uslralia
In New South Wales the length of the holiday varies according to
arbitration awards. One award fixes it at 12 days; another, at 6 days.
In Western Australia the holiday is 12 days if 267 shifts have been
worked in the 12 preceding months; if not, the holiday is proportionately
reduced.
A ustria
After one to 5 years' service, the length of the holiday is one week
per year; after 5 years' service, it is 2 weeks. Young persons under
16 years of age are entitled to 2 weeks' holiday after one year's service.
With a view to preventing any disorganisation of the undertaking,
or a serious deficit in production, and to compensate for the loss of
work caused by the grant of holidays, the hours of work of other workers
may be increased during 14 days per year by not more than 2 hours
in the 24 for each worker. For such overtime workers must receive
special pay, at not less than time-and-a-half rates.
The above provisions may be modified in collective agreements,
provided always that no worker may be compelled to work such overtime
for more than 30 days per year.
Belgium
The length of the holidays is fixed as follows:
from 1 to 3 davs' holiday if during 6 months the worker has worked
124, 128 or 132 days;
from 1 to 4 days' holiday if during 8 months he has worked 164,
168, 172 or 176 days;
from 1 to 5 days if during 10 months he has worked 204, 208, 212,
216 or 220 days;
from 1 to 6 days if during one year be has worked 244, 248, 252, 256,
260 or 264 days.
The number of days worked is obtained by adding up the periods
between entering and leaving each coal mine, and the base period chosen
for reckoning the qualifying service is 10, 8, or 6 months according to
which gives the greatest number of working days.
As an exception to the above provisions, any worker who can show 264
days of actual work during a base period of one year is entitled to 6 days'
holiday.
Young persons called up for military service are entitled to a holiday
at the rate of 1 day for every 2 months of service during the base period.
The same system is applied to unemployed persons who fulfil the
following conditions: (a) before the period of unemployment they

— 200 —
must have worked for one year in a mining undertaking; (b) they
must have remained in the mining undertaking where they were engaged
until 1 July. The maximum number of working days giving the right
•to a holiday is then 42 per period of 2 months. If such workers have
been employed for at least 6 months in the mines, they fall under the
general system referred to above.
Chile
If during one year the worker has worked more than 220 and less
than 288 days, he is entitled to 7 days' holiday with pay; if he has worked
288 days or more, he is entitled to 15 days' holiday with pay.
China
The length of the holiday varies according to the years of service:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1 year and up to 3 years: 7 days' annual holidays with pay;
over 3 years and up to 5 years: 10 days;
over 5 years and up to 10 years: 14 days;
over more than 10 years: 1 day's additional holiday for each
additional year, provided always that the total annual holiday
does not exceed 30 days.

The collective agreement of March 1931 of the Chung-Hsing Coal
Mining Company provides that on the occasion of his wedding or his
parent's funeral each person directly employed by the Company must
receive a holiday on full pay. The length of this holiday varies according
to the distance of his home from his place of work, but may not exceed
15 days on full pay.
Czechoslovakia
The length of the holiday is fixed as follows:
after
after
after
after

1 to 5 years' service: 5 days;
5 to 10 years' service: 7 days;
10 to 15 years' service: 10 days;
more than 15 years' service: 12 days.

France
After one year's continuous service, every worker, salaried employee
or apprentice is entitled to an unbroken annual holiday with pay of
at least 15 days, including at least 12 working days.
If the normal holiday period for the undertaking occurs after 6 months
of continuous service, a worker, employee or apprentice shall be entitled
to an unbroken holiday with pay of one week, of which 6 days must be
working days.
Germany
The following tables give the situation according to the collective
rules in force. In addition to the information provided in these tables,
it should be mentioned that the collective rules for the bituminous

—

201 —

coal-mining industry in Rhenish-Westphalia fix t h e following holidays
for salaried employees, young employees, and technical staff:
Age
Salaried emplovees:

Up to 21
21-26 •
Over 26
Over 30 (in
some cases)
14-15
15-16
16-17
Over 17

Length of holiday
(working days)
6
9
12

18
12
10
8
6
Technical staff:
6-12 (in
some cases, 18) 1
1
Plus the additional days granted to war-disabled men as in the case of wage-earning
staff.
Young employees :

LENGTH

OF HOLIDAY

FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF W O R K E R S

I . Bituminous

Coal

• Class of worker
Surface workers
Field

Rhineland
and
Westphalia

Lower
Silesia

Underground workers
(after 1 year's work
as underground worker)

Length of
service
(years)

Length of
holiday
(working.
days)

Length of
service
(years)

Length of holiday
(working days)

Up to 5
5-6
6-7
8 and 9
10 a n d over

6
7
8
9
10

U p to 15

The same scale
as for surface
workers
12

6
7

Up to 9

8
9

10
15

1 to 4
5
6
7 a n d over

Over 15

Young persons under
18 years of age

Age
(years)

U p t o 15
16
17 a n d 18

Length of
holiday
(working
days)
15
12
10

The same scale
as for surface
workers
10
12

REMARKS

Rhineland and Westphalia:
(a) Seriously disabled men (50% or more of the maximum pension) are entitled to 3 additional days'
holiday per year.
(6) After 20 years' underground work (15 years for seriously disabled men) workers are entitled to
12 days' holiday, even if they no longer work underground.
(c) Young persons attending a Hitler Youth camp are entitled to a holiday of up to 18 days.
Lower Silesia:
(a) After 15 years' underground work workers are entitled to 12 days' holiday, even if they no longer
work underground.
(6) Young persons attending a Hitler Youth camp are entitled to a holiday of up to 12 days.

— 202 —

II. Lignite
Class of worker
Underground workers

Surface workers
Field

Age
(years)

Length of
holiday
(working
days)

6
8
9
10
12

U p to 15
16 and 17
18

12
10
8

6
7
8
10
12

14 to 15
16
17
18

12
10
8
6

Length of
service
(years)

Length of
holiday
(working
days)

Length of
service
(years)

Length of
holiday
(working
days)

Central Germany

1
5
10
15
20
25

6
7
8
9
10
12

1
5
10
15
20

District of Hesse
(Kassel excepted)

1 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
over 20

1 to 5
6 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
over 20

6
n
J

8
10

Young persons under
18 years of age

REMARKS

Central Germany :
(a) Seriously disabled men are entitled to 3 additional days' holiday per year.
(b) After 20 years' underground work, workers are entitled to 12 days' holiday, even if they no longer
work underground.
District of Hesse (Kassel excepted) :
(a) Seriously disabled men are entitled to the maximum for their class after 5 years' work.
(6) After 15 years' underground work, workers are entitled to 12 days' holiday, even if they no longer
work underground.

Great Britain
(1) One week's holiday is granted in the following cases:
Northumberland: deputies;
Lancashire and Cheshire: deputies;
South Derbyshire: deputies, examiners, and firemen;
North Staffordshire: deputies, firemen and shotfirers;
North Wales: deputies and shotfirers;
Cannock Chase: deputies, firemen, and winding enginemen;
Somersetshire: bailiffs, examiners and firemen;
South Wales and Monmouthshire: shotsmen.
(2) The holiday is of 12 days in South Wales and Monmouthshire
for firemen.
(3) The holiday is of 14 days in Lancashire and Cheshire for firemen
and weighers.
As has been seen above, in the case of shotsmen in South Wales and
Monmouthshire, and of firemen and weighers in Lancashire and Cheshire,
public holidays are if necessary included in the period of holidays
with pay.

— 203 —
Hungary
The holiday is 6 working days per year. This figure may be increased
to a maximum of 24 days by administrative regulations.
It is forbidden to include sick leave in the holiday.
Italy
For salaried employees the length of the holiday is laid down in the
Legislative Decree of 13. November 1924. The employee is entitled
throughout the duration of his contract to a minimum annual period
of rest with pay of:
(a) 10 days if the period of service is not more than 5 years;
(b) 15 days if it is more than 5 but not more than 15 years;
(c) 20 days if it is more than 15 but not more than 25 years;
(d) 30 days if it is more than 25 years.
The national collective labour agreement for the mining industry,
dated 9 May 1937, provides that a worker who has worked 12 consecutive
months in the same undertaking is entitled to 6 working days' (48 hours)
holidays with pay per year.
Netherlands
The length of the holiday is fixed as follows:
(a) For 1 year's service: 3 days' holiday,
(b) For each additional year of service: 1 additional day, up to a
maximum of 10 days;
(c) For 15 years' service or over: an addition of 2 days' holiday.
If work suspended for one or more days in the week (public holidays),
the worker may request that such days should be paid for under the
heading of his annual holiday with pay and should be deducted from
the number of days' holiday with pay to which he is entitled.
A special holiday with pay may be granted by the manager of the
undertaking for a short period, to be fixed by him according to circumstances, in the following cases:
(a) for family reasons (confinement of the worker's wife, death and
funeral of a member of his family in the direct line or in the
first or second collateral degree);
(b) for voting in a communal election in the commune where the
mine is situated.
Poland
Wage earners are entitled to a holiday with pay of 8 days at the end
of one year's service, and of 15 days at the end of 3 years' service. For
intellectual workers the holiday is 2 weeks at the end of 6 months'
service and one month after one year's service.
Rumania
For workers, holidays with pay are on the following minimum scale:
after 1 to 3 years' service: 7 days;
after 3 to 5 years' service: 10 days;
after 5 and 10 years' service: 14 days;
after more than 10 years' service: 1 additional day per additional
year of service up to a maximum of 30 days.

— 204 —
For salaried employees, holidays with pay are on the following
minimum scale:
after 1 to 3 years' service: 10 days;
after 3 to 5 years' service: 14 days;
after 5 to 10 years' service: 21 days;
for each additional year: one additional day, subject to a maximum
of 30 days.
Spain
The legal regulations fix the minimum holiday at 7 days.
The provincial standards of employment maintain this figure. Nevertheless, those of the province of León fix the holiday for salaried employees
at 15 days, and those for mining supervisors in Oviedo and León at
20 days.
Union of South Africa (Transvaal)
In the Transvaal officials are entitled to from 2 weeks' to 1 month's
holiday per year; other European workers are entitled to 12 working
days, in conjunction with 3 Saturday afternoons and 3 Sundays.
In Natal the length of the holiday is 12 days and the holiday must
be arranged to include as many week-ends as possible.
If a worker has had to work in the mine for 365 consecutive days
(not necessarily full shifts), he is entitled to 2 days' additional holiday
on full pay.

u.s.s.n.
The length of the holiday is fixed at 12 working days, not including
the rest days falling xin the holiday period. Workers whose working
day is not regulated may, in the event of pressure of work, receive
additional holidays of 12 working days at most (Section 8 of the
Regulations of 30 April 1930).
Young persons under 18 years of age, as also all pupils in mining
schools, are entitled to a holiday of one civil month, not less than
24 working days. When they are admitted to occupations which are
specially listed as particularly unhealthy or dangerous, the length of
their holiday is equal to IVa civil months, or not less than 36 working
days (section 9 of the Regulations).
An additional holiday is granted to persons employed in particularly
unhealthy or dangerous occupations, on condition that they have
actually worked in these occupations for at least 5% months. This
qualifying period need not necessarily be uninterrupted. If, in the
course of the working year, the worker has been engaged in a particularly
dangerous or unhealthy occupation for less than 5% months, he is
none the less entitled to an additional holiday at the rate of one additional day for each month worked in such occupation (Section 5 of the
Regulations).
The occupations in the mining industry which entitle the worker to
an additional holiday are as .follows :
(a) Surface work: Coal breakers, coke drawers, gas workers, workers
in charge of regenerators, banksmen;
(b) Underground work: all workers occupied in underground work
in coal mines, whatever the nature of their work (appendix to
the Order of 30 April 1929).
1
Responsible administrative workers {officials, political and trade union
leaders.)

— 205 —

It should be mentioned that under section 12 of the Order of
15 December 1930, workers who are directly occupied in production
in the mining industry and have worked in the same undertaking
uninterruptedly for
at least 2 years receive annually an additional
holiday of 3 days 1.
PAYMENT DURING THE HOLIDAY

It is the rule in practically every case that during their holiday the
workers should be paid a wage corresponding to that which they
would have received if they had carried out their ordinary work
during the period in question. Such variations as exist relate to the
calculation of the " normal " wage. Further, the regulations differ
as to the time when the worker is to receive his holiday pay, since
some provide for payment before departure, others on return.
Calculation of the Normal Wage
The most comprehensive system is that of the U.S.S.R.
The average wage is calculated on the basis of the 12 civil months
preceding the departure on holiday. In the case of workers who have
been employed in the same undertaking for less than one year,
account is taken only of the wage received since the day the worker
entered the undertaking. For the purpose of calculating the average
wage, account is taken of all forms of remuneration, including
bonuses, overtime pay, the wage paid during a stoppage of the
undertaking, etc., as also of compensation for temporary incapacity.
On the other hand, account is not taken of payments made by the
premium funds and funds for the improvement of living conditions,
of wages earned before the 12 months preceding the departure on
holiday, of payments for occasional work not forming part of the
worker's general obligations, etc.
The German regulations are slightly more restrictive. During
their holiday workers are entitled to the wage which they would have
earned if they had worked; this wage includes all the so-called
" social supplements ", such as family allowances, free allowance of
coal, etc., but not overtime pay.
Compensation for board and lodging, when such are an integral
part of the wage, are the subject of special provisions in the Austrian
Act, which states that a corresponding allowance must be paid in
advance for the whole duration of the holiday. With this reservation
1
The average number of days ofholiday per worker per year in the mining
industry in 1934 was 15.12 (information supplied by the Central Department
of Economic and Social Statistics of the State Planning Commission).

— 206 —

the wage is calculated as an average for the 12 weeks preceding the
holiday, excluding overtime pay earned during this period.
The Rumanian and Spanish Acts use the average for the 3 months
preceding the holiday. The Belgian Act prescribes calculation on
the basis of the wage earned during the month of June and the
number of days actually worked by the worker during that month.
The French Decree requires the payment of a daily allowance
equivalent, in the case of time work, to the wage which the worker
would have earned during the period of the holiday and, if he is paid
on some other system, to the average payment which he received
during an equivalent period in the year preceding his holiday.
Decisions of the courts have established the practice that the
holiday pay should be calculated according to the wage actually
earned at the time of departure on holiday.
The inclusion of customary supplements and bonuses, including
family allowances, if any, and any supplementary benefits or
payments in kind is mentioned in the Belgian, Czechoslovak, French,
Polish, Rumanian, and Spanish legislation. The Czechoslovak Act
provides, however, that output bonuses are not to be taken into
account.
The system in the Union of South Africa (Transvaal) which, as
has previously been pointed out, applies only to European workers
in the mines, establishes in certain cases a limit to the daily wage
paid during the holiday. In practice, workers other than officials
may not receive more than 22s. per day. Furthermore, in the
Transvaal and in Natal, if Christmas Day or Good Friday falls
during the holiday, an extra day's pay is given.
There is a special provision in the Italian n&tional collective
agreement for the mining industry in favour of workers who have
not yet fulfilled the conditions for obtaining the whole holiday
at the time when the holiday is taken collectively by all the workers
in the undertaking. In such a case the worker in question receives
the equivalent of one day's pay for every two months' uninterrupted
service in the undertaking. This provision comes into force only
when the holiday is granted collectively, and at the actual time
of such holiday.
DATE OF PAYMENT

Regulations in Australia, Germany, the Union of South Africa
(Transvaal) and the U.S.S.R. provide for the payment in advance
of wages due for the holiday. Nevertheless, in the lignite mines in
Hesse (Germany), the workers are entitled only to an advance on

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their holiday pay. In Natal in the Union of South Africa the
payment in advance of all or part of the wage is left to the discretion
of the employer. In France the collective agreement of 5 April 1937
for the Anzin, Nord and Pas-de-Calais coalfield provides that
the worker must apply at least 8 days in advance if he wishes to
obtain payment for his holiday on departure. This facility is not
granted if the holiday is divided into two (6 days each), except in
the case of a young worker returning from military service.
The Austrian Act provides that the worker may claim the
payment of his holiday pay during the holiday. The Czechoslovak
Act allows no alternative, but provides that the wage must be paid
on the first ordinary pay-day following the return to work.
UTILISATION OF THE HOLIDAY

The utilisation of the right to a holiday raises certain problems
which concern both the undertaking as a whole and the individual
worker. On the one hand, it is only natural that the manager of the
undertaking should object to any disturbance in the working of
the undertaking on account of the worker's absence on holiday.
On the other hand, the worker may wish to take his holiday at one
particular time rather than at another. This situation may give
rise to various difficulties, which are explicitly dealt with in most
of the national regulations.
It is in the first place necessary to determine whether the holiday
should be taken en bloc, or whether it should or may be divided.
Since the end in view is the recreation of the worker's strength by
means of a prolonged rest, it would seem preferable that the
holiday should be taken without interruption. But it may be that,
for purely personal reasons, the worker may prefer to divide his
holiday and to take advantage of it on certain occasions on which
it is either expedient or desirable that he should be free. The
system preferred by the management of the undertaking will
depend partly on the way in which it organises shifts. Similarly, the
accumulation of holidays over several years, if such accumulation
is duly authorised, requires special regulations concerning the
maximum number of days which may be accumulated, and of years
for which the holiday may be accumulated.
The method of fixing the date of the holiday deserves particular
attention. In the mining industry, for example, there can be no
question of interrupting the working of the mine during the
holiday period. Apart from the fact that any such procedure

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would reduce the number of days worked, and would in consequence
increase the overhead expenses per day's working, such a system
would be difficult to apply in practice, since in the majority of
cases the workers are not entitled to the same number of days'
holiday. It would therefore seem only logical that holidays
should be so spread that the regular staff, or supplementary staff
recruited for the purpose, should always be sufficient to ensure
the normal working of the mine. Furthermore, account should
as far as possible be taken of any preferences of the workers as
to the date of their holiday, and sometimes also of regulations
prescribing that the whole or most of the holidays should be
taken during the summer. As a rule this problem can be satisfactorily solved by means of holiday lists, drawn up by the management and the workers' representatives, showing, if not the exact
date, at least the month during which the holiday of each worker
shall be taken.
Continuity of the Holiday
As might be expected, the general rule is that the holiday should
be uninterrupted. As has already been indicated, the breaking
up of the holiday through the year does not allow the worker
to recuperate sufficiently. Certain exceptions, however, to the
general rule are worthy of mention.
The Belgian Act provides for the division of the 6 days' holiday,
but only on the explicit understanding that it must be requested
by the worker, and that in no case may half-day holidays be
granted. In Austria and in Italy (in the latter case as regards
salaried employees only), the holiday may be divided into two
parts if required in the interests of the working of the undertaking.
A collective agreement in Western Australia provides for the
splitting up of the holiday into periods of from 1 to 2 days, but
only during 6 of the 12 days provided for in the agreement. It
should also be mentioned that the French Decree provides that
in the event of technical difficulties, the holiday period of 12 working
days may be divided into two equal instalments, after agreement
with the staff. The collective agreement for the Anzin, Nord
and Pas-de-Calais coalfield has not taken advantage of this
possibility.
Accumulation of Holidays
There are very few national regulations authorising the accumulation of holidays. Regulations in Poland and Germany (Rhenish

— 209 —
Westphalia) provide that the holiday may be postponed in the
event of sickness. In Rhenish Westphalia postponement to the
following year is also possible if the right to a holiday has been
acquired too late to be utilised during the current year. In the
Union of South Africa (Transvaal) officials may accumulate a
certain part of their holidays up to the maximum allowed by
each colliery.
The regulations in the U.S.S.R. cover all possible eventualities
for the accumulation of holidays. If for no fault of his own the
worker has not used all or part of his holiday, he is either entitled
to cash compensation, or his holiday for the following year may
be proportionately extended. Holidays may also be accumulated
by agreement between the employer and the worker concerned.
If there is no such agreement, accumulation is allowed only by
a decision of the assessment and disputes committee.
Date of the Holiday
It is only rarely that the time of year at which holidays should
be taken is fixed by law, and any such provisions that exist are
usually to be found in collective agreements. Furthermore, for
the reasons already given, the exact date of the holiday is determined in accordance with the requirements of the undertaking,
with or without previous consultation of the staff.
The Belgian Act provides that the holiday should be taken in
the period between July and 30 September, but that in special
cases it may be granted from June onwards. The Czechoslovak
Act says: "so far as possible between 1 May and 31 October".
The German collective rules provide that the holiday should be
taken, so far as possible, between 1 August and 31 October. The
French Decree leaves the matter to collective agreements. In
default of such agreements, the date is determined according to
seniority in the occupation and district concerned. The holiday
period must cover at least 3 consecutive months, including the
holiday months of the elementary schools. The normal holiday
period must be brought to the notice of the workers by the employer
at least 2 months before it begins.
With a view to the application of these provisions, the collective
agreement of 5 April 1937 for the Anzin, Nord and Pas-de-Calais
coalfields provides that any worker may on request be given his
undivided annual holiday between 1 April and 31 October, unless
some other period is agreed. The worker may, however, be asked to
C R . II.

— 210 —
take half of his holiday between 1 June and 30 September.
Generally speaking, the collective agreement provides that the
date of the holiday must be fixed by the company, account being
taken of the wishes expressed by the workers.
The standards of employment for the Oviedo mines in Spain
state that holidays must be taken between 15 May and 15 October,
without prejudice to the workers' right to ask for their holidays
at other periods of the year.
Failing detailed limitations of the above kind, the regulations
contain other safeguards for the workers. Thus in Austria there
is provision for consultation between the workers' and employers'
organisations before administrative measures are adopted fixing
the period of the year- at which the holiday must be taken. In
Germany the confidential council of each undertaking must be
consulted by the head of the undertaking. In the U.S.S.R. the
date, method, and order of holidays must be established by the
assessment and disputes committee, or failing this, by agreement
between the management of the undertaking and the competent
trade union organisation; the holiday schedule for each year must
be established by 1 January at the latest. The regulations add
that in no case may the needs of the undertaking affect the granting
of holidays to young persons or to workers engaged in particularly
dangerous work. Young persons must as a rule be given their
holidays during the summer months.
The Czechoslovak Act provides that the holiday cannot be
granted simultaneously to more than 10 per cent, of the staff.
Subject to this reservation, the order in which holidays are taken
is determined by the management of the undertaking in agreement
with the works council. In the Netherlands the national collective
agreement for the mines confines itself to stating that, so far as
possible, the date of the holiday shall be chosen by the worker.
In this particular sphere one of the most complete systems is
that in force in Poland. Workers are entitled to make arrangements among themselves concerning the order of their holidays.
To this end lists are drawn up, by workers designated for the
purpose, of the persons entitled to a holiday in each separate
month. These lists must be approved by the management of the
undertaking and, if no agreement can be arrived at, the final
decision rests with the district labour inspector. Not less than
50 per cent, of the total number of persons employed in the undertaking must take their holiday during the period between 1 May
and 30 September. In case of necessity arising from the nature

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of production, the Minister of Social Welfare may fix a different
percentage for particular branches of production or particular
undertakings.
Furthermore, in cases where this is necessary to meet the needs
of the State or the national economy, the Minister of Social Welfare
may, in agreement with the Minister of Industry and Commerce,
issue orders, after consultation with the chambers of industry and
commerce and the workers' and employers' organisations concerned, authorising exceptions to the provisions concerning the
period of holiday.
In conclusion reference may be made to the special arrangements
in force in the Transvaal in the Union of South Africa, arrangements
which, it should be remembered, were adopted on the initiative
of the employers. Here the worker (it should be remembered
that only European workers are concerned) who desires to go on
holiday must so notify the manager of the mine, through the
head of the department concerned, at least 3 weeks before the
date on which he becomes entitled to the holiday. Subject to
the exigencies of the service, the holiday must be granted and
. must be taken as soon as is mutually convenient, but not later
than 4 months after the aforesaid date.
SPECIAL PROVISIONS

Under this heading are grouped, in the first place, those legislative
or other provisions which deal with the case of termination of
the worker's contract by himself or by his employer. Next, the
management of the undertaking, and sometimes the worker himself, may prefer that the holiday should be replaced by compensation in cash paid in addition to the wages earned for regular
work on the days on which the worker would otherwise have
been on holiday; the question is then how far the regulations
permit this practice. Finally, many national regulations deal
with the cases in which the right to all or part of the holiday,
or to all or part of the normal holiday pay, may be lost.
Effect of Termination of Contract
In this sphere the system which is most favourable to the
workers is that of the U.S.S.R. The provisions are as follows:
Cash compensation is granted to workers who are dismissed or
who voluntarily leave the undertaking.
A worker who is dismissed or leaves the undertaking voluntarily

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after not less than 11 consecutive months' work, and who has
not received the annual holiday for which he has qualified,
is paid cash compensation equal in amount to the average wage
he would have earned for the whole duration of the holiday to
which he is entitled when he leaves. A worker who has worked
less than 11 months, but more than 5% months, receives on
leaving compensation proportionate to the number of months
worked during the year in question.
In the following cases, however, a worker is entitled on leaving
to compensation proportionate to his whole annual holiday even
if he has worked less than 11 months, on condition that he has
worked at least 5% months:
(a) If he has been dismissed as the result of the total or partial
closing down of the undertaking or establishment, or its
reorganisation, or a reduction in the staff or the work, or
a temporary interruption of the work;
(b) If he has been called up for active military service;
(c) If he has been officially selected for technical or other
higher studies;
(d) If he has been transferred to other work by the competent
administrative departments, or on the recommendation of
the Communist Party, the trade union, or the Communist
Youth organisation;
(e) If he has been dismissed owing to lack of aptitude for the
work entrusted to him.
The German regulations apply a system of proportionate holidays
in certain cases and of cash compensation in others. In the
lignite mines of Central Germany and in the bituminous coal
mines of the Rhineland and Westphalia, workers who leave the
undertaking are entitled to a holiday proportionate in length to
their length of service (V12 of the holiday for each month's
service). In the bituminous coal mines of Lower Silesia workers
who are dismissed are entitled to take their annual holiday during
the period of notice. If the contract of employment is terminated
on account of the worker's invalidity or death after 6 months'
work, 50 per cent, of the holiday compensation is due. If the
mine in question applies the " Kriimper " system (periods of work
alternating with periods of unpaid holiday), the worker is entitled
to 50 per cent, of the holiday compensation after the resumption
of work which follows the unpaid holiday. The collective rules

— 213 —
for bituminous coal mines in Lower Silesia and lignite mines in
Central Germany provide that workers lose their right to a holiday
if they are dismissed without notice (dismissal through the fault
of the worker).
Most other national regulations state that the worker loses his
right to a holiday if he is dismissed for a serious fault, or if he
voluntarily leaves his employment. Other cases are dealt with
within more or less wide limits.
The Austrian Act provides that the worker shall receive a
compensatory wage if he does not leave the undertaking on his
own initiative, or if he is not dismissed for a serious fault.
In France, if the contract of employment is terminated as the
result of the closing down or temporary cessation of the undertaking, the worker is entitled to compensation. If the termination
is due to force majeure, a distinction is made according as the
period of qualifying service has or has not been completed; if it
has not, the worker has no holiday rights. When the contract is
terminated during the ordinary holiday period, the worker receives
compensation corresponding to the length of the holiday for
which he had qualified at the date when he was struck off the
pay list. When it is terminated before the ordinary holiday
period, the compensation is calculated on the same basis as that
for the reduced holiday granted to workers who retire, i.e. full
compensation for one or more years' service; compensation reduced
by 50 per cent, for service of 6 months to one year 1.
The Italian Labour Charter provides that if a worker is dismissed
through no fault of his own, he is entitled to holiday compensation
proportionate to his length of service ; if he dies, the compensation
is paid to his heirs and assigns. The national collective agreement
for the mining industry states that in the case of resignation or
dismissal, the worker who is entitled to an annual holiday must
take it; the period of notice may not be considered as the holiday.
The Polish Act deals with the case of the re-engagement of a
worker whose contract has been terminated without giving the
worker the right to a holiday. If the new contract is concluded
within the next 3 months, it is not held that there has been any
interruption of the contract such as to deprive the worker of his
right to a holiday. The South African (Natal) regulations provide
1
The Decree of 1 August 1936 (section 5, subsection 3) provides, however,
that one day shall be deducted per month still to run until the ordinary
holiday period of the undertaking. (For example, a worker engaged on 27 May
1936 and dismissed on 18 January 1937 is entitled to 6 minus 3, or 3, days'
wage, if the holiday period of the undertaking begins on 1 May).

214 —

t h a t when a European worker comes to the end of his contract
and has qualified for a holiday, he must be given due compensation. The same applies in New South Wales in Australia.
Cash

Compensation

The question of termination of the contract of employment
having been dealt with above, there remains that of compensation
given during the period of the contract.
The regulations in force in most countries do not authorise any
such compensation, but there are a few exceptions. The collective
rules for Lower Silesia in Germany authorise the reduction of the
holiday in the case of urgent work to 6 days per year, and the
payment of cash compensation. In Rumania compensation is
indirectly authorised, in that under the Act an employer who
does not grant the worker his statutory holiday must pay him
compensation equal to twice the holiday pay which would have
been due. In the U.S.S.R. the situation is less favourable to the
worker in this case. Section 91 of the Labour Code of the
R.S.F.S.R., which applies almost without change to the other
Republics of the U.S.S.R., provides that if the undertaking does
not grant a worker the holiday to which he is entitled, he may
claim cash compensation, the amount of which is calculated on
the basis of the average wage at the time when the compensation
is granted.
Loss of the Right to Holiday
Some regulations explicitly state that a holiday not taken
within the prescribed time-limit is lost. Thus in Germany the
regulations in force for the bituminous coal mines of Lower Silesia
provide that the right to a holiday lapses at the end of the civil
year following that in which it was acquired. In the Union of
South Africa (Natal) the regulations similarly provide that a
holiday not taken within the prescribed time-limit is lost.
There are also other cases. In Western Australia the worker
may have his holiday shortened for the following reasons: participation in a strike, the holding of meetings during the hours of a
working shift, refusal to work overtime. The Netherlands regulations provide that the holiday may be reduced for irregular
absence; if during the previous year the worker has been absent
more than twice without reasonable excuse, his right to a holiday
may be reduced by one day for each additional day of absence.
In Czechoslovakia shifts lost for reasons which cannot be justified

— 215 —
in law are deducted from the length of the holiday. Undertakings
must keep exact records of lost shifts, showing the existence or
absence of sufficient motives for their loss.
In the Union of South Africa (Transvaal) a worker who absents
himself from his work without adequate reason loses for each
shift of absence 10 shifts of service qualifying for a holiday. The
regulations in Natal regard continuity of service as having been
broken if the worker is absent without permission of the
management for more than 3 days in all in any 3 months.
A worker may also lose his right to a holiday if when on holiday
he accepts paid employment in some other undertaking. Under
the French Decree of 1 August 1936 the fact of accepting some
other paid employment during the holiday interrupts the continuity of service for the purpose of qualifying for a holiday in the
future. A Ministerial circular of 6 October 1936 states that
in such cases the workers render themselves liable for damages
to the employer who granted them the holiday. It is clear that
a worker who accepts work for some other employer during his
holiday is guilty of a fraudulent act, since he devotes his holiday
period to objects other than those for which it was instituted.
Under some regulations workers who undertake paid work
during their holiday lose their right to holiday pay or have to
refund the sums already paid on account of the holiday. Thus
in Germany, where all the collective rules forbid the workers to
accept any paid work during the period of the holiday, the penalty
is, according to circumstances, either the withholding of the
holiday pay, or the deduction of its amount at the next pay-day.
The sums so deducted or withheld are utilised by the head of the
undertaking, after consultation with the confidential council, or
are paid to the relief fund of the National-Socialist Party. The
Belgian, Hungarian and Polish Acts mention only that the right
to pay during the holiday is lost if during such period the worker
accepts some other paid employment.
A double penalty is imposed in the Rumanian legislation, which
besides requiring the worker to refund to the employer the sum
received for the whole holiday, deprives him of his right to a
holiday in the following year. Finally, in the Union of South
Africa (Transvaal), where the holiday regulations are based neither
on legislation nor on collective agreements, the only penalty
considered is dismissal.

CHAPTER VI
HOURS OF WORK

INTRODUCTION

The question of the hours worked in the coal-mining industry
and their regulation is one of the most important aspects of the
conditions of employment in that industry.
Internationally, the question was made the subject of a Draft
Convention in 1931—revised as to certain minor points in 1935—
which fixed the time spent in the mine by each worker at 7 hours
45 minutes. In 1935 and 1936 the question of the reduction of
hours of work in coal mines came before the International Labour
Conference, but no Draft Convention resulted from its deliberations.
These were therefore resumed in 1938, and will be continued in
1939.
The ways in which the various countries have solved the problem
of regulating hours of work in coal mines are discussed in this
chapter. ' Its first section describes the national regulations and
indicates their principal components; it is followed by sections
dealing in turn with the scope of these regulations, normal hours
of work, extensions of normal hours, and the supervision of the
enforcement of the regulations.

— 217 —

I. — The Development and Structure of National
Regulation

Miners' work is generally admitted to be particularly arduous
and dangerous, and hence hours of work were regulated in mines,
and more especially in coal mines, earlier than in other branches
of industry. Miners not only enjoyed a measure of social protection that even now does not extend to all workers, but for some
time back they have also worked shorter hours than other wage
earners.
Hours of work for mine workers were first regulated by law
during the last decades of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of the twentieth century the movement spread, and on
the eve of the war regulations of this kind were to be found in many
big coal-producing countries. Hours of work were fixed at 8 or 9
in the day when a 10 to 12-hour day was still the rule in other
industries.
After the war a fresh impetus was given to the legal regulation
of working hours. The 8-hour day and 48-hour week became the
usual standards for all industrial occupations including coal mining.
Mine workers were then on more or less the same footing as other
industrial wage earners.
During the last few years, as a result of the depression, the movement for the reduction of working hours by legislation has grown
in strength and has in some cases made itself felt more rapidly in
mines than in other industries. Evidence of this is to be found in
the Belgian, French, and Polish regulations. In other countries,
such as Italy and New Zealand, mine workers have benefited by a
general reduction in hours of work.
Other forms of regulation, such as collective agreements, working
along parallel lines with legislation, and often supplementing it by
more liberal provisions, have, more especially in the United States
of America, helped to reduce the hours of workers employed in
coal mines.

— 218 —
Thus the regulations in force in various countries take the following forms :
Legislative regulation (including administrative decrees, orders
and decisions, etc.); arbitration awards; collective rules; standards
of employment; compulsory rules of employment; collective
agreements; custom.
The two commonest systems are legislative and contractula
regulation, the former being more significant for the purposes of
such a study as this, since in most cases the conditions for concluding and applying collective agreements are fixed by law.
Moreover the clauses of the agreements must often comply with
legal provisions.

A. — FORM OF NATIONAL REGULATIONS
§ 1. — Legislative Regulation
This type of regulation must be considered with reference to
legal form and to scope.
LEGAL FORM

As regards legal form, a distinction must be drawn between
laws that are self-contained and laws that call for supplementary
regulations. The distinction is not always easy to draw, since
even if all laws do not call for administrative decrees or orders,
they must nearly always be supplemented or interpreted by
commentaries in the form of circulars, minutes, etc. The following,
however, may be considered as self-contained laws: The Austrian
Mines Act, the Canadian provincial Mining Acts, the British Coal
Mines Regulation Act of 1908, amended in 1919, 1926, 1930, 1931
and 1932, the New Zealand Mining Act, the Spanish Hours of
Work Act (this Act contains a chapter on mines), and the Turkish
Labour Code. The Mines Act of the Union of South Africa may
also be mentioned, though its hours of work provisions do not
apply to coal mines.
There are many more laws that call for supplementary regulation,
and this heading covers most of the enactments limiting hours of
work in coal mines, viz. the Belgian Acts of 1931, instituting an
8-hour day and a 48-hour week, and 1936, instituting a 40-hour week
in unhealthy industries ; the Chinese Factory Act ; the French Act

— 219 —
of 1936 instituting a 40-hour week in industrial, commercial,
handicraft and co-operative establishments; the German general
Hours of Work Act consolidated by an Order of 1934 ; the Hungarian
Act of 1937; the Indian Mines Act; the Italian Legislative Decree
of 1937 instituting a 40-hour week; the Japanese Mining Act;
the Netherlands Mining Act; the Polish Act of 1937 respecting
reduction of hours of work in coal mines ; the Rumanian Act respecting hours of work in industry; the Yugoslav general Workers'
Protection Act. Federal mining legislation in the United States
and the War Precautions Act of 1916 which still regulates conditions
of work in Australian mines may also be classified under this
heading.
SCOPE OF LEGISLATIVE

REGULATION

Hours of work in coal mines are governed in various countries
by provisions ranging from very general laws to regulations that
apply specifically to coal mines alone. Legislative regulations
should therefore be classified with reference to scope.
This may be done satisfactorily enough by classifying them
under the following headings:
Laws or regulations concerning coal mines or mines in general,
with provisions on hours of work;
General laws or regulations concerning hours of work, without
any special provisions for mines;
General laws or regulations concerning hours of work, with
special provisions for mines;
Laws or regulations concerning hours of work in mines in general ;
Laws or regulations concerning hours of work in coal mines in
particular.
General laws or regulations concerning mines, with provisions on
hours of work, are at present in force in a number of countries.
Great Britain and New Zealand have enacted special laws for coal
mines. In Canada, Czechoslovakia, India, Japan, the Netherlands,
and the Union of South Africa, mining Acts apply to mines in
general. In the last-named country, however, the provisions in
regard to hours of work do not apply to coal mines.
General laws or regulations concerning hours of work, without any
special provisions for mines (Labour Codes, Factory Acts, Hours of
Work Acts), often regulate hours of work in coal mines. This is
true of Chile, China, Hungary, Italy, Rumania, and the U.S.S.R.
In Yugoslavia the coal-mining industry is covered by an Act that

— 220 —

makes the necessary provision for the general protection of workers
as regards hours of work.
General laws or regulations concerning hours of work, with special
provisions for mines, may be subdivided as follows:
In Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Poland, and Turkey the
Acts contain only a few provisions concerning mines (dealing more
especially with the calculation of hours of work).
In France the Act lays down, as regards mines, a general principle
to serve as a basis for special regulations.
In Spain the Act contains a special chapter laying down very
complete and detailed regulations applicable to mines only. This
system forms a connecting link with the next type of legislation.
Laws or regulations concerning hours of work in mines in general
are a less common form of regulation. This heading covers the
Austrian Act concerning the employment of women and young
persons and the reduction of hours of work in mines, and also
several regulations in force in the U.S.S.R., such as Decrees and
Orders issued by the People's Commissary for Heavy Industry,
decisions given by the courts of the U.S.S.R. and Federated Republics, and Orders issued by the People's Commissary for Justice.
Laws or regulations concerning hours of work in coal mines in
particular are to be found in several countries.
In Belgium a Royal Order issued in pursuance of the Act of
1936, which provides for the institution of the 40-hour week in
unhealthy industries, sets the limit for hours of work in coal mines
at 45 in the week.
In France surface workers were not treated in the same way as
underground workers when the provisions of the Act instituting
the 40-hour week were applied to coal mines by various Decrees
and Orders issued during 1936 and 1937.
In Great Britain the Act of 1908, as amended on various occasions, deals with underground workers, while the Act of 1911 and
the Regulations of 1913 deal with surface workers (employment of
women and young persons, hours of work for winding enginemen).
In Poland, under the Act of 1937, the Council of Ministers has
power to reduce hours of work in coal mines, and three Orders
have been issued laying down conditions for the application of the
Act to underground workers operating under unhealthy conditions,
underground workers, and certain classes of surface workers.
In Spain the Decree of 18 June 1936 reduced hours of work in
coal mines to 40 in the week for underground workers and to 44
for surface workers.

— 221 —
In the United States legislation of this kind has been passed in
fourteen States (Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maryland,
Missouri, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Utah, Washington, and Wyoming) and in the Territory of Alaska.

§ 2. — Arbitration Awards

In Australia hours of work in the coal mines of most States are
still governed by the " Edmonds Orders " issued in 1916 under the
War Precautions Act. Subject to these Orders, however, hours of
work are regulated by the awards of industrial committees or
conciliation boards and the decisions of the special Coal Industry
Tribunal which was set up under the Industrial Peace Act of 1920.
In New Zealand hours of work in coal mines are regulated by
the awards of conciliation and arbitration courts or by collective
agreements approved by these courts.

§ 3. — Collective Rules

This system applies in Germany, where under the Act of 1934
respecting the organisation of national labour the labour trustees
may, after discussion by a committee of experts, issue collective
rules for groups of undertakings. In some industries the labour
trustees have simply converted the existing collective agreements
into collective rules. This is what has, happened in the coal
mining industry.

§ 4. — Standards of Employment

In Spain the joint boards instituted by the Act of 27 November
1931 lay down standards of employment that serve as a basis for
the conclusion of contracts of employment and afford workers a
minimum of protection. These standards may not contain any
clause that is less favourable to the workers than the corresponding
legislative provision, and they thus form, as it were, a connecting
link between legislative and contractual regulation. Such standards
have been laid down for the coal-mining industry ; they are usually
provincial.

— 222 —
§ 5. — Compulsory Rules of Employment

In India any mine owner or manager may be required by the
Chief Inspector of Mines to frame by-laws that, when approved
by the local government, have effect as if enacted in the Act. In
Japan the Mining Act also provides for the establishment of regulations which are binding when approved by the Director of the
Mining Inspection Bureau.
§ 6. — Collective Agreements

Collective agreements regulating conditions of employment, and
more especially hours of work, are common in the mining industries
of several countries. As a rule, the manner in which such agreements shall be concluded is fixed by law; sometimes the agreements
must also by law contain certain clauses.
In some countries national collective agreements have been
concluded.
In Italy a national collective agreement has been concluded,
in accordance with the provisions of the Legislative Decree of
1937 concerning hours of work, between the Fascist Federation of
Mining Employers and the National Fascist Federation of Mine
Workers. This agreement came into force on 1 November 1937.
In the Netherlands, under the Act of 24 December 1927, there is
also a national collective agreement in the mining industry.
In the United States conditions of work in mines are in practice
regulated by a national agreement, since nearly all agreements are
based on that applying in the Appalachian coalfield, which is
one of the most important in the United States.
Regional collective agreements are much commoner.
In Austria, under the Mines Act of 1919, supplemented by the
Federal Order of 1933, hours of work may be fixed at more than 8
in the day by collective agreement, provided the weekly total does
not exceed 48.
In Canada collective agreements, which are very common in the
coal-mining industry, must comply with the special regulations
applying in each Province.
In China a few collective agreements have been concluded in the
mining industry in accordance with the Act concerning collective
agreements.
In Czechoslovakia, under the legal regulations, an important
part is played by collective agreements in fixing conditions of work.

— 223 —

In France the system is very widely used, and a large number of
collective agreements have been concluded in mining areas since
such agreements were regulated by the Act of 24 June 1936.
Some of the provisions of the collective agreements concluded in
the coal-mining industry in Great Britain affect hours of work.
Since 1926 agreements have been concluded on a district basis only.
In Poland collective agreements may, under the Act of 1937, be
concluded either at the discretion of the parties or as a result of
arbitration awards. The agreements must be communicated to
the labour inspector, who records them in a special register.
In Rumania several collective agreements have been concluded
either by negotiation between the parties or as a result of arbitration
awards.
In the U.S.S.R. collective agreements play only a small part
in regulating hours of work and merely reproduce the clauses of
the Codes and Orders in force.
In Yugoslavia collective agreements of this kind are only to be
found for State mines and a few private mines.
It should be pointed out that in countries where there are
lignite mines the agreements applying in these mines are not the
same as those concluded for other coal mines. This is true, for
example, in Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Poland.
§ 7. — Custom
The administration of provisions concerning hours of work is
often a matter of custom, though exceptions are not introduced
in this way. But to-day it seldom happens that the actual hours
are fixed by custom. Practically the only example is to be found
in the Union of South Africa, where the number of hours worked
by native miners in the day is not fixed ; instead, they are employed
on a task basis and finish their work when the task is completed.
B. — EXISTING REGULATION 1
A brief survey will be given here of the regulations covering hours
of work in coal mines in the countries studied in this Report.
1
In the references given below, the abbreviation " L. S." refers to the
Legislative Series published by the International Labour Office, and the
abbreviation " B. B." to the Bulletin of the former International Labour
Office at Basle.

— 224 —
AUSTRALIA
The regulations of New South Wales should be examined first since this
State supplies three-quarters of the coal extracted in Australia.
Hours of work in the New South Wales coal mines are not regulated
by any special Act, but are still subject to special Commonwealth Orders,
known as the Edmonds Orders, which were issued in 1916 in pursuance
of the War Precautions Act. Within the limits prescribed by these Orders,
hours of work in coal mines are governed by awards of the Industrial
Commission or of the conciliation committees set up for specified classes
of mineworkers, and by awards of the special Coal Industry Tribunal
that was set up under the Industrial Peace Act of 1920. These awards
and decisions do not always apply to all the mines in New South Wales ;
some apply only to special classes of workers, such as mechanics, safety
men, etc.
The Edmonds Orders also apply to all coal and shale mines in the
States of Queensland, Tasmania, and Victoria. Queensland, Victoria,
and Western Australia have also passed special Coal Mines Regulation
Acts containing provisions for the regulation of hours of work by special
boards or courts. In a Victorian mine owned by the State, hours of
work are regulated by a State Coal Mines Industrial Tribunal.
AUSTRIA
The conditions of employment of women and young persons and the
hours of work in mines are regulated by the Mines Act of 28 July 1919 1,
amended by the Federal Government Order of 31 May 1933 a.
The collective agreements concluded between employers' provincial
associations and trade union federations comply with the provisions
of the Act and lay down certain conditions for its application.
BELGIUM
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated: by the general Act of
14 June 1921 3 instituting an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week; and by a
Royal Order of 26 January 1937 instituting a 45-hour week in coal
mines 4. The Act of 14 June 1921 confirmed the rules laid down in 1919
by the Joint Committee on Mines. It is administered by Royal Orders
issued after consultation with the associations of employers and workers
concerned, the competent sections of the industrial and labour councils,
the Superior Public Health Council, the Superior Labour Council, and
the Superior Council of Industry and Commerce. The authorities and
associations consulted must deliver their opinion within two months of
being requested to do so.
No Orders dealing specially with mines have in fact been issued. A
Royal Order of 28 February 1922 6, amended by a Royal Order of
30 March 1936, specifies the persons to be considered, in any industry, as
holding a position of trust, and mentions certain categories for the
mining industry. It may be added that the Royal Order of 23 June 1924 ',
1
2
3
4
6
8

B. B., Vol. XIV, 1919, p. 111.
L.S., 1933, Aus. 5.
L.S., 1921 (Part I), Bel. 1.
L.S., 1937, Bel. 1.
L.S., 1923, Bel. 2, Appendix.
L.S., 1924, Bel. 6 G.

— 225 —
which allows a special overtime quota for transport operations, applies
to all undertakings and consequently also to mining.
The Royal Order of 26 January 1937, which reduced hours of work for
underground workers in coal mines to 7% in the day and 45 in the week,
was issued under the Act of 9 July 1936 instituting a 40-hour week in
industries or branches of industry where work is carried out under
unhealthy, dangerous, or arduous conditions l . Under this Act, the
number of hours actually worked may, on the proposal of the Ministers
in Council, be progressively reduced to 40 in the week. The Government
must first consult the joint committees or the most representative
associations of employers and workers concerned, the Superior Labour
and Social Welfare Council, and, so far as is necessary, the Superior
Public Health Council. The authorities and associations so consulted
must deliver their opinion within two months.
In Belgium hours of work are not to any great extent the subject of
contractual regulation.
CANADA
Hours of. work in coal mines are governed by enactments and collective
agreements.
At present, apart from the Lord's Day Act, there is no Dominion
legislation either concerning hours of work in industry in general or
in the coal-mining industry in particular. Regulations concerning hours
of work therefore vary from one Province to another. It will be sufficient
to examine those of Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick, Noca
Scotia, and Saskatchewan, the Provinces which produce nearly all the
Canadian coal.
,
In Alberta conditions
of
work
in
coal
mines
are
governed
by
the Coal
Mines Regulation 3Act 2 . An Act bearing the same name is in force in
British Columbia . Hours of work in the4 New Brunswick coal mines
are regulated by the amended Mining Act . In Nova Scotia the Coal
Mines Regulation Act, amended in 1927, 1934, and 1935, is in force 5.
The legal provisions as to hours of work in the Saskatchewan coal mines
are to be found in 8two different Acts—the Coal Mines Safetv and
Welfare Act of 1932 and the Coal Mining Industry Act of 1935 7.
Further, in British Columbia and Nova Scotia there are laws dealing
with hours of work in general, which are also applicable to coal mines.
Each Province, of course, applies the legal regulations throughout
its territory, but collective agreements, which usefully supplement
legislation, are applicable only in certain districts. These agreements,
although as a rule negotiated locally, are fairly uniform ; moreover, they
must comply with the provincial legal regulations fixing hours of work
either for industry in general or for coal mines in particular.
CHILE
Hours of work in mines are regulated by the Labour Code (Legislative
Decree No. 178 of 13 May 1931) 8 .
1

L.S., 1936, Bel. 11.
L.S., 1930, Can. 8.
Revised Statutes of British Columbia, 1924, Chapter 171.
L.S., 1933, Can. 4.
5
L.S., 1924, Can. 7; Labour Legislation in Canada, 1934 and 1935.
6
L.S., 1932, Can. 5.
7
Cf. Labour Legislation in Canada, 1935.
8
L.S.,
CK.
II. 1931, Chile 1.
2
3
1

— 226 —
CHINA
The new Mines Act * passed on 25 June 1936 and providing that hours
of work for underground workers shall be 8 in the day, has not yet
come into force.
Coal mines are therefore still governed by the Factory Act of
30 December 1929, in accordance with the interpretative note of the
Minister of Industry dated 16 October 1931 2. This Act provides in
section 8 that normal hours of work for adults shall be 8 in the day and
that in case of need, these hours may be exceeded, though not by more
than 2 hours.
The Factory Act and the new Mines Act apply throughout Chinese
territory.
Very few collective agreements have been concluded in the mining
industry under the Collective Agreements Act which came into force on
I November 1932. The agreements comply with legal regulations
concerning hours of work. In practice, however, hours of work in
Chinese coal mines are not uniform; they vary from 8 to 12 hours.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated by the Act of 19 December
1918 3, which came into force on 3 January 1919 and laid down rules for
instituting an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week with a weekly rest in all
branches of economic activity, including mining. The Act was supplemented by administrative regulations contained in an Order of
II January 1919 3 and by a circular of the Minister of Social Welfare
dated 21 March 1919 3.
Further, provision is made in the general Mines Act of 23 May 1854,
as amended and supplemented by the Act of 24 January 1934, for
supervising the application of the regulations.
In the legal regulations an important part is assigned to collective
agreements concluded separately for each of the various coalfields.
The agreements referred to in the present study are those concluded in
the Ostrava-Karwina coalfield as regards bituminous coal, and the
coalfields of North-west Bohemia and Falkov as regards lignite.
FRANCE
Hours of work in mines are regulated by the Act of 21 June 1936
instituting a 40-hour week 4, by the Administrative Decrees and Orders
issued under that Act, and by a number of collective agreeir..../Ü.
The Act of 21 June 1936 is a general enactment fixing maximum hours
of work per week for workers and salaried employees in industrial,
commercial, handicraft, and co-operative undertakings. This general
provision applies to surface work in coal-mining undertakings. For
underground work the Act fixes a special weekly limit (38 hours 40
minutes).
A number of administrative Decrees and Orders have had to be issued
under the Act. The Decree applicable in the coal-mining industry is
that of 25 September 1936, fixing the number of hours for underground
1
2
3
4

National Government Gazette, 26 June 1936.
Collection of Labour Laws and Regulations, March 1937.
B.B., Vol. XIV, 1919, pp. 26-40.
£.i\,1936,Fr. 8.

— 227 —
work \ and that of 27 October 1936 respecting surface workers 2. A
certain degiee of flexibility has been introduced into the above two
Decrees by the Decree of 21 December 1937 8.
A Decree dated 11 January 1938 4 contained provisions for the
application of the 40-hour week law of 21 June 1936 to open lignite
mines and also to workshops, workplaces, electric power plants, and
other establishments of these undertakings in which the extracted
materials are treated or transformed. The regime set up by this Decree
is similar in many respects to that covering surface work in underground
mines.
During 1937 further regulations of an administrative character were
issued to facilitate the application of the Act of 21 June 1936 to the
coal-mining industry. Reference should Le made to the Ministerial
Orders of 13 February 6, 7 May 6, and 1 September 1937 ' limiting the
extensions contemplated in the Decree of 25 September 1936 and regulating overtime.
The Act of 21 June 1936 laid down the general procedure for preparing
and reviewing administrative Decrees. These are issued either ex
officio or at the request of one or more of the employers' or workers'
organisations concerned. In both cases the employers' and workers'
organisations concerned are to be consulted and to give their opinion
within a month. Since, moreover, the Act specifies that the Decrees
shall refer so far as possible to agreements, the Minister of Public Works
and the Minister of Labour have set up joint committees, on which
the occupational groups concerned are represented, with a view to
assisting in the preparation of draft Decrees, as was done for the administration of the Eight-Hour Day Act.
The various legal provisions as to hours of work are supplemented
by collective agreements. Generally speaking, collective agreements
are governed by the Act of 24 June 1936 8, which deals especially with
agreements concerning the relations between employers' and workers'
associations in any branch of industry or trade. The provisions of such
agreements may be made binding on all employers and workers in the
district concerned if the administrative authorities are satisfied, after
enquiry, that the associations negotiating the agreement may be considered as representative of employers and workers in their branch.
Collective agreements play a particularly important part in the
mining industry. Reference should be made to those concluded in 1936
and 1937 between the representatives of the mine workers and mine
owners of Anzin and of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais Departments, that
is, of the most important coalfield in France. The various agreements
deal with the methods of applying the 40-hour week to surface workers,
the distribution of working hours in departments where work is necessarily
continuous, the making up of time lost owing to bad weather, permanent
and temporary exceptions, and work on Sundays and public holidays.
1
2

Journal officiel, 27 September 1936, p. 10240.
L.S., 1936, Fr. 14 (A) and (C). A Decree issued on 11 January 1938
(Journal Officiel, 20 January 1938) provided for the application of the 40-hour
week law of 21 June 1936 to open lignite mines as well as to shops, workplaces,
electrical stations and other establishments in which the extracted materials
are treated or transformed. The regime established by this Decree is very
similar to that covering surface work in underground coal mines.
3
L.S., 1937, Fr. 3. 4 Journal officiel, 20 January
1938.
6
Journal officiel, 14 February 1937, p. 1933. 68 L.S., 1936, Fr. 7.
' Journal officiel, 2 September 1937, p. 10125
L.S., 1936, Fr. 7.

— 228 —
GERMANY
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated by the general Hours of
Work Act consolidated by the Order of 26 July 1934 1. As regards
underground work in bituminous coal mines the Act contains only
a few special provisions (calculation of the length of the shift, unhealthy
work, workplaces where the temperature is high). Surface work in such
mines and all work in lignite mines are covered by the general provisions
of the Act. Hours of work in coal mines are also regulated by collective
rules published under the Act of 20 January 1934 2 for the organisation
of national labour, and promulgated by the labour trustees. These
rules have taken the place of the former collective agreements; as a
matter of fact, many of the agreements have been converted, with slight
amendments, into collective rules and are still in force. The provisions
of the collective rules as to conditions of work are binding as minimum
standards for the work in question. In some cases such rules may be
substituted for, or introduce exceptions to, legislative provisions.
There are no collective rules or agreements that are applicable throughout German territory. The provisions vary in each coalfield. The principal
collective rules referred to in this Report are those for the RhenishWestphalian coalfield as regards bituminous coal and for central
Germany and the Rhineland as regards lignite.
GREAT BRITAIN
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated by Acts, regulations adopted
thereunder, and collective agreements.
The principal regulations concerning the hours of work of persons
employed underground are contained in the Coal Mines Regulation
Act of 1908, as amended in 1919, 1926, 1930, 1931, and 1932 3.
The only legislative measures applicable to male surface workers are
the Coal Mines Act of 1911 4 and the Regulations adopted in 1913; both
the Act and the Regulations only limit hours of work for winding
enginemen.
Hours of work for women and young persons employed in or about
a mine on the surface are regulated by the Coal Mines Act of 1911 as
modified by the Act of 1920 relating to
the conditions of employment of
women, young persons and children 6.
Collective agreements play an important part in determining mineworkers' conditions of employment and are at present in force in nearly
every district. They are negotiated by the mine owners and the district
trade unions, nearly all of which are affiliated to the Miners'
Federation of Great Britain. The agreements applicable to surface
workers have been negotiated by the trade unions for the occupations
concerned.
The collective agreements are negotiated freely. They do not
depend upon legislation, but they cannot modify the terms of the law.
Collective agreements affect hours of work in the following respects:
limitation of hours of surface workers ; determination of the length of the
Saturday morning shift for underground workers ; regulation of the length
1

L.S., 1934, Ger. 13.
L.S., 1934, Ger. 1.
3
B.B., Vol. IV, p. 94; L.S., 1919, G.B. 4; 1926, G.B. 2; 1930, G.B. 6;
1931, G.B. 7; and 1932, G.B. 5.
4
B.B., Vol. IX, p. 9.
6
L.S., 1920, G.B. 9.
2

— 229 —
of breaks, payment for overtime work and work done on Sunday or
during the week-end. Since 1926 there have been no national collective
agreements.
HUNGARY
Until the Act of 29 July 1937 x, concerning hours of work, minimum
wages and paid holidays, was promulgated, hours of work in Hungarian
mines were governed by the rules of employment for each undertaking.
The Act of 29 July 1937 applies to all workers who are bound by a
contract of employment and consequently to mineworkers. Provision
is made for administrative regulations, which have not yet been issued
so far as mines are concerned.
INDIA
Acts promulgated by the Government of India regulate hours of work
in mines of all kinds. The Act at present in force is the Indian Mines
Act (IV) of 1923 as amended by Acts XIII of 1928, X of 1935, and XI of
1936 a. Regulations consistent with the Act may be made by the
Governor-General in Council and by local governments. Further, any
mine owner or manager may be required by the Chief Inspector of Mines
to frame by-laws that, when approved by the local government, have
effect as if enacted in the Act.
ITALY
Hours of work in mines are regulated by a Legislative Decree of
29 May 1937, by which the collective agreements of 1934 to 1935 reducing hours of work to 40 in the week were made binding. The Decree
provides that workers hiring out their services for industrial3 purposes
shall not work more than 40 hours in the week or 8 in the day . Salaried
employees are still covered by the Royal Decree of 15 March 1923 ',
which provides that hours of work shall be 8 in the day and 48 in the
week.
New legalised provisions are contained in the national collective agreement for all extractive industries which came into force on 1 November
1937 for a period of three years. It was negotiated by the National
Fascist Federations of Employers and Workers in the Extractive
Industries.
JAPAN
Conditions of work, including hours of work, in coal mines, as in other
mines, are governed by an Ordinance entitled " Regulations for the
Employment and Relief of Miners ". This Ordinance was issued by the
Department of Agriculture and Forestry on 3 August5 1916 and was
amended by departmental Ordinances of 24 June 1926 , 24 May 1927,
1 September 1928 6, 26 June 1929, and 21 December 1936. The Ordinance
1
Cf. Industrial and Labour Information, Vol. LXIII, No. 6, 9 August 1937,
p. 174.
2
L.S., 1923, Ind. 3; 1928, Ind. 1; 1935, Ind. 3; 1936, Ind. 2.
3
L.S., 1937, It. 3.
1
L.S., 1923, It. 1.
5
L.S., 1926, Jap. 2.
« L.S., 1928, Jap. 1.

— 230 —
of 1916 was issued in pursuance of the Mines Act of 8 March 1905,
section 75 of which provides that the holder of a mining right shall
establish regulations concerning the engagement and employment of
miners after applying for a permit to the Director of the Mines Inspection
Bureau. Section 79 provides that the competent Minister may by
ordinance limit the hours of mineworkers.
Any rules of employment drawn up by the management of a mine in
pursuance of the Act and approved by the Director of the Mines
Inspection Bureau are legally binding.
Neither the Mines Act nor the Regulations for the employment and
relief of miners provide for collective agreements. Administrative and
interpretative decisions, such as those contained in the circulars addressed
by the Bureau of Social Affairs to branch directors of the Mines Inspection
Bureau, make up for the absence of legislative regulations by laying
down certain definite standards.
NETHERLANDS
The legal provisions governing hours of work in coal mines are
contained in the Mining Act of 27 April 1904 1, amending the Act of
21 April 1810 2, and in the Decrees of 22 September 1906 3, 13 October
1916 4 and 21 March 1930 6, supplementing the Act of 1904. Hours of
work are also regulated by the national collective agreement concluded
on 17 October 1921 for the mining industry and since amended a number
of times.
NEW ZEALAND
Under the Act of 8 June 1936 6 amending the Industrial Conciliation
and Arbitration Act of 1 October 1925 7 the Court of Arbitration must
fix at not more than 40 the maximum number of hours (exclusive of
overtime) to be worked in any week by any worker bound by an award
given or an agreement approved by the Court, unless, in the opinion of
the Court, the industry concerned cannot be carried on efficiently when
working hours are so limited, in which case the Court must fix a limit
between 40 hours and the limit fixed in the previous award.
The arbitration awards and agreements at present applicable in coal
mines are based on a 40-hour week.
Further, the Coal Mines Act of 1 October 1925 8 also contains provisions concerning hours of work.
POLAND
Hours of work regulations in the Dombrowa and Cracow coalfields
are based on the Act of 9 18 December 1919 concerning hours of work in
industry and commerce , which has been amended on several occasions.
The most important amendments were introduced before 1933 and are
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9

Staatsblad, 1904, No. 73.
Bulletin of Laws, No. 285.
Staatsblad, 1906, No. 248; L.S., 1922, Neth. 4.
Staatsblad, 1916, No. 474.
Ibid., 1930, No. 105.
L.S., 1936, N.Z. 1.
L.S., 1925, N.Z. 1.
L.S., 1925, N.Z. 2.
L.S., 1920, Pol. 1.

— 231 —
contained in the consolidated text of 15 October 1933 1. Since the
abolition of the Saturday half-holiday by the Act of 22 March 1933,
which came into force on 1 January 1934, hours of work have been 48
in the week, instead of 46 as previously. Further, several administrative
Decrees have been issued respecting supervisory services, transport
services, and breaks. These Decrees apply generally to all branches of
economic activity.
In Upper Silesia hours of work are regulated by the provisions of 1918
respecting economic demobilisation.
The situation was profoundly modified in 1937, particularly as regards
coal mines. On 14 April 1937 Parliament passed an Act empowering
the Council of Ministers to reduce hours of work in coal mines by order.
On 4 June of the same year the Silesian authorities made this law
applicable to Silesia.
On 20 July 1937 the Council of Ministers used the powers conferred
upon it to issue three Orders reducing hours of work in coal mines for
workers employed on arduous or unhealthy work underground, workers
permanently employed underground, and certain categories of surface
workers respectively. The Orders came into operation on 1 November
1937 and will remain in force throughout the territory of the Republic
until 1 January 1940.
Although the relevant legislation affords considerable opportunities
for regulating hours of work by collective agreement and arbitration,
it does not appear that the collective agreements concluded so far
have played an important part in fixing hours of work in coal mines,
particularly in view of the situation created by the Orders of 1937. In
Upper Silesia, however, the collective agreement of 1929 contains some
administrative provisions concerning hours of work, and, more especially, overtime and work on Sundays and public holidays.
RUMANIA
Under the Act of 9 April 1928 2 amended by the Act of 10 October
1932 3 respecting hours of work and the employment of women and young
persons, hours of work were fixed at not more than 8 in the day or 48 in
the week. These two Acts apply to all4 industries. An administrative
Decree was issued on 30 January 1929 and amended by a Decree of
19 December 1932 6.
Several regional or local collective agreements have been concluded
in the mining industry either by. negotiation between the parties or
under arbitration awards.
SPAIN
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated by legislative provisions
and by the standards of employment (bases de trabajo) drawn up by
joint boards.
The legal regulations on hours of work in coal mines are based on the
Decree of 1 July 1931 fixing the maximum statutory daily hours of work 6
(this Decree was converted into an Act on 9 September 1931 and contains
1
2
3
4
5
6

L.S.,
L.S.,
L.S.,
L.S.,
L.S.,
L.S.,

1933, Pol. 1.
1928, Rum. 1.
1932, Rum. 6.
1929, Rum. 1.
1932, Rum. 6.
1931, Sp. 9.

— 232 —
a chapter applying to mines in general) and the Decree of 18 June 1936 *
reducing hours of work in coal mines to 40 in the week for underground
workers and 44 in the week for surface workers.
These legislative provisions apply throughout Spanish territory.
The standards of employment are established by joint boards set up
under the Act of 27 November 1931. The boards are provincial organisations consisting of employers and workers in equal numbers. The
standards they prescribe include clauses dealing with hours of work and
rest periods, and may not be less favourable to the workers than the
standards laid down in legislative provisions.
The most important labour regulations covering coal mines which
were in effect in 1935 were about ten in number and chiefly applied in
the provinces of Oviedo (Asturies), Santander, León, Ciudad-Real
(Puertollano) and Teruel.
TURKEY
Hours of work in general are regulated by the Labour Code of 8 June
1936 2 . The Code applies to mines and contains a few provisions
dealing expressly with this industry, and more particularly with methods
of calculating hours of underground work.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
The Mines and Works Act of 15 April 1911 as amended in 1931 3
provides that no person employed to perform underground work in
any mine shall work underground for a longer period than 8 hours during
any consecutive period of 24 hours or 48 hours during any consecutive
7 days. This provision does not, however, apply to coal or base metal
mines.
According to information supplied by the Government of the Union
the situation as regards hours of work in coal mines is as follows:
There are considerable differences between conditions of work in
South African and in European coal mines, due to the employment
in the former of two distinct classes of wage earners, white and coloured
workers, and to the fact that only 5 per cent, of the total number of
wage earners are white workers. The white workers usually act as
supervisors; they conduct blasting operations and in isolated cases
erect and withdraw timber. They usually work 48 hours in the week.
The actual mining is done by coloured workers, who are employed
on a task basis; their day's work ends when their task is completed.
No account is taken of hours worked; workers who finish their task
before the end of the shift are brought to the surface as soon as circumstances permit, and in mines which can be entered by an adit they
return to the surface on foot.
UNITED STATES
The Federal Bituminous Coal Act 4 , which was approved by the
President on 26 April 1937 and is at present in force, contains no specific
provision concerning hours of work, but it provides that employers and
workers in the coal industry shall have the right to conclude collective
agreements with respect to hours of work, wages, and working conditions.
1
2
3
4

L.S., 1936, Sp. 1.
L.S., 1936, Turk. 2.
L.S., 1931, S.A. 1.
Public Law, No. 48.

— 233 —
Moreover, fourteen States and the Territory of Alaska have passed
legislation limiting hours of work either for underground mines or for
coal mines in general. The fourteen States are: Arizona, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. On 3 July 1937
the State of Pennsylvania passed an Act restricting hours of work to
8 per day and 44 per week. Apparently this Act applies to all
industry, and therefore also to the mining industry. Except in the State
of Maryland, where the law provides for a1 10-hour day, the daily
maximum is fixed at 8 hours in all these laws .
In spite of this marked tendency towards legislative regulation,
hours of work in United States coal mines are in fact fixed by collective
agreement.
The various clauses of the collective agreements are discussed in
national or regional conferences and then embodied in local district
agreements. It should be pointed out that in most cases the maximum
number of hours actually worked by miners falls below the prescribed
limit, which is reached only during periods of peak demand. Most of
the local collective agreements applying in the bituminous coal industry
have been influenced by the Code drawn up under the National Recovery
Administration. They are, moreover, based on the most important and
complete of the agreements, that concluded for the Appalachian coalfield
on 26 September 1935 by the International Union of United Mine
Workers of America and certain district unions on the one hand, and
the coal producers of the Appalachian coalfield on the other. This
agreement, which was effective until 1 April 1937, was renewed on that
date and, with certain changes, remains in effect until 31 March 1939.
Conditions of work in the anthracite industry are regulated by a collective agreement, the provisions of which are much the same as those
of the agreement in the bituminous coal industry. The anthracite
agreement which was concluded 7 May 1936 and came into effect
1 May 1937 remains valid until 30 April 1938.
Ü.S.S.R.
Hours of work in coal mines are regulated by various provisions
contained in Orders or Decrees issued by the central authorities
of the Union and in the Labour Codes of the Federated Republics. The
most important of these Codes is the R.S.F.S.R. Labour Code of 1922,a
the provisions of which apply in practice, with hardly any modifications,3
in all the Federated Republics. Since 1922 the Code has been amended
to incorporate principles or rules laid down by the central authorities
of the Union, and more especially the Order issued on 2 January 1929
by the Central Executive Committee and Council 4of People's Commissaries, establishing the principle of a 7-hour day .
As regards mines, mention should also be made of the Regulations
issued on 25 November 1924 6 by the People's Commissariat of Labour 6
1

A summary of most of the State labour laws is to be found in the Bureau
of 3Labor Statistics Bulletin (U.S. Department of Labor), Nos. 370 et seq.
L.S., 1922, Russ. 1.
3
The various amendments have been published in the Legislative Series.
4
L.S., 1929, Russ. 3.
6
L.S., 1930, Russ. 1. (H).
6
The People's Commissariat of Labour was suppressed in 1933 and its
duties were assigned to the Central Council of Trade Unions.

— 234 —
and by the Supreme Economic Council respecting the safety of mine
workers (these Regulations have since been amended), the Order issued
on 1.0 November 1928 by the People's Commissariat of Labour reducing
hours of work in particularly arduous and dangerous occupations and
establishing a list of such occupations, and the Decree issued by the
People's Commissariat for Heavy Industry on 10 July 1936 modifying
the method of calculating hours of work in mines.
It may be added that the principle of a 7-hour day has been confirmed
in the new Constitution of the U.S.S.R. dated 5 December 1936.
Contractual regulation plays only a small part in the fixing of hours
of work in coal mines.
YUGOSLAVIA

Hours of work are regulated by the general Workers' Protection Act
of 28 February 1922 l and by various service regulations of a regional
character, the most recent of which were issued in 1929 2.
In 1924 special regulations 3 applicable throughout the country were
also published providing for the prolongation of hours of work in
industrial and mining undertakings in virtue of agreements between the
owner of the undertaking and the staff.
Further, in all State mines the detailed application of the national
regulations is governed by collective agreements. Collective agreements
are less common in. private mines.

1
2
a

L.S., 1922.S.C.S. 1.
Sluzbene Novine, 1929, No. 297.
L.S., 1924, S.C.S. 4 D.

II. — Scope

In defining the scope of any regulations on conditions of employment in coal mines, and particularly those which govern hours of
work, a number of complex problems must be faced.
Mines are as a rule large undertakings, which operate in conditions varying widely, with natural circumstances, from one region
to another. They comprise workplaces in which the technical
characteristics of the work are strikingly different (underground
workings, surface plant, ancillary establishments, etc.); they
employ a large force of workers, ranging from expert technicians
to unskilled labourers; and the material conditions of work are
also very varied, some posts requiring a continuous and exhausting
effort, while others involve mere attendance.
With so complicated a subject, mines regulations cannot escape
a certain corresponding complexity. Not only does their scope
vary in extent from country to country, but the methods of
defining it and the criteria adopted vary too. It has therefore
been necessary to subdivide the present chapter, so that the
diversity of the different provisions concerning scope may be
better grasped. The first section concerns delimitation with
reference to the character of the mine, i.e. according to the nature
of the premises or operations, the type of mining engaged in, or
the type of coal extracted; the second deals with delimitation
with reference to the persons employed in the mine, i.e. specification
of the persons covered or of the persons excluded.

A. — DEFINITION OF SCOPE AS REGARDS MINES
As indicated above, the different national regulations have
adopted three principal criteria for defining their scope with
reference to the character of the mine. Some concentrate on the
nature of the premises or operations, and distinguish between

— 236 —
underground and surface work or between principal and ancillary
establishments; others take the type of mining as the criterion,
and apply or not according as the mine itself is underground or
open ; others again base the distinction on the type of coal extracted
—anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite, etc.

§ 1. — Nature of Premises or Operations
MEANING OF THE TERM

"MINE"

Some regulations, particularly in the British Empire, are based
on a Mines Act which contains an exact definition of the term
" mine ". This, for instance, is the definition given in the British
Coal Mines Act, 1911 (it applies also to the 1908 Act):
" Unless the context otherwise requires, ' mine ' includes every shaft
in the course of being sunk and every level or inclined plane in the course
of being driven and all the shafts, levels, planes, works, tramways and
sidings both below ground and above ground in and adjacent to and
belonging to the mine, but does not include any part of such premises
on which any manufacturing process is carried on, other than a process
ancillary to the getting, dressing or preparation for sale of minerals."
Similar definitions are to be found in Canada (the Provincial
Acts of Alberta, British Columbia and Nova Scotia), in the Indian
regulations, and in the New Zealand Coal Mines Act of 1925.
The Spanish regulations have also made a point of determining
their scope as exactly as possible, and the special chapter on mines
of the Hours of Work Decree, 1931, contains a list of the operations
covered, which include the following: underground work consisting
in the investigation, preparation for extraction and actual extraction of mineral substances with a view to the direct utilisation
thereof, by means of pits, drifts, adits, etc. ; transport within mines;
drainage, safety and hygiene work; the installation, maintenance
and minding of power-generating plant and of engines and machinery necessary for raising and lowering employees and supplies, for
the extraction of products, drainage, ventilation, lighting and, in
general, all operations exclusively and directly connected with
underground work. As regards surface work, the Decree covers
excavation, levelling, earthwork and demolition; the loading of the
products extracted; and the minding of machines required for the
work mentioned above. This definition of scope applies also to
the Decree of 1936, which reduced hours of work in coal mines.

— 237 —

Definitions of a much less exact sort are all that can be found
in most regulations; these include, naturally, the general Acts
concerning hours of work. The German Order of 26 July 1930
concerning hours of work, for instance, merely states that it applies
to " workers in industry and transport ". In France the FortyHour Week Act applies to industrial " establishments ", but then
proceeds to regulate hours of work in " underground mines " ; the
Belgian Act of 1921 applies to " mines, surface workings, quarries
and workings of all sorts where extraction is carried on " ; and the
Rumanian Act of 1928 and Administrative Regulations of 1929
have adopted an almost identical form of words.
In the U.S.S.R., the Labour Code of the R.S.F.S.R., which
applies almost unchanged to all the other Republics of the Union,
covers " all establishments and undertakings ". The Order of
21 January 1929 determines, in pursuance of the Code, the undertakings in which the 7-hour day is to be applied; these are " all
undertakings in production, industry, transport, communications
and local economy, whether State-owned, public or private ". This
definition includes mines.
But frequently the special regulations for mines are also rather
vague in the definition of their scope. Many merely state that they
apply to coal mines, or to all establishments in the coal industry.
UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE WORK

A considerable number of' regulations provide for a distinction
between underground and surface operations; but in most instances
this affects the hours of work provisions only—particularly in the
case of the general mining Acts, the body of which nearly always
applies to the whole industry.
Statutory provisions on hours of work applying only to underground operations are to be found in the Canadian Provincial Acts
of Alberta, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia and in Great Britain
and the Netherlands. In some instances these provisions apply
also to certain groups of operations closely related to underground
work, such as those carried out by the shaft services (winding
enginemen in Great Britain arid the Netherlands, or signalmen in
the Netherlands).
In some countries, different legislative regulations, contained
either in the same or in separate measures, apply to underground
and surface work respectively. This is the case inter alia in Belgium,
France, India, Japan, Poland, Spain, and the U.S.S.R.

— 238 —

Elsewhere, the same legislation applies without distinction to
underground and surface work alike, though in some cases there
are fuller regulations concerning the method of calculating hours
for workers employed underground.
The collective agreements and arbitration awards also usually
apply both to underground and to surface work. Some, however,
contain different provisions for each of the two categories. This
is also the case as regards the German collective rules.
Lastly, it should be noted that several regulations apply not
only to production proper, but also to research and to the installation of plant, e.g. sinking pits, driving galleries, etc., even when
these operations are done by specialised (and not by mining)
undertakings.
ANCILLARY ESTABLISHMENTS

Establishments ancillary to mines are covered by the mines
regulations in some countries and excluded from their scope in
others. In Belgium the 1921 Act states that " the dependencies
of the undertakings in question are also covered, whatever their
nature ". In Canada the Saskatchewan Act applies to the processing
and marketing of coal. In Czechoslovakia the Act of 1918 includes
—in so far as " mining establishments " are concerned—mines, coke
ovens, slag furnaces, and blast furnaces. The Indian Act provides
that premises in which coke making is carried on shall not be
excluded. In Japan the authorities have stated that the Act should
be interpreted as applying to the administrative services of mines
and to ancillary establishments, even when situated at a distance
from the mine, if they are registered under the same name. In
New Zealand the regulations extend to all the establishments
belonging to the mine. Lastly, the legislation of the U.S.S.R.
relating to mines must be considered as applying to all establishments belonging to the mine, wherever they may be situated.
On the other hand, the British Act does not apply to any part
of mining premises on which a manufacturing process is carried on,
other than a process ancillary to the getting, dressing or preparation
for sale of minerals. In France the Decree applying to surface work
in coal mines provides that subsidiary industries are covered
by the Decrees applying to the occupational groups to which such
industries belong1. The Acts and Decrees in force in Spain exclude
1

As regards open lignite mines, see note 2, p. 227.

— 239 —
surface work done in workshops or premises similar to those of
other industries, and transport outside the mine.
SPECIAL CRITERIA

A few hours of work regulations provide for the exclusion of
establishments with small staffs or not using mechanical power.
It would appear that exceptions of this sort do not concern coal
mines. Nevertheless it should be pointed out that the new Chinese
Mines Act is to exclude establishments not employing at least
50 persons underground at a time.
In France the collective agreement for the Northern coalfield
(Anzin, Nord and Pas-de-Calais) stipulates that the provisions of
the Decree concerning surface work shall not apply to seasonal
and occasional operations and to work paid by the job.

§ 2. — Type of Mine

Deposits of coal can be mined by means of underground or of
open workings, the position of the seam being the deciding factor.
A few regulations distinguish between these two types of mine,
which involve widely different conditions of work. But as open
mining is seldom possible, legislation in many coal-producing
countries makes no mention of such a distinction1.
In Germany the collective rules applying to the lignite mines
contain two sets of somewhat different stipulations, the one
applying to open and the other to underground mines. In Spain
the 1931 Decree applies to surface excavation and levelling work,
earthwork, the loading of products extracted and the minding of
machines. In the United States, although there are separate
collective agreements for underground and open mines, their
contents are roughly the same; in fact both are based on the general
agreements applying to the anthracite and bituminous coal industries respectively.
In the countries where only the hours of persons employed
underground are regulated, open mines, if any exist, are naturally
not included. This is the case in the Netherlands.
1
In France a special Decree was issued 11 January 1938 concerning the
application of the 40-hour week in open lignite mines (see note 2, p. 227).

— 240 —

§ 3. — Type of Coal extracted
There is not a single case in which mines are excluded from the
scope of a national scheme because of the type of coal extracted;
indeed many schemes apply the same provisions to all mines in
the coal-extracting industry. It should be noted in this connection
that the Belgian legislation applies to anthracite and to bituminous
coal without distinction ; and that under the British Act coal includes
bituminous coal, cannel coal, and anthracite.
But in other cases the regulations are different for the different
main categories of coal. In Germany the Hours of Work Order
applies to the whole mining industry, but there are separate
collective rules for anthracite and bituminous coal mines (Steinkohle) and lignite mines respectively, the principal difference
residing in the manner in which the length of the shift is calculated.
It was therefore necessary to determine what was meant by the
terms Steinkohle and lignite. Lignites are types of coal the structure of which may be either earthy and pulverulent or compact,
with a dull or shiny fracture; they are generally brown in colour,
but the varieties which have a shiny conchoidal fracture may be
almost black. The principal characteristics for distinguishing
lignite from bituminous coal are given in the following table; at
least two of these must be present simultaneously to establish a
distinction.
Bituminous coal

Test

Lignite

Appearance when scratched:

Generally brown,
rarely black

Black

Treated with an alkali:

Solution of a very
dark colour

No dark colouring

Reaction to lignine (reddish colour when treated with dilute nitric
acid):

Marked reaction

No reaction

Similarly, in Czechoslovakia, where there are separate collective
agreements for the same two principal types of coal, the Government stated in its reply to the questionnaire sent out by the Office
in 1930 that lignite may be distinguished from bituminous coal by
the following characteristics: bituminous coal is black in colour and
to the touch, whereas lignite is brown; lignite is slightly lighter than

— 241 —
bituminous coal; its content of water is generally higher than that
of bituminous coal and its heat value lower.
In Spain there are special standards of employment for the
lignite mines of the Province of Teruel. In France, the Decree
applying to underground work states that it applies to lignite
as well as to other coal mines x.
As a rule no distinction is made in European regulations between
anthracite and bituminous coal.
In the United States there are different national agreements for
the bituminous coal and the anthracite industries.

B. — DEFINITION OF SCOPE AS REGARDS PERSONS
§ 1. — Methods used

The general characteristics of the methods of defining scope with
reference to the persons employed in the mine differ according as
the object is to determine the persons covered by the regulations
or those excluded. Most regulations make use of loose definitions
in the former case, and are much more precise when specifying the
classes to which their provisions shall not apply.
In numerous measures, the persons covered are determined by
such phrases as " all underground workers " and " persons not
employed underground " (France) or " any person employed
directly or indirectly in production " (China). But there are
others which aim at limiting their scope by definitions of a more
material sort—particularly certain regulations which distinguish
between persons employed underground and at the surface.
Mention may also be made of another type of distinction: the
collective agreements in force in Canada and the United States
apply only to members of the United Mine Workers of America.
As regards persons excluded, the practical necessity for greater
exactitude has led to the use of several methods of definition.
Some legislative schemes use a formula covering a whole class of
persons. They state, for instance, that persons in positions of
management or employed in a confidential capacity, or not engaged
in manual work, are excluded ; this course is adopted by the French
Decree concerning underground work in coal mines. But in almost
1
A Decree was issued on 11 January 1938 particularly dealing with the
application of the 40-hour week to open lignite mines (see note 2, p. 227).

CR. II.

— 242 —

every case where such a method is employed, further details
are left to supplementary regulations (administrative orders,
etc.); this is the procedure in Belgium and Rumania. In Japan,
the Director of the Bureau of Social Affairs has issued a circular
with a list of classes of persons which should be considered as
excluded.
Sometimes the legislative regulations designate an authority
which is to determine the precise limits of application. In the
U.S.S.R. the Central Council of Trade Unions and the competent
economic authorities are required to decide, for insertion in collective agreements, what classes of persons should be excluded in
accordance with the principles laid down in the regulations themselves. In the same way, the British Coal Mines Act of 1908
provides that if a question arises as to whether a person is a workman, or a workman of any particular class, it shall be referred to
the Secretary of State, and his decision shall be final.
Further, it is not always easy to distinguish between regulations
defining their scope on the basis of operations or premises, and those
which do so by classes of persons. Frequently (in the legislation of
France, Great Britain, Japan, the Netherlands, etc.) specification of
the work appears to be no more than a means of determining the
classes of persons covered, or of distinguishing one from another
with a view to applying different schemes.
Lastly, it may be added for information that an international
Convention was adopted by the Nineteenth Session of the Conference in 1935 prohibiting the employment of women on underground
work in mines of all kinds. As regards surface work, women are
as a rule subject to the same provisions as men.

§ 2. — Persons covered
As has been said, the regulations of several countries use formulae
of a very comprehensive nature for defining the classes covered.
The following information will show this still more clearly,
but it will also show that in many other cases the regulations
restrict their own operation in this respect, and must in consequence
contain a more exact definition.
In Australia Edmonds Order No. 1 (concerning hours of work)
applies, with certain exceptions, to " all underground employees ".
The Chinese Factories Act applies to all persons " employed
directly or indirectly in production ".

— 243 —

In Czechoslovakia the legislative regulations apply to all employed
persons—i.e. to manual and non-manual workers and salaried and
professional employees, whatever their position.
In Fraiice the Forty-Hour Week Act applies as a rule to all the
persons employed in the undertaking, whatever their grade, duties,
or method of payment. The Decree concerning underground
work in coal mines covers " all persons engaged in underground
work, whatever undertaking employs them, and in whatever work
they are engaged "; and the Decree concerning surface work states
that its provisions extend to " workers and salaried employees in
the service of the mine in question, whose occupation does not
directly belong to the mining industry, provided the exclusive
object of the work of such persons is the maintenance or operation
of the mine ".
In Germany the Hours of Work Order assimilates the following
to workers : apprentices preparing for the kinds of employment
covered, mine officials, foremen, and technical staff—i.e. the great
majority of salaried and professional workers. In the RhenishWestphalian bituminous coalfield there are separate collective
rules for manual workers, technical staff and commercial staff
respectively.
In Great Britain, the Acts apply to all workers employed below
ground, with a few exceptions, and to winding enginemen; the
Coal Mines Act of 1911 defines a winding engineman as " a competent male person, not less than 22 years of age, appointed in writing
by a manager for the purpose of working machinery which is
employed in lowering and raising persons ".
The hours of work provisions of the Japanese legislation apply
—as far as adult males are concerned—to underground work only.
In the Netherlands the legislative regulations on hours of work
apply only to underground workers, winding enginemen and
signalmen; but the contractual regulations cover all workers.
In New Zealand the hours of work provisions of the Coal Mines
Act extend only to persons employed on underground work or in
charge of steam machinery, but all workers are subject to the
general regulations on the 40-hour week. The many arbitration
awards which have been issued in this country apply both to
underground and to surface workers, but in many districts there
are special awards applying to such groups as mechanics, engine
drivers, firemen, fanmen, carpenters, fitters, and pumpmen.
In Poland the general Hours of Work Act applies to all mining
establishments, but there are three special Orders on hours of work

— 244 —

in mines, for the following classes of workers respectively: (a) underground workers employed on particularly exhausting or unhealthy
operations (particularly those done in water or mud) or on work
at seams over 8 metres high or under 55 cm. thick and at an angle
of less than 15°; (b) other workers permanently employed underground and workers employed on continuous operations ; (c) surface
workers whose duties consist largely in mere attendance (fan
minders, telephone operators, bath attendants, nurses, messengers,
etc.), and watchkeepers and caretakers.
In Spain the regulations relate as a rule to the whole staff of
the mines covered ; in the provinces of Oviedo and León, however,
there are special standards of employment for supervisory staff,
and in the latter province there are also standards for salaried
employees in the administrative services of mining undertakings
or the joint offices which these undertakings maintain.
In the U.S.S.R. the Labour Code covers all employed persons,
and the Order of 2 January 1929 provides that the 7-hour day shall
apply to all workers and salaried employees for whom the working
day was fixed at 8 hours before the introduction of the 7-hour day
in the undertaking.
The Yugoslav legislation defines mine workers as workers employed in mining undertakings who receive wages fixed in advance
or are paid at piece rates.
The collective agreements in force in Canada and the United
States must be considered as forming a special case, for they apply
only to members of the United Mine Workers of America, or other
persons eligible under the constitution of that body. This eliminates not only managers, foremen, etc., but also members of certain
political organisations and persons engaged in the sale of intoxicating liquors. Apart from this restriction, workmen, skilled and
unskilled, employed in and around coal mines, may be. members
of the organisation. The United States agreements also treat
persons employed in and around coal washers and coke ovens as
mine workers.
§ 3. — Persons excluded

There are but few instances in which no class of persons is
excluded. The Czechoslovak Act of 19 December 1918 is one of
these.
Where certain classes of persons are excluded from the scope
of the regulations, three principal methods are in use: a general

— 245 —

formula to cover all excluded persons, a detailed list of
establishments or persons excluded, and determination of excluded
persons by a specified authority. In practice it is often found
that two of these methods are used in conjunction with each other
in the regulations of a single country.
USE OF A GENERAL FORMULA

This method is used mainly in the regulations which exclude only
persons whose functions are relatively easy to define (e.g. persons
holding positions of management or supervision or employed in a
confidential capacity). When exemption is also to apply to persons
engaged in intermittent work, or work whose duration cannot be
exactly limited, it becomes indispensable to supplement the general
formula with an enumeration; indeed, as will be seen clearly from
the following particulars, there is a gradual transition from the
method of a general formula to that of a detailed list.
In Australia the regulations in force in New South Wales exclude
under-managers, overmen and surveyors. Those of Victoria and
Western Australia also exclude such groups as deputies, engineers,
mechanics, electricians and persons in charge of power-driven
machinery (except sinking pumps, borers and coal-cutting
machines).
The provincial regulations in Canada also provide for numerous
exceptions. Under the Alberta Act mine officials, foremen, cagers,
onsetters, stablemen and pumpmen are excluded. In British
Columbia the Hours of Work Act excludes persons holding positions
of supervision or management or employed in confidential capacities,
while the Coal Mines Regulation Act states that the manager or
overman may enter a mine at any time and remain therein in the
necessary discharge of his duties; as regards surface workers, those
employed in the office, boarding-house or bunk-house of any mine
are excluded from the provisions concerning hours of work.
Similar rules are also to be found in the Coal Mines Regulation Act
of Nova Scotia.
In China it has been the practice of the courts to regard
domestic servants and cooks as not employed in production and
consequently not subject to the Factories Act. Persons employed
in posts of supervision and management are to be excluded from
the hours of wrork provisions of the new Mines Act.
In France the Decree concerning underground work in coal mines
excludes " persons holding posts of supervision or management

— 246 —
who do not ordinarily perform manual work ". The collective
agreement for the Northern coalfield (Anzin, Nord and Pas-deCalais) states in this connection that firemen and fire-damp inspectors shall be considered as supervisory staff if they engage in
supervision, but not otherwise. Nevertheless the special legislative
regulations concerning hours of work apply to supervisory .staff.
In Great Britain the Coal Mines Act, 1908, limiting hours of
underground work in coal mines excludes persons holding posts
implying special responsibility (i.e. certain mine officials) or high
technical qualifications (mechanics) and some other classes (horsekeepers and persons engaged solely in surveying and measuring).
The hours of work regulations in force in Hungary do not apply
to salaried employees in managerial posts.
In India the regulations exclude persons in positions of supervision or management or employed in a confidential capacity.
The Spanish Decree on hours of work issued in 1931 does not
apply to managers and other officials of undertakings.
The Turkish Labour Code considers that managers, employees in
charge of administration, and, in general, all persons required to
direct operations, are not workers but representatives of the
employer.
In the United States most of the collective agreements in the
bituminous coal industry exclude certain classes of persons, in
particular, mine foremen, assistant mine foremen, bosses in charge
of labour, clerks, and members of the executive, supervisory and
technical force.
In the U.S.S.R. workers and salaried employees engaged at the
approaches and entrances to establishments are not covered by
the Order limiting hours of work to 7 in the day. An Order of the
Commissariat of Labour dated 13 February 1928 states further that
the working day cannot be fixed as regards administrative, technical and commercial staff and persons whose work cannot be
calculated on a time basis, such as employees giving advice to
workers (e.g. inspectors).
In Yugoslavia, persons whose duties are such that they cannot
be considered as workers for the purposes of the Act are excluded
from the scope of the regulations (managers, accountants, cashiers,
engineers, etc.).
It would appear, therefore, that the following are the criteria
most often adopted in the different regulations which exclude
classes of persons by means of more or less general formulœ: the
importance of the duties in question, or the responsibility attaching

— 247 — '

to them; their intermittent character; their urgency; the fact
that their duration cannot be exactly fixed; and lastly, the fact
that it is impossible to state in advance when they will have to be
performed.
As regards management, the German system is one of the few
which have attempted to render the criterion used somewhat more
exact. The Hours of Work Order provides that the following
shall be considered as occupying positions of management: any
person with 20 salaried or 50 wage-earning employees under his
orders; any person whose remuneration exceeds the statutory
upper limit for liability to compulsory insurance; and any person
holding a power of attorney for the establishment.
USE OF A DETAILED LIST

In a number of countries, the general provisions of hours of work
Acts applying to coal mines are supplemented by administrative
regulations or similar measures containing full lists of the classes
of persons not covered by the original Acts.
In Belgium, for instance, the Royal Order of 22 February 1922,
as amended by that of 30 March 1936, states that in all undertakings the following persons are to be considered as employed in a
confidential capacity and are therefore excluded from the scope of
the 8-hour day, 48-hour week Act of 1921, on the same footing as
persons holding positions of management:
(1) managers, assistant managers, factors and works superintendents ;
(2) authorised agents and holders of a power of attorney;
(3) managers' secretaries, private secretaries and persons
attached exclusively to the secretarial department;
(4) engineers;
(5) chiefs and assistant chiefs of administrative, commercial and
technical services, chief chemists, laboratory chiefs and
their assistants ;
(6) cashiers;
(7) head foremen and job foremen in so far as they can be
assimilated to head foremen;
(8) works or workshop foremen, head store-keepers;
(9) head stablemen;
(10) foremen enginemen, mechanics, firemen, electricians, fitters;
(11) repair, maintenance, loading and transport foremen;

— 248 —
(12) gas generator foremen ;
(13) checkers (time-keepers).
For the mining industry in particular, the following are also
considered as employed in a confidential capacity:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

mine captains and head overmen;
deputies and underground inspectors (including shotfirers);
stall and gang foremen;
head lampmen.

In Rumania, too, where the regulations on hours of work do
not apply to persons in positions of management, or indeed to any
confidential employees, the competent authorities desired t h a t the
meaning to be attached to these terms should be exactly stated.
Administrative regulations issued on 30 January 1929 therefore
contain a list of persons to be considered as holding confidential
posts; this specifies the same classes as are enumerated in the
Belgian regulations applying to industry, with the following
additions: staffs of nursing services; caretakers, gate keepers
and persons required to check workers entering and leaving the
works, and watchmen stationed at specified posts.
In Italy the Royal Decree which introduced the 40-hour week in
industry excludes persons employed at intermittent work not
involving continuous occupation, work consisting in attendance
only, and watch-keeping, the occupations in question to be more
exactly determined by decree of the Minister of Corporations.
Pending issue of such a decree, the occupations excluded are those
specified in the Decree of 6 December 1923 concerning hours of
work in industrial and commercial undertakings. Among the
classes of persons in question, there are some which may be found
in the mining industry—watchmen, guards, caretakers, weighmen,
store-keepers, distribution staff, certain classes of persons engaged
in transport, loading and unloading, carters, horse-keepers, staffs
of works railways, supervisory staffs* not engaged in manual
work, etc.
In Japan the regulations concerning hours of work in mines
provide that, with the authorisation of the head of the Mines
Inspection Office, the ordinary hours provisions will not apply to
persons whose principal duties consist of supervision and persons employed at intermittent work. A circular sent by the Director of the
Bureau of Social Affairs to directors of mines inspection offices on

— 249 —
26 February 1930 states that the following shall be considered as
persons engaged in supervision: (1) persons stationed at specified
places, mainly for purposes of supervision, i.e. fire guards, caretakers, gate keepers, persons in charge of explosives, persons
guarding workplaces, watchmen, etc.: (2) pump minders, persons
minding compressed-air machines, fan minders, electricians,
workers engaged in the distribution of electric power, etc., who
mind their machines at specified places and have little manual
work to do; (3) persons stationed at specified places in order to
supervise the transport of persons and objects (watchmen on railways, endless railways, roads; signalmen, etc.); (4) workers engaged
in minding or supervision as assistants to the persons principally
responsible for such duties. Moreover, the following are to be
considered as persons whose work is intermittent: (1) workers
engaged in transport, such as the drivers of all mechanicallypropelled vehicles, horse-keepers, winding enginemen, and persons
who go down the mine before the other underground workers and
return after them but whose work between the times of entering
and leaving comprises breaks of considerable length in such a way that
their total actual work does not exceed 6 hours a day; (2) carpenters,
electricians and other workers engaged in repairs, who are required
to remain at a specified place underground by day and by night but
are organised in shifts; the work of these persons must, of course,
not be such as to involve continuous effort, their presence being
required in order to prevent accidents.
In Canada most of the collective agreements in the mining
industry contain full lists of the persons excluded. These are
usually as follows: mine manager or superintendent, overman or
assistant overman, pit boss, stable boss, master mechanic, electrician, weighman, head carpenter, head blacksmith, tipple or
breaker foreman, loader boss, night watchman, coke oven foreman,
outside foreman, any other foreman, time-keeper, coal inspector
and head lampman. Men working on improvements and extensive
repairs are also not included.
In Hungary hours of work are not limited for horse drivers
and persons responsible for the functioning of machinery.
OTHER METHODS OF SPECIFICATION

In some countries the regulations designate an authority to
which the duty of specifying the excluded classes of persons is
referred. It is, however, difficult to differentiate between the

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cases in which this method applies and those in which legislation
provides for recourse to an arbitration award in disputes concerning
operation. As has been said, the British Coal Mines Act, 1908,
refers disputes of this nature to the Secretary of State.
Other regulations, however, prescribe a procedure by which the
excluded classes may be definitely determined; in Australia, for
instance, Edmonds Order No. 1 excludes not only certain special
classes of workers but also such other men as may be considered,
by agreement between the Australian Coal and Shale Employees'
Federation and the proprietor, to be necessary for the safety or
continuous working of the mine.
The clearest case of action by an authority with a view to determining the excluded persons is in the U.S.S.R. The Labour Code
provides that the Central Council of Trade Unions shall determine
the categories of responsible persons (in Party, trade union or
Government employment) whose hours are not limited. Further,
an Order of the Commissariat of Labour dated 13 February 1928
provides that the working day cannot be exactly fixed for administrative, technical and commercial staff, and that the lists of
functions which may be thus excluded shall be drawn up by the
trade union and the economic authority competent in the respective
region.
Lastly, it should be noted that several classes of workers
excluded in some countries are not excluded in others but form
the subject of special schemes, which will be dealt with in Section IV
below (Extensions of Normal Hours of Work).

III. — Normal Hours of Work

The fixing of normal hours of work is the essential problem
in the regulation of hours of work.
The first task arising in this regard is to establish a definition.
Are " normal hours of work " to mean the time during which the
worker is at the employer's disposal, or the time during which he
is in the mine, or again the time he passes at the workplace (time
of actual work); and are they to include breaks, interruptions of
service, etc. ?
Having established a definition, the next step is to limit hours
of work, i.e. fix the number of hours which the worker may in
normal circumstances be required to work within a given period.
It is seen that there are two factors here—the number of hours
worked, and the period to which this number relates.
A further task is to determine the manner in which hours of
work may be distributed over the period to which they relate.
There is also the question of lost time. It may sometimes be
impossible, during the period to which the calculation of hours
relates, to complete the full number of hours corresponding to
this period. Are hours not worked to be regarded as irrevocably
lost, or may they be made up by increasing the number worked
during one of the following periods of calculation ?
Then, for technical reasons, certain operations must go on
without a break, and have therefore to be undertaken by a continuous succession of shifts. They require an hours schedule
different from that suited to operations which are done in spells
of day work (corresponding in length to the daily hours of the
staff) and which stop at night and on Sundays.
Other work is done in conditions so unhealthy that workers
engaged thereon cannot continue at it, without danger to their
health, for as many hours as are prescribed for work in normal
conditions.

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Lastly, as a general rule, production in mines ceases on Sundays
and certain legal or customary holidays. But certain operations
must be done on such days, and naturally special regulations are
required in this respect.
The above are the problems which a regulation of normal
working hours must solve. They are examined in the present
chapter in the light of the solutions provided for them in national
laws and regulations. Some of these problems require separate
treatment for underground and surface workers respectively;
whenever necessary, a distinction will therefore be made between
the two classes of workers.

A. — D E F I N I T I O N AND LIMITATION
These two features of the problem will be examined together,
for they are very closely connected. As regards underground
work in particular, the figure expressing the limit for hours of
work depends partly on the definition of hours used for the
calculation; it is clear, for instance, that if one scheme limits the
time spent at the face and another the time spent in the mine,
there will be a wide difference between the two nominal maxima
even though they both correspond to the same amount of actual
work.
UNDERGROUND

WORKERS

The problem of defining and limiting hours of work for
underground workers is extremely complex. Its complexity is due,
first of all, to the conditions in which these workers are employed.
The working day of the underground miner includes a succession
of widely different operations—preparing for the descent, the
descent itself, the journey from the pit bottom to the workplace,
the work there (interrupted by breaks or other stoppages), the
return to the pit bottom, the reascent to the pithead, handing in
the lamp, checking out, bath, etc. It is therefore indispensable to
state clearly what part of the mining undertaking is to be chosen for
calculating the miner's hours of work. There are three possibilities
—the undertaking as a whole (including the pithead and the
underground workings), the interior of the mine, and the workplace. Hours of work can therefore be determined with reference to
the worker's presence in one or other of these places, by limiting

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either the time spent in the undertaking, or the time spent in the
mine, or the time spent at the workplace.
It will also be seen below that the complexity of the problem of
defining and limiting hours of work is further increased because the
miner is almost always part of a shift and hours are often calculated
not for the individual, but for the whole shift to which he belongs.

§ 1. — Time Spent in the Undertaking

The total period spent in the undertaking is that comprised
between the moment when the worker arrives at the pithead and
begins to get ready for work, and the moment when he leaves the
pithead at the end of his working day. This period is not, as a rule,
limited by national regulations, most of which fix the time spent
in the interior of the mine or at the place of work. In any case,
therefore, apart from certain arrangements made to fit exceptional
circumstances, hours of work exclude all the miner's preparations
for descent—changing clothes, taking over lamp, checking in, etc.,
going from the lamp room to the shaft—and the corresponding
operations in the opposite order after he returns to the surface.
Further, the shift may include only one winding time (collective
descent or ascent), or neither. Apart from this, in order that there
shall be no delay when the descent is to start, the rules of the mine
usually provide that the workers must be at the top of the shaft
ready to go down several minutes before the time at which the
descent is due. In Germany a provision of this nature is even
contained in the collective rules for the Central German lignite
mines, which state that the miners must be ready exactly at the
time fixed in the time-table. As a result, the difference between
the time spent in the undertaking and the time spent inside the
mine may vary considerably according to the mine, for it depends
on the time required for getting ready, the distance of the timekeeper's office (usually the lamp room) from the opening of the
shaft, and the length of the descent or ascent when either of these
or both are excluded from calculation of the shift. This is, indeed,
the reason why the period spent in the undertaking is not taken as a
basis for calculating hours of work.
Nevertheless, in a few special cases account is taken of certain
factors not usually included in the shift. The Austrian regulations
provide that the time required for the roll-call, issuing and returning
lamps, tools and explosives, and drawing pay, shall be included in

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hours of work. In Spain the standards of employment for the
Oviedo coal mines and the Teruel lignite mines provide that if the
lamp room or timekeeper's office is more than 200 metres from
the top of the shaft, the time spent in the mine shall be counted
from the moment when the lamp is fetched, ten minutes being
allowed for each kilometre.

§ 2. — Time Spent in the Mine
D E F I N I T I O N AND C A L C U L A T I O N

The time spent in the mine—i.e. underground—is defined and
calculated in different ways according as access to the pit bottom
is by a shaft or an adit.
(a) Access by a Shaft
When the workers enter the mine by a shaft they are usually
lowered and raised in cages. If the group to be wound is relatively
small, all its members may find room on the different floors of the
cage and only one trip in each direction is required. If the group is
larger, its descent and ascent will require several trips of the cage.
In practice, the time spent in the mine is calculated either for the
worker taken individually or for the whole group. It should,
however, be noted that where the group is relatively small and can
be wound at one trip of the cage, the hours of the group are, in
practice, the same as those of each of its members—in other words,
collective calculation is equivalent to individual calculation.
It may be pointed out in this connection that in certain countries
hours are calculated for the whole shift of workers as a single
unit; this applies for instance in Great Britain, where the shift
is defined by legislation as " any number of workmen whose hours
for beginning and terminating work in the mine are approximately
the same ". In some other countries the subdivision of the shift of
workers • for the purpose of calculating hours is permitted ; in
Belgium, hours may be calculated for the shift or gang, the category
or cage-load.
(i) Individual Calculation
Where the length of the shift is-calculated individually, it is
equivalent to the period between the time when the worker enters

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the cage to descend and that at which he leaves it at the end of
the ascent. The shift thus includes both individual journeys.
This method of calculation is used in Austria, Canada (Alberta
and British Columbia), China, France, Germany (bituminous coal
mines in Saxony, and lignite mines), Great Britain, Hungary,
Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, Rumania, Union of South Africa
(white workers), and the U.S.S.R. But in the German bituminous
coal mines, excluding those of Saxony, the shift ends when the
worker enters the cage at the bottom of the shaft, and thus does
not include the individual ascent. The same is true of certain
mines in Hungary.
The regulations of several of the countries just mentioned provide
at the same time for a collective method of calculation. In Canada
(Alberta), France, and Japan this method corresponds exactly to the
individual method, but in China and Great Britain the collective
method—the only one in fact utilised—has results widely different
from those of individual calculation ; as will be seen below, it includes
neither winding time, and the length of the collective descent (or
ascent) must therefore be added to the length of the shift in order
to obtain the individual time spent in the mine. In Great Britain,
however, individual calculation from bank to bank is used in one
mine in the Bristol district and—on Saturdays—for hewers and
fillers in Durham as well as for some other classes of workers in
certain collieries of this district.
(ii)

Collective Calculation

Where the shift is calculated on a collective basis, there are three
possibilities.
1. It can begin when the first (or last) worker of the group
enters the cage to descend, and end when the first (or last)
worker of the group enters or leaves the cage on returning
to the surface. In this case the shift includes either the
collective descent or the collective ascent (only one winding
time).
2. It can begin when the first worker of the group enters the
cage to descend, and end when the last worker leaves it on
returning to the surface. In this case the shift includes both
the collective descent and the collective ascent (two winding
times).
3. It can begin when the last worker of the group enters the
cage to descend, and end when the first worker leaves the

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cage on returning to the surface. In this case the shift
includes neither the collective descent nor the collective ascent
(no winding time).
Collective calculation of the shift including only one winding
time is used in the Canadian Province of Alberta, France, Japan
(if the group consists of over 20 persons), the Netherlands, Spain
and Yugoslavia (in mines where the workers do not travel in cages).
As detailed study would show, this method of calculation is equivalent to the individual method, in that the number of hours
constituting the shift so calculated corresponds to the individual
time spent in the mine by each member of the group.
Collective calculation of the shift including both winding times
is used in A ustralia, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, India, and Yugoslavia
(in mines where the workers travel in cages). The Czechoslovak
Act provides that the time required for lowering and raising all
the workers of a shift shall be considered as additional work; but
in practice the collective agreements include winding time in the
shift. In Belgium the groups of workers in respect of which hours
are calculated are usually those travelling together in the same
cage; so that in practice collective calculation and individual
calculation are identical.
Collective calculation exclusive of winding time is used in China
and Great Britain.
Order of workers during winding. — The order in which workers
are raised and lowered is of great importance for collective calculation where the group is sufficiently large to require several trips
of the cage. Workers who went down on the first trip and came
up on the last would clearly be staying in the mine longer than
those who went down on the last trip and came up on the first;
and the actual hours of work of the former workers would be
extended in comparison with the hours of the remainder. From
a social point of view this course would involve different periods
in the mine for workers of the same shift, and from an economic
point of view it might have an effect if the workers whose productive
value is highest—the hewers, for instance—were systematically
kept underground longer than the others.
For the above reasons certain schemes—such as those of France
and the Netherlands—provide that the order of descent and ascent
of the workers of a group must be approximately the same. The
Netherlands regulations even add that the trimmers must go down
at the same time as the hewers, and return with them at the end

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of the shift. In Poland there must be rules for each mining
undertaking exactly specifying the order in which the workers are
to be lowered and raised.
Winding time. — The length of the winding operations may have
an effect on the real time spent in the mine by each individual,
if the collective descent or ascent, or both, are excluded from
calculation of the shift. More particularly, it is clear that any
system under which the ascent—supposing this not to be included
in the shift—were unduly prolonged would involve extension of
the time spent in the mine by the workers last raised to the surface.
To prevent possible abuse, several schemes provide for the
limitation of winding time. In Czechoslovakia the collective agreement for the Moravska Ostrava bituminous coalfield states that
the lowering and raising of the shift must be completed within
specified limits. In France the duration of the descent and ascent
of any shift or other group of workers must be approximately the
same. In Great Britain the relevant Act provides that: "the
owner, agent or manager of every mine shall fix for each shift of
workmen in the mine the time at which the lowering of the men
is to commence and to be completed, and the time at which the
raising of the men from the mine is to commence and to be completed " ; the resulting intervals must be approved by the inspector
as " the time reasonably required for the purpose " ; and a whole
procedure is laid down in case of dispute between the management
and the inspector. In Japan collective calculation is authorised
when the shift comprises over 20 persons, in which case the time
required for the collective descent must be approved by the mine
inspector. If the workers go down the mine on foot, the time
required by the whole shift for this purpose may not exceed half
an hour, or one hour if the shift comprises over 200 persons; if
the workers are transported by mechanical means, the time allowed
is equal to a rational estimate of the actual length of the collective
descent plus 30 per cent, of the time fixed for the descent on foot.
In the Netherlands the time required for raising the shift may
not exceed that required for lowering the same shift by more than
a quarter of an hour.
Travelling time underground. — Underground travelling is
usually included in the time spent in the mine ; but in a few exceptional cases provision is made to keep the time spent on this travelling down to the strict minimum, particularly when no mechanical
underground transport is available. A time allowance is then
C R . II.

— 258 —
fixed, calculated according to the distance to be travelled, and if
the miner exceeds this allowance, the excess is not counted in
his hours of work. Thus in New Zealand, according to an agreement
in force for the Liverpool State Coal Mine, an allowance for time
lost travelling (at 2% miles an hour) is deducted from the " bank
to bank " shift to obtain the actual number of hours required of
the worker. The standards of employment in force in the Spanish
provinces of Oviedo and León state that travelling time underground is to be reckoned at 15 minutes per kilometre, but the mine
management reserves the right to transport the workers by rail.
(b) Access by an Adit
In mines which can be entered by an adit, the time spent in
the mine is counted from the moment at which the worker passes
through the entrance of the adit until the moment at which he
returns to the surface. This is the case in Belgium, the Canadian
Province of Alberta, France, Germany (both lignite and bituminous
coal mines), and the U.S.S.R.
In Australia a reasonable time is allowed to each worker in
which to enter and leave a " tunnel " mine, and this time is included
in the hours of work: it is determined by agreement between the
proprietors and the Miners' Federation, or, failing this, it is fixed
by the tribunal or court. In Great Britain the hours for entering
and leaving the mine are determined by the management and
approved by the inspector; they take the place of the times fixed
for the beginning and end of winding in shaft mines. In Japan
checking in adit mines may take place at an office inside the mine
if the Mines Inspection Bureau approves; but such an office may
not be more than 600 ken (about 1,200 metres) from the entrance
to the mine, and the adit leading to it from the surface must be
easy to walk on foot, and its gradient may not be steeper than
that of an ordinary surface road; further, the adit must be at least
5% shaku (1.83 metres) high, and be adequately lighted and
ventilated.
In Hungary hours of work do not include travelling time in
adits.
BREAKS AND INTERRUPTIONS OF SERVICE

The very principle on which the calculation of time spent in the
mine is based involves the inclusion of breaks and other interruptions in this time. The need for short breaks, during which the

— 259 —
workers can rest and have something to eat and drink, is indisputable; a shift of seven or eight hours could not be worked without
an interval.
These breaks are often taken when the work has to be stopped
for technical reasons (shot-firing, waiting for trucks or material, etc.). In some cases the worker takes his break individually,
without a stoppage of production. Several Czechoslovak collective
agreements contain stipulations of this sort. In other cases breaks
are taken collectively, and do involve a stoppage. Under French
legislation, the break may be taken together by the men at a given
workplace or by a given class of workers; but the collective
agreement for the Northern coalfield (Anzin, Nord and Pas-deCalais) restricts this provision, and stipulates that save in exceptional cases breaks must be taken together by all the men at the
workplace, without subdivision according to class of worker.
The length of the regulation break is sometimes fixed by legislation or agreement. This is the case in Australia (30 minutes), in
some British districts (15 or 20 minutes; only 10 minutes on
Saturdays in some of these districts), and in France (25 minutes).
Further, French legislation lays down that the break should be
taken all at once, or exceptionally in two parts; the collective
agreement for the Northern coalfield stipulates that it shall be
taken all at once.
There are, however, a few cases in which breaks are not included
in the time spent in the mine. This applies to the underground
lignite mines in the outer districts of the Central German coalfield,
and to Spain. In the latter country the standards of employment
in force in the province of Oviedo state that half the breaks (which
last for 30 minutes) shall be counted as time spent in the mine.
Interruptions due to causes outside the worker's control, and
imposed by technical requirements, are always included in the
time spent in the mine. This is specifically laid down in the Spanish
and Yugoslav regulations. In Italy interruptions due to falls of
roof, etc., failure of electric current, and flooding are included
in hours of work if they do not exceed 30 minutes; beyond this
limit the worker is entitled to his wages for each hour during which
he remains at his workplace by order of the management.
LIMITS TO TIME SPENT IN THE MINE

The review of the situation given above shows that the limits
placed on time spent in the mine depend partly on the method of

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calculation used. An 8-hour shift, for instance, may denote widely
different times in the mine according as it is calculated individually
or collectively-—and in the latter case according as it includes
both winding times, or only one, or neither. It may thus correspond,
for each worker, to a period in the mine greater than, equal to, or
less then 8 hours ; and it is impossible to say what period in the mine
a given shift denotes unless the method of calculation is also
indicated.
The periods usually taken as a basis for fixing the number of
hours of presence in the mine are the day and the week. The one or
the other is sometimes taken as sole basis, the regulations either
choosing directly between them or leaving the choice free. On the
other hand, they may apply simultaneously, in which case the
daily and the weekly limit must both be respected.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that a weekly limitation of
working hours, even though not specified, may be reached indirectly
by applying a weekly rest scheme which in practice limits the number of shifts per worker to six in the week, or by fixing the number of
weekly working days or shifts (5-day or 6-day week; or in some
cases the 5-day and 6-day week alternately, with 11 shifts in each
fortnight).
Apart from continuous operations, which will be dealt with later,
the calculation of hours of work over periods longer than the week is
quite exceptional and applies to special operations or groups of
workers only.
The maximum limits laid down by national regulations for time
spent in the mine are classified below in three groups, according
to the method of calculation used. In each group the limits for
hours of work are arranged according to the periods on which they
are based (day, week, day or week, day and week, day and fortnight).
(a)

Individual Calculation; Collective Calculation equivalent to
Individual Calculation

As has been stated, the method of collective calculation which
includes one winding time is equivalent to the individual method.
The same applies when the shift includes both winding times, but
the group of workers to which the calculation applies can be
transported together in the same cage.
Daily Limits
10 hours: Japan.

— 261 —
9 hours: Germany (in the Rhineland and Westphalia coalfields,
technical staff, average calculated over the month, the ninth hour
being paid for at a wage increase of 15 per cent.).
8y2 hours: Germany (outer districts of the Central German
lignite field).
8 hours: Austria, Canada (Alberta and British Columbia),
Germany, Netherlands (6-hour shift on Saturdays).
7 hours: U.S.S.R., where, however, a very large number of
workers are covered by the provisions of the Labour Code, which
reduce hours to 6 in the day for persons employed on underground
work; see the lists of occupations drawn up by the People's Commissariat for Labour (whose duties were taken over by the Central
Council of Trade Unions in 1933).
Weekly Limits
48 hours : Turkey ;
40 hours: France (supervisory staff).
Daily or Weekly Limits
8 hours a day or 48 hours a week: Czechoslovakia, Rumania.
In a few lignite mines in Czechoslovakia, weekly hours are reduced
to 46 by making the Saturday shift two hours shorter.
Daily and Weekly Limits
8 hours a day and 48 hours a week: Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia
(mines in which the workers do not travel in cages). In Austria
the weekly limitation applies only when hours of work are unevenly
distributed over the different days of the week.
7% hours a day and 45 hours a week: Belgium, Poland.
8 hours a day and 40 hours a week: Italy, New Zealand. In
certain New Zealand mines, when work has to be done on Saturdays
(development, repair or maintenance work) the shift is one or two
hours shorter.
7 hours a day and 40 hours a week: Spain.
7% hours a day and 38 hours 40 minutes a week: France.
In the Union of South Africa, in the Transvaal, the hours of
white miners employed underground are usually 8% in the day
for the first five days of the week and 5% on Saturdays, i.e. 48 hours
a week ; in Natal the usual shift for these workers is about 9 hours.
(b) Collective Calculation including Both Winding Times
9 hours a day and 6 days a week, i.e. 54 hours a week: India.

— 262 —

8 hours a day and 48 hours a week: Australia (6 hours on
Saturdays), except Western Australia; Yugoslavia (mines in which
the workers travel in cages). In the Australian State of New
South Wales, it is the general practice to produce coal on 11 shifts
a fortnight, 10 of 8 hours each and a 6-hour shift on alternate
Saturdays, the weekly average thus being 43 hours.
7 hours a day: Australian State of Western Australia (except
for pumpers) ; the practice of not working on alternate Saturdays
gives a weekly average of 38% hours; when the second Saturday
shift (usually idle) is worked, 5 hours constitute a full shift on
that day.
(c) Collective Calculation including Neither Winding Time
8 hours a day : China. In practice it would appear that the time
spent in the mine by each worker may exceed the regulation limit
by about 2 hours, since as a rule this limit includes neither descent
nor ascent nor work relating to the changing of shifts. The
individual time spent in the mine appears to vary between 8 and
12 hours a day.
7 y2 hours a day : Great Britain. The working of a shorter shift
on Saturdays involves a reduction in weekly hours; this reduction,
which varies in length from district to district and according to
the class of worker, sometimes amounts to half a shift. For hewers
in Northumberland and (usually) for hewers and fillers in Durham
it is obtained by working on alternate Saturdays only. In some
mines of the Bristol district, hours of work are reduced on Saturdays
by the use of a different method of calculation, winding time (up)
being included in the shift.
§ 3. — Time Spent at the Workplace
In certain countries—the Canadian Provinces of New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia, and Saskatchewan, Chile (particularly for submarine
coal mines) and the United States—the maximum limits for hours
of work apply to the time spent at the workplace—a conception
which closely resembles that of actual work. Hours are counted
individually for each worker from the moment when he arrives at
his workplace until the moment when he leaves it; the time
required for underground travelling, including winding time, is
thus excluded. In the bituminous coal mines of the United States
the average length of travelling and winding time was estimated
in 1933 at 54 minutes per shift. Moreover, in that country time

— 263 —

spent at the workplace does not include meal breaks—usually
30 minutes in length, except in some mechanised mines, where
only 15-20 minutes are taken—but it appears that the ordinary
practice is for the miners to eat their lunch in the breaks that
come in the course of mining, so that the period at the workplace
is not thereby extended.
Maximum hours of work at the workplace are fixed at 8 in the
day in the Canadian Provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
and Saskatchewan, and 7*hours a day and 5 days a week (35 hours
a week) excluding meal breaks in the United States; but under
the Anthracite Agreement of the latter country six days may be
worked instead of five during twelve weeks in any contract year.
In practice, the United States underground miner usually determines his own hours according to the amount that he wishes to
work, and it has been estimated that in general he works nearer
to 5 or 6 hours a day than to 7.
In Chile, according to information supplied by the Government
of that country in its reply to the questionnaire which the Office
sent out when preparing for the 1936 Session of the Conference, the
time lost in the submarine mines in travelling from the entrance
of the adit to the working face (estimated at an hour in each direction) is not included in hours of work, and the workers thus remain
8 hours a day and 48 hours a week at the workplace. The coal
extracted from these mines accounts for 90 per cent, of the national
output.
It may be added that in Great Britain hours of work are calculated
at the workplace in exceptional cases (where the work of sinking
a pit or driving a cross-measure drift is being carried on
continuously); in this case the only limits are that the number
of hours spent by the worker at his working place may not exceed 6
and that the interval between the time of leaving the working
place and returning thereto may in no case be less than 12 hours.
In certain mines in Hungary travel-time in underground adits,
particularly in those leading to inside shafts, is not counted in
the 8-hour shift.
In the U.S.S.R. an Order of the People's Commissariat for
Heavy Industry, dated 10 July 1936, provides that in order to
improve the organisation and preparation of work, shifts must be
changed at the workplace, and hours of work calculated from the
moment when the workers arrive there. But the adoption of this
method of calculation seems to be connected with the new system
of organising mining work and the mechanisation of the transport

— 264 —
of miners to the face, which was to be introduced in 1937 ; it would
appear, therefore, that the calculation of hours as at the workplace
is in course of introduction in the Soviet Union.
SURFACE WORKERS
The position of surface workers (manual, non-manual, and
technical) as regards hours of work does not appear to raise any
problem of a special nature distinguishing it from the position of
industrial workers generally.

§ 1. — Definition of Normal Hours of Work

The expression " hours of work " is seldom exactly defined in
respect of surface workers. The regulations use " hours of work ",
" normal hours of work ", and " hours of actual work ", but it is
rare to find a statement of the meaning of these terms, particularly
as regards the last of the three. Nevertheless it is generally recognised, sometimes owing to official interpretations or judicial
decisions, but more often implicitly, that hours of work mean the
time during which the worker is at the employer's disposal, i.e.
the time during which he is engaged according to the time-table
the employer has drawn up under the regulations.
In some countries hours of work mean the time spent by the
employed person at his workplace. In the United States the general
collective agreements concerning bituminous coal and anthracite
mines respectively state that the limits apply to work done at the
usual workplace. In Poland hours of work mean the number
of hours during which the worker is required by his contract to
remain at the disposal of a foreman inside or outside the
establishment.
Few regulations mention clearly whether the various acts of a
personal nature which take place before or after work—changing
clothes, washing, bathing, checking in or out, etc.—are or are not
included under hours of work. In the Central German lignite mines
these operations are excluded; so is, in Yugoslavia, the roll-call
before the beginning of the shift. On the other hand, in Austria
hours of work include the time required for the roll-call, the issue of
tools and explosives, and the drawing of pay. In Japan, according
to a circular of the Bureau of Social Affairs " the few minutes
spent in going to the workplace before starting work, at the

— 265 —

orders of a superior, or in the direct preparation of work" are
counted in hours of work as being " time necessary for the
preparation of work ".
In practice it would appear that the beginning and end of spells
of work are marked by a signal, and that the period between these
signals—after deduction of any breaks excluded by regulations—
constitute hours of work. For instance, the Spanish Act states
on this point that for surface work the day shall be counted from
the roll-call or the signal for the start, in whatever form this is
given, until the end of work at the workplace, excluding regular
breaks but including interruptions required for technical reasons.
BREAKS AND INTERRUPTIONS OF SERVICE

Workers may be authorised to stop work in the course of the day.
Short breaks of 5, 10 or 15 minutes, spent at the workplace, are
usually counted in hours of work. Longer breaks, particularly
when the workers leave the workplace, are not included; this applies
above all to the midday interval, when work is done in two spells.
Long breaks are usually provided for in the time-table.
The criterion for distinguishing between breaks included in
hours of work and those excluded would thus appear to reside
essentially in the existence or non-existence of a relation of dependence between worker and employer during the break.
The regulations of most countries—Australia (Western Australia),
Chile, China, Czechoslovakia, Great Britain (except a few districts),
Germany, Hungary, India, New Zealand, Rumania, Spain, Turkey,
United States, U.S.S.R., and Yugoslavia—state that rests and
breaks for meals shall not be counted in hours of work. In practice
the position is the same under regulations like those of Belgium,
which limit the hours of actual work. In a few other countries,
Austria and Poland for instance, the regulations exclude from
hours of work any breaks provided for in the time-table.
On the other hand, a number of regulations state that short
breaks for refreshment (sometimes called " crib time ") shall be
included in hours of work. In Australia, for instance, breaks are
included in engine-drivers' hours; and in New South Wales crib
time of 30 minutes is usually included in working hours. In
Czechoslovakia, where the Act provides that a break of at least
a quarter of an hour must be given after not more than 5 hours'
uninterrupted work, the parties may agree that breaks shall be
counted in hours of work. In practice collective agreements

— 266 —

provide that a break of a quarter of an hour given after 4 or 5 hours'
work shall be included in hours and that if the break exceeds a
quarter of an hour, working time shall be increased by the same
amount; on Saturdays the break is included only if no breakfast
interval has been allowed during the hour preceding the time at
which the break is normally due. In Great Britain breaks are
included in hours of work in the districts of Cannock Chase, Leicestershire, Forest of Dean, and North Wales. In Japan the hours
of women workers, which may not exceed 11 in the day, must
include half-an-hour's rest if not less than 6 hours are worked,
and 1 hour's rest if not less than 10 hours are worked.
Several schemes fix the time at which a break must be allowed,
whether or not it is to be included in hours of work. In Australia
it is specified in some cases that a break must be given not less
than 3yz and not more than 4*4 hours after the commencement
of the shift. In the U.S.S.R. a break of not less than half an hour
and not more than 2 hours must be given 4 hours at the most after
the beginning of the shift. After 5 hours' work a break of half
an hour must be allowed in China and at least a quarter of an hour
in Czechoslovakia. In India and Poland workers must have at
least an hour's rest after not more than 6 hours' work.
Interruptions due to causes beyond the worker's control and not
provided for in the time-table are as a rule included in hours of
work. The Spanish and Yugoslav regulations contain specific
provisions on this point. In Italy the provisions already mentioned
in this connection with regard to underground workers also apply
to surface workers (see p. 259).

§ 2. — Limits to Normal Hours of Work
PERIOD BY WHICH HOURS ARE LIMITED

As has already been indicated for underground workers, hours
ofjwork in the mine may be limited by the day, the week, the
day or the week, or the day and the week; a weekly limitation
may also be obtained indirectly by fixing the number of
working days in the week or applying a weekly rest scheme. In
some instances, but relatively seldom, hours of work are limited
on a fortnightly basis, so as to make one Saturday in each fortnight
free. It is only for a few classes of workers that the hours of work in

— 267 —

the mine are calculated over periods longer than those just
mentioned.
Hours are limited by the day in Australia (Victoria and Western
Australia), Austria, Canada (Saskatchewan), China, Germany,
Great Britain (South Wales and Monmouthshire, winding enginemen in all districts), Japan, Netherlands, Poland (Upper Silesia),
and the U.S.S.B.
Limitation by the week is customary in Australia (New South
Wales, and mining engineers in Western Australia), Great Britain
(except one district), and Turkey.
The day or the week is taken as the basis for limiting hours in
Czechoslovakia and Rumania.
Limitation by the day and the week is prescribed in Austria,
Belgium., Canada (British Columbia), France, Hungary, India, Italy,
New Zealand, Poland, Spain, the United States, and Yugoslavia.
In Austria the weekly limitation applies only when hours are
unevenly distributed over the different days of the week.
MAXIMUM LIMITS

The national schemes in force, whether legislative or embodied
in some other form of regulation, lay down the following limitations,
which are classified here according to the period taken as the basis
of calculation:
Daily Limits
11 hours: Japan (women; includes rests).
10 hours: Japan (men; limit generally fixed according to instructions contained in various circulars of the Bureau of Social
Affairs).
9 hours: Germany (in the coalfields of the Rhineland and
Westphalia, technical workers; the ninth hour is paid at 15 per cent.
above the normal rate).
8-10 hours: Germany (8 hours according to the legislation,
8-10 hours according to the collective rules, varying by coalfields,
by categories of work, and by the organisation of the work. In
general the ninth and tenth hours are paid at 15 per cent, above
normal rates, or 10 per cent, for workers whose duty consists mainly
in being in attendance).
8 hours: Australia (6 hours on Saturdays as a rule), Austria,
Canada (British Columbia and Saskatchewan), China, Great

— 268 —

Britain (South Wales and Monmouthshire, winding enginemen
in all districts), Netherlands1, Poland (Upper Silesia), and Spain
(salaried employees). In the Australian States of Victoria and
Western Australia, the relevant Acts prescribe an 8-hour day for
persons in charge of any machinery except sinking pumps, borers
and coal-cutting machines. In China, it would appear that in
practice hours of work lie between 9 and 12 in the day. In Great
Britain, the hours of winding enginemen may be up to 10% a day
if only a single shift is worked.
7 hours: Australia, in Western Australia (except grooms, who
work 8 hours); further, in practice every second Saturday is free,
and when it is worked, 5% hours count as a full shift.
Weekly Limits
48 hours: Germany (salaried employees), Turkey.
From 44 hours excluding breaks to 49 hours including breaks:
Great Britain.
43 hours: Australia, in New South Wales (mechanics); in fact
the 43-hour week seems to be the usual scheme for all classes of
workers, subject to the possibility of working overtime.
42 hours one week and 40 hours the next, giving an average of
41 hours a week: Australia, in Western Australia (mining engineers).
Daily or Weekly Limits
8 hours a day or 48 hours a week: Czechoslovakia, Rumania.
In Czechoslovakia, weekly hours in certain lignite mines are
reduced to 46 by shortening the Saturday shift.
Daily and Weekly Limits
8 hours a day and 48 hours a week: Austria, Belgium, Chile,
Hungary, Italy (salaried employees), Poland, Yugoslavia. In
Austria, the weekly limitation applies only when hours of work
are unevenly distributed over the different days of the week.
In the Union of South Africa, white surface workers have a
48-hour week, with 8% hours on the first five days of the week
and 5% hours on Saturdays.
8 hours a day and 44 hours a week: Spain.
8 hours a day and 40 hours a week : France, Italy, New Zealand.
In France, as regards office staff, the 40 weekly hours may be
1
According to information supplied by the Government of the Netherlands
in 1930, hours of work in open lignite mines were 10 per day and 58 per week.

— 269 —
distributed evenly over five days of the week (8-hour day) or over
the six working days of the'week (day of 6 hours 40 minutes), or
unevenly over the six working days.
7 hours a day and 35 hours a week : United States. For workers
in " s t r i p " anthracite mines, an 8-hour day is worked; further,
in the anthracite mines, workers may be employed for six days
a week in any twelve weeks of the year.
Shorter Hours on Saturdays
In Australia, and in certain lignite mines in Czechoslovakia,
hours of work are usually shorter on Saturdays. In the U.S.S.R.
a 6-hour day is worked on the eves of rest-days and public holidays,
but this provision does not apply to establishments which have
adopted the system of continuous work. These reductions involve
a shorter working week. It will be seen below that there are also
possibilities of reducing hours on Saturdays without shortening
the working week.

B. — DISTRIBUTION OF NORMAL HOURS OF WORK
Hours of work are most often distributed over the week,
sometimes over the fortnight, and occasionally over a longer
period.
§ 1. — Distribution over the Week
The information given in the previous section of this chapter
shows that for each employed person a shift usually falls on each
working day of the week, except for necessarily continuous operations. There is, however, at present a pronounced tendency to
reduce the number of weekly shifts to five and thus to allow the
miner two days' rest a week. Such is the practice in France, Italy,
New Zealand, and the United States.
In France, hours of work must be distributed over five days
in the week so that the workers have a weekly rest-day in addition
to Sunday. This additional day must be the same for all the
workers in a given mine or pit, except persons employed exclusively
in maintenance or safety work, who are entitled to time off in
compensation. For underground workers, distribution over six days

— 270 —

may be authorised in exceptional cases by Ministerial Decree, and
if such authorisation is given, the hours of the surface workers must
also be distributed over the six days; the collective agreement
for the Northern coalfield, however, states that use will not be
made of this provision until the question has been re-examined.
Further, the Chief Inspector of Mines, after consulting the employers' and workers' organisations concerned, may authorise
work in rotation in a mine or pit, in such a way that operations
are carried on every working day, provided that neither the shifts
in any section of the mine nor the individual workers work more
than 7% hours a day and 5 days a week. For office staff, hours
may be 8 in the day for five days, with an unbroken rest of 48 hours,
including Sunday, or 6 hours 40 minutes on each of the six working
days, or 40 hours a week unevenly distributed over the six working
days, provided in this last case that there is an unbroken rest of
40 hours including Sunday. The hours scheme must be the same
for the whole office staff of a given service.
In New Zealand hours of work are 8 a day for the first five days
of the week. On Saturdays necessary development, maintenance
and repair work may be done. In certain cases the Saturday shift
is reduced by an hour or two hours.
In the United States work may be done on any five days of the
week, except certain recognised legal holidays. Further, the
Anthracite Agreement provides that the five-day week only applies
to staff and may not be considered as limiting the operation of the
mine or the hours for working the coal-cutting machines. Work on
Saturdays is restricted as much as possible, but the agreements
containing such a provision state also that Saturday work shall
not thereby be prevented when rendered necessary by holidays,
unavoidable shut-downs, trade conditions, double shifts or rotation
of work.
In a number of countries, the sixth (Saturday) shift is shorter
than the others. This is the case in Australia, in a considerable
number of British districts, in certain lignite mines in Czechoslovakia,
and in the Netherlands for underground work in the bituminous
coal mines. This practice involves a shorter working week.
On the other hand, the regulations of several countries provide
for the possibility of reducing hours on Saturdays without a
corresponding shortening of the working week. This is the case
in Austria, Belgium, Canada (British Columbia and Nova Scotia),
Chile, Czechoslovakia, Poland (Upper Silesia), Rumania, and
Yugoslavia. In the Union of South Africa (Transvaal), white

— 271 —
workers have a 48-hour week, though on Saturdays the shift ends
three hours earlier than on other days.
§ 2. — Distribution over the Fortnight

In a few countries hours are spread over the fortnight in order
that there may be a whole day free during this period. Eleven
shifts are then worked in the fortnight (six one week and five the
next), the result being a reduction in average weekly hours. This
is the practice in Australia (New South Wales and Western
Australia) and in some British districts (Northumberland and
Durham) for certain groups of underground workers.
The spreading of normal hours over the fortnight may have a
different object—that of making the regulations more flexible.
This is the case in Austria, where the hours of carters, motor
drivers, grooms, messengers, mine railway staffs, persons engaged
in the distribution of goods for consumption and all other persons
employed in mines whose working time cannot be exactly limited,
are calculated at the rate of 96 hours a fortnight.
§ 3. — Distribution over Other Periods

Distribution of hours over periods longer than a fortnight
is rare and applies only to clearly defined operations and
groups of workers. In France hours of work may be distributed over not more than four weeks for the staffs of maintenance, cleaning and safety services, persons engaged in the loading
and unloading of trucks and boats, the staffs of mine transport
services (by rail, road or water), and persons required to prepare
the periodical wage accounts. In Germany the hours of technical
staff employed underground are calculated on a monthly average.
In Italy hours may be spread over six weeks for operations ancillary
to underground work and services closely related thereto when work
is indispensable, with a weekly limit of 48 hours.
In Poland, the general provisions regarding road transport
state that the hours of work of persons employed in the transport,
delivery, loading and unloading of goods may be calculated at
the rate of 624 hours in each period of 13 weeks, provided not more
than 10 hours are worked on any one day. In the U.S.S.R. the
hours of persons engaged permanently on repair work may be
calculated by the month.

—, 272 —

C. — MAKING UP LOST TIME
For reasons of various sorts—accidents, bad weather (in surface
work and open mines), installation of new plant, national and local
holidays—production has sometimes to be stopped and shifts are
therefore lost. It may happen that both the employers and the
workers wish to make up these shifts, the former in order to maintain
the volume of output (particularly in countries where hours have
been reduced) and the latter in order not to lose their wages.

§ 1. — Cases in which Lost Time may be made up

In Austria the collective agreements permit the making up of
time lost through bad weather.
In France time lost owing to collective stoppages for legal holidays
or local festivals or through accidents may be made up, as also
time lost for other reasons if the Chief Inspector of Mines gives
his authorisation. For surface workers, mention is also made
of stoppages owing to failure of power, insufficient means of transport, and bad weather.
In Italy time lost owing to force majeure or stoppages may be
made up.
In Germany and Poland lost time may be made up, there being
no provision relating to the cause of the loss.
In the United States some agreements provide that cutting by a
machine crew may continue sufficiently long to enable time lost
on account of mechanical trouble or power failure to be made up.
Further, days lost (particularly by reason of public holidays)
may be made up during the same week provided not more than
five shifts are worked. Other agreements state that when, in a
mine operating on the first five days of the week, a shut-down
becomes necessary with 3 y2 hours or less of operation, the remainder
of the week's working time may be made up on the sixth day.

§ 2. — Methods of making up Lost Time

It is clear that when lost time is made up, the normal hours
on the day or week in question will be exceeded; and where—

— 273 —
as is most often the case—the regulations lay down limits for daily
and weekly hours, work in excess of these must be authorised
before the lost time may be made up. The regulations in this
connection deal not only with the possibility of working in excess
of the daily or weekly limits, but in most cases also with the conditions under which these additional hours may be worked, and
particularly their maximum number and the period within which
they must fall.
The maximum extension allowed is fixed at one hour a day or
one shift a week, as the case may be, in France and at one hour a
day in Italy. Total hours of work, including the extension, may
not exceed 9 a day in Poland and 10 a day in Austria.
The period within which lost time may be made up is two weeks
in Austria and in Italy. In Germany lost time may be made up
during the same or the subsequent week, and in Poland in the three
following weeks.
In France, for underground work, the period varies with the
number of shifts to be made u p ; one extra shift may be worked
within the week or following week, two shifts within the week and
two following weeks, three shifts within the week and three following
weeks and four or more shifts within the week and five following
weeks. For surface workers, the periods are almost identical, but
it is provided in addition t h a t at workplaces where bad weather
ordinarily involves a collective stoppage, the mines inspector,
at the request of the management or the workers, may authorise
an extension of hours at certain periods of the year, provided the
total number of additional hours does not exceed 80 in the year.
The collective agreement for the Northern coalfield states that this
provision may be applied to quays, quarries, depots, coal-washing
premises, sales yards, and building and excavation sites. To
determine the periods in question, the number and distribution
of the additional hours authorised for making up this lost time and
the establishments to which the authorisation shall apply, agreements must be reached between the employers' and workers'
organisations concerned. Hours of actual work may not then be
increased by more than 1 hour a day and 6 hours a week. Further,
in case of unemployment in an occupational group, the mines
inspector may suspend all making up of lost time for the group.
It should be noted that the permission to make up lost time
generally applies only to collective stoppages and not to individual
absences. The German and Polish regulations explicitly state
that it is granted for undertakings or parts of undertakings.
C R . II.

— 274 —
Making up lost time is sometimes permitted automatically and
sometimes in accordance with a special procedure. In France time
lost for other reasons than those specified may not be made up
without the authorisation of the Chief Inspector of Mines ; for surface
work, a manager desiring to take advantage of the provision
relating to the making up of lost time must notify the mines
inspector or apply for his authorisation as the case may be, indicating in either instance the nature, causes and date of the collective
stoppage, the number of hours lost, the changes which he proposes
to introduce temporarily in the time-table with a view to making
up these hours, and the number of persons to whom the changes
would apply. In Italy lost time may be made up on the basis of
agreements between the occupational organisations concerned.
In Poland the management must inform the factory inspector of its
intention to make up lost time, indicating the days and hours lost,
the intended time-table, and the number of workers who would
be affected.

D. — CONTINUOUS OPERATIONS
§ 1. — Definition
A preliminary distinction must be made between two sorts of
continuity in mining work, namely, continuity in the operation
of the mine and continuity in certain kinds of work. Many mines
are operated in three shifts, at least one and sometimes two of which
are given over to the hewing and transport of coal, while the other
(or others) are used for development, maintenance and repair work.
But though the groups of workers concerned spend consecutive
periods in the mine, the shifts are in fact mutually independent,
for apart from a few exceptions the work can be interrupted and
indeed sometimes consists of different operations from shift to
shift. Apart, therefore, from these special cases, operations at the
different workplaces stop when a shift leaves and start again
when the next shift arrives, there being as a rule no technical
reason why a link should be kept up between the two. In fact,
such work cannot be assimilated to the operations in industry
which necessitate the organisation of successive shifts.
Nevertheless, there are services (though they occupy a very
small proportion of the total working force of a mine) which must
be carried on continuously or nearly so. The most important of

— 275 —
these are the production of power, pumping and ventilation, supervision, and often also the shaft service. Again, there are wide
differences, dependent on the conditions in which the mine is
worked, between the operation of these services themselves. Certain
pumps and fans work continuously, day and night, weekdays and
Sundays, while others can safely be stopped or left unattended for
a certain time, and others again only work intermittently or when
the need arises.
Some of these services—most of them, indeed—operate at the
surface, but there are others underground, particularly the pumping
and ventilating services and those for supervision and safety work.
It is, however, relatively rare for pumps and fans placed underground to work uninterruptedly.
The regulations in some countries state exactly which operations
are regarded as necessarily continuous in character.
In Belgium the following are so considered, in all industries:
production of the power (steam, electricity, compressed air)
required for continuous processes in the industry; minding of fires
which cannot be lighted and extinguished daily; watchkeeping
(plant and premises); and health and first-aid services in so far as
continuous operations necessitate these; and, more particularly in
the mining industry : work necessitated by pumps and fans operating
continuously; work necessitated by the repair of shafts and levels
which require constant maintenance, the shaft service in shafts
which for safety reasons must be available at all times; boring at
great depths; and processes for the congelation of earth in the
sinking of shafts.
In France the collective agreement for the Northern coalfield
considers power stations, coke ovens, chemical works, generators,
boilers, pumps and fans as units in continuous operation.
In Italy the principal operations regarded as necessarily continuous are the working of pumps and machinery for ventilating
levels and the construction of levels when, in the opinion of the
corporative inspector, the state of the ground requires continuous
work either in the interests of safety or with a view to satisfactory
completion of the job.
In the United Stales the working of power stations and substations and the working of pumps are particularly specified as
continuous work in coal mines.
In Yugoslavia work considered as necessarily continuous is
determined, at the employer's request, by the competent authority
in agreement with the appropriate Chamber.

— 276 —

§ 2. — Methods of Organisation of Continuous Work

Work which must be carried on continuously requires an unbroken
succession of shifts, day and night, weekdays and Sundays. Among
the schemes in use, the commonest provide for three 8-hour shifts,
or four 8-hour shifts. The system of three 8-hour shifts sometimes
involves the employment of additional or relief shifts.
The hours at which the shifts work are periodically changed,
so that each shift shall not always be on at the same time
and particularly not always at night. The Chinese, Italian, and
Yugoslav regulations make an obligation of this periodical changeover, which is in fact everywhere the normal system.
It is also the normal practice to give all workers a weekly rest,
falling on Sunday for each shift in turn. For this reason the
change-over of shifts usually occurs on Saturday or Sunday.
With the system of three 8-hour shifts, where a relief shift is
not employed, the change-over is operated either by leaving each
shift on duty for two successive periods (double shift) or by having
a period of work done, half by the shift already on duty and half
by that relieving it. The former method is used in Germany and
in Poland (Upper Silesia), where hours of work may be increased
to 16 once a week, provided the workers in question have two
unbroken rests of 24 hours each in every three weeks.
In Great Britain, too, winding enginemen working on a three-shift
system do either one 16-hour spell, or one of 12 hours, or two 8-hour
spells in the same day.
In Australia and Canada (British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and
Saskatchewan) the regulations permit additional hours for the
change-over of shifts, but these are not considered as overtime.
The French legislation contains similar provisions regarding
underground workers whose presence is indispensable for the
operation of pumps, fans and compressed-air apparatus, provided
that the average time spent in the mine, calculated over a period of
three months, does not exceed 42 hours a week; but the collective
agreement for the Northern coalfield prohibits overtime for the
change-over and stipulates that as a rule the work schedule shall
be based on a four-week period beginning on a Tuesday, with four
shifts of workers, each doing three series of seven 8-hour shifts—the
first series in the morning, the second in the afternoon, and the
third at night—with an unbroken rest of 72 hours after each such
series. In Japan, where some continuous operations are done

— 277 —
in 12-hour shifts, hours may be increased to 18 (a shift and a half)
for the change-over.

§ 3. — Limits to Hours of Work
It follows from the above t h a t the organisation of continuous
work requires hours to be averaged over periods of several weeks
and sometimes involves longer working time than the normal.
In many cases hours are fixed at an average of 56 a week over a
period of three weeks; this is the practice in Austria,
Belgium,
New Zealand, and Poland. In Belgium hours are frequently reduced
to 54, 52 or 50 in the week by the omission of certain shifts on
Sundays or by the employment of additional shifts.
In Great Britain the hours of winding enginemen may be 56 in
the week, averaged over a period of three weeks; for continuous
operations on the surface, several agreements simply limit hours
to 8 in the day. The daily hours of presence in the mine may be
extended to 8 % hours for certain categories of underground workers
engaged in work which, under certain conditions, is of a continuous
nature, such as the supervision of pumps and ventilators.
In Yugoslavia 60 hours may be worked in the week, but those in
excess of 48 count as overtime; the workers in question must
receive a whole Sunday free in every three weeks, as well as a
compensatory annual holiday of as many days as the Sundays
on which they have worked during the past year.
In Rumania hours of work may not exceed an average of 48 in the
week, calculated over a period of three weeks.
In the countries which have introduced the 40-hour week, hours
of work for continuous operations are fixed at a weekly average
of 42. In France, for surface workers, the average may be calculated
over a period of twelve weeks, provided that daily hours in no case
exceed 8 and that each worker has an unbroken rest of 24 hours
in every week; as regards continuous operations underground, an
extension of half-an-hour a day and 2 % hours a week is generally
allowed, but for persons whose presence is indispensable for the
work of pumping, ventilating, and compressed-air stations, actual
presence at the workplace may amount to 8 hours a day provided
it does not exceed 42 hours a week averaged over a period of three
months.
In Italy the weekly average of 42 hours may be calculated over
periods of four weeks.

— 278 —

In the United States the Bituminous Coal Agreement provides
that the hours of persons employed in power houses and substations operating continuously, or on other continuous work,
shall be 8 a day and 40 a week. The Anthracite Agreement states
that the hours of persons employed on continuous work, when and
as this is necessary, shall be 8 in the day.
§ 4. — Special Provisions for Continuous Work Underground

When continuous operations are done underground and the
shifts have to be changed at the actual workplace, allowance
must be made for the underground travelling from the shaft to the
workplace and back. Thus, if work is organised in 8-hour shifts at a
place situated a quarter of an hour away from the bottom of the
shaft, and the change must be at the workplace, the time spent by
each shift in the mine will be 8 hours plus a quarter of an hour for
travelling in each direction, i.e. 8% hours in all. The changing of
shifts at the workplace may be required for technical reasons, and
sometimes it is formally required by regulation. This is the case in
China and the U.S.S.R. As has just been said, the same applies
in France to the persons whose presence is indispensable for the
working of fans, pumps and compressed-air apparatus; their
period of actual presence at the workplace is fixed at 8 hours a day.
Again, the time spent in the mine must be increased on the day
of the change-over of shifts, unless—as in Czechoslovakia—the
work in question is done by persons usually performing other tasks.
In France the prescribed limits may be exceeded in the case of
persons whose presence is indispensable for the working of pumps,
fans, and compressed-air apparatus, but for each member of these
groups the average time spent in the mine (calculated over a period
of three months) may not exceed 42 hours a week; this is in fact
not an extension of hours but a method of distributing hours over
a period longer than a week.

E. — WORK IN UNHEALTHY OR DANGEROUS
WORKPLACES
In some workplaces, mostly underground, the conditions in
which work is done, are unhealthy, dangerous or particularly

— 279 —
arduous; high temperature, poisonous gases (carbonic acid gas,
carbon monoxide), insufficient ventilation, dust-charged atmosphere, dripping water, flooded or muddy levels, and narrow seams
are the principal causes. Long and regular presence in such
workplaces may endanger the lives of the workers. A large
number of national schemes have therefore provided in more or
less exact terms that normal hours should be shorter in these places
than where work is done under ordinary conditions.
§ 1. — Definition of Unhealthy or Dangerous Workplaces

The first question which arises is to determine what is meant
by an unhealthy or dangerous workplace. The degree of danger
to health or safety may vary widely and it is only when a certain
point is reached that the workplace is classed by the regulations
as unhealthy or dangerous.
As regards temperature, a workplace is considered unhealthy
when the thermometer registers the following (Centigrade):
28° in Germany, Poland, and the U.S.S.R.;
30° in China, Czechoslovakia (Ostrava-Karvina coalfield), Japan,
Netherlands and Yugoslavia;
32° in Rumania;
33° in Spain.
According to Czechoslovak legislation, a workplace is unhealthy
if there is a permanently high temperature with insufficient ventilation.
The other factors making for danger to health are more difficult
to determine in advance for they can hardly be measured with
such accuracy.
The presence of poisonous gases (carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide) is taken into consideration in Rumania and Yugoslavia ;
impure air or insufficient ventilation in Germany, Spain (province
of León), the U.S.S.R. and Yugoslavia ; and the presence of dust
in Spain (Puertollano mines).
As regards dampness, workplaces are declared unhealthy in the
following circumstances: when the workers have their feet continually in water or mud (Spain) ; when water is three inches deep
(New Zealand) ; or when water causes inconvenience (Netherlands).
In Poland there are special provisions relating to the sinking of
shafts when the workers have to wear waterproof clothing as well
as to cleaning work done in water or mud. The Czechoslovak

— 280 —
regulations refer to dripping water, those of the U.S.S.R.
to damp and percolation. In New Zealand the shorter hours
for wet places apply when the workers' clothes are wet through
three hours after starting work. In Germany (Rhineland lignite
mines) hours of work are reduced for hewers employed in damp
ditches, and for those employed in open ditches over half a metre
deep or in blind shafts over 5 metres high measured from the roof
of the level.
In Poland a workplace is considered dangerous if the seam
worked is either over 8 metres thick or is less than 55 cm. thick
and lies at an angle of less than 15°.
In the U.S.S.R., for surface work, hours are reduced to 6 in
the day for drawers in coke ovens,, winding enginemen at vertical
shafts where the same cage is raised loaded not less than eighteen
times in the hour, and workers engaged in crushing coal-tar in
briquette works. Underground, the list of occupations which are
considered as particularly exhausting or dangerous, and for which
hours are limited to 6 in the day, include numerous groups of
workers such as those engaged in boring and sinking shafts, timbermen and shot-firers in work on vertical shafts and drainage shafts ;
hewers, cutters, pillar drawers, timber drawers, pushers-on, men
operating coal-cutting machines, suspended pumps, etc.
Belgian legislation refers only to " particularly unhealthy workplaces and premises " ; that of France to " workplaces where
conditions are abnormal in respect of temperature or humidity
or in other ways "; and that of Turkey to " reasons of health ".
Sometimes the regulations leave it to the competent mining
authority to decide on the unhealthy character of workplaces.
In Rumania responsibility as to what conditions are unhealthy
lies with the employer. In New Zealand the worker must notify
the manager or " underviewer " of unhealthy conditions ; if a
difference of opinion arises in this connection, the question is
decided by the manager and the workmen's inspectors or, should
they fail to agree, by an umpire.

§ 2. — Limits to Hours of Work

The shorter hours at these workplaces are in some cases prescribed
by the regulations themselves, while in others it is left to the competent authority (in most cases the mines authority) to lay down
a maximum limit; this is the practice in Austria, Germany, and

— 281 —
Spain (in certain instances). Regulations to administer the Act
must be issued by Royal Decree in Belgium, by decree of the
Ministers of Public Works and Labour in France, and by instructions prepared jointly by the Ministries of Economic Affairs and
of Health and Social Welfare in Turkey. In Czechoslovakia the
mines administration is required to fix maximum hours after
consultation with the management and the workers' delegates.
In some countries time spent in unhealthy and dangerous
workplaces is fixed by collective rules or agreements (Austria,
Czechoslovakia, Germany).
In the Central German lignite mines hours of work in hot, damp
or ill-ventilated places, in so far as they are not fixed by legislation,
are determined by the management in agreement with the
representatives of the staff.
Daily hours are reduced to 6 in Czechoslovakia (Ostrava-Karvina
coalfield), the Netherlands, New Zealand (5% hours in some mines),
Poland (temperature of over 28° C), Rumania, Spain, U.S.S.R.,
and Yugoslavia. In Poland, the weekly limit in this case is 36 hours.
In the German (Rhineland) lignite mines, the daily limits for the
hewers mentioned above (p. 280) are 6% and 7% hours respectively,
a break of 20 minutes being included in each case.
In Germany (Ruhr bituminous coal mines) time at the workplace
is reduced to 6 hours and time in the mine to 7 hours; but if over
half the staff work in unhealthy workplaces the length of the
shift is 7% hours.
Hours of work are fixed at 7 a day and 42 a week in Poland
(workplaces where the conditions are unhealthy in other respects
than temperature) and Czechoslovakia.
There are also a few schemes under which all work, except in case
of danger, is prohibited when the temperature is too high (42° in
Spain, 40° in Czechoslovakia, 35° in Japan).
Further, the regulations of some countries prohibit or limit
extensions of hours in unhealthy workplaces. In Germany normal
hours may be exceeded only in case of urgent necessity or in the
public interest or if the experience of several years has shown that
there will be no untoward effects; in any case, the extension may
not exceed half-an-hour a day. In Chile exceptions from hours of
work regulations are not permitted on operations which, by reason
of their nature, are harmful to the workers' health.
Other regulations provide for special rest periods when work
is done in certain unhealthy conditions. In China the law covering
mines, which is not yet in effect, provides that for work done in

— 282 —

workplaces where the temperature exceeds 30° daily hours of
work must be broken up by two rests of over 20 minutes.
It may be added, for information, that some regulations and
collective agreements stipulate that the shorter time spent in
unhealthy or dangerous workplaces may not involve a reduction
in wages, for the worker should not in such a case beheld responsible for the reduced output. This is the practice, for example,
in Poland, Rumania, Spain, and Yugoslavia. In Spain the standards
of employment for the Puertollano mines provide that workers paid
at piece rates who may not work for more than 6 hours shall receive
a wage 12 per cent, above the normal. In Italy work in unhealthy
workplaces may involve the payment of additional wages.
It may also be interesting to note that the dangerous or arduous
nature of mining work was the reason given in Belgium for the
general reduction in hours for persons employed underground in
coal mines; indeed, the Royal Order of 26 January 1937, which
reduced the hours of these workers, was issued under the Act of
9 July 1936 instituting the 40-hour week by degrees in undertakings
where work is done in unhealthy, dangerous or arduous conditions.
In Poland, too, the Order of 20 July 1937, which applies to
underground workers engaged in particularly exhausting or
unhealthy operations, reduces hours to 7 a day and 42 a week
or 6 a day and 36 a week for a large number of workers.

F. — WORK ON SUNDAYS AND PUBLIC HOLIDAYS
In view of the great variety of schemes concerning work on
Sundays and public holidays, the two subjects are dealt with
separately below.
§ 1. — Sunday Work

Productive work in minés is usually stopped on Sundays.
Prohibition of Sunday work is, however, not absolute, and operations which are indispensable for the safety of the mine and its
maintenance in a fit state for production, or which can only be done
on Sundays, or again which accidents, force majeure, etc., make
urgently necessary, are permitted on that day.

— 283 —
PROHIBITION OF SUNDAY WORK

The prohibition of Sunday work is most often a consequence
of provisions relating to the weekly rest. The latter is established
either by general legislation concerning all employed persons
—therefore including miners—or special legislation applying only
to persons employed in mines, or by decrees or administrative
regulations, collective agreements, arbitration awards, collective
rules (Germany) or, lastly, by standards of employment (Spaiti).
In Federal countries, legislation may extend to the whole territory
or lie within the competence of the States or provinces. In some
countries the weekly rest is based on custom; this is particularly the
case in Great Britain, except for women, who are debarred from
working on Sundays under the Coal Mines Act of 1911. The
provisions governing this matter are thus extremely varied.
In certain countries Sunday work is absolutely prohibited by
law; this is the case in Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Netherlands,
New Zealand, Spain, the Union of South Africa, and Yugoslavia.
In others—Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Poland, and Rumania—the weekly must rest be given on Sunday. The difference
between these two methods of regulation is not great. The legislation of the Asiatic countries does not provide for a rest specifically
on Sunday: in China the principle of a rest day in each week is
laid down; in India no person may work for more than six days in
the week.
In Japan and the U.S.S.R. there are special schemes, providing
in the former case for less rest, and in the latter for more, than a
normal rest day in each week.
LENGTH OF STOPPAGE OF PRODUCTION

The period during which production is stopped generally corresponds to the length of the weekly rest. Most schemes define
the rest period by fixing the time at or before which it must start
and the time at which work may recommence. A period of
24 hours for the weekly rest is usual, but the time at which it is
to start varies.
A ustrian and Rumanian legislation and the collective agreements
for the Rhenish-Westphalian coalfield in Germany and for the
mines of Upper Silesia in Poland prohibit work between 6 a.m.
on Sunday and 6 a.m. on Monday. The Canadian, Italian, and

— 284 —

Spanish legislation provides for a stoppage from midnight to
midnight. In Chile work must stop between 9 p.m. on Saturday
and 6 a.m. on Monday.
In Czechoslovakia the weekly rest must last for 32 hours.
The Spanish scheme allows for a certain degree of elasticity;
it provides that the rest period may be calculated in other ways
if the special needs of particular industries so require, provided
the length mentioned above is not essentially modified. A similar
latitude is allowed by Italian legislation, which provides that
collective agreements may adopt some other time than midnight
for the beginning of the 24-hour weekly rest ; and failing collective
agreements, the corporative inspectorate may take such action.
In Great Britain it is the general practice in a great many mines
to begin the first Monday shift at 10 p.m. on Sunday night.
However, a 24-hour rest is in fact observed, because the last man
leaves the mine at 7 p.m. on Saturday and work is not resumed
until 10 p.m. on Sunday. Moreover, some agreements consider
for the purposes of payment, not Sunday work properly speaking,
but the work done during the " week-end "•—that is, during the
period or between the commencement of the Saturday afternoon
shift and the commencement of the Sunday afternoon shift.
As regards women (who alone are prohibited by law from working
on Sundays), work stops from 2 p.m. on Saturday until 5 a.m.
on Monday-—i.e., for 39 hours.
The Netherlands Act provides that workers on the night shift
may remain in the mine until the Sunday morning.
WORK AUTHORISED ON SUNDAYS

Legislative and other regulations provide or implicitly recognise
that certain work must be done on Sundays, or that events may
occur making such work indispensable, above all for reasons of
safety. Although all regulations are not absolutely clear on the
subject, it is the general practice to except the following from
the prohibition of Sunday work: work which owing to its nature
must be carried on continuously; work connected with the maintenance and safety of the mine (ventilation, pumping, inspection);
care of animals; work which cannot be done on other days without
interrupting or disturbing production (survey work and certain
maintenance and repair work on machinery and other plant);
and work which must be done in urgent and exceptional cases
(in case of accident, threat of accident, force majeure).

— 285 —.
The Austrian legislation, for instance, gives a particularly significant definition of this work; it provides for the exception of
operations which cannot be interrupted, or can only be done when
production is stopped; operations rendered urgent by danger
involving a serious threat to the life or health of the staff; and
operations which must be done with a view to the conservation of
the mine and in order to secure continuous production.
COMPENSATION FOR SUNDAY WORK

Persons working on Sundays usually receive special compensation for having done so. This may take the form of a compensatory rest, or an increase in the hourly rate of remuneration,
or a combination of the two.
(a) Compensatory Rest
This form of compensation is prescribed in the legislation of
Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands,
New Zealand, Poland, Rumania, Spain, the United States, and
U.S.S.R.
The Italian Decree lays down that compensation for time
worked on Sundays may not be less than 12 hours' rest.
The Austrian Act states that persons employed for over 3 hours
during the Sunday rest are entitled to an unbroken rest of at least
32 hours during the following fortnight; this rest must include
the next Sunday, unless the conditions of production absolutely
prevent this.
The New Zealand Act provides that persons whose duties require
them to go to the mine every day, even for an extremely short
period, are entitled to at least twelve half-holidays or six whole
holidays a year as special compensation.
(b) Increased Remuneration
In a fairly large number of countries the regulations require
increased wage rates to be paid for work done regularly on Sundays.
Further, a distinction is often made between wages for work of
normal length and for overtime.
The increased rates vary widely from country to country and often
within a given country according to the class of workers or the
district. They range from time and a quarter to double time.
Further, as will be seen below, the extra payment is often higher

— 286 —
when the Sunday is also an important religious festival (Easter,
Whitsun, etc.)
A rate of time and a quarter is provided in Germany for t h e
technical staff of the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield and
for continuous operations in the Central German lignite field. The
same rate is also laid down as a minimum by the Austrian legislation. In France, for underground workers, the legislation provides
that on the second weekly rest day maintenance and safety work
•—the only work allowed—shall give rise to a rate at least 15 per
cent, above the normal for the hours worked, but only when it is
impossible to give compensatory time off; the collective agreement
for the Northern coalfield provides that a rate of time and a quarter.
shall be allowed for special service in addition to compensatory
time off in the case of maintenance and safety work on Sundays,
and t h a t the same shall apply to any special service on Sunday night
for urgent work of an exceptional nature. Time and a quarter
is also allowed in Great Britain (Scotland) for work at the week-end.
An increase of 40-50 per cent, on the normal rate is payable
under several Rumanian collective agreements for overtime done
on the weekly rest day.
Time and a half is payable as follows: in Australia, except
Western Australia; in Austria, under most collective agreements,
for the first 8 hours worked; in Czechoslovakia, in the OstravaKarvina bituminous coalfield for all work normally done on
Sundays, provided the workers in question have not missed more
than one shift during the last fortnight without good reason, and
in most of the lignite mines for overtime on the weekly rest day; in
Germany, for the whole manual staff of the Rhenish-Westphalian
bituminous coalfield and for exceptional work in the Central German
lignite field ; in Great Britain, by a large number of collective agreements, for work done during the " w e e k - e n d " ; in Hungary; in
New Zealand, for regular Sunday work; in Poland, for overtime
on Sundays; and in Upper Silesia (collective agreement), for
all Sunday work.
Time and three-quarters is allowed in Czechoslovakia in t h e
Ostrava-Karvina coalfield for overtime on Sundays.
Double time is allowed as follows: in Australia (Western
Australia); in Austria, under most collective agreements, for all
work in excess of 8 hours; in Canada, as a rule; in the Netherlands,
for work done outside the usual hours; in New Zealand, for work
done exceptionally on a Sunday; in Rumania (Petrosani and
Lonea mines), for work in excess of 8 hours.

— 287 —

In the British districts of Nottinghamshire and North Derbyshire
certain groups of workers are paid for 7 days' work if they do six
shifts in the week, one of which covers part of Sunday.
In Spain (provinces of Oviedo and León) work not of an urgentnature is paid at overtime rates without loss of the right to compensatory time off; work of an urgent nature is paid at the normal
rate.
In Yugoslavia the overtime rate is paid for all work done normally
on Sunday or other weekly rest day.
In Japan a special high rate of pay is allowed in addition to
compensatory time off.

§ 2. — Work on Public Holidays

On the whole, except for certain operations, mines are closed
down on a number of public holidays. The provisions on the subject
are contained either in general legislation covering all employed
persons—and therefore the staffs of mining undertakings also—or in
special legislation relating to mines, or in collective agreements or
other rules. Often the scheme in force is a combination of legislation,
other regulations, and custom.
There is much diversity as regards the days kept as national,
regional or local holidays and as religious festivals, and the number
of days taken off for this.reason varies widely from country to
country and even from region to region in any country. A list of
these holidays will therefore not be given here; a more important
point is the manner of regulating hours of work on such days in the
different countries.
The operations authorised on public holidays are generally the
same as are authorised on the weekly rest day. The Austrian
legislation would appear to be among the few regulations that
explicitly define the conditions under which the normal work of
production is permitted in mines on public holidays. The Order of
6 April 1933 provides that such work is authorised when long and
frequent stoppages constitute a danger to the safety of the mine,.
or when by reason of bad weather production is often held up
and hours of work are reduced, or when production has been interrupted by exceptional occurrences; and that the work may be
continued until the normal situation is restored. The management
of the undertaking must inform the district mining authority,

— 288 —
at least three days in advance, of its intention to have work done on
a holiday.
The compensation due for work done on public holidays also
varies widely from country to country and sometimes from district
to district. As a fairly general rule no increased rate is paid for
exceptional work done on a holiday if time off is given as compensation; and, more particularly, regular normal work on holidays
gives rise to no increase unless specially stipulated. In certain
cases a distinction is made between the different holidays in this
respect, or the special rate varies according to the importance of the
holiday. Special rates are generally payable on certain principal
religious festivals (Easter, Whitsun, Christmas, etc.) Some countries distinguish between work not in excess of the normal limit
and overtime. In others again the regulations require a special rate
to be paid on legal public holidays only.
The rates applying in a few countries are given below. As for
work on weekly rest days, they range from time and a quarter to
double time.
Time and a quarter is allowed: in Austria (Styrian mines), for
work on Corpus Christi Day and St. Barbara's Day; in Czechoslovakia (Ostrava-Karvina coalfield), provided the workers have
not missed more than one shift during the last fortnight without
good reason; in France (Northern coalfield), as a bonus for special
service for workers required to do urgent work of an exceptional
nature at night during festivals; in Germany, for technical staff
in the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield on all legal public
holidays, and for work at plant in continuous operation in the
Central German lignite mines; in Great Britain (Cumberland) on
Boxing Day, Easter Monday, Whit Monday and August Bank
holiday.
An increase of 35 per cent, on the normal rate is payable in
Czechoslovakia (Ostrava-Karvina coalfield) for overtime on customary holidays and anniversaries.
An increase of 40-50 per cent, on the normal rate is payable
in Rumania under the collective agreements for several coalfields.
Time and a half is allowed as follows: in Australia (New South
Wales), for a 6-hour shift; in Austria (Styrian mines), on New
Year's Day, Easter Monday, May Day, Whit Monday and Christmas
Day; in Czechoslovakia in the Ostrava-Karvina coalfield, on
28 October (national festival) and in the lignite fields of Northwestern Bohemia and Falknov on Christmas Day, May Day, and
28 October; in Germany (manual staff in the Rhenish-Westphalian

— 289 —
bituminous coalfield), for legal public holidays other than Easter,
Whitsun, and Christmas; in Great Britain (Yorkshire); in Hungary
for holidays ; in Poland (Upper Silesia), except at Easter, Whitsun,
and Christmas.
Time and three-quarters is allowed in the Ostrava-Karvina
coalfield of Czechoslovakia for overtime on 28 October.
Double time is allowed as follows: in Australia, in New South
Wales for work in excess of 6 hours; and in Western Australia,
except for grooms and pumpers; in Austria (Styrian mines), for
work in excess of 8 hours ; in Canada, as a general rule ; in Germany
( Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield and Central German
lignite field), at Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas; in the Netherlands, for work outside the normal hours, except at Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas; in Poland (Upper Silesia), at Easter, Whitsun,
and Christmas; in Rumania (Petrosani and Lonea mines), on Easter
Sunday, Easter Monday, Whit Sunday and May Day and for any
overtime on a holiday; and in the U.S.S.R.
The normal rate is increased by 150 per cent, in the Netherlands
for work outside the normal hours at Easter, Whitsun, and
Christmas.
In China, under the Collective Agreements Act of 28 October
1930 which came into force on 1 November 1932, a collective
agreement may stipulate that wage rates shall be increased when
the employer requires the employed person to work or to continue
his work on holidays; but in no case may the rate exceed double
time. Nevertheless in the Kailan mines, triple time is paid on the
lunar New Year holidays.
In Yugoslavia work done on holidays, even on a normal footing,
gives rise to a special rate of pay.

CR. II

IV. — Extension of Normal Hours of Work
The hours of work specified in the preceding chapter apply in
normal circumstances to all the workers employed in coal mines
who are covered by the national regulations. There are, however,
cases in which the general limits must be exceeded in order to suit
the character of certain operations or occupations, or to face emergencies of accidental origin, or again to meet exceptional needs
relating to production. Consequently all existing regulations
permit the extension of normal hours on more or less clearly defined
grounds.
Of the various provisions for extensions, some may be applied
as soon as the need is felt, whereas the operation of others is subject
to certain formalities and must follow a prescribed procedure.
The realisation that abuse of extensions must be prevented, or
otherwise the limitation of hours might become illusory, has led
to the inclusion in many regulations of provisions to restrict in
various ways the amount by which normal hours may be extended.
With this object, as well as in order to compensate the workers
whose hours are increased, it is in certain cases provided that work
in excess of the normal must be paid at higher rates. But in other
cases the undertaking's immediate or exceptional needs may be
met by the employment of additional labour; therefore, particularly
in periods of depression, regulations are on occasion issued to
restrict recourse to certain exceptions and so to favour the engagement of unemployed workers.
Lastly, some regulations provide that in exceptionally serious
circumstances the obligation to respect the rules they have laid
down may be suspended.
The object of this chapter is to explore the problems raised by
the extension of normal hours of work and to examine the manner
in which the national regulations have dealt with them. No
systematic distinction is made between extensions for underground
and for surface workers respectively ; but the class of workers will
be specified wherever the text of the regulations makes this possible.

— 291 —

A. — GROUNDS FOR EXTENSION
All the regulations provide for the extension of normal hours,
but they are not all equally explicit as regards the grounds on
which such extension is allowed. There is usually more precision
on this point in those—and above all in legislation—which apply
only to mines, or still more particularly to coal mines, than in
general hours of work regulations which include coal mines in their
scope. The reason is that the former permit only such exceptions
as are indispensable to meet the peculiar needs of the collieries,
whereas the exceptions provided for in the latter are intended to
satisfy the heterogeneous needs of all sorts of trades and industries ;
and consequently the grounds for permissible extension are more
numerous and more varied in general regulations than in schemes
applying only to mines. It is obvious that for the purposes of this
Report the extensions permitted in the special mining regulations
are of particular interest.
The grounds regarded as justifying an extension of normal hours
are briefly as follows.
First of all, the limits laid down for general purposes do not
enable the requirements of certain specified operations and occupations to be taken into account. Several regulations therefore
fix longer maximum hours for specified classes of work or of
workers than those applying to the remainder; other regulations
achieve the same result by permitting normal hours to be exceeded,
for these classes of workers, on a permanent basis. In either case
the workers in question regularly work longer hours than are permitted for their colleagues in general; but whereas in the first
case special normal hours are directly fixed for these workers, in
the second the special limit is reached by adding to the general
limit. The groups of workers covered by these different sorts of
special provision consist principally of those engaged in the
preparation and termination of work and intermittent work.
There are also other operations which, though not recurring in the
same regular way, by their nature require more or less long and
frequent extensions of normal hours : the co-ordination of the work
of successive shifts, seasonal operations and loading, unloading and
transport are instances.
Next, at any time in the day-to-day work of a mine an exceptional situation may occur—due to accidents, mechanical break-

— 292 —
downs, the absence of a worker, etc.—which disturbs or threatens to
disturb the normal organisation of work; and to deal with such a
situation, which is usually unforeseen, there is in most cases nothing
for it but to extend the hours of the workers in question beyond the
normal.
Lastly, there are cases in which, for various reasons, hours of
work must be extended in order to increase production.
Work in excess of normal hours may thus be necessitated in a
number of different circumstances, due in their turn to many and
various causes. In order to facilitate analysis, these circumstances may be classified into: a first group in which the
reasons derive from the nature of the operation or occupation; a
second in which accidental causes are responsible; and a third in
which economic considerations or public interest require an increase
in output.
It should be noted further that several regulations either authorise
special extensions without exactly stating the reasons, or recognise
them implicitly by attaching certain conditions to their use.

§ 1. — Extensions due to the Nature of the Work
These extensions are directly related to the technique of certain
operations, the normal performance of which involves conditions
incompatible with the hours standards laid down as a general
rule for work in mines. Many such extensions must be allowed
daily or at known intervals; and some regulations, rather than
establish regular exceptions to the general limits, have provided
for longer normal hours than those applying to other workers;
in many countries this is particularly the practice as regards continuous operations, the organisation of which was discussed in the
preceding chapter. Nevertheless most regulations meet the special
requirements due to technical conditions, or to the nature of the
operation or occupation, by providing for the extension of normal
hours of work.
The operations and occupations requiring extension are as follows:
preparation and termination of work; co-ordination of the work
of two successive shifts; intermittent work; loading, unloading, and
transport; work subject to seasonal influences; and sundry others.
The length of extensions will be the subject of a special section;
but the additional hours authorised will also be briefly indicated
here, whenever they are prescribed in the regulations.

— 293 —
PREPARATION AND TERMINATION OF W O R K

These are operations which must necessarily be done either before
the beginning or after the end of the ordinary work of the undertaking or the shift, so that full production may start at the time
fixed or that there may be no disturbance in productive work.
However, the authorised additional hours may not be utilised for
productive operations proper; the regulations in force in the
Canadian Province of Saskatchewan and in France have a specific
provision to this effect.
Some of the operations in question must be done immediately
before the ordinary work begins, others immediately after; others
again may be done at any moment between spells of ordinary
work.
Heating boilers and raising steam must be done immediately
before general work starts, and drawing fires and exhausting
steam immediately after it ends. In the same way, the storekeeper must arrive a few minutes before the workers of his shift,
so that he may be ready to issue the necessary tools; and he will
not be able to leave until they have returned their tools to him.
On the other hand, the cleaning of premises and the cleaning and
general oiling of machinery may take place either after work ends
or before it starts.
Most of the national regulations provide for such exceptions
from the general rules. The following are instances.
Austria: operations which must be done before or after the
ordinary working day (2 hours a day); Belgium: preparatory or
complementary work which must of necessity be done outside the
time allotted to the general work of the undertaking (2 hours a
day); Canada (Saskatchewan): work necessary in preparing for
or terminating the work of the mine, provided this additional
working period is not devoted to the production or transport of
coal (y2 hour a day); France: for underground workers, technical
work which is necessary for preparing or terminating work in the
ordinary way or for a full resumption of work on the next shift,
provided that it does not refer to the production or transport of
coal (Y2 hour a day, 2% hours a week); Germany: supervision of
plant and cleaning and maintenance work on which the normal
operation of the undertaking or of another undertaking depends;
work technically necessary to enable production to be resumed or
to be kept at full pressure (2 hours a day); Italy: preparatory
and complementary work which must be done outside the normal

— 294 —
hours of the undertaking to ensure that work shall start, resume
or cease at the usual time or to avoid disturbances to production
or danger for the workers; Poland: work which can only be done
immediately before the beginning or immediately after the end of
the general work of the undertaking or of the shift (1 hour
a day; 2 hours in exceptional cases); Turkey: preparatory and
'complementary work and cleaning work which must be done
before or after the hours fixed for the general work of the
undertaking.
In several regulations the general rule is illustrated by examples.
The Rumanian legislation provides that the following operations
are covered: heating boilers, cleaning workshops, preparing
machinery, etc. Similar examples are given in Yugoslavia (2 hours
a day); and in Czechoslovakia, where mention is also made of
care of animals.
Other schemes go into greater detail and enumerate the operations or groups of workers covered.
Work of preparation and termination relating to steam engines
is the subject of special provision as follows: in the Australian
States of Western Australia and Victoria and in New Zealand:
raising steam, drawing fires, exhausting steam; in France: work
of surface workers specially engaged at ovens, steam engines and
fires belonging to the latter, provided the object is only to terminate operations, before or after fires are drawn (1 hour a day);
in Great Britain: firemen employed underground (maximum of
8y2 hours underground); and Spain: starting and stopping
engines.
Maintenance and cleaning work is specially dealt with in France,
where the regulations relate to the work of surface workers employed regularly or exceptionally during stoppage of production on
the maintenance and cleaning of machinery and appliances which
owing to the interconnection of operations cannot be stopped
separately during the general work of the mine, provided that such
work cannot be done during normal hours (1 hour a day).
The work of lowering and raising workers or transporting them
inside the mine may give rise to extensions in France: enginemen
and men in charge of internal shafts who are engaged upon the
transport of workers as well as for drivers of locomotives and other
staff of trains used for the transport of workers (actual time at the
workplace may exceed 8 hours a day by the time strictly necessary
to complete the transport of workers in transit). In Belgium, also,
these groups of workers have longer hours in practice. In Great

— 295 —
Britain the exceptions already mentioned in respect of winding
enginemen may be considered as applying also to the transport
of workers; further, if it is necessary to send a party down the
mine when no shift is at work there, and a person who does not
as a rule work a winding engine is therefore required to do so,
such person may be employed for up to 12 hours in the day. In
the Netherlands the hours of winding enginemen may be extended
in order to comprise the lowering or raising of the workers of a
shift (1 hour a day). In the United States employees whose daily
work includes the transplantation of workers or who are required to
remain on duty while men are*entering or leaving the mine may
be exempted from the maximum hours provision.
Normal hours may be exceeded for safety work, particularly in
France, in mines subject to instantaneous escapes of gas, for workers
required to make the prescribed inspection after shotfiring or
before resumption of work (3 hours a day, with a maximum of
9 hours a week), and in Australia and Great Britain for safety men,
pump minders, fanmen, shotfirers (8% hours underground per
shift in Great Britain).
Some regulations mention specific groups of workers. Persons
responsible for the care of animals are an instance (Australia,
Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, Poland, United States) : in Czechoslovakia, the care of animals is considered as additional work; in
France, for grooms employed underground, actual time at the workplace may not exceed 8 hours a day and 42 hours a week; in Poland,
a general provision permits extensions for persons employed in
road transport who are responsible for the care of draught animals
(3 hours a day), and also for persons responsible for the maintenance
of motor vehicles (2 hours a day); and in the United States the
Anthracite Agreement provides that drivers shall take their mules
to and from the stable, the time required for this not being counted
in the day's labour.
Further, in France, underground storemen, as also winchmen and
locomotive drivers and their indispensable assistants, may be at the
workplace for 8 hours a day and 42 hours a week ; in Belgium most
of these groups also have longer hours. In Great Britain winding
enginemen may work 10% hours a day at shafts where only one
shift of workers descends and ascends during the day and no coal
is wound before their descent and after their ascent. In Spain
(standards of employment for the mines of Oviedo and León),
haulage men may do not more than 4 consecutive additional hours,
with a maximum of 30 in the month.

— 296 —
As regards supervisory staff, work in excess of 40 hours a week
is allowed in France if required for drafting reports or for dealings
with the workers or the mine management (4 hours a week).

CO-ORDINATION OF WORK OF TWO SUCCESSIVE SHIFTS

Co-ordination of this sort, whether the work in question is
necessarily continuous or is not necessarily so but is done in successive shifts, may involve additional hours for one or more members
of the shift going off duty. As a^'ule a foreman or official must
remain on the spot to pass on instructions to the relieving shift.
In Czechoslovakia hours may be extended so that work can be
taken over when the shift is relieved ; in France a similar provision
applies to shift foremen and specialised workers whose presence is
required for co-ordinating the work of two successive shifts or for
preparing a shift's work ( % hour over and above the general limit
for the shift); and in Germany to foremen and other persons in
charge of operations or groups of workers when their presence is
required for preparing or terminating work or linking up the work
of two successive shifts (1 hour a day).
Mention may also be made, for information, of certain continuous
operations underground where each shift must be relieved at the
actual workplace ; this necessitates making allowance, in the form
of additional hours, for the time lost on the way from the shaft
to the workplace and back. (Cf. p. 278.)
Extensions to permit the periodical change-over of shifts (for
which, moreover, compensatory time off is automatically allowed)
have been discussed in the section dealing with the organisation
of continuous work.

INTERMITTENT WORK

The essential characteristic of intermittent work or operations
is that they involve more or less long and frequent periods of
inaction, during which the persons engaged in them have to
display neither physical activity nor sustained attention, or remain
at their posts only to reply to possible calls. Caretaking, the work
of watchmen in charge of workplaces, premises or plant, checking,
minding machines which only work intermittently (such as some
fans and pumps), signalling, etc., fall into this category.

— 297 —
Here again the regulations provide for extensions by the use of
a general formula: in Canada (British Columbia), reference is made
to groups of persons whose work is essentially intermittent; and
in Germany, to the supervision of certain work (1 or 2 hours a day).
The general formula may be followed by examples. In Chile:
extensions apply to intermittent work requiring mere attendance
(12 hours of presence a day). The Rumanian regulations refer
to occupations in which work is essentially intermittent (the
work of watchmen, drivers, etc.); and those of Turkey to persons
whose duties are essentially discontinuous and require intermittent
work only (watchmen, night watchmen, persons engaged in testing,
checking, etc.).
In France (surface workers) the extensions permitted on this
ground apply in particular to the following: persons engaged.
exclusively in watchkeeping and supervision whose work is interrupted by long genuine rests (4 hours a day, provided not more
than 56 hours are worked in the week) ; weighbridge-men in charge
of the weighing of trucks and lorries (% hour a day), timekeepers, messengers, etc. (1 hour a day). In Poland the hours of
watchkeeping and similar staff employed at the surface vary from 9
to 12 a day, according to the work.
In Czechoslovakia there is no limitation of hours for persons to
whom this exception applies, but a minimum daily rest is fixed
(12 hours' a day).
Some regulations specify exactly the persons covered : onsetters in Australia and Spain (provinces of Oviedo and León:
4 consecutive hours, with a maximum of 30 hours a month);
pumpmen in Australia, Great Britain ( 8 % hours' presence in the
mine per shift) and Spain (4 consecutive hours, with a maximum
of 30 hours a month); fanmen in Australia and Great Britain
(8y2 hours' presence in the mine per shift in the latter country);
and winding enginemen in Germany (9 hours of service if hours
of attendance predominate over hours of actual work) and in
Great Britain (up to 10 hours of presence per day at times of
the day when work is light, a shift of under 8 hours having been
worked during that part of the day when work was heavier).
LOADING, UNLOADING, AND TRANSPORT

Extension of hours for loading, unloading and transport work
is permitted in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Poland, and
the United States.

— 298 —
In Austria the extension applies to drivers of horse and motor
vehicles, grooms, messengers and stafîs of mine railways (16 hours
per fortnight). In Belgium a Royal Order applying to all industrial
undertakings provides that normal limits to hours of work may be
exceeded for the transport, loading and unloading of goods, for
handling trucks, weighing trucks and other vehicles in so far as this
constitutes part of the activity of an industrial undertaking (2 hours
a day and 100 hours a year). In France extension is permitted
"• for drivers of motor vehicles, deliverymen and storekeepers (1 hour
in excess of the normal daily limit) and for drivers of horse-drawn
vehicles (1 % hours) ; an extension of a further 1 y2 hours is permitted
when the meal break is counted in the working day. In Germany
there is a general provision of this nature in the hours of work
legislation (2 hours a day). In Poland, also under a provision
of a general order, persons engaged in road transport who are
directly responsible for the maintenance of vehicles or minding of
draught animals may be employed in excess of normal hours (2 and
3 hours a day respectively). In the United States it is provided that
mine workers engaged in the transportation of men and coal shall
work the additional time necessary to handle man-trips and coal in
transit, and that outside employees engaged in the dumping, and
handling of coal—and, in anthracite mines, the emptying of the
breaker—may work additional time (half an hour a day).
WORK SUBJECT TO SEASONAL CONDITIONS

Extensions in view of seasonal conditions are permitted as
follows: in Austria, in mines the operation of which depends on
the season or temperature (2 hours a day and 180 hours a year) ;
in Italy, in mines and quarries of all sorts over 1,000 metres above
sea level (a working day of 10 hours for not more than six months
in the year) ; and in Spain, in mines where by reason of the altitude
or the topographical or climatic conditions it is impossible to work
for more than six months in the year (1 hour a day and 6 hours
a week).
In Canada, according to information supplied by the Provincial
Governments of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1936, the production
of coal is powerfully affected by seasonal factors, and hours of work
therefore fluctuate widely during the year. In the United States
men working about the tipple may do overtime during the winter
months in order to empty all cars and so prevent the coal from
freezing in the cars (half an hour a day).

— 299 —
OTHER WORK

A number of other cases of extension are permitted, under
various schemes, for widely different reasons.
Additional time may be worked for sorting coal in Japan and the
United States. In Japan the hours of women employed in sorting
may be extended (up to 12 hours a day) on fulfilment of the three
following conditions: if it is impossible to establish a two-shift
system with, less than 11 hours per shift; if the work is frequently
interrupted and does not cause undue fatigue even when continuing
for 12 hours a day; and if the three-shift system would probably
bring about only a small rise in output and, on the other hand, would
unduly increase the undertaking's costs. In the United States
employees engaged in the preparation of coal must work the
additional time necessary to deal with the coal delivered in each
shift (maximum of 30 minutes); and in the anthracite mines the
same applies to employees engaged on the re-preparation of condemned coal.
Extensions are permitted when required for certain technical
reasons in France, Germany, Italy, and the U.S.S.R.
In France, for surface workers, this provision applies to operations
which on technical grounds cannot be stopped at will, when for
reasons deriving from their nature or from exceptional circumstances
they have not been finished at the normal time (2 hours a day).
There is a similar extension for work essential to the safety of the
mine which must be done under the orders of the same person
throughout, i.e. changing cables, props, guides, etc. (supervisory
staff; no maximum hours, but one day only). Further, the Decree
of 21 December 1937 provides that until 30 September 1938, in
mines and pits which are worked on all weekdays by means of a
system of rotation of staff, the weekly hours of supervisory staff
may be spread over six days and increased by not more than
8 hours, provided the total additional hours worked during the
period in question do not exceed 180. On the same grounds, and
again until 30 September 1938, workers with special duties (mechanics, shotfirers, locomotive drivers, firedamp inspectors) whose
presence is indispensable to the proper operation of the mine and
who cannot be immediately replaced owing to the need for training,
may be called upon, with the authorisation of the principal mines
inspector, to work an extra shift a week up to a maximum of
20 shifts.

— 300 —

In Germany extension is authorised in respect of work technically
necessary in order that production may be resumed or kept at full
pressure (2 hours a day).
In the U.S.S.R. extension of hours is permitted if its object is to
finish an operation which for technical reasons could not be
completed during normal hours, provided its termination is absolutely necessary and its interruption would involve damage to
material or goods (length of the extension included in the aggregate
annual quota of 120 hours' overtime; maximum of 4 hours in any
two-day period.)
The introduction and testing of new machines may also necessitate
extension. In Great Britain the report of a special enquiry into
the working of overtime in Lancashire coal mines stated that the
growth of machine mining had increased the incidence of " emergencies " and " unforeseen'circumstances " of the kind contemplated
by the Act, particularly during the period immediately following
the introduction of machinery.
Work on certain types of coal is regarded as justifying an extension
in Austria and in Great Britain. In Austria normal hours may be
exceeded in places where for reasons of safety it is impossible to
relieve the workers engaged at the face; and in Great Britain a
similar exemption relates to stall-men when engaged in the process
of taking down top coal in square or wide work in the thick coal of
the South Staffordshire district, so long as their presence in or near
the stall is necessary to ensure safety.
Lastly, hours in excess of the normal limit are permitted in
Austria for all persons employed in the mines whose hours of
service cannot be exactly determined in advance (16 hours a
fortnight) and in Chile for persons performing duties which by
reason of their character cannot be subjected to fixed limits, and
also for persons holding positions of supervision, direction, or
trust such as managers, overseers, door-keepers, etc. (12 hours of
attendance per day).

§ 2. — Extensions due to Accidental Causes
These extensions apply when, owing to exceptional causes which
cannot be foreseen and therefore lie outside the control of the
management, safety, repair or conservation work becomes necessary
in order to prevent accidents. Moreover, such work must be done
at once, for its postponement may involve danger to human life or

— 301 —
to buildings, plant or machinery, or to the mine itself. Extension
may also be necessary for rescue and salvage work or in order to
make good the results of accidents which have occurred—explosions
of firedamp or coal dust, fires, falls of rock, floods, escapes of
poisonous gases, breakages of machinery, broken cables, damaged
plant or rails etc.
All the regulations permit extensions in such circumstances,
indeed their necessity is indisputable. In most cases a general
formula is used—accident or threat of accident; catastrophe;
serious danger; danger or threat of danger; emergency involving
serious risk to the safety of human life, the mine or property;
rescue work; damage to the machinery, equipment or plant of the
mine; etc.
Some regulations speak of work required to keep the mine
working, or to ensure that no interruption occurs, or to avoid a
serious disturbance in operation (Austria, Canada—Alberta and
British Columbia— Great Britain, Netherlands, Rumania, etc.).
Some are more precise. The Australian regulations specify
" fires, inrush of water, falls and other emergencies " ; and in
New South Wales mechanics engaged on repairs to fan-winding
engines, main haulage engines, haulage ropes connected to these,
main inclined ropes and main steam pipes may be required to work
additional hours. In the Netherlands there is a special exception
relating to persons repairing shafts (2 hours a day, not more than
three times in 7 consecutive days).
Vague terms are sometimes used, such as emergency, urgent
need, exceptional circumstances or force majeure, which enable all
sorts of unforeseen situations to be faced. On the other hand,
some regulations, e.g. in the Netherlands, state that additional
hours shall be permitted when the situation cannot be met by any
means other than an extension.
Apart from accidents proper, reference may be made here to
provisions for additional work in unforeseen or exceptional circumstances. In Great Britain, for instance, a workman is not
guilty of an offence in case of failure to return to the surface within
the prescribed time if he is prevented from doing so owing to means
not being available for the purpose.
Where work is organised in shifts, the unexpected absence of a
member of the relieving shift may compel a worker who would
otherwise go off duty to continue at work until his substitute
arrives. Provision is made for this in France (Decree relating
to surface workers) and in Spain (standards of employment for

— 302 —
the Puertollano mines) ; but in the former case the extension applies
only to foremen and specialised workers whose presence is indispensable to the work of a shop or shift. In Great Britain the
Winding Enginemen Regulations provide that where winding is
done by a succession of shifts and one of the enginemen i s absent
by reason of illness, accident or other cause, the other engineman
may be employed for not more than 12 hours a day, or on a system
of 8-hour shifts with an interval of 8 hours between each shift,
but not for more than 6 weeks consecutively.
In the Netherlands the hours of work of underground workers
may be extended by reason of the special conditions of operation
of the mine (2 hours a day not more than twice in any period of
7 working days, or one 8-hour shift in the same period). The
collective agreement for surface workers permits an extension to
prevent disturbance in the normal operation of the mine or to make
good such disturbance (18 hours per month).

§ 3. — Extensions for Economic Reasons and in the
Public Interest
In certain circumstances the demand for coal may rapidly
increase and exceed the quantity habitually raised. Stocks in
hand enable these new needs to be met up to a certain point:
but in order either to bring stocks more rapidly back to their
normal level or to constitute a supplementary supply, it may be
necessary to increase production by lengthening the shift or—apparently the more frequent practice—by working additional shifts.
The reasons given are of various sorts. Several schemes, either
general hours of work legislation or special regulations for mines,
refer to exceptional pressure of work or to economic needs. The
Belgian Hours of Work Act, for instance, mentions exceptionally
heavy orders due to unforeseen events (2 hours a day for three
months in the year); whereas the Royal Order introducing the
45-hour week in coal mines alludes to the position regarding stocks
of coal (extension to be specified by Royal Order). In Czechoslovakia the Act permits extensions when the public interest or
other major consideration requires an increase in output (2 hours
a day for twenty weeks in the year, i.e. 240 hours a year) ; and the
collective agreement for the Moravska-Ostrava coalfield authorises
overtime in case of shortage of coal. In France, for underground
workers, extensions may be authorised when economic conditions

— 303 —
so require (62 hours, i.e. eight shifts of 7 % hours, a year), and as
an exceptional measure this limit may be raised (to 93 hours, or
twelve 7%-hour shifts) to face a national emergency or to meet a
large deficit in the French output of coal: for surface workers,
additional hours are permitted in case of exceptional pressure (to
the extent authorised for underground workers, with a maximum
of 96 hours a year). Extension in case of exceptional pressure is
permitted for all workers in Rumania (1 hour a day for three months
in the year) and Yugoslavia (2 hours a day for four weeks, renewable
three times). Similar reasons apply in a number of other countries.
In China the relevant Act provides t h a t normal hours may be
exceeded by reason of variations in local conditions (up to a total
working day of 10 hours). In Germany normal hours of work
may be exceeded for general reasons of an economic nature (extension
to be determined by the competent authorities). In Poland the
same applies in case of special needs, of which due evidence must be
given (4 hours a day and 120 hours a year). In Turkey hours may
be extended when the economic interest of the country so requires,
and in order to raise output above the normal level (3 hours a day
for ninety days in the year). Lastly, the Anthracite Agreement
in the United States provides t h a t the number of working days in
any given week may be increased for the purpose of meeting
extreme emergencies in which the market demand may require
operation in excess.
The reasons of national interest specified by a number of regulations resemble those mentioned in the preceding paragraphs.
Extension is permitted in Czechoslovakia, with a view to increasing
output when the public interest so requires (see p. 302) ; in France, for
surface workers, in respect of urgent work for the interests of
national safety or defence or for a public service (limit to be fixed
jointly by the Minister of Labour and the Minister requiring the
work to be done), and for underground workers, in the event of a
national emergency (see sutra); in Germany, in case of urgent
public need, particularly with a view to reducing unemployment
or ensuring the food supply of the population (extensions to be
determined by the supreme national authority) ; in Turkey, in case
of mobilisation or preparation for mobilisation (limit to be fixed
by the Council of Ministers and to correspond to the maximum
capacity of the workers) ; and in the U.S.S.R.,ïor work indispensable
to the defence of the State or to prevent public calamities and
dangers (extension included in the aggregate quota of 120 hours
a year;.not more than 4 hours in any two-day period).

— 304 —

As will be seen below, these reasons relating to the economic life
or general interest of the nation, which give rise to longer hours
in the countries just mentioned, lead elsewhere to a more radical
measure, namely suspension of the regulations. This will be dealt
with in a later section.
Lastly, mention should be made of the special case of extension
relating to the amount of skilled labour available. In France the
Decree of 21 December 1937, which authorises extensions for certain
specialised workers, alludes to the impossibility of recruiting
such workers immediately, owing to the training required.
In Italy the Legislative Decree of 29 May 1937 which introduced the
40-hour week in industry provides that normal hours may be
exceeded when the number of persons with the necessary qualifications is insufficient to meet the needs of production.

§ 4. — Extensions without Specified Reason

Certain regulations permit extensions without indicating the
reason. Some place a quota of overtime at the free disposal of employers. In Germany, for instance, the workers of an undertaking or
part of an undertaking may be required to do not more than 2 hours
a day for thirty days in the year, at the employer's choice, above
the normal daily limit. In the United States the Anthracite Agreement provides that employees may, at the employer's discretion,
work six days in the week, instead of five, for twelve weeks in the
contract year.
It may be pointed out that in Great Britain a provision of this
sort is used to fix the length of the shift at 7 % hours (both winding
times excluded). The Coal Mines Act of 1908, as amended in 1919,
provided for a 7-hour day, but stipulated also that the shift might
be increased by 1 hour a day for sixty days in the year at the
employer's choice. In 1926 this extension was authorised throughout the year—a provision equivalent to introducing an 8-hour shift.
In 1931 the length of the extension was reduced to half-an-hour,
so that now the length of the shift is 7 ^ hours.
In some cases the extensions depend on previous agreement
between the parties concerned. Such a requirement is laid down
in the Chilean and Yugoslav Acts, which permit 2 hours' overtime
a day on that condition.
In Germany collective rules may provide, on a permanent basis,
for work in excess of the normal hours. Such provisions actually

— 305 —

apply to certain groups of surface workers, whose hours are fixed
in excess of 8 per day, subject to an increase of 10 or 15 per cent.
on normal rates of pay.
In some countries additional hours or extra shifts are in practice
permitted, as is clear from the fact that collective agreements or
arbitration awards fix special higher rates of pay for overtime.
This is the case, for instance, in Great Britain and New Zealand.

B. — PROCEDURE FOR AUTHORISATION
OF EXTENSIONS
The procedure to be followed in order that advantage may be
taken of the different extensions is not always the same.
Some of the extensions are meant to meet needs which cannot
be foreseen. It must therefore be possible to take immediate
advantage of them, and the most that can be asked of employers
is that they should notify their recourse to such extensions. Others,
based on the nature of the work or on economic circumstances
which do not arise suddenly, may be made dependent on permits
issued in advance, themselves subject to certain formalities—
decision of the competent authority, agreement between the parties
concerned, etc. Lastly, in some cases extensions are directly
conditional on agreement between the parties.
§ 1. — Extensions permitted automatically

Most of the extensions permitted automatically relate to the
nature of the work or to accidental causes. Extra hours for reasons
of both these sorts are regarded as necessary, the manner in which
they may be worked is laid down once and for all in the regulations,
and employers may take advantage of them—in the prescribed
manner and within the prescribed limits—without further formality.
As regards extensions based on the nature of the operation or
occupation, it may nevertheless be pointed out that in some cases
the relevant Act leaves the determination of the operations and
occupations in question and the details regarding application to
administrative decrees, orders, etc., or to collective agreements.
In Czechoslovakia preparatory and complementary work giving rise
to extension must be determined—for each branch of industry or
group of undertakings—by the Minister of Social Welfare, who must
C.R. II

— 306 —
first of all consult the competent chambers. In Italy such work
is determined by collective agreement, or, failing this, by the
corporative inspectorate. In Rumania extensions of this nature are
fixed once and for all by the labour inspection service, in
accordance with the schedules issued by the competent Minister.
In case of accidental causes, too, particularly when a real
emergency has arisen, extensions are permitted automatically and
may be put into operation as soon as circumstances so require.
Some regulations, however, provide for supervision after the event,
in order to prevent abuse ; the employer is required to inform the
competent authority (labour inspection service, mines inspectorate, etc.) immediately after the extension begins or within a
very short period. This is the case in Great Britain (accident to
winding machinery, or other accident interfering with the lowering
or raising of workmen), India, Italy (including cases in which it
is impossible to meet a sudden pressure of work by engaging
additional staff), Japan, Poland, Rumania, Spain, Turkey, U.S.S.R.,
and Yugoslavia.
The period within which the extension must be notified to the
competent authority is 48 hours in Italy and three days in Rumania.
In the other countries it must be notified immediately after the
extension of hours begins or within 24 hours. Further, in Italy,
the notification must indicate the reason for extension, the type
and probable duration of the work in question, the number of
daily hours' overtime, and the groups of workers concerned.
Finally, a number of regulations provide that employers shall
enter in a register certain of the extensions of which they have
availed themselves (see pp. 320-322).

§ 2. — Extensions subject to Permit, Administrative Regulation,
or Agreement

Recourse to extensions for the purpose of meeting economic or
national requirements is not as a rule allowed without a permit
from the competent authority, which is sometimes required, before
deciding, to consult the occupational organisations concerned. In
Belgium such a permit is issued by the Minister of Labour, on the
basis of a report from the labour inspector and in conformity
with an agreement between the employer and the organisation or
organisations to which the majority of the workers belong (or,
failing such organisation, the majority of workers themselves).

— 307 —

In China, Rumania, and Turkey the permit is issued by the competent authority; in Czechoslovakia, by the mines administration
(subordinate authority for the first quota of additional hours,
higher authority for the second); in France (surface workers) by
the mines inspector; in Italy, by the Minister of Corporations,
who must consult the appropriate trade associations except in case
of urgent or special need ; and in Poland, by the labour inspector.
The application for a permit must as a rule describe the circumstances and give reasons. In France, for instance, it must
state the nature of and reason for the desired extension, the
number of workers whose hours are to be extended, the days on
which the additional hours are to be worked, and the hours and
rest periods proposed for the workers concerned ; it must also give
evidence that the exceptional pressure of work cannot be met by
other means, such as the engagement of additional staff.
Permits are also required in Austria and Spain for extensions
on account of seasonal conditions. Such permits are issued by the
competent Minister, who must consult the appropriate organisations in advance (the miners' unions in Austria and the competent
joint boards and the Permanent Office of the Labour Council
in Spain).
In some instances extensions apply only after the issue of
administrative regulations; this is the case in Belgium, France
and Poland.
In Belgium any exceptions to the Royal Order introducing the
45-hour week in coal mines must take the form of Royal Orders in
Council, issued after consultation of the Committee which is required
to study the situation of coal stocks. In France hours of work underground may be extended, when economic conditions so require,
by Orders of the Ministers of Public Works and Labour. In Poland,
when such a course is required by political or economic reasons,
the Council of Ministers may authorise the extension (or order
the reduction) of daily or weekly hours; this it does by means of
Orders, proposed by the Minister of Social Welfare, who must
first consult the chambers of industry and commerce and the trade
organisations of employers and workers concerned.
Further, in France (surface workers) extra hours may be ordered
by the Government, when work is required for national safety
or defence, or for a public service.
Extensions of a general nature are only permitted on the basis
of agreement between the parties concerned in Chile, the United
States, and Yugoslavia.
C R . II

— 308 —
In the anthracite mines of the United States an increase in the
number of working days may be decided by a board consisting
of representatives of the employers and workers, which must take
account of the situation of the industry. Further, some agreements provide that in case of accident, actual or threatened, the
management must discuss with the pit committee whether work
exceeding the limit is necessary, and that the permission of the
committee shall be required when work is to be extended.
In Turkey extensions for economic reasons depend on the consent
of the workers.
In Hungary additional hours are only worked in exceptional
circumstances and by workers who have volunteered to do so.

C. — LENGTH OF EXTENSIONS
Like the procedure for making use of extensions, the length
of an extension is closely related to the reason for which the
normal hours are exceeded.
Extensions based on the nature of the work may be limited in
advance, for in the majority of cases experience enables the necessary amount of additional time to be known fairly accurately.
As a rule the figure laid down is a maximum, within which recourse
may be had to extension for as long as is required ; but sometimes
the only limitation is the provision that work may continue for
the time required to complete the operation for which the extension
was granted.
Where the cause is of an accidental sort, on the other hand, there
is a powerful unknown factor, and the length of the extension
cannot be determined in advance. Nevertheless, if the overtime
continues for more than a certain period, the employer may be
required to take steps to ensure that the workers in question do
not work unduly long hours. Thus in France, in case of accidents,
the extension is unlimited for the first day and subsequently
restricted (2 hours); but underground the extension remains
unlimited if there is rescue work to be done.
Nevertheless, these extensions are as a rule confined to the time
required to prevent accidents or make good their results, and
cease—or at least should do so—as soon as work in normal conditions can be resumed. There are express provisions on this point
in the regulations of Czechoslovakia, France, India, Italy, Spain
and Turkey.

— 309 —
Extensions for economic reasons or in the public or national
interest are as a rule strictly limited, since their abuse might lead
to the substitution for the normal scheme of one comprising longer
working hours. Such a practice would not only constitute a
veritable step backward with regard to conditions of work, but
might also have a bad effect on employment. Moreover, as has
been seen, these extensions are usually subject to special procedure,
which enables the competent authority not only to take account of
the reasons given but—still more important—to prescribe the conditions in which the extension may be used, in particular, its length.
Extensions based on agreement between the parties concerned
hold good for the period stipulated in such agreement.
Methods of Limitation; Limits fixed

Some extensions are confined to the time which is strictly
necessary. For others the regulations themselves fix the length,
or at least lay down a maximum.
The limits have already been given in the section relating to
reasons for extensions ; and it will have been noticed that there are
several methods of limitation. One is to rule that a certain number
of hours may be worked in excess of the normal, the number being
fixed by the day, week, fortnight, month or year; a second, to
provide that hours of work, including the extension, may not
exceed a certain maximum limit. In some cases, yet another
limit is introduced by fixing the period during which extension is
authorised.
In the case of extensions which are based on the nature of the
work and recur with more or less pronounced regularity, a limit
is most often fixed for the day. This applies in Austria, Belgium
and Yugoslavia for work of preparation and termination, 2 hours;
in the Canadian Province of Saskatchewan for work of preparation
and termination : % hour ; in France for surface work : %-4 hours
according to the reason for the extension; in the Netherlands,
for winding engine-men : 1 hour ; and in Poland for work of preparation and termination: 1 hour, or 2 hours in exceptional cases,
and for persons responsible for the maintenance of motor or horse
vehicles: 2 and 3 hours respectively.
Limitation by the day and week is provided, in similar circumstances, as follows: in France for work of preparation and termination underground ; y2 hour a day and 2 y2 hours a week ; and for
workers responsible for safety inspections in mines subject to

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instantaneous escapes of gas: 3 hours a day and 9 hours a week;
and in Spain, in mines where it is impossible to work for more than
six months in the year: 1 hour a day and 6 hours a week.
The limitation is by the fortnight in Austria for drivers of horse
and motor vehicles, grooms, messengers, staffs of mine railways,
persons required to distribute consumers' goods, and any other
persons whose hours of duty cannot be exactly limited: 16 hours;
by the day and month in the Spanish Province of Oviedo and León
for onsetters, trammers, fan-minders: 4 consecutive hours a day,
30 hours a month ; by the week and month in Germany for commercial
staff in the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous coalfield: 6 hours
a week averaged over the month ; and by the day and year in A ustria,
in mines in which operation is affected by the season and temperature: 2 hours a day and 180 hours a year.
Several regulations, instead of fixing the number of hours of
overtime, provide for a maximum working day or week, including
the extension. This is the case in Chile for persons in positions of
supervision, management or trust and those engaged in intermittent work : 12 hours a day ; in France for underground
grooms, underground storemen, winchmen, and locomotive drivers
and their indispensable assistants: 8 hours a day and 42 hours a
week, and for surface workers employed exclusively at watchkeeping and caretaking: 56 hours a week; in Great Britain for
winding enginemen: 10% or 12 hours as the case may be; in Japan
for women employed in sorting: 12 hours a day; in Italy, in mines
over 1,000 metres above sea level: 10 hours a day for six months
in the year; and in Poland for certain kinds of supervision: 12 hours
a day.
In Czechoslovakia the daily hours of presence of persons employed at irregular work which is not exhausting, such as watchkeeping and caretaking in buildings and works, are indirectly limited
to 12 hours a day by the provision that there must be a minimum
rest of 12 hours in every 24.
For extensions for reasons of an economic nature or in the public
or national interest, and those based simply on agreement between
the parties, there is generally a daily or weekly maximum limit
with a second limit applying to the month or year. Sometimes
the annual number of hours' overtime is limited by fixing the period
during which the daily or weekly extension is permitted.
In Chile only a daily limit is laid down: 2 hours. There are
daily and weekly limits in Italy: 2 hours a day and 12 hours a
week, with 14 hours a week in urgent cases provided the weekly

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average of 12 hours is not exceeded over a period of 9 weeks; and
in the Netherlands for workers engaged in repairing shafts: 2 hours
three times a week, and for other workers: 2 hours twice a week
or one 8-hour shift a week. Daily and monthly limits are provided
in China: 46 hours a month, with a maximum of 12 hours a day.
There is a monthly limit for surface workers in the Netherlands:
18 hours. Daily and yearly limits are laid down in Poland: 4 hours
a day and 120 hours a year and in the U.S.S.R. : a maximum
of 4 hours in any two-day period, and 120 hours a year.
A daily limit and a limit to the period during which extension is
authorised are provided in Belgium: 2 hours a day during three
months of the year; in Czechoslovakia: 2 hours a day during four
weeks in the year by permission of the subordinate mines authority,
plus 2 hours a day during 16 weeks in the year by permission of
the higher mines authority or 240 hours a year in all ; in Germany :
2 hours a day for 30 days in the year; in Rumania: 9 hours a day
in all for three months in the year; in Turkey: 3 hours a day for
90 days in the year; and in Yugoslavia: 2 hours a day for four
weeks, renewable three times in the year.
Lastly, in France limitation by the year alone is provided for
underground workers; 62 hours, or 8 shifts of 7% hours each, and,
in case of national emergency, for all workers: (93 hours or 12
7%-hour shifts for underground workers, and 96 hours or 12 8-hour
shifts for surface workers.
In some cases the limits are fixed by the competent authority.
In France, for surface workers, extensions relating to work to be
done for purposes of public safety or defence, or for a public service,
are limited in each case jointly by the Minister of Labour and the
Minister who requires the work to be done. In Turkey the length
of the extension provided for in case of mobilisation is fixed by
the Council of Ministers.
Finally it should be noted that, for underground workers, overtime in order to increase output is done more often in the form of
extra shifts than of extra hours added to the normal shift; this is
for reasons connected with the organisation of work inside the
mine. Thus in France the Orders issued during 1937 concerning
the use of the overtime quota to make good a shortage of fuel due
to a fall in output provide that the authorised extensions must
take the form of extra days of work, on which the time spent in
the mine may not exceed 7% hours; at the same time, employers
or managers are authorised to require the surface staff to work
extra shifts not exceeding 8 hours, corresponding to the extra shifts

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worked underground. In the Netherlands, in exceptional circumstances relating to the operation of the mine, underground workers
may be required to do one extra shift a week instead of 2 hours'
overtime twice a week. In the anthracite industry of the United
States, managements may employ workers for six days a week
instead of five (i.e. one extra shift is worked) for 12 weeks in the
year.

D. — REMUNERATION FOR ADDITIONAL HOURS
The rate of remuneration for hours in excess of the normal
limit also depends on the reason for the extension.
Permanent extension for reasons relating to the nature of the
work do not as a rule give rise to special payment, since the normal
remuneration of the workers in question is itself determined with
reference to the nature of the work and therefore also to the
extension. In the United States, for instance, the general anthracite
agreement provides that compensation for taking mules from the
stables to the working place and back is included in the daily
wage. Nevertheless, for certain of the operations in question,
special increased rates are laid down in the following countries:
Australia (with a few exceptions), Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia,
France (underground work, and surface operations which for
technical reasons cannot be stopped at will), Germany, Yugoslavia,
and the United States (bituminous coal industry).
Extensions for accidental reasons outside the control of the parties
do not always give rise to special rates of pay, the legislation in
some cases considering that the workers as well as the employers
have an interest in such extensions, since their object is either to
save human life or to keep the mine in a fit state for operation.
Neither party obtains a direct profit, and each is concerned to
reduce the period of stoppage to a minimum, since it involves loss
of earnings. Nevertheless, and particularly in regard to underground operations, the very conditions in which the work is done
sometimes justify higher pay. Increased rates are therefore provided in Australia, Austria, Belgium, China, Czechoslovakia,
France (underground workers), Germany, and the United States
(bituminous coal industry).
On the other hand, extensions in order to increase output are
of a clearly economic nature, and it is natural that the worker
should be compensated by a higher rate of pay. This rate may be

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considered also as a brake on the use of overtime by the employers,
and thus as a method of preventing abuse. In fact most of the
national regulations prescribe such increased rates for overtime
when it is necessitated by a desire to increase production.
The methods of fixing overtime rates, and these rates themselves,
vary from one scheme to another. As a rule, if there is an increased
rate, it applies to the hours immediately following normal working
time. But it may be pointed out that in Western Australia the
first hour of overtime is paid at the normal rate; in Italy the
increased rate applies, failing other agreement between the parties,
only from the ninth daily and forty-ninth weekly hour onwards;
and in Spain (Puertollano mines) the first hour of overtime done
by a worker replacing another who is absent gives rise to compensatory time off, payment at the increased rate applying only to
the subsequent hours.
The increased rates are usually determined directly by legislation; in this case a minimum is laid down. In a few countries,
however, the statutory regulations leave the determination of
overtime rates to the parties concerned; this is the case in Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Spain ; and in Italy the national agreement for
the mining industry in turn refers the matter to the provincial
agreements. In still other countries, where there is no legislation
on hours of work in coal mines or the legislation contains no provisions on the subject, the rates are left to collective agreements
or arbitration awards; this is the practice, for instance, in Australia,
Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Lastly, where
minimum rates are stipulated in legislation, the collective agreements or arbitration awards frequently provide for higher rates;
this is the case in A ustria, New Zealand, and Rumania.
Under some schemes a flat rate of increase is provided. This is
time and a quarter in Austria, France, Germany, Hungary,
Rumania and Turkey, in all of which countries it is the legal
minimum. In Germany collective rules, particularly that of the
Rhenish-Westphalian coalfield, fixing daily hours of work at
9 hours or at 10 hours for certain surface workers according to the
organisation or the nature of the work, provide for an increase in
pay for the 9th and 10th hours of 15 per cent, which may, however,
be reduced to 10 per cent, when the time is spent chiefly in
attendance.
The overtime rate is time and a half in the bituminous coal industry of the United States (the anthracite agreement provides that
overtime shall be paid at the normal rate) and in Chile and Yugo-

— 314 —
slavia. In China the rate is between a third and two-thirds above
the normal.
Sometimes the rates of increase vary with the daily number of
hours' overtime and according as such hours are done by day or
by night, on working days, Sundays or public holidays.
In Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Poland the first two
hours of overtime are paid at time and a quarter, and any subsequent hours at time and a half; in the Netherlands the time-and-ahalf rate applies throughout if an extra shift is worked. In the
U.S.S.R. time and a half is paid for the first three hours above the
normal, and double time for the remainder. In Western Australia
the first hour of overtime is paid at the normal rate, the next four
hours at time and a half, and the remainder at double time. In
Germany commercial staff in the Rhenish-Westphalian bituminous
coalfield receive a rate 15 per cent, above the normal for the first
six hours of overtime in the week and 25 per cent, above the normal
for any subsequent hours.
A distinction is made between overtime by day and by night
in Poland: time and a quarter by day, time and a half by night;
and under certain collective agreements in Rumania.
Overtime or extra shifts on Sundays give rise to a special increased
rate in Australia: time and a half (but double time in Western
Australia); in Austria: time and a half or double time according
to the collective agreement; in Belgium: double time; in Czechoslovakia: time and a half or time and three-quarters according to
the collective agreement; in Hungary: time and a half; in the
Netherlands: double time; in New Zealand: double time; in
Poland: time and a half; in Rumania: 40-50 or 100 per cent.
above the normal according to the collective agreement; in the
Puertollano mines of Spain: 50 per cent, increase, as against 35
per cent, on working days; and in the U.S.S.R.: double time.
In Great Britain, for time workers (datai men), a very large
number of collective agreements stipulate time and a third for
overtime during the week and time and a half at week-ends. Different rates are provided for in several districts; for instance: in
Northumberland time and a quarter for underground datai men
(no increase at the surface) during the week, and an hourly rate
equal to one-sixth of the usual pay for a shift (both classes of
workers) at the week-end; in Durham only week-end work is paid
at increased rates (approximately the same as for week-end work
in Northumberland); in Scotland time and a quarter is paid for
week-end work; and in Nottinghamshire and North Derbyshire

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certain classes of workers (winding enginemen, fan enginemen,
power-house men, etc.), are paid for seven days' work if they have
done six full shifts during the week, any part of which fell on
Sunday. For British piece workers also, methods of payment
for overtime vary from district to district. Some agreements
provide, for instance, that hewers shall receive tonnage and a third
or yardage and a third for overtime work; but in Scotland the
general district agreement stipulates that there shall be no special
rate for overtime.
Specially high rates are paid in a considerable number of countries
for overtime done on public holidays. Fuller information on the
subject of rates of pay on such holidays and on Sundays will be
found in the preceding chapter, since it was not always possible
to ascertain whether the hours worked on these days were regarded
as ordinary time or overtime.
There remain a few exceptional regulations relating to overtime
pay. In Italy, when aggregate hours (ordinary time and overtime
together) do not exceed 8 in the day and 48 in the week, the employer is required to pay to a special unemployment fund a contribution equal to 10 per cent, of the wages due for the overtime worked,
unless the collective agreement stipulates payment of a special
higher rate for overtime. In Japan the regulations merely stipulate
that overtime must be paid at a rate above the normal. In Spain
supervisory staff in the mines of the provinces of Oviedo and
León, and salaried employees of the mining undertakings in the
latter province, receive a special bonus as compensation for the
overtime they have worked during the year.
Lastly, compensatory time off may be given in France to all
workers employed regularly or exceptionally during stoppages
of production on the maintenance and cleaning of machinery and
appliances which owing to the interconnection of operations cannot
be stopped separately during the general work of the mine, provided that such duties cannot be done during normal hours.

E. — RESTRICTIONS ON RECOURSE TO EXTENSIONS
The regulations governing the hours of work in coal mines, and
particularly those special to such mines, apply a system of considerable strictness to extensions. The practically universal obligation
to give a precise reason for exemption, the procedure to be followed

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for working additional hours, the limit to the length of the extension
(and in some cases to the period during which it may be used), and
the increased rates of pay for overtime—all these are conditions
which in practice combine to keep work in excess of normal hours
down to the minimum.
Some regulations, however, go further and place an additional
limit on extensions, particularly those intended to increase output.
The reason given is that in periods of depression overtime should
be avoided as far as possible so as to facilitate the engagement of
additional labour.
In France, for surface workers, a permit to work overtime in
case of exceptional pressure of work is granted only if the employer
shows that he cannot meet this pressure by any other means, such
as the engagement of additional workers. Further, in case of
exceptional and prolonged unemployment, an employers' or workers' organisation in the industry may apply to the Minister of
Labour, who, having consulted the other organisations concerned,
may then issue an order suspending the use of all or part of the
quota of overtime normally provided for cases of exceptional pressure, such suspension to apply to the whole of France or to one or
more specified regions.
In Italy overtime in case of exceptional pressure of work is
authorised only in so far as the employer cannot have the work
done by engaging additional staff.
In Belgium and Czechoslovakia the labour inspectors have received
instructions to examine closely all applications for overtime permits
which they receive, and only to issue such permits in exceptional
cases where the necessary additional labour is not available.
Indeed, it would appear that in Belgium no exemption on account
of unusual pressure of work has been granted to colliery undertakings in recent years.
Another means by which the use of extensions can be restricted
is to limit the number of persons to whom they may apply. In
France, for instance, the number of persons engaged on necessarily
continuous operations and preparatory and complementary work
which must necessarily be done outside the hours laid down for the
general work of the mine may not exceed 5 per cent, of the total
working force (mines in normal operation); and only for reasons of
safety peculiar to certain mines may a higher percentage be authorised by inter-ministerial Order.

— 317 —

F. — SUSPENSION OF THE REGULATIONS
It has already been stated that provision is made in the legislation of certain countries for the suspension of the operation of the
regulations in cases where other countries allow normal hours of
work to be extended. Such action is provided for in exceptional
circumstances—grave economic emergency, or events endangering
the national interest or safety.
For these reasons, and for others, the operation of the regulations
may be suspended in Belgium, the Canadian Province of Saskatchewan, Great Britain, India, Italy, and Rumania.
In Canada (Saskatchewan) and in Great Britain operation of the
relevant Act may be suspended " in the event of grave economic
disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the available
supply ".
In Belgium provision is made for suspension when it is necessary,
in the national interest, to obtain by increased exports the means
of exchange essential to the importation of subsistence goods.
In India suspension of the regulations is left to the discretion of
the Governor-General, but in case of public emergency local
authorities have similar power. In Italy provision is made for
suspension in case of an event involving danger to the national
economy.
Suspension in case of war or other national danger is provided
for in Belgium, Great Britain, and Rumania.
In Great Britain allusion is also made to "great emergency"
and in the Canadian Province of Saskatchewan to grave economic
disturbance.
Since suspension is a highly exceptional event, decision regarding
it tends to be reserved to the supreme authorities, usually the
Government itself or an authority directly dependent on it: in
Belgium it involves the issue of a Royal Order; in Great Britain,
that of an Order-in-Council; and in Italy, that of a Royal Decree
submitted by the Minister of Corporations. In the Canadian
Province of Saskatchewan the decision is taken by the competent
Minister; in Rumania by the Council of Ministers after a report
by the Minister of Labour; and in India by notification of the
Governor-General; however, in case of public emergency, the local
Government may authorise the suspension of the regulations by
written decision.

V. — Supervision of Enforcement of Regulations

In most countries the general hours of work regulations applying
also to mines or the special regulations for mining undertakings
provide for means by which the competent authorities and in
certain cases the workers themselves may check the actual hours
worked.
These regulations provide for supervision in various ways; for
example, a time-table must be drawn up and posted, a record
for each worker or shift must be kept in a register or by means
of cards or slips, deputies must be entrusted with the work of
supervision, etc.
Further, most regulations reinforce this check by prescribing
penalties in case of infringement of provisions relating to hours
of work.
A. — TIME-TABLES
§ 1. — Contents
The time-table which must be drawn up under several national
regulations may either take the form of a simple hours schedule,
or be included in some more comprehensive document such as the
rules of employment of the undertaking.
In most cases the regulations merely provide that the time-table
must indicate the length of the working day for the different
classes of workers, the hours at which work is to begin and end,
and the hours for rest periods. This is the practice in China,
Czechoslovakia, Germany, and the Netherlands. In many cases,
however, the provisions are fuller: in France, Spain, and the
U.S.S.R. the time-table must indicate separately the beginning
and end of. each shift ; and the Belgian, British, French, and
Japanese regulations require that in case of collective winding the

— 319 —
time-table shall indicate the times at which the descent is to
start and finish and at which the ascent is to start and finish.
The provisions governing hours of work in the coal mines of
France, Great Britain, India, and Japan specify that a time-table
must also be drawn up for surface workers, and indicate the form
which it must take in this case.
In the United States the collective agreements impose no
obligation on the employer to prepare a time-table, but in fact
such tables are posted in most mines. In Poland the establishment
of a time-table is not required by legislation, but only by certain
collective agreements; in Upper Silesia, however, a table showing
the beginning and end of work and rest periods is compulsory,
even where there is no collective agreement.
§ 2. — Preparation and Amendment of Time-tables
In some countries, such as China, Germany, and Great Britain,
the regulations merely state that the time-table or rules of employment shall be drawn up by the employer (the owner, manager or
director of the mine).
Sometimes, however, there are fuller provisions on the manner
in which the time-table shall be prepared. This is the case in
Belgium, where the Rules of Employment Act of 1921 states t h a t
before any new rules or amendments to existing rules can come
into force the workers must be notified by means of posting, and
that within a week of this the workers may (themselves or through
their representatives on the works council) enter their remarks in
a book which is provided for the purpose. The workers are also
entitled within the same period to submit remarks on proposed
amendments to the labour inspector, who sends them on to the
employer. In any case, new or amended rules may not come
into force until a fortnight after posting. Lastly, the employer
must send the probiviral court and the factory inspector a copy
of the new amended rules when these become definitive.
In Czechoslovakia the rules containing the time-table must be
approved by the mining authorities. In France the Decree governing
hours of surface workers provides that a copy of the time-table
and any amendments which may be made therein shall be sent
beforehand to the mines inspector; and the Decree governing hours
of work underground requires the time-table or amendments to
be approved by the mines inspector before it may come into force.
In Poland the procedure for preparation of the time-table is

— 320 —

governed by collective agreements, except in Upper Silesia, where
the statutory regulations oblige the employer—whether a collective
agreement has been concluded or not—to draw up the time-table
in agreement with the workers' committee, or, failing this, with
all the workers of the establishment. In Spain the Hours of Work
Decree of 1931 states that the time-table relating to employment
may not be amended without previous notification of the joint
(employers' and workers') boards and the labour inspector. In
the U.S.S.R. the tables relating to the times of shifts must be
drawn up in agreement between the administration and the trade
union organs of the undertaking.
§ 3. — Posting of Time-tables
Some national regulations require the management of every
mine to post the time-table, or the document containing this, in
a place where the workers can easily read it; there are provisions
of this sort in Australia, Belgium, China, Canada (British Columbia
and Nova Scotia), Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain,
India, Japan, Netherlands, and Spain.
The Polish general regulations contain no provision on this
subject, but in Upper Silesia the time-table must be posted in
every mining undertaking.
Sometimes more detailed provisions apply. In Belgium it is
laid down that every worker is entitled to copy the posted rules.
In France not only the time-table but also the overtime sheet
must be posted in every workplace affected or any premises
frequented by the workers not employed in buildings; for underground workers the pithead is the place chosen for posting. In
Great Britain the legislation requires the time-table to be posted
at the pithead (or in the engine-room for winding enginemen),
and further requires the employer to supply a copy gratis to
each underground worker who applies therefor at the office at
which he is paid. In India the Mines Act provides that the
time-table shall be posted " outside the office of the mine ".

B. — REGISTERS, CARDS AND SLIPS
Some national regulations contain provisions requiring employers
to keep a record of hours of work for supervision purposes, in the

— 321 —
form of registers, cards or slips. The main object of these provisions is to secure that exceptions to the general rules (overtime, etc.) are recorded.
In Australia the time sheets and pay sheets must be correctly
written up by the employer and kept open to inspection by the
authorities. In Belgium the Hours of Work Act of 1921 provides
that all work done in overtime and the number of persons engaged
on such work must be entered in a special register. In Canada
the Alberta Act prescribes the keeping of a book for registration
of the times at which workmen are lowered into and raised from
the mine, the cases in which any workman is below ground for
more than the time fixed, and the cause; in British Columbia and
Nova Scotia the regulations merely state that the employer shall
keep a record of the hours worked by each worker. In China the
Factory Act states that a record shall be kept containing personal
information on each worker and specifying the hours at which
each shift starts and stops work. In France the Decree relating
to surface work provides that if work is organised in shifts the
list of workers in each shift shall be entered on a sheet or register
kept strictly up to date and available for examination by the
mines inspectors and the workers' delegates; further, the employer
must keep a record of the dates and duration of exceptions on
account of exceptional pressure of work. The Decree relating to
underground work requires the management to enter all exceptions,
whatever the cause, in a special register which must be available
to the mines inspectors and to the workers' delegates at their
request.
The legislation of Great Britain requires the management of
every mine to keep a register, which must be open to inspection
by the inspector; it must indicate the times at which men are
lowered into and raised from the mine, the cases in which any
man is below ground for more than the time fixed, and the cause;
further, a register must be kept for winding enginemen, in which
they state the hours at which they commence and terminate
employment on each day, and it must be initialled daily by the
responsible official or the manager.
In India there must be kept in every mine a register of all
persons employed therein, showing, for each person, the nature of
his employment, the period of work fixed for him, the intervals
and days of rest to which he is entitled and—when work is carried
on in relays—the relay to which he belongs. Further, the local
Governor may require the management to keep a register showing

— 322 —

at any moment the names of all persons then working below
ground in the mine.
In Japan a slip in a prescribed form must be issued for each
worker when he goes down the mine before the normal hour and
when he returns to the surface after the normal hour for such
return; these slips must be preserved for three years. In the
Netherlands provision is made for the registration of all overtime
worked underground; the records in question must be preserved
for a year. In Poland, except Upper Silesia, the mine management
must keep a special register in which the overtime done by every
worker is recorded. In the U.S.S.R. an account book is issued
to each worker whose contract runs for more than a week; each
hour of overtime is entered in this book with the time at which
work began and ended; the same data must be entered in a special
register for the supervision of overtime.

C. — OTHER METHODS OF SUPERVISION
In France the Labour Code provides that the miners' safety
delegates are required, apart from their ordinary functions, to
notify infringements which they discover on their rounds, particularly regarding hours of work.
In Great Britain the workers may at their own cost appoint
one or more checkweighmen or other persons to be at the pithead
and observe the times of lowering and raising.
In Spain the standards of employment for coal mines in the provinces of Oviedo and León provide that in order to facilitate
supervision the workers shall enter and leave the mine by shafts
and adits to be selected by the mine officials.
In the United States the methods of checking hours of work
are laid down neither by legislation nor by collective agreement;
nevertheless provision is made in the agreements for checkweighmen, who keep close record of the tonnage mined and therefore
probably of the hours kept by all time workers.

D. — PENALTIES
Most of the schemes, particularly those introduced by legislation,
prescribe penalties for infringement of the provisions concerning
work in general or more particularly concerning hours.

— 323 —

In Australia fines not exceeding £50 may be imposed for breaches
of awards and agreements.
Belgian legislation provides that fines of from 26 to 200 francs
(multiplied by the number of workers affected by the infringement
but not exceeding 2,000 francs in all) or from one week's to one
month's imprisonment may be imposed for infringement of Acts
and Orders relating to hours of work. In case of a second offence
within a year, the penalties are doubled. Workers may also be
punished in case of obstruction to statutory supervision.
In Canada the Provincial Acts of British Columbia and Nova
Scotia provide for fines, and those of New Brunswick and Saskatchewan for fines with imprisonment in case of failure to pay.
In China the Factory Act and the coming Mines Act provide
for penalties in the shape of fines of up to 300 dollars.
In Czechoslovakia the penalties under the Act take the form of
fines not exceeding 2,000 crowns, or imprisonment up to three
months if the person guilty of infringement is insolvent. For a
second offence the respective maxima are increased to 5,000 crowns
and six months.
In France fines of from 5 to 100 francs for each worker illegally
employed, but not exceeding 1,000 francs in all, may be imposed
for infringement of provisions relating to hours of work. The
Labour Code considers the management of the mine, and not any
employed person, as responsible.
In Germany fines aré imposed by legislation in similar cases.
Both a fine and imprisonment may be incurred on a second offence
intentionally committed.
In Great Britain any person who knowingly makes, causes or
permits a false entry in the register of times of descent and ascent
is liable to a fine not exceeding £25 in all. In case of other offences
against the Coal Mines Acts of 1908 and 1911, the fine for each
offence may amount to £20 for an owner, agent, manager or undermanager and £5 for any other person.
In India the Mines Act provides that contravention of the
provisions respecting employment or presence in a mine may be
punished with a fine extending to 500 rupees; obstructing inspection, falsification of records, etc., may be punished with a similar
fine or imprisonment or both; and penalties ranging up to a fine
of 2,000 rupees with imprisonment are provided in other cases
(infringements involving accidents, repeated offences, etc.).
In Japan provision is made for fines not exceeding 100 yen.

— 324 —

In New Zealand fines may be imposed for breaches of the various
provisions of the Coal Mines Act.
In Poland infringements of this sort are punishable with fines
from 200 to 1,000 zlotys or imprisonment not exceeding three
months, and with imprisonment for from a fortnight to three
months in case of a second offence.
The Rumanian legislation imposes fines for infringement of hours
of work provisions, the amount not to exceed 2,000 lei per person
illegally employed and 10,000 lei in all. In case of a second offence
the total may be 20,000 lei.
In Spain an employer responsible for infringement of hours of
work regulations may be punished with a fine of from 500 to
2,500 pesetas, which is doubled for a second offence.
In the United States collective agreements provide for fines of
from 1 to 2 dollars per worker for each infringement of the principal
provisions of the agreements.
In the U.S.S.R. the penalties laid down for infringement of
labour legislation are of two kinds: criminal penalties inflicted by
the courts, and administrative penalties inflicted by the inspection
services. The criminal penalties are imposed for breaches of the
law; they consist in up to three months' hard labour or fines not
exceeding 300 roubles; but when the infringement relates to a
group of not less than three workers, is identical in respect of each,
and was committed simultaneously with regard to the whole group,
the penalty is imprisonment or forced labour for up to one year,
or a fine of 10,000 roubles. The administrative penalties are
imposed by the factory inspectors or the higher trade union officials;
they consist of fines not exceeding 25 roubles in the former case and
100 roubles in the latter.

ANNEXE STATISTIQUE
STATISTICAL APPENDIX
Section I : Nombre des personnes employées
Section I : Number of Persons employed

Le tableau I montre pour le charbon
les fluctuations des effectifs employés
dans chacun des quatorze pays, et le
tableau II montre ces fluctuations
pour cinq pays pour les mines de lignite.
Dans la majorité des cas, ces chiffres
comprennent des employés de même
que des ouvriers, mais le premier
groupe est numériquement peu important dans les mines. Les chiffres
s'appliquent à chaque année de 1927 à
1936 et à 1920; les chiffres du charbon
indiqués pour 1913 se réfèrent
au territoire comparable à l'aprèsLguerre. Dans
la mesure du possible les chiffres
excluent les personnes employées dans
les établissements connexes comme les
cokeries et briqueteries.
Les méthodes de calcul de « l'effectif
employé » ne sont pas dans tous les cas
identiques. Dans quelques cas l'effectif
s'applique à une journée donnée, dans
d'autres cas, il représente le nombre
employé à la fin de chaque trimestre,
à la fin de chaque mois ou à une
moyenne journalière; dans d'autres cas
encore, la moyenne est obtenue en divisant le nombre total des postes (moins
les supplémentaires) par le nombre des
journées de travail par année, etc.
Toutefois, la méthode utilisée pour
calculer le nombre des employés pendant une période est identique dans
chaque pays de façon que les chiffres
c.R. i i .

Table I shows changes in the numbers employed in each of 14 countries
in the case of coal, and table II shows
changes for 5 countries in the case of
lignite mining. In the majority of
cases these figures include salaried
employees as well as wage earners, but
the former group is numerically unimportant in mining. The figures are
for each year from 1927 to 1936 and
for 1920; in the case of coal figures for
1913 also are given relating to the
same area as for the post-war territory.
So far as possible the figures exclude
persons employed in ancillary works,
such as coke ovens and briquette
factories.
The methods of calculating the
" numbers employed " are not in all
cases identical. In some cases the
numbers are for those of a particular
day, in other cases the average of the
numbers employed at the end of each
quarter, at the end of each month or
a daily average; in still others the
average is found by dividing the total
number of shifts (less overtime shifts)
by the number of working days in the
year, etc. The method used in calculating the number of employees during
the period is the same, however, in
each country, so that the figures
represent the changes in employment.
21

— 326 —
représentent les fluctuations de l'emploi. Les fluctuations ne sont pas
toujours identiques avec celles obtenues
des indices de l'emploi (voir section II)
vu que les méthodes de calcul sont un
peu différentes.
Des tableaux détaillés ne sont pas
présentés pour la population active.
Ces chiffres, qui sont résumés dans
quelques tableaux du chapitre I,
comprennent les directeurs, administrateurs et propriétaires, les chômeurs
de même que des ouvriers et employés
en emploi et se réfèrent généralement
aux annéees 1930 et 1931.

These changes, however, are not always
identical with those derived from
indices of employment (see Section II),
where the methods of calculation are
somewhat different.
Detailed tables are not presented for
the gainfully occupied. These figures,
which are summarised in certain of the
tables in Chapter I, include directors,
managers and owners, the unemployed
as well as wage earners and salaried
employees in employment, and relate
for the most part to the years 1930
and 1931.

Tableau I: Mouvement du nombre des personnes employées dans les mines de ho
1913, 1920, 1927 à 1936
Table I: Trend of numbers of persons employed in coal mines, fourteen principal
AT.T.R-

Années

HAQNB*

SABBB

AtJBTRALIE

ETATBTJNIB

BELGIQUE

Years

GEBMANT *

SAAB

AUSTRALIA

BELGIUM

(6)
23,463
25,405
30,937
27,522
20,770
22,996
21,300
19,596
18,525
18,637

(al
146,084
159,944
174,533
163,281
151,869
155,397
152,713
138,316
134,933
125,705

GRANDEBRETAGNE

INDE

JAPON

GBEAT

INDIA

JAPAN

PATS
BAB

FBANOB

CANADA
UKITBD
STATES

BRITAIN

NETHE
LANDS

Nombre des personnes employées — Number of persons em
1913
1920
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936

(6)
490,7091
586,3841
557,2422
516,0212
544,387
493,443
390,403
326,989
330,318
348,400

(6)
90,300"
70,076'
72,001
61,632
60,484
59,220
55,621
48,039
45,809
44,599

406,8873
41! ,5033

18,833

—

(a)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
203,208 1,104,406* 156,5545 172,446
,72
207,107
342,873
190,342
,43
312,966 1,225.929* 180,532 239,167
,63
292,102 1,023,885 179,687 237,890
,03
292,242 938,988 179,607 228,761
,75
293,040 956,673 184,370 204,526
,64
268,800
173,175 154,398
,29
248,970 931,376 165,567 137,975
,52
867,864 163,173 143,602
239,298
,22
224,079
819,324 169,354 168,524
,39
789,091
565,202 214,790
179,152
,40
120,613 26,198
788,210
120,500
,99
—
769,474
767,091
Nombres-indices des personnes employées
(1929 = 100.0) Index numbe
<b)
28,000">
29,782
29,772
30,256
29,739
29,172
27,860
26,960
26,095
25,961

747,644
784,621
759,177
682,831
654,494
644,006
589,705
527,623
523,182
566,426

113.0
96.2
94.2
114.2
69.5
149.3
90.1
115.4
115.9
122.3
105.3
100.1
119.9
70.9
107.7
128.1
119.0
149.0
114.9
100.1
116.0
107.1
102.4
107.0
101.9
132.5
107.5
100.7
104.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
94.8
98.2
97.9
110.7
102.3
98.1
98.4'
100.3
100.0
100.0
92.0
102.6
100.6
93.7
90.1
92.0
79.4
94.3
91.1
90.7
80.6
85.2
90.6
97.4
75.7
89.2
88.8
87.7
79.9
81.9
90.7
71.7
73.7
89.7
82.8
87.3
86.5
76.7
85.6
60.1
79.4
1935
88.1
86.4
73.5
90.9
82.5
60.7 67.3
1936
6£ .4
79.3
—
—
—
—
82.4
64.0
80.4
(a) Ouvriers. — (b) Ouvriers et employés. — i Pour le territoire actuel
80.2
sans la Sarre. —2 A l'exclusion des employés en dehors de la Prusse. — 3 Y
compris le territoire de la Sarre. — * Chiffres pas tout à fait comparables.
— 51916. — s Y compris les établissements auxiliaires, par exemple les
cokerles et briqueteries. — > Fin de l'année. — 8 1921. —-«Octobre 1920.
— 10 Estimation pour 1911. — " Estimation. — 12 Nombre des personnes
employées à l'exclusion du personnel de bureau.
1913
1920
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934

87.2
106.0
100.5
100.0
100.0
102.7
96.4
92.2
90.9
94.5

75.4
149.9
104.5
104.0
100.0
89.4
67.5
60.3
62.8
73.7

30.
73.
94.
95.
100.
105.
107.
102.
95.
87.

99.7

76.6

—

82.
81.

(a) Wage earners. — (b
present territory exclusiv
Prussia. — s Including
comparable. — s 1916. —
and briquette factories.
1921. — 10 Estimate for
employed exclusive of off

— 328 —
Tableau II: Mouvement du nombre des personnes employées dans les mines
de lignite
Table II: Trend in numbers of persons employed in lignite mines
Année
Year

ALLBHAGNE

AUTRICHE

GERHANT *

AUSTRIA

HONGRIE
HUNGARY *

TCHÉCOSLOVAQUIE
CZECHOSLOVAKIA '

Total
5

YOUGOSLAVIE

pays
countries

YUGOSLAVIA

Nombre des personnes employées — Number of persons employed
1913
1920
1957
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936

. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .

58,947 1
136,484 1
86,318 5
87,877 s
100,911
88,633
77,364
71,113
73,862
81,813
82,813
83,860
Nombres-indices

1913
1920
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936

. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .

58.4
135.3
85.5
87.1
100.0
87.8
76.7
70.5
73.2
81.1
82.1
83.1

17,098 2 *
17,704
12,044
10,735
11,244
9,953
9,373
9,640
9,953
9,153
9,241

37,924 3
26,395
26,428
27,629
26,234
24,971
25,344
25,168
26,575
27,041
•

35,324*
54,670 3
39,180
39,755
40,923
39,428
35,944
33,387
31,378
29,647
28,956
29,043

26,530
27,214
29,349
27,794
26,777
24,808
22,448
23,717
22,519

employée s —• Index numbers of persons
(1929 = 100)

des personnes

152.1
157.5
107.1
95.5
100.0
88.5
83.4
85.7
88.5
81.4
82.2

137.3
95.5
95.7
100.0
95.0
90.4
91.7
91.1
96.1
97.9

—

i Pour le territoire actuel.
a A l'exclusion des emplovés.
3 1921.
* Y compris ceux employés dans les cokeries
et briqueteries.
s A l'exclusion des employés sauf en Prusse.

86.3
133.6
95.7
97.1
100.0
96.3
87.8
81.6
76.7
72.4
70.8
71.0

190,000
192,000
210,000
192,000
174,000
164,000
163,000
171,000
171,000

—

90.4
92.7
100.0
94.7
91.3
84.5
76.5
80.8
77.0

employed

—

90.5
91.4
100.0
91.4
82.9
78.1
77.6
81.4
81.4

•

i For present area.
2 Excluding salaried employees.
3 1921.
4
Including those employed in coke ovens and
briquette
factories.
5
Excluding salaried employees except in
Prussia.

— 329 —
Section II : Chômage et Emploi
Section II : Unemployment and Employment
Chômage

Unemployment

Les statistiques du chômage n'étaient
pas couvertes par l'enquête spéciale
adressée aux gouvernements. Toutefois, des données sont disponibles pour
huit pays producteurs de charbon, et
figurent au tableau III. En revanche,
on ne dispose pas de chiffres pour les
Etats-Unis, l'Inde, le Japon, l'Union
Sud-Africaine et l'U.R.S.S.
Les données relevées reposent sur les
résultats des statistiques d'assurance,
des bureaux de placement ou des
syndicats. La portée et la méthode
d'établissement des chiffres diffèrent
d'un pays à l'autre; la définition des
chômeurs n'est pas uniforme, et dans
certains cas la statistique couvre des
mines autres que les mines de houille.
Le principal objet de ces statistiques
est de faire ressortir les fluctuations
dans le temps et dans un même pays,
et même dans oe cas des modifications
survenues dans la législation, ou la
pratique administrative, ou dans les
heures de travail effectuées, peuvent
provoquer une diminution ou une
augmentation apparente du niveau du
chômage.

Statistics of unemployment were not
covered by the special enquiry addressed to Governments. They are available, however, for 8 of the coal-mining
countries and are given in table III.
No data are available for the U.S.A.,
U.S.S.R., India, Japan and the Union
of South Africa.
The figures are based on the results
of insurance schemes, on the operation
of employment exchanges, or on trade
union returns. The scope and method
of compilation of the returns differs
from country to country; the definition of unemployed is not uniform;
and in some cases mines other than
coal mines are included. Their principal value is in indicating the fluctuations over periods of time within a
country, although even within a country changes in legislation, in administrative practice, in hours worked may
result in an apparent decrease or
increase in the level of unemployment.

Emploi

Employment

Les statistiques de l'emploi forment
le complément de celles du chômage,
et montrent le nombre des travailleurs
occupés à différentes dates. Ces données, disponibles pour sept pays,
figurent au tableau IV. Parmi les pays
couverts par l'enquête du Bureau sur
les salaires et les heures, la Belgique,
l'Inde, les Pays-Bas, la Tchécoslovaquie
et l'Union Sud-Africaine ne fournissent
pas de chiffres relatifs à l'emploi.
Ces données reposent en général sur
des relevés effectués par les entreprises
minières et ne couvrent qu'un choix
d'entre elles; toutefois, dans un cas,
les chiffres s'appliquent à l'ensemble

Statistics of employment are complementary to those of unemployment
and show the numbers at work at
different dates. Figures are available
for 7 countries and are given in table IV.
Of the countries covered by the Office
enquiry into wages and hours, no data
are available for Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Netherlands, India and South
Africa.
These data are generally based on
returns made by mining establishments and relate only to a selection of
establishments; in one case, however,
the figures cover all mine workers,

— 330 —
des ouvriers mineurs et sont tirés des
données de l'assurance-chômage obligatoire. Seuls les nombres-indices de
l'emploi ont été relevés dans le tableau
et montrent le niveau de l'emploi par
rapport à l'année 1929 ( = 100), dans
toute la mesure du possible. Dans
tous les cas, les chiffres s'appliquent
au nombre des travailleurs occupés à
une certaine date, quel que soit le
nombre des heures effectuées par jour.
Dans un cas, on dispose également de
chiffres relatifs au nombre total des
heures de travail effectuées.
Ces chiffres sont surtout destinés à
montrer des fluctuations de courte
durée, particulièrement au cours des
mois récents; ils ne concordent pas
dans tous les cas avec les données
annuelles plus complètes figurant au
tableau I, et qui ont servi à établir
le commentaire des changements de
longue durée au chapitre III.

being based on data of compulsory
unemployment insurance. Index numbers only are reproduced in the table
showing changes in the level of employment compared as far as possible with
1929 as 100. In all cases the figures
relate to numbers at work at a certain
date, irrespective of the number of
hours worked per day. In one case
information is also available as to
aggregate hours worked.

These figures are principally of use
in showing short-period fluctuations,
especially in recent months; they do
not agree in all cases with the more
complete annual data given in table I.
The data in this latter table have
been used in Chapter III for'describing
the long-period changes.

Tableau III: Statistiques du chômage dans les mines de charbon
Table III: Statistics of unemployment in coal mining
ALLE*
MAGNE

GRANDEBRETAGNE
ET
IRLANDE
DU NORD

BELGIQUE *

Date
(fin de mois)

BELGIUM *

Stat, des
bureaux de
placement

Stat, de l'assurance
volontaire

Stat.
syndicale

Voluntary
unemployment
Insurance Stat.

Trade
union
returns

Employment
exchange
stat.

(end of the
month)

GREAT
BRITAIN
AND
NORTH.
IRELAND

Mines

Mining

Chômeurs
enregistrés

Unemployed

TonÉcoPAYS-BAB •

POLOGNE

BLOVAQÜIB

NBTHBBXANDS '

POLAND

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

FRANCE *

CANADA
GERMANY

Stat, des
Stat, de
bureaux de l'assurance
placement obligatoire
Employment
exchange
stat.

Compulsory
unemployment
insurance
stat.
Ind.
Mines de
extractives
houille
Mining
and
quarrying

Coal
mining

Stat, de l'assurance
volontaire
Voluntary
unemployment
insurance stat.

Mines de houille
Coal mining

Chômeurs

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Unemployed

Applications
for work

complets

partiels

wholly

partially

*
66,061
160,310
211,955
153,353
104,104
86,2911
64,945
20,208

0.0
0.3
1.4
5.4
5.0
7.4
7.8
6.4
4.4

0.2
1.2
8.5
29.7
30.4
27.3
22.2
6.3
1.9

4.4
7.2
11.1
11.2
12.5
12.8
11.4
12.6
11.4

1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1936:

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
A'III
IX
X
XI
XII

85,014
84,414
75,945
75,330
68,587
62,528
57,448
53,875
50,507
49,154
48,225
49,510

7.4
7.8
7.5
5.8
6.3
8.2
6.0
5.3
5.2
5.2
6.5
5.6

9.5
10.9
9.0
6.9
6.4
2.4
6.2
7.2
5.0
4.8
4.0
3.3

1937:

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII

48,694
42,087
35,081
26,886
20,928
15,696
12,167
9,170
6,766
6,726
7,022
11,268

5.4
5.2
4.9
4.4
4.7
4.5
4.0
4.1
4.0
4.2
3.5
4.3

2.6
2.1
2.7
2.1
2.1
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.8
1.6
1.3
1.7

Base
des
pourcentages
(dern. date)
Base

Chômeurs

Demandes
d'emploi

Unemployed
registered

67,395

331

Chômeurs ' Chômeurs
Unemployed *

Unemployed

Jours
chômes '
Days of
unemployment :

Stat, des
SUt. des
bureaux de bureaux de
placement placement
Employment
exchange
stat.

Employment
exchange
etat.

Mines

Mining

Demandes
d'emploi
enregistrées

Demandeurs
d'emploi
enregistrés

Applications
for work
registered

Applicants
for work
registered

924
2,161
2,040
1,976
1,395

16.2
20.5
28.2
34.0
32.9
28.2
25.2
21.8
14.6

0.2
0.3
2.9
26.4
37.3
51.5
73.1
46.2
4.8

0.2
0.3
0.8
6.1
11.0
17.3
21.3
14.0
4.7

3,419
7,828
12,787
20,277
29,967
29,251
30,580
26,793
20,363

257
890
4,313
15,675
17,471
16,335
14,729
12,603

8.8
8.1
13.5
20.2
18.1
18.4
16.3
12.1
12.0
7.7
8.0
7.9

1,858
2,366
2,336
2,054
2,032
1,837
2,061
1,699
1,595
1,879
2,018
1,978

19.5
20.2
21.7
23.3
23.1
30.6
26.1
21.2
21.4
19.7
18.0
16.4

73.4
65.3
79.9
54.5
49.3
60.4
47.1
37.3
32.8
28.5
17.7
8.2

20.1
18.4
21.5
17.6
14.1
16.6
13.9
11.2
10.4
9.4
8.8
6.4

29,160
31,214
31,277
29,092
28,099
26,641
24,708
24,051
23,418
23,663
24,187
26,009

15,020
15,372
14,452
14,545
14,107
13,422
12,674
12,068
11,648
9,689
8,969
9,275

11.1
11.9
17.0
16.1
15.5
14.0
14.7
11.4
7.7
7.0
5.8
5.0

1,959
1,819
1,762
1,577
1,362
1,272
1,243
1,079
1,113
1,153
1,126
1,270

15.4
15.3
14.6
13.8
17.4
18.9
16.3
13.6
13.1
13.1
11.7
11.5

6.1
5.7
4.6
4.0
4.1
5.1
5.8
5.6
4.7
4.7
4.1
3.4

5.6
5.0
4.3
3.9
4.1
5.1
5.7
5.4
4.5
4.7
4.1
3.4

27,202
27,632
26,694
24,051
21,715
18,914
17,779
15,910
16,025
14,659
15,857
17,915

8,587
8,480
7,919
7,277
6,492
5,838
4,730
4,178
3,832
3,739
4,124

868,360

13,616

2,789

*
*
*
640*

—

ligure

(latest date)
1
Depuis mars 1935, y compris le territoire de la
Sarre. — ¡¡ Ayant reçu une carte de contrôle au cours
du mois. — » Les données se rapportent à la fin de la
semaine la plus proche de la6fin du mois. — * Moyenne
des trois derniers mois. — Y compris les chômeurs
occasionnels et pour cause d'interruption temporaire
d'activité. — a Y compris un certain nombre de
syndiqués non assurés aux 7caisses de chômage.
Moyennes hebdomadaires. — Ces chiffres donnent
le pourcentage des jours de chômage par rapport au
nombre des jours auxquels on aurait pu travailler
s'il n'y avait pas eu de chômage.

1 Since March 1935, including the Saar Territory.
— 2 Having received a control card during the
month. — s The figures relate to the week ending
nearest to the end of each month. — * Average of the
three last months. — & Including casuals and
unemployed owing to temporary stoppages. —
» Including a certain number of trade union members
not insured in the unemployment funds. Weekly
averages. — i The figures show the percentage of
days In unemployment to the possible number of
days which could have been worked in the absence of
unemployment.

332

Tableau IV: Nombres-indices de remploi dans les mines de charbon
Table IV: Index numbers of employment in coal mining

ALLEMAGNE

GRANDEBRETAGNE
ET
IRLANDE
DU N O R D

ETATS-UNIS
FRANCE

GERMANY

Stat, d'établissements
Stat, of '
establishments
Date

UNITED

Stat.
d'établissements
Stat, of
establishment«

Mines de
charbon
Coal
mining

Anthracite coal
mining

travailleurs

heures d e
travail '

Effectif
employé
Number
employed

Mines de
charbon
bitumineux

Ind.
extractives

Mines de
houille

Mines de
charbon

Bituminous
coal
mining

Mining
and
quarrying

Coal
mining

Effectif
employé
le même
mois d e :

Effectif
employé
(évaluation)

Effectif
employé

N u m b e r employed

1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1936:

I
II
III
JV
V

VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
1937:
XII
I
II
III
IV
V

VI
VII

VIII
IX
Effectif employé
X
(dernière daté)

II
N u m b e r X employed
(latest date)

1929 =

100

Number Estimated
employed
number
t h e same employed
m o n t h of:

*
*
95.0

100.0
84.4
65.8
54.9
56.9
64.0
67.4
73.2
85.4

100.0
96.4
89.2
84.1
78.3
81.6
82.3
83.7
84.1

100.0
93.4
80.5
62.5
51.7
59.6
53.2
51.8
49.9

100.0
93.4
83.2
67.4
67.9
77.2
76.7
79.0
80.4

84.7
80.0
76.4
72.9
71.7
77.7

71.4
72.0
72.2
72.2
72.5
72.7
72.8
73.1
73.3
73.8
74.9
76.0

72.4
70.7
70.3
71.0
72.9
71.0
70.4
70.7
72.5
75.8
80.1
80.7

88.0
85.7
82.4
78.4
78.0
77.8
79.4
79.7
86.2
88.8
89.5
90.3

59.1
61.2
52.5
49.8
54.9
51.2
48.4
41.1
47.6
49.9
51.5
54.8

79.8
80.2
80.4
77.5
76.2
75.7
75.5
76.9
78.2
81.1
82.3
83.9

70.8
70.5
70.3
72.4
73.4
72.2
73.1
71.6
71.6
71.2
71.5
72.4

77.1
78.1
78.7
80.5
81.3
82.0
82.7
83.0
84.0
85.2
85.8
86.4

82.0
81.7
83.3
84.2
86.1
83.7
83.7
84.5
85.6
88.6
90.8
90.3

88.6
87.3
81.7
78.2
77.6
77.5
76.6
83.5
89.4
86.7
91.4
91.1

54.1
52.7
48.9
54.0
51.0
51.1
45.0
41.2
48.2
51.0
50.5
50.9

84.6
84.8
85.9
72.6
77.8
77.9
75.8
78.8
80.5
82.9
82.1
80.5

73.6
74.9
74.4
77.7
79.3
78.6
79.8
79.0
78.2
78.7
78.7
79.4

i E m p l o i comparé au nombre possible de postes.
2 1 " du mois suivant.
s Les chiffres se r a p p o r t e n t au 1 " du mois.
* Y compris les ouvriers occupés aux t r a v a u x
accessoires: gardiens, etc., les ouvriers en congé et les
ouvriers malades. Les données se r a p p o r t e n t aux
établissements occupant 20 ouvriers ou plus.

Number
employed

S t a t , of
establishments

dont:
of which:
Mines
Mining

Mines de
houille
Coal
mining

Effectif employé
N u m b e r employed

1930 = 100 1929 = 100 1926 =-100

100.0
89.9
72.1
61.7
63.4
67.3
69.8
73.1
82.1

26,617t

Stat, d'établissement«

Stat, of
establishments

Effectif employé

1929 = 100

Stat.
d'établissements

Unemployment
insurance
Btat.

hours of
work '
1929

POLAND '

Labour
inspectors'
returns

Emploi p a r r a p p o r t
a u n o m b r e possible d e :
Employment as %
of possible n u m b e r of :

POLOGNE '

JAPAN

Stat, de
1'asBUrancechômage

S t a t , of
establishments

Mines
d'anthracite

GREAT
BRITAIN
AND
NORTH.
IRELAND

Stat, des
inspecteurs du
travail

Stat, d'établissements

(fin de moia)
(end of t h e month)

JAPON

STATES

100.0
93.5
76.8
71.2
73.4
71.6
73.4
71.5
80.3

*
*
*
*
*
71.5
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
80.3
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
53.9
—

100.0
98.5
87.6
74.0
62.3
61.3
59.2
59.8
67.1

64.3
64.7
64.6
64.0
63.9
63.7
64.3
64.1
65.4
65.9
67.2
69.0

59.8
59.0
58.5
58.4
58.5
58.8
59.1
59.4
60.2
60.9
62.2
62.9

70.4
71.2
71.8
71.9
71.9
72.0
72.3
73.3
74.9
76.1
78.0

63.0
63.4
63.7
64.4
65.2
67.1
68.1
68.7
69.5
70.4
71.1
70.9

59.3
60.2
65.1

—

369,300 297,633 699,097 158,485 106,961

100.0
94.7
87.2
74.7
60.8
58.8
55.5
54.6
60.0

68,265

1
E m p l o y m e n t compared with possible n u m b e r
of shifts.
2
First of t h e following m o n t h .
3
The figures relate to the first of t h e m o n t h .
* Including workers occupied in accessory occupations, watchmen, etc., workers on leave and workers being sick. The d a t a relate to establishments
employing 20 or more workers.

— 333 —

Section III : Salaires dans les mines de charbon
Section I I I : Wages in the Coal-mining Industry

Au cours de l'année 1937, le Bureau
international du Travail a entrepris
une nouvelle enquête sur les conditions
de travail dans l'industrie houillère.
Cette enquête a porté sur les années
1933, 1935 et 1936 et le plan en a été
établi sur des bases analogues à celles
des quatre enquêtes précédentes de
1925, 1927, 1929 et 1931. Le questionnaire ayant servi à recueillir les
données est reproduit en annexe.
Les pays qui ont répondu à ce
questionnaire sont les suivants:
Pays européens :

Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie

Pays extraeuropéens :
Canada
Etats-Unis
d'Amérique
Inde
Japon
Union SudAfricaine

Pour l'Allemagne, les données figurant dans les tableaux ont été tirées
des publications nationales 1 .
Seules les informations relatives a u x
pays européens sont assez complètes
pour servir de base à des comparaisons
internationales. Les conditions spéciales inhérentes à l'industrie minière
des pays extra-européens font que,
pour ceux-ci, les comparaisons ne
sont guère possibles avec les pays
européens; les données obtenues pour
ces pays ont cependant été incluses
dans les tableaux dans la mesure où
elles étaient disponibles.

i REICHS- UND PREUSSISCHES "WIRTSCHAFTS-

MINISTERIUM: Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hiitten-

In 1937 t h e International Labour
Office undertook a new enquiry into
wages and hours of work in t h e coalmining industry excluding lignite. This
enquiry covered t h e years 1933, 1935
and 1936, and was carried out on t h e
same lines as those of the four previous
enquiries in 1925, 1927, 1929 and 1931.
The questionnaire which was used for
the collection of these data is given
in t h e appendix.
The countries which replied t o these
enquiries were as follows:
European
countries :

Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia

Extra-European
countries :
Canada
United States
India
Japan
Union of South
Africa

For Germany, t h e data given in t h e
tables have been drawn from national
publications 1 .
All t h e information concerning European countries is sufficiently complete
for international comparisons; t h e
special conditions attached t o t h e
mining industry in extra-European
countries are such t h a t comparisons
are hardly possible with European
countries; information obtained from
these countries is, however, given in
the tables so far as it is available.

i REICHS- UND PREUSSISCHES WIRTSCHAFTS-

MINISTERIUM: Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten-

und Salirienwesen; REICHSARBEITSMINISTERIUM:

und Salinenwesen;

REICHSARBEITSMINISTERIUM :

Reichsarbeitsblatt;

STATISTISCHES

REICHSAMT:

Vierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs ;

REICHSVERSICHERUNGSAMT: Die Reichsversiche-

rung, n» 11, 1937.

REICHSAMT:

Vierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen
Reichs; REICHSVERSICHERUNGSAMT: Die Reichsversicherung, No. 11, 1937.

— 334 —
Composition et répartition des
gains totaux

Composition and Distribution of Total
Earnings

En principe, ces chiffres montrent la
rémunération effective accordée, sous
une forme directe ou indirecte, à
l'ensemble des ouvriers mineurs proprement dits, à l'exclusion des travailleurs occupés dans les établissements annexés aux mines (tels que
cokeries, briqueteries, etc.), et à l'exclusion des mines de lignite.
Le tableau V reproduit les données
originales reçues des divers pays et le
tableau VI montre la répartition des
gains totaux.

In principle, these figures show the
total remuneration accorded directly
or indirectly to all wage earners in
coal mining, excluding workers employed in ancillary establishments,
such as coke works, briquette works,
etc., and excluding the lignite industry.

Nombre total des postes et journées de
travail effectués

Number of Shifts and Days worked

Le nombre des postes (figurant au
tableau VII) est obtenu en ajoutant
au total des postes normaux (effectués
pendant les heures de travail normales
fixées par la loi ou les conventions
collectives) la somme des postes supplémentaires, complémentaires et réduits, convertis en postes de durée
normale. Le nombre des journées de
travail équivaut au total des postes
effectués, quelle qu'en soit la durée.

The number of shifts (given in
table VII) is obtained by adding to
the total of normal shifts (carried out
during normal hours fixed by legislation or collective agreements) the total
of supplementary, overtime or shorttime shifts, converted into normal
shifts. The number of days is equal
to the number of shifts worked,
irrespective of their duration.

Nombre de postes perdus

Number of Shifts lost

Le nombre total des postes perdus
(figurant au tableau VIII) est réparti,
dans la mesure du possible, selon les
causes du temps perdu, en distinguant
en particulier deux groupes importants,
selon que les mines étaient en exploitation ou fermées. De plus, on a relevé
séparément l'ensemble des postes perdus au fond et à la surface. Ces données
servent au calcul du nombre moyen
d'ouvriers, selon la méthode uniforme
adoptée à cet effet.

The total number of shifts lost is
given in table VIII and their distribution so far as possible according to
cause, distinction in particular being
drawn between two important groups:
shifts lost when the mine was operating
and shifts lost when the mine was idle.
Separate shifts are given for underground and surface workers. These
data are used for the calculation of
the average number of workers in
accordance with a uniform method.

Nombre moyen d'ouvriers occupés

Number of Workers employed

Le nombre d'ouvriers (figurant au
tableau IX) est établi, en principe,
. selon la méthode uniforme adoptée
lors des enquêtes précédentes et qui
consiste à diviser la somme des journées de travail effectuées (postes

The number of workers employed
(given in table IX) should be compiled
in principle according to the uniform
method adopted for the previous
enquiries. This method consists in
dividing the total number of shifts

Table V gives the original data
received from the different countries,
and table VI shows the distribution
of these figures.

— 335 —
totaux) et des postes perdus, par le
nombre moyen des jours ouvrables de
l'année 1.

(days) worked and lost by the average
number of working days in the year '.

Production de charbon

Total Production of Saleable Coal

La production totale de houille
utilisable, c'est-à-dire déduction faite
des déchets de lavage et de triage
(figurant au tableau X), a été répartie
d'après les principaux usages que l'on
en fait, de manière à montrer les
quantités utilisées par les mines pour
leur propre usage et celles qui sont
distribuées au personnel, ainsi que le
tonnage disponible pour la vente à
l'extérieur, et dont la somme représente
le tonnage extrait au cours de l'année,
à l'exclusion des stocks restés de
l'année précédente.

The total production of saleable coal,
i.e. after deduction of waste by
washing and screening (given in table
X), is shown according to the different
uses to which it is put so as to show
the amount consumed by the mines
themselves, the amount of coal distributed to employees and the amount
of commercially disposable coal. Some
of this represents the total tonnage
extracted during the year, apart from
stocks remaining on hand from the
preceding year.

i Ce nombre a été le suivant: Belgique: 302
France: 302 (1933), 303 (1935), 298 (1936)
Pays-Bas: 305 (1933 et 1935), 306 (1936)
Pologne: 298 (1933), 300 (1935), 302 (1936)
Tchécoslovaquie: 308.

i This number was as follows: Belgium, 302
France, 302 (1933), 303 (1935), 298 (1936)
Netherlands, 305 (1933 and 1935), 306 (1936)
Poland, 298 (1933), 300 (1935), 302 (1936)
Czechoslovakia: 308.

Tableau V: Composition des gains totaux en 1933, 1935
Table V: Composition of total wages bill in 1933, 1935
(Monnaie nationale, en milliers) •— (National currency, OOO's
Allocations
Allowances
Unité
monétaire
Pays (ou bassin)

Currency

Salaires
nets
en espèces
Net money
wages

Paiement«
pour
congés

d'assurances
des ouvriers
Workers'
Bocial
insurance
contributions

Payment«

en
espèces
in cash

Antres
Free and
cheap coal

Other

Gains
effectifs
totaux à
l'exclusion
des contributions
patronales
Total actual
earnings.
excluding
employers'
social
insurance
contributions

1933
Pays européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i .
Ruhr i
Belgique 2
France •
Grande-Bretagne .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie .
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
Inde 3
Japon
Union Sud-Africaine
a)
b)
Pays européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i
Ruhr i . . .
Belgique 2 . . .
France
. . . .
Grande-Bretagne

.
.

42,3745
7,417
RM.
308,7695 47,971
RM. 1,353,125
44,862
Fr. 1,681,934 127,662
77,6256
2,758
Fr.
35,315
3,556
£
113,356
16,138
335,050
37,986
FI.
Zl.
*
19,901
Kc.
S
1,849
Rs.
*
73
53,373
Yen
599
1,136

*
*

* 7
* 7

43,462
86,471

*
2,376

10,745
13,187

*
* 8

3,756
17,716
62,081
62,146
2,137
137
10,276
42,020

251,454
1,287
387
4,949
6,572

371
» 8

*
*
*

1,280
5,500
16,121

53,547
374,456
1,503,530
2,209,667
83,807
43,051
160,964
450,936
20,272
1,849
599
1,136

1935
51,0855
9,614
RM.
383,264 5 65,918
RM.
1,176,385
Fr.
44,278
Fr. 1,564,501 121,111
81,5718
£
2,706

4,433
24,644
32,263
81,857

52,602
54,877
2,111

245,355
1,351

65,132
473,826
1,305,528
2,067,701
87,739

Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie

. .

Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
E t a t s - U n i s : charbon
bitumineux . . . .
Inde s
Japon
Union Sud-Africaine*:
a)
b)

FI.
Zl.
Kê.

$
8
Rs.
Yen
£
£

28,871
98,629
315,973

2,911
17,129
35,195

24,029

402,677
*
1,875
*
72,679
743
1,387

*
*

2,082
9,578
11,857

164
7,416
39,373

*
•

* 8

*
*
*

406

381
4,670
4,600

1,188
5,865
15,282

*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*

35,597
143,287
422,280
24,435
402,677
1,875

*
743
1,387

1936
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i . .
Ruhr i
Belgique 2
France
Grande-Bretagne . .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Inde 3
Union Sud-Africaine*:
a)
b)

RM.
RM.
Fr.
Fr.
£
FI.
Zl.

Ko.
Rs.
£
£

55,1865
10,213
419,9895
71,954
1,299,479
50,649
1,728,402
90,3708 141,926
2,785
30,983
99,892
2,747
332,816
16,671
36,849
1,700
*
802
1,505

*
*

• 7
• 7

36,742
85,771

*
2,002
9,546
11,149

4,635
25,453
54,834
60,599
2,240
171
6,830
38,945

*
253,095
1,397
382
4,568
4,196

• 8

* 8

*
*

' Données couvrant les ouvriers occupés dans les établissements annexes
(cokeries, briqueteries, etc.).
2 Dans les frais globaux de main-d'œuvre, un montant de 18,722 millions
de francs en 1933, 16,026 millions en 1935 et 23,898 millions en 1936 n'est
pas compris, représentant des subventions à des œuvres en faveur des
ouvriers.
s Données se rapportant au mois de décembre seulement.
* a) Salaires payés aux ouvriers non européens, les seuls effectuant le
travail de la mine proprement dit; 6) Salaires payés à l'ensemble des travailleurs (européens et non européens).
s Y compris les allocations en espèces.
« Déduction faite des retenues pour explosifs, outillage, etc.
7
Compris dans les salaires nets en espèces.
s En règle générale, le logement, la fourniture d'eau, l'éclairage, le
chauffage et les prestations médicales sont assurés gratuitement par
l'employeur. La valeur du logement est estimée à 1 '/2 Rs. par mois, celle
du chauffage à 2 Rs.
9 Estimation.

27,061
83,280

*
1,160
5,845
15,107

*
*
*

70,034
517,396
1,468,765
2,353,073
96,792
37,445
143,352
439,062
1,700
802
1,505

i Data covering worker
briquette factories, etc.).
2 The total wages bill d
for 1933; 16.026 millions f
subventions to social fund
s Data relating to Dece
* (a) Wages paid to Eu
properly so called; (b) W
European).
s Including allowances
s Excluding occupation
i Included with net mo
8
As a rule, housing, s
and medical attendance a
equivalent for domestic f
housing Rs. 1 '/2 per mon
• Estimate.

Tableau VI: Répartition des gains effectifs totaux par catégories d'ouvr
Table VI : Distribution of total actual earnings among different categories of w
(En milliers) — (OOO's omitted)
Gains effectifs à l'exclusion des contributions
patronales aux charges sociales

Pays (on bassin)

Excluding employers'
social Insurance contributions

Unité
monétaire
Currency

Gains effectifs y compri
patronales aux char
Including empl
Boclal insurance con

Ouvriers
du fond

Ouvriers
de la surface

Totaux

Ouvriers
du fond

Underground
workerB

Surface
workers

Total

Underground
workers

Ouvriers
de la surfa
Surface
workers

1933
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i
Ruhri
Belgique: 2

Pays

extra-européens:

Inde s
Union Sud-Africaine*:
a)
b)

RM.
RM.
Fr.
Fr.
£
FI.
Zl.
Kc.

t
Rs.
Yen
£
£

40,712
280,966

*
1,611,604
69,126

12,835
93,490

*
598,063
14,681

109,491
351,411

51,473
99,525

1,342
40,382

507
12,991

*
*

53,547
374,456
1,503,530
2,209,667
83,807
43,051
160,964
450,936
20,272
1,849
53,373
599
1,136

*
*
*

1,769,294
73,924

126,704

*
*
1,342

*
*
*

*
*
*
650,453
15,855

*
59,586

*
*
507

#
*
*

1935
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i
Ruhr i
Belgique 2
France
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
E t a t s - U n i s : charbon bitumineux
.
Inde a
Japon
Union Sud-Africaine*:
a)
b)
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie i . . .
Ruhr i
Belgique s
France
Grande-Bretagne. . .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Inde s
Union Sud-Africaine*:
a)
6)

RM.
RM.
Fr.
Fr.
£
FI.
Zl.

Ko.

49,782
358,832

*
1,476,061
72,335

15,350
114,994

*
591,640
15,404

97,860
327,325

45,427
94,955

65,132
473,826
1,305,528
2,067,701
87,739
35,597
143,287
422,280

Rs.
Yen

1,324
55,974

551
16,705

*
*
*
643,515

77,480

16,696

*
114,217
*
*
*

24,435
S

*
*
*
1,624,694

402,677
1,875
72,679

743
1,387

*
*
*
*

53,057

1,324

551

*
*
*

1936
RM.
RM.
Fr.
Fr.
£
FI.
Zl.
Ki.
Rs.

à * Voir notes au tableau V.
Estimation.

53,876
392,877
1,680,261
79,566
99,087
342,491
1,135

16,158
124,519

*
672,812
17,226

*
44,265
96,571

565

70,034
517,396
1,468,765
2,353,073
96,792
37,445
143,352
439,062
1,700

802
1,505

*
*
*
1,847,426

*
*
*
732,625

84,670

18,517

*
*

51,492

115,214

1,135

*
*

565

*
*

i to 4 See notes t o t
s Estimate.

Tableau VII: Nombre total de postes et de journées de travail effectué
Table VII: Total number of man-shifts and of man-days worked in
(En milliers) — (OOO's omitted)
Postes effectués

Journées de travail effectu

Man-shifts worked
Pays (ou basata)
Au fond

A la surface

By underground
workers

By surface
workers

Man-days worked
Au fond
et à la surface
By underground
and surface
workers

Au fond

A la Burface

By underground
workers

By surface
workers

1933
Pays européens:
Allemagne:
Ruhr

6,G60
35,946

*
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Tchécoslovaquie
Pays extra-européens :
Inde 2
Union Sud-Africaine i :
a)
6)

38,695
137,843
5,723
11,203
6,851
3,341

*
*
*
*

2,497 3
14,546 3

*
19,156
40,327
2,899
6,257
2,473
1,170

*
*
*
*

9,157 3
50,492 3

*
57,851
178,170
8,622
17,460
9,324
4,511

*
*

6,211 *
6,609 5

*
26,050

*
*
*
11,058
6,752

*
2,420
32,448

*
*

*
*
12,101

*
*
*
6,000
2,310

*
1,024
11,964

*
*

1935
Pays européens:
Allemagne:
Ruhr

7,820
44,757

*
35,325
142,170
4,511
10,509
6,587
Pays

extra-européens:

Inde 2
Union Sud-Africaine i :
a)
6)

4,070

•
•
*
*

2,977 s
18,033 3

*
19,060
41,974
2,754
5,857
2,392
1,313

*
*
*
*

*
*

10,797 3
62,790 3

23,341

*
*
*

54,385
184,144
7,265
16,366
8,979
5,383

10,374
6,477

•
*

2,745
39,894

*
*

7,743*
8,227 6

*
*
10,865

*
*
*
5,615
2,256

*
1,200
14,621

*
*

1936
Pays européens:
Allemagne :
Haute-Silésie
Ruhr
Grande-Bretagne

Pays
extra-européens:
Inde 2
Union Sud-Africaine i :
a)
6)

8,348
48,909

*
35,317
144,845
4,794
10,693
6,902

*
•
*

3,128 3
19,740 3

*
18,698
42,994
2,907
5,732
2,430

*
•
*

11,476 3
68,649 3

*
54,015
187,839
7,701
16,425
9,332

*
8,366*
8,894 s

i Le nombre des journées de travail correspond pratiquement à celui des
postes eflectués.
2
Données se rapportant au mois de décembre seulement.
s Y compris les postes effectués dans les établissements annexes.
* Postes effectués par les ouvriers non européens.
s Postes effectués par l'ensemble des travailleurs européens et non européens.

*
*
23,761

*
•
*
10,538
6,782
2,342

*
*

*
*
11,339

*
*
*
5,493
2,285
1,233

*
*

i The number of man-d
shifts worked.
2 Data relating to Dec
s Including man-shifts
* Man-shifts worked by
s Man-shifts worked by

Tableau Vili: Nombre total de postes perdus, répartis selon les causes,
Table VIII : Total number of man-shifts lost in 1933, 1935 and 1936
(En milliers) — (000's omitted)

Fays (ou bassin)

Fendant
l'exploitation
des mines,
par suite d'absence
volontaire
ou involontaire
"When mine
was working
(voluntary and
involuntary
absences)

Postea perdus

Far categories de trava

Man-shifts lost

By categories of wor

Par suite de
non-exploitation
des mines
When mine
was not
working

À la
Underground
workers

1933
Pays européens :
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
,
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
b)

*
*
*

" *
*

4,135
10,824
1,043
1,662
1,046

10,753
625
4,067
4,339

14,888
10,824
1,668
5,729
5,385

2,954

3,003

*
*

2,034 i
14,421 i

791 2
813 3

*
*
*
11,425
9,345

*
4,075
4,557

*
*
*

S
w

1935
P a y s européens :
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
6)
Pays européens :
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays extra-européens :
Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
b)

545 i
4,711 i

1,467 i
10,641 1

*
5,039
11,857
602
1,736
1,164

*
7,118
1,014
3,196
3,259

*
12,157
11,857
1,616
4,932
4,423

2,118

2,182

922 i
5,930 i

*
*

979 i
6,499 i

*
*

235 i
2,215 i

*
5,536

*
4,620
12,605
554
1,701
1,053

590
2,919
2,669

*
*

i Chiffres recalculés sur la base des données tirées des publications
nationales.
2 Postes perdus par les ouvriers non européens.
8
Postes perdus p a r l'ensemble des travailleurs, européens et non européens.

*
*
*
9,445
10,272

*
3,472
3,721

740 2
761 3
1936
1,214 1
8,714 i

*
10,156
12,605
1,144
4,620
3,722

*
*
*
*
*
7,849
10,956

*
3,232
3,109

730 2
754 3

*
*

i Figures recalculated
publications.
2 Man-shifts lost by
s Man-shifts lost by

— 344 —

Tableau IX: Nombre moyen d'ouvriers par catégories en 1933, 1935 et 1936
Table IX: Average number of workers by categories, in 1933, 1935 and 1936
A la surface
Pays (on bassin)

Pays
européens:
Allemagne :
Haute-Silésie . . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne . .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie. . .
Pays extra-européens :
Canada
Inde
Japon !
Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
6)
P a y s européens :
Allemagne :
Haute-Silésie . . . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne . . .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie. . . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
E t a t s - U n i s : charbon bitumineux
Inde
Japon i
Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
b)
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne . .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie. . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Inde

Underground
workers

27,323
155,026
93,522
165,960
589,700
22,941
50,782
36,880
19,379
104,080
105,009

Au fond
et à la surface
Underground
and surface
workers

Surface
workers

9,525 2
54,587 2
41,411
74,900
147,600
10,796
25,683
10,192
5,433
40,627
38,593

36,848 2
209,613 2
134,933
240,860
737,300
33,737
76,465
47,072
24,812
144,707
143,602
22,515 3
23,866 *

Country (or district)

European
countries:
Germany :
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
countries :
Canada
India
Japan i
Union of South Africa:
(a)

1935
29,200
171,813
83,377
147,760
573,300
20,966
46,153
33,087
19,463

10,550 2
62,577 5
37,236
71,850
147,000
8,153
23,581
9,580

113,425
128,275

45,829
46,862

5,368

39,750 s
234,390i
120,613
219,610
720,300
29,119
69,734
42,667
24,831
435,420
159,254
175,137
27,276 3
28,900*

1936
29,886
177,385
82,962
144,850
570,300
20,812
45,596
32,033
114,604

10,706
66,036
38,197
70,490
147,600
8,093
22,786
9,370
48,313

40,5922
243,421 2
121,159
215,340
717,900
28,905
68,382
41,403
162,917
29,155 3
30,925*

Union Sud-Africaine:
a)
b)
i2 Effectif occupé à fin juin.
Y compris les ouvriers occupés dans les
établissements
annexes.
8
Ouvriers non européens.
* Travailleurs européens et non européens.

European
countries:
Germany :
U p p e r Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
countries :
Canada
United S t a t e s : bituminous coal
India
Japan i
Union of South Africa:
- (a)
(6)
European countries :
Germany :
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
countries :
India
Union of South Africa:
(a)

<&)

Workers engaged at end of June.
2 Including workers engaged in ancillary
establishments.
3
Non-European workers.
* E u r o p e a n and non-European labourers.

— 345 —
Tableau X: Production totale de charbon en 1933, 1935 et 1936
Table X: Total output of coal in 1933, 1935 and 1936
(En milliers de tonnes métriques) — (Metric tons, 000's omitted)

Paya (ou bassin)

Tonnage
produit

Consommation
de la mine

Saleable
coal

Colliery
consumption

Tonnage
vendable
Coal
distributed

Commercially
disposable
coal

Country (or district)

1933
Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays extra-européens :
Canada
Inde
Japon
Union Sud-Africaine

15,640
77,801
25,301
47,981
203,375
12,574
27,799
10,532
11,070
18,452
32,524
10,715

657
5,5761
1,909
3,907
11,372
406
2,341
829

258
14,725
71,277
9481
22,935
457
42,862
1,212 187,862
12,107
4,141
24,964
61
9,517
495
186
626
10,306
138
1,055
17,397
2,227
30,297
10,4582
257

European
countries:
Germany:
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
couniries :
Canada
India
Japan
Union of South Africa

1935
Pays européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Canada
E t a t s - U n i s : charbon
tumineux
Inde
Japon
Union Sud-Africaine

. .

19,042
97,668
26,506
47,119
218,393
11,878
28,796
10,894

677
6,117
1,801
3,895
11,416
479
2,266
861

13,673

640

337,701
21,352
37,762
13,574

1,107
2,272

. .
bi-

275
1,047
402
1,198
4,143
49
471
180

18,092
90,504
24,303
42,026
202,834
11,350
26,059
9,853
12,865
20,245
35,490
13,2525

322

European couniries:
Germany:
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
countries :
Canada
United S t a t e s : bituminous coal
India
Japan
Union of South Africa

. .
1936

Pays
européens:
Allemagne:
Haute-Silésie . .
Ruhr
Belgique
France
Grande-Bretagne .
Pays-Bas
Pologne
Tchécoslovaquie . .
Pays
extra-européens:
Inde
Union Sud-Africaine

21,065
107,478
27,867
46,171
224,618
12,802
29,997
12,233

• 687
6,657
1,866
4,064
11,580
523
2,086
840

20,914
14,842

1.1Í

i Quantités partiellement estimées.
2 Tonnage v e n d u .

288
1,174
383
1,182
4,263
39
465
171

20,090
99,647
25,618
40,925
208,775
12,240
27,446
11,222
19,726
14.512*

330

European countries:
Germany:
Upper Silesia
Ruhr
Belgium
France
Great Britain
Netherlands
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Non-European
countries :
India
Union of South Africa

i Quantities partially estimated
Tonnage sold.
2

— 346 —

NOTES AUX T A B L E A U X

V A X

N O T E S TO T A B L E S V TO X

Allemagne :
Toutes les données figurant aux tableaux sont
tirées des publications nationales et couvrent les
ouvriers occupés dans les établissements annexés
a u x mines (cokeries, briqueteries, etc.). Ces travailleurs représentent une fraction assez import a n t e des ouvriers de la surface. Abstraction
faite de cette divergence, les statistiques allemandes sont établies sur la base de la méthode
adoptée par le Bureau pour ses enquêtes sur les
conditions de travail dans les mines de houille.

Germany :
All the figures given in the tables are taken
from national publications and include workers
employed in ancillary establishments (coke works,
briquette works, etc.). These workers form an
important p a r t of the surface workers. Apart
from this divergence, t h e German statistics are
compiled on the same basis as t h a t adopted by
the Office for its enquiry.

Belgique :
Les données obtenues ne permettent pas d'établir la répartition des éléments autres que les
salaires bruts en espèces entre les ouvriers du
fond et les ouvriers de la surface. De ce fait, le
chiffre exact des gains effectifs t o t a u x n'est
disponible que pour l'ensemble des travailleurs.
. D ' a u t r e part, les statistiques ne fournissent que
le nombre des journées de travail effectuées, mais
ce chiffre correspond, dans la pratique, à celui
des postes effectués. Les données relatives au
nombre des postes perdus ne sont pas disponibles.
Le nombre moyen d'ouvriers occupés n'est pas
calculé d'après la méthode adoptée par le Bureau,
mais d'après celle constamment suivie par l'Administration belge des mines : le nombre moyen
d'ouvriers occupés dans chaque mine est obtenu
en divisant le nombre de journées effectuées par
le nombre de jours d'extraction de la mine considérée. Le n o m b r e moyen d'ouvriers occupés dans
le pays entier est la somme .des nombres moyens
ainsi obtenus dans les différentes mines.

Belgium :
The d a t a received do not enable a distinction
to be made between underground and surface
workers for those elements in remuneration other
t h a n money wages. Thus, total earnings are available only for all workers. Moreover, the statistics
give only the n u m b e r of days worked, but this
figure corresponds, in practice, to t h a t of shifts
worked. D a t a are not available for shifts lost.
The average n u m b e r of workers is not calculated
according to t h e uniform method, but is compiled
by t h e Belgian authorities as follows : The
average n u m b e r of workers employed in each
mine is obtained by dividing the n u m b e r of days
worked by the n u m b e r of days on which coal
was won in the mine in question. The s u m m a tion of these for each mine gives the total for the
kingdom.

Canada :
Les données couvrent les mines de lignite, qui
dans ce pays sont exploitées comme des mines
de houille. Le nombre des postes effectués est
approximativement égal à celui des journées de
travail, qui n'est pas fourni. Le nombre moyen
d'ouvriers est une moyenne arithmétique des
effectifs relevés chaque mois sur les listes de paie.
Ce chiffre comprend un petit nombre d'employés
subalternes ne recevant pas d'appointement fixe.
Cette moyenne ne diffère pas sensiblement de
celle que l'on obtiendrait en appliquan t la méthode
du Bureau.

Canada :
The d a t a include lignite mines, which are
mined in Canada in the same way as anthracite
and bituminous coal. T h e n u m b e r of shifts
worked is approximately equal to the number
of days worked, which is not available. The
average n u m b e r of workers is an arithmetic
average of the numbers recorded once a month
on t h e pay-rolls. This figure includes a small
n u m b e r of administrative officials and clerks
not on salary. This figure does not differ substantially from t h a t obtained by applying the
uniform method.

Etats-Unis :
Les seules données disponibles sont tirées du
recensement de la production minière pour 1935.
Elles ne s'appliquent q u ' a u x mines de charbon
bitumineux, et ne couvrent donc pas les mines
d'anthracite. Le nombre moyen d'ouvriers utilisé
pour le calcul du gain annuel correspond à la
moyenne arithmétique des travailleurs relevés
sur les registres des mines, à chaque période
de paie mensuelle. Les statistiques donnent également un autre nombre d'ouvriers établi en
t e n a n t compte des périodes ofi les mines étaient
fermées et n'occupaient que des ouvriers chargés
de la surveillance. Ce dernier chiffre est légèrement supérieur au premier.

United States of America :
The only d a t a available are those given by
the Census of Mines of 1935, which covers bituminous mining only to t h e exclusion of anthracite.
The average n u m b e r of workers used for the
calculation of annual earnings is the arithmetic
average of the n u m b e r of workers on the payrolls at each monthly pay-period. Another figure,
however, is given, compiled by taking account
of the periods during which the mines were
shut down when watchmen and maintenance
staff only were on d u t y . This figure is slightly
higher t h a n the previous one.

France :
Toutes les données ont été établies conformément au questionnaire et à la méthode du Bureau.
Elles contiennent toutefois l'extraction du lignite,
mais ce dernier représente une fraction infime
du tonnage produit et n'affecte nullement les
résultats obtenus. Le nombre des postes effectués
est identique à celui des journées de travail.

France :
The d a t a supplied conform to those of the
questionnaire and to the uniform method of the
Office. They include, however, the extraction of
lignite, which represents, however, an extremely
small fraction of o u t p u t and does not affect
t h e results for comparative purposes. T h e
n u m b e r of shifts worked is the same as the n u m b e r
of days worked.

— 347 —
Grande-Bretagne :
Les données couvrent l'ensemble des établissements miniers produisant le 97 pour cent
environ du tonnage total de houille extraite.
Elles couvrent également les surveillants, pompiers, vérificateurs et autres catégories d'ouvriers
subalternes. Les gains en espèces sont fournis
après déduction des dépenses dites «professionnelles » (outillage, explosifs, etc.), dont le
m o n t a n t a été déterminé par un relevé spécial
en mars 192C. (Ce m o n t a n t est inclus dans les
données des statistiques officielles.) Le nombre
total des journées de travail correspond à la
différence entre le total des postes effectués et
le nombre estimé des postes supplémentaires et
de « fins de semaines »; des données séparées pour
le fond et la surface ne sont pas disponibles.
L a législation britannique n'autorise pas le
travail supplémentaire. Les postes supplémentaires et de « fin de semaine » précités correspondent a des t r a v a u x d'urgence ou à des postes
de fin de semaine effectués pour des b u t s tels
que ceux mentionnés a l'article 6 du projet de
convention sur la durée du travail dans les mines
de charbon. L e nombre des postes perdus p a r
suite de non-exploitation des mines n'est pas
disponible. L e n o m b r e moyen d'ouvriers est une
moyenne trimestrielle.

Great Britain :
The d a t a cover mines producing about 97 per
cent, of t h e total o u t p u t . They include deputies,
firemen, examiners and other subordinate officials. Money wages exclude occupational charges,
t h e a m o u n t of which is based on a special return
for March 1926. (These a m o u n t s are not excluded, however, from t h e official " Statistical
Summaries ".) The total number of man-days
worked represents t h e difference between the
total number of man-shifts worked and the
estimated number of overtime and week-end
shifts, b u t separate figures for underground and
surface workers are not available. Under British
law commercial overtime is not permissible. The
overtime and week-end shifts referred to above
represent " emergency " overtime and shifts
worked at week-ends for purposes of the kind
referred to in Article 6 of t h e Draft Convention
on hours of work in coal mines. The number
of shifts lost when the mine was not working
is not available. T h e average number of workers
employed is a quarterly average.

Inde :
Les données sur les gains et les postes effectués s'appliquent au seul mois de décembre de
chaque année. Elles couvrent les exploitations
minières à ciel ouvert. L e nombre d'ouvriers,
toutefois, est une moyenne, arithmétique des
effectifs relevés à la fin de chaque mois. La valeur
des allocations en n a t u r e n'est pas disponible.

India :
The d a t a on earnings and daily attendances
relate only to the month of December in each
year, and include open workings. The average
n u m b e r of workers is an average of t h e numbers
at the end of each month. The value of earnings
other t h a n in cash is not available.

Japon :
Les données obtenues sont incomplètes. Les
éléments autres que les salaires bruts en espèces
ne sont pas disponibles, de même que le nombre
des postes effectués et des postes perdus. Le
nombre d'ouvriers représente les effectifs à fin
juin de c h a q u e année.

Japan :
The d a t a received are incomplete. No information is available as to the value of remuneration other than t h a t of money wages, nor as
to man-shifts worked and lost. The average
number of workers is the number at the end
of June.

Pays-Bas :
Toutes les données figurant aux tableaux couvrent les ouvriers occupés dans les établissements
annexes. Les données obtenues ne p e r m e t t e n t pas
d'établir la répartition des éléments autres que les
salaires et allocations en espèces entre les ouvriers
du fond et ceux de la surface. De ce fait le chiffre
exact des gains effectifs t o t a u x n'est disponible
que pour l'ensemble des travailleurs. D'autre
part, les statistiques ne fournissent que le nombre
des postes effectués, mais ce chiffre est à peu près
égal a celui des journées de travail. La répartition
des postes perdus entre les ouvriers du fond et
ceux de la surface n'est pas disponible. Le calcul
du nombre moyen des ouvriers du fond et de
la surface d'après la méthode du Bureau repose
donc sur une estimation, basée sur la proportion
des postes effectués au fond et à la surface,
respectivement.

Netherlands :
All t h e d a t a include ancillary establishments.
Total earnings are available for all workers only as
information is not available as to the distribution
of coal and housing allowances and paid holidays
among underground and surface workers. The
number of man-days worked is not given, b u t
this figure is said to be almost the same as t h e
number of man-shifts worked. The average
number of workers is obtained by dividing, for
each mine, the number of shifts worked by the
number of days the mine was working and adding
u p t h e figures obtained. The distribution between underground and surface workers, however,
is made by dividing this total in proportion to
the n u m b e r of shifts worked by these two
categories of workers.

Pologne :
Toutes les données ont été établies conformément au questionnaire et à la méthode du
Bureau.

Poland :
All the d a t a have been compiled in accordance
with the Office questionnaire.

Tchécoslovaquie :
Toutes les données ont été établies conformément au questionnaire et à la méthode du
Bureau. A côté "du nombre moyen d'ouvriers
calculé d'après la méthode du Bureau, les statistiques établissent un autre chiffre des effectifs,
compte tenu des travailleurs en > congé alternatif

Czechoslovakia :
All t h e d a t a have been compiled in accordance
with t h e Office questionnaire. In addition,
however, to the average number of workers
calculated according to t h e uniform method,
another figure is given in which account is taken
of certain workers on leave (congé alternait/ non

— 348 —
non payé« pour une-durée ne dépassant pas
un mois, mais qui conservent leurs droits aux
congés payés, aux allocations en nature et, le
cas échéant, aux secours de chômage.

payé) for a period not exceeding one month,
but who retain their rights to paid holidays,
allowances in kind and, if necessary, unemployment relief.

Union Sud-Africaine :
Les données disponibles ont été établies, dans
la mesure du possible, sur la base du questionnaire et de la méthode du Bureau. Le nombre
moyen des ouvriers ainsi que le montant des
salaires couvrent également les employés, à
l'exclusion toutefois du personnel administratif
supérieur, et font une distinction entre travailleurs blancs (« Européens ») et travailleurs de
couleur (« non-Européens •).

Union of South Africa :
The data are not complete but have been
compiled as far as possible according to the
questionnaire of the Office. The average number
of workers includes, as do also the data on
wages, etc., the administrative, technical and
clerical staffs on the mines, but not staff at head
offices or controlling houses, and distinguish
between " whites " and " coloured ".

— 349 —

Section IV: La durée du travail dans l'industrie du
charbon en 1933, 1935 et 1936
Section IV: Hours of Work in the Coal-mining Industry
in 1933, 1935 and 1936
La plupart des données relatives à
la durée du travail proviennent de
l'enquête spéciale du Bureau sur les
conditions de travail dans les mines
de houille.
Ces données sont rassemblées dans
les deux tableaux suivants, qui montrent
quelle a été la durée du travail des
ouvriers du fond et des ouvriers de la
surface en 1933, 1935 et 1936.
A titre d'information, nous avons
fait figurer l'Allemagne dans les tableaux, en indiquant seulement les
limites légales de la durée du travail.
Nous avons reproduit à part les
renseignements fournis par le Canada
et l'Union Sud-Africaine, qui n'étaient
pas présentés suivant la forme prévue
par le plan de l'enquête. Enfin, nous
avons donné quelques chiffres sur la
durée du travail tirés de l'enquête sur
les salaires et les heures de travail
dans les mines de charbon bitumineux des E¡tats-Unis d'Amérique en
1936 \
DURÉE DU TRAVAIL DES OUVRIERS
DU FOND

Most of the data concerning hours
of work are taken from the special
enquiry into wages and hours of work in
coal mines.
The data are presented in the two
following tables, which show hours of
work for underground and for surface
workers in 1933, 1935 and 1936.
It should be added that the figures
given for Germany in the tables indicate only the statutory limits to hours
of work.
The material concerning Canada and
the Union of South Africa has been
presented separately since it was not
submitted following the plan laid down
for the enquiry. Finally, some figures
concerning hours of work drawn
from the enquiry into hours of work
in bituminous coal mines in the United States 1of America in 1936 have
been given .

HOURS OF WORK OF UNDERGROUND
WORKERS

Le tableau XI indique:
I o la durée réglementaire du travail
établie soit par la législation, soit
par des conventions collectives;
2° la durée individuelle de présence
dans la mine (laps de temps qui
s'écoule entre le moment où
l'ouvrier entre dans la mine pour
descendre et celui où il en sort à
la fin de la remonte);

Table XI shows:
(1) the regulation hours of work
fixed either by legislation, or by
collective agreements;
(2) the individual time spent in the
mine (the period between the
time when the worker enters the
cage for the descent and the time
when he leaves it after the
ascent) ;

1
Une analyse plus détaillée de cette enquête
américaine a paru dans le rapport sur la généralisation de la réduction de la durée du travail
(Conférence internationale du Travail, 1938. Rapport v, IV»« partie).

i A more detailed analysis of this American
enquiry is given in the Report on the Generalisation of the Reduction of Hours of Work
(International Labour Conference, 1938. Report
V, Part IV).

Tableau XI : Durée du travail des ouvriers du fond en 1933, 1
Table XI : Hours of work of underground workers in 1933, 19
D u r é e réglementaire du t r a v a i l
Durée indi
présence d a

Regulation hours of work
J o u r ou poste
Années
P a y s et régions

Years
Législation
Legislation

Allemagne 2. . .

1933-36

8 h.

Belgique

1933-36

8 h.

. . . .

Etats-Unis
d'Amérique * .

France

Grande-Bretagne a
Inde
Japon
Pays-Bas

. . . .

Pologne:
Haute-Silésie .
Bassin de Dombrowa et de
Cracovie . .

Tchécoslovaquie.

1936

Conventions collectives
Collective
agreements

8 h.

1936

7 h. 4 5 '

1933-30

7 h. 3 0 '

Calcul du poste

Week
Conventions collectives

Législation
Legislation
5

—
—

35 h.

48 h .
3811.40'

—
—

1933

12 h.

1935-36
1933-35

9 h.
10 h.

1933

8 11.

8 n.
6 h. S.

1935-30

8 h.

8 h.
6 h. S.

—

46 h.

1933-36

8 11.

—

48 h.

1933

8 h.
6 11. S.

1935-36
1933-36

8 h.
8 h.

—
—
—

54 h.

—

—
46 li.

46 h.

—

8 h.

48 h .
48 h.

Method of calculating shift
Jour
ou poste

Collective
agreements

48 h.

7 h.

1933-1.11.36

Individu
spent in

Semaine.

D a y or shift

—

48 h.

Day
or shift

v
D. individuelle comprise
Individual D. included
D. et R. 3 individuelles comprises
Individual D. and A. included
P.S. et pauses pour les repas
non compris
TT. and breaks for meals
excluded
D. et R. collectives comprises
Collective D. and A. included
D. collective comprise
Collective D. included
D. et R. collectives non comprises
Collective D. and A. excluded
D. et R. collectives comprises
Collective D. and A. included
Id.
R. collective comprise u
Collective A. included
D. (ou R.) collective comprime lä
Collective D. (or A.) included
Id.
D. (ou R.) collective comprise
Collective D. (or A.) included-

—
8 h.

7h. 49'
7 b.38'
8 h.
8 h.io
8 h.io

—
8 h. 3 '
6h.3'S.
8 h. 3 '
6h.3'S.
8 h. 2 '

D. et R. individuelles com- 6 h . 3 0 ' «
prises
8 li.30'S.
Individual D. and A.included
Id.
8 h.
D. et II. collectives compri- 7 n . 2 8 '
ses i*
Collective D. and A. included

— 351 —
3 o la durée de présence au chantier,
pauses déduites (durée individuelle de présence dans la mine
diminuée de la durée totale des
parcours souterrains et des pauses,
à l'exclusion de toute autre perte
de temps ou période d'attente).
La durée individuelle de présence
dans la mine et la durée de présence
au chantier, pauses déduites, ont été
déterminées de la même façon que
pour les enquêtes de 1927, 1929 et
1931. Nous rappellerons seulement les
réservées déjà formulées à l'occasion
des enquêtes antérieures sur la valeur
des chiffres exprimant la durée de
présence au chantier, pauses déduites.
Les éléments utilisés pour calculer cette
durée: durée du parcours de la surface
au chantier et vice versa et durée des
pauses, ne peuvent être obtenus avec
une rigoureuse exactitude. Us sont le
plus souvent le résultat d'une approximation; leur valeur est sujette à caution et influe sur la valeur elle-même
du chiffre exprimant la durée de
présence au chantier, pauses déduites.

(3) the time spent at the face less
breaks (the actual individual
time spent in the mine, less the
total travelling time underground and breaks, the latter
not including any other lost
time or waiting periods).
The individual time spent in the
mine and the time spent at the face
less breaks have been determined in
the same way as in the enquiries of
1927, 1929 and 1931. Readers may
be reminded of the reserves made in
the earlier enquiries as to the value
of the figures showing the time spent
at the face less breaks. The figures
used for calculating this time, namely,
the total travelling time and the duration of breaks, cannot be determined
with absolute accuracy. They are
generally approximate figures and must
be accepted with caution; their value
naturally influences the value of the
figures showing the time spent at the
face less breaks.

NOTES AU TABLEAU XI
i Abréviations: D. = Descente; R. = Remonte;
P.S. = Parcours souterrains; S. = Samedi.

NOTES TO TABLE XI
i Abbreviations: D. = Descent; A. = Ascent;
TT. = travelling time underground ; S. =
Saturday.

Allemagne
:
2
En l'absence de données officielles, nous indiquons seulement la durée du travail fixée par
la législation. D'ailleurs, pour les enquêtes précédentes, le gouvernement allemand, ne disposant
pas de données officielles relatives il la durée
moyenne de la descente et de la remonte, aux
parcours souterrains et aux pauses, n'a jamais
indiqué ni la durée individuelle de présence dans
la mine ni la durée de présence au chantier,
pauses déduites.

Germany :
2
In the absence of official data the only
figures given are those fixed by the legislation.
Moreover, as the previous enquiries, the German
Government has no official data relating to the
average winding time, travelling time underground, and breaks, and it therefore indicates
neither the individual time spent in the mine
nor the average time spent at the face less
breaks.

Belgique :
s Pour le groupe d'ouvriers pour lequel est
calculée la durée du travail voyageant dans une
même cage, la durée de la descente (ou de la
remonte) collective équivaut a la durée de la
descente (ou de la remonte) individuelle. Il en
résulte que la durée individuelle de présence dans
la mine est de 8 heures.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique:
* Les données concernent les abatteurs et
chargeurs occupés dans les mines de charbon
bitumineux. Toutefois, ces chiffres ne sont pas
strictement comparables à ceux des autres pays.
En effet, pour les Etats-Unis, ces chiffres résultent
d'une enquête représentative couvrant une seule
période de paye, tandis que pour les autres pays
ils se réfèrent à une semaine-type de travail
complète.
s Les statistiques utilisées indiquent le nombre
moyen d'heures par « journée d'extraction •
(síaríj, qui correspond a une notion différente
de celle du • poste ».

Belgium :
'3 For the group of workers for whom working
time is calculated as travelling in the same cage,
the collective time of descent (or of ascent)
equals the individual time of descent (or of
ascent). Individual hours of presence in the
mine therefore are 8 per day.
United States of America :
* Data apply to miners and loaders in bituminous coal mines. Nevertheless the figures are not
strictly comparable to those for other countries.
In the United States the figures are based on a
representative sample enquiry covering a single
payroll period, while in all other countries the
figures refer to a typical week of full time work.
5
The data which have been used indicate the
average number of hours per " mining day "
(start), which applies to a different concept from
that of the " shift ".

— 352 —
Grande-Bretagne :
6 Les données se r a p p o r t e n t à une semaine
complète, du lundi au samedi, et sont calculées
en moyenne sur les ouvriers occupés dans les
différentes équipes.
7
Ce chiffre représente les-huit heures de travail
journalières calculées de l'entrée dans le puits
à la sortie du puits, du lundi au vendredi, plus
la durée moyenne de présence dans la mine
le samedi d'après les relevés spéciaux fournis
par l'Association des propriétaires de mines de
Grande-Bretagne. L a durée hebdomadaire de
présence dans la mine a t t e i n t son minimum dans
le D u r h a m (41 h. 15') et son m a x i m u m dans le
Somerset (46 h. 40'). Les durées les plus courtes
et les plus longues se rencontrent ensuite dans le
Northumberland (41 h. 30') et dans le Lancashire
et le Cheshire (45 h. 30').
8 Ce chiffre est obtenu en déduisant de la
durée individuelle de présence dans la mine la
durée de 1 h. 4 5 ' représentant la durée des parcours souterrains et des pauses. Cette réduction
est la même que celle qui a été adoptée pour
les enquêtes précédentes et pour les t r a v a u x de
la « Royal Commission on the Coal I n d u s t r y »
(1925) (partie IV de l'annexe du tome I). Selon
cette commission, il a été reconnu nécessaire de
supposer que le total des parcours souterrains,
des pauses pour les repas et autres périodes
improductives perdues au fond est resté le
même depuis 1905. (Cette supposition a été
contestée lors des enquêtes précédentes par la
Fédération des mineurs de Grande-Bretagne, qui
estimait que la durée de 1 h. 4 5 ' représentant
les parcours, souterrains, les pauses pour les
repas et autres périodes improductives perdues
au fond, durée qui est soustraite de la durée de
présence individuelle dans la mine pour obtenir
la durée de présence au chantier,, est trop longue,
et que, de ce fait, la durée moyenne de présence
au chantier a été sous-évaluée.) E t a n t donné
que les a b a t t e u r s dans le Northumberland et
le Durham et d'autres catégories d'ouvriers dans
divers districts ne travaillent pas tous les samedis,
la moyenne du temps ainsi perdu le samedi est
réduite à 1 heure.

Great Britain :
6
The particulars relate to a full week (Monday
to Saturday) and are averages for the men
employed on the various shifts.

9
La durée du travail hebdomadaire atteint
son minimum dans le D u r h a m (30 h. 15') et son
m a x i m u m dans le Somerset (37 h. 30'). Les
durées les plus courtes et les plus longues se rencontrent ensuite dans le Northumberland (31 h. 30')
et dans le Lancashire et le Cheshire (36 h. 45').

9
Weekly hours at the face are lowest in
D u r h a m (30 h. 15 min.) and highest in Somerset
(37 h. 30 min.), t h e n e x t lowest and highest
being Northumberland (31 h. 30 min.) and
Lancashire and Cheshire (36 h. 45 min.).

Inde :
10
Environ.

India :
10
Approximate.

Japon :
11
Si le groupe des mineurs compte plus de
20 personnes; sinon, le calcul est individuel et
comprend la descente et la remonte individuelles.

Japan :
11
If the group of miners is less than twenty
persons; if not, calculation is on an individual
basis and includes both t h e individual descent
and ascent.

Pays-Bas :
12
Pour le groupe d'ouvriers pour lequel est
calculée la durée du travail voyageant dans une
même cage, la durée de la descente (ou de la
remonte) collective équivaut à la durée de la
descente (ou de la remonte) individuelle.

Netherlands :
12 F o r the group of workers for whom working
t i m e is calculated as travelling in the same
cage t h e collective time of descent (or of ascent)
equals the individual time of descent (or of ascent).

Pologne :
13 Ce chiffre comprend une pause réglementaire
de 30 minutes introduite le 6 avril 1926 par la
Direction des mines.

Poland :
is This figure includes a s t a t u t o r y break of
30 min., introduced by the Mines D e p a r t m e n t
on 6 April 1926.

Tchécoslovaquie :
14
L a loi prévoit que la descente et la remonte
collectives ne seront pas comprises dans la durée
du poste jusqu'à concurrence de 30 minutes.
Dans la pratique les conventions collectives
comprennent la descente et la remonte collectives
dans la durée du poste.

Czechoslovakia :
i* The law provides t h a t collective descents '
and ascents u p to 30 min. shall not be included
in the length of the shift. In practice collective
agreements include the collective descent and
the ascent in the length of t h e shift.

7
This figure represents 8 hours bank to bank
per day from Monday to Friday, plus the average
time spent below ground on Saturday based on
special returns furnished to t h e Mining Association of Great Britain. Weekly hours of presence in the mine are lowest in Durham (41 h.
15 min.) and highest in Somerset (46 h. 40 min.),
the next lowest and highest being in N o r t h u m berland (41 h. 30 min.) and Lancashire and
Cheshire (45 h. 30 min).

8
This figure is obtained by deducting from
the individual time spent in the mine a total of
1 h. 45 min. for travelling time underground and
breaks. This is t h e same allowance as was
adopted for the preceding enquiries, and for
the purpose of t h e Royal Commission on the
Coal I n d u s t r y (19 25) (see section 4 of t h e Appendix
to Vol. I of the Report of the Commission). The
Commission found t h a t t h e total of travelling time
underground, breaks for meals, and other unproductive time underground must be assumed to
have remained constant since 1905. (This assumption was contested by t h e Miners' Federation of
Great Britain, which considered t h a t t h e deduction
of 1 h. 45 min. for the total of travelling time underground, breaks for meals, and other unproductive
time underground from the individual time
spent in t h e mine in order to obtain t h e t i m e
spent at the face less breaks was too large, and
t h a t consequently the average time spent at
t h e face had been underestimated.) As the
hewers in N o r t h u m b e r l a n d and Durham and
other classes of workers in various districts do
not work every Saturday, the average time so
spent on S a t u r d a y is reduced to 1 hour.

— 353 —
D U R É E DU TRAVAIL DES OUVRIERS
DE LA SURFACE

HOURS OF WORK OF SURFACE
WORKERS

Comme pour les enquêtes précédentes, les données du tableau XII
concernant les ouvriers de la surface
se réfèrent, d'une part à la durée
réglementaire du travail journalier et
hebdomadaire, d'autre part à la durée
réelle du même travail, c'est-à-dire la
durée réglementaire diminuée, le cas
échéant, des pauses.

As in previous enquiries, the figures
in Table XII covering surface workers
refer (a) to the regulation daily and
weekly hours of work, and (b) to the
actual hours of work, i.e. the regulation
hours less breaks, if any.

Tableau XII: Durée du travail des ouvriers de la surface en 1933, 1935 et 1936
Table XII : Hours of work of surface workers in 1933, 1935 and 1936

Pays et réglons

Années

Durée réglementaire du travail

Durée réelle du travail

legulation hours of work

Actual hours of work

Jour ou poste

Semaine

Day or shift

Week

Years

Jour

Semaine

Day

Week

Législation

Conventions collectives

Législation

Conventions collectives

Legislation

Collective
agreements

Legislation

Collective
agreements

Allemagne i . . .

1933-36

8 h.

48 h.

—

1933-36

8 h.

—

48 h.

—
—

—

Belgique

8 h.

48 h.

1936

—

7 h.

—

35 h.

1933-1.11.36
1936

8 h.
8 h.

—

48 h.
40 h.

—

8 h.
8 h.

48 h.
40 h.

1933-36

—

1933
1935-36

12 h.
10 h .

—

60 h.
54 h .

1933
1935

—

1933-36

—
—

8 h.

—
—

1933-36

8 h.

—

48 h.

1933

8 h.
6 h. S.
8 h.
8 h.

. . . .

Etats-Unis d'Amérique 2 . . . .

Grande-Bretagne «

Pays-Bas

. . . .

Pologne:
Haute-Silêsie .
Bassin de D o m browa et de
Cracovie . .

1935-36
Tchécoslovaquie .

1933-36

Abréviation: S. = Samedi.

46 h.

—

8 h. »
8 h.'

—

10h.34'
10h.20'

48 h.

8 h.

—

48 h.
8 h.

44 h. 5- 7 h. 20»- 44 h. s49 h. 30'« 8 h. 15'8 49 h. 30'«

48 h.

Country and district

48 h . ?
48 h . '

Germany »
Belgium
United States of
America 2
France
Great B r i t a i n *
India

61 h . 4 4 ' J a p a n
61 h . 2 0 '
8

48 h.

8 h.
46 h.
6 h. S.
48 h.
8 h.
7 h . 45' 46 h . 30'

Netherlands
Poland :
Upper Silesia
Dombrowa and
Cracow coal
fields

Czechoslovakia

Abbreviation : S. — Saturday.

— 354 —
N O T E S AU T A B L E A U

XII

N O T E S TO TABLE

XII

Allemagne :
i E n l'absence de données officielles, nous indiquons seulement la durée du travail fixé par la
législation.

Germany :
1 In the absence of official d a t a , only the
s t a t u t o r y limits to hours of work are given.

Etats-Unis d'Amérique :
3
Mines de charbon bitumineux.
3
Les données figurant dans l'enquête utilisée
pour la présente étude concernent, outre les
ouvriers de la surface, les ouvriers du fond autres
que les chargeurs et les a b a t t e u r s ; c'est pourquoi
elles n'ont pas été reproduites ici.

United States of America :
2
Bituminous coal mines.
3
The figures obtained in the enquiry which
have been used in the present s t u d y apply, in
addition to surface workers, to underground
workers other t h a n miners and loaders. For
this reason they have not been reproduced here.

Grande-Bretagne :
4
Les données sont seulement valables pour
les ouvriers occupés à la manipulation du charbon.
E t a n t donné d'une p a r t l'absence d'informations
relatives au nombre de ces ouvriers occupés dans
les différents districts et, d'autre part, le fait que
les pauses pour les repas sont incluses dans quelques districts et exclues dans d'autres, il n'est
pas possible de calculer une durée moyenne pour
la Grande-Bretagne.
5 Y compris le temps des repas.
s Non comprisi e temps des repas.

Great Britain :
4
These d a t a relate only to men engaged in
manipulating coal. Owing to the absence of
information as to t h e numbers of such workers
in the various districts, and to t h e inclusion of
mealtimes in some districts and their exclusion
in others, it is not possible to calculate an average
for the whole country.

Inde :
' Environ.

India :
' Approximate.

Pays-Bas :
» La durée réelle du travail ne peut pas être fixée.
Il existe pour certaines catégories d'ouvriers du
jour des réglementations concernant les pauses,
sensiblement différentes entre elles, de sorte qu'il
est impossible d'établir la moyenne à porter en
déduction de la durée réglementaire du travail.

Netherlands :
8 The actual hours of work cannot be determined. For certain categories of surface workers
there are regulations concerning breaks which
vary considerably, so t h a t it is impossible to
calculate the average to be deducted from the
regulation hours of work.

CANADA

La durée du travail prédominante
est de 8 heures par jour et de 48 heures
par semaine lorsque le travail a lieu
à horaire plein. En Nouvelle-Ecosse,
les heures sont fixées par contrat et
seuls les mécaniciens, chauffeurs, ouvriers à l'exhaure, etc., travaillent
7 jours par semaine. Les autres
ouvriers bénéficient d'un taux de
salaire fortement majoré . pour les
heures supplémentaires. En vertu de
la réglementation, les mineurs ne peuvent rester à leur place de travail au
fond de la mine plus de 8 heures et le
parcours souterrain du puits au chantier dure en moyenne 30 minutes. En
Alberta et en Colombie britannique, la
loi stipule que la durée du travail est
de 8 heures depuis l'entrée dans le
puits jusqu'à la sortie du puits. La
durée moyenne de présence au chantier
est de 7 heures à 7 heures 30 minutes.
Dans le Saskatchewan, la loi prescrit
qu'aucun mineur ne sera occupé au
fond pendant plus de 8 heures par

Hours of work are predominantly
8 per day and 48 per week on full-time
operations. In Nova Scotia hours are
fixed by agreements, and only engineers,
firemen, pump men, etc., work seven
days. Other workers get largely increased rates for any overtime. Under
the law miners may not be at their workplaces underground more than 8 hours;
they require an average of half an hour
to reach the workplace from the top. In
Alberta and British Columbia the law
provides for 8 hours from bank to
bank; the average time at the face is
from 7 to 7% hours. In Saskatchewan
an Act provides that no miner shall
be employed below ground for more
than 8 hours in any 24 hours except
by mutual consent of employer and
worker and excepting for emergencies,
etc., and that no worker shall be employed above ground for more than
8 hours, with similar exceptions. In
practice daily hours of work for underground workers are usually 8; they

6
6

Including mealtimes.
Excluding mealtimes.

— 355 —
24 heures, sauf par consentement
mutuel de l'employeur et du salarié et
sauf en cas d'urgence, etc., et qu'aucune
personne ne sera occupée à la surface
pendant plus de 8 heures sous réserve
des exceptions similaires à celles prévues pour les ouvriers du fond. Dans
la pratique, la durée journalière du
travail est généralement de 8 heures
pour les ouvriers du fond; pour les
ouvriers de la surface elle varie entre
8 et 10 heures. Dans le NouveauBrunswick, une loi adoptée en 1933
fixe à 8 heures par jour la durée du
travail au fond. A la surface la durée
journalière du travail est généralement
de 9 heures.

vary between 8 and 10 hours for surface workers. In New Brunswick a law
enacted in 1933 sets 8 hours per day
as the limit for underground work.
Surface work generally consists of
9 hours a day.

UNION SUD-AFRICAINE
Le gouvernement de l'Union SudAfricaine rappelle l'énorme différence
entre les conditions de travail dans les
mines de charbon de l'Union et celles
en usage dans les mines européennes.
Cette différence provient de l'emploi
de catégories très distinctes de salariés:
les travailleurs blancs et les travailleurs
indigènes, et aussi du fait que les
travailleurs blancs représentent moins
de 5 pour cent du nombre total des
salariés.
Dans l'Union Sud-Africaine, la durée
du travail n'est pas limitée par la
législation.
Au Transvaal, dans la majorité des
mines les travailleurs blancs quittent
la surface à 7 heures et y retournent
à 15 heures 30 pendant les cinq
premiers jours de la semaine et à
12 heures 30 le samedi. La durée des
parcours jusqu'au chantier d'abatage
et retour est d'environ 40 minutes;
celle de la pause pour le repas, lorsque
celui-ci est pris au fond, de 30 minutes
environ.
Au Natal, la durée habituelle du
poste, de l'entrée clans le puits à la
sortie du puits, est d'environ 9 heures.
Pour les travailleurs blancs occupés
aux travaux de la surface, la durée hebdomadaire du travail est de 48 heures.
En Europe, l'abatage du charbon est
effectué par des ouvriers blancs, tandis
que dans l'Union Sud-Africaine les
travaux similaires sont exécutés par
des travailleurs indigènes.

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
The Government of the Union of
South Africa points out the enormous
difference between conditions of work
in the Union coal minés and those
usual in European mines. This difference results from the employment
of two distinct categories of wage
earners, white workers and coloured
labourers, and also from the fact that
the white workers represent less than
5 per cent, of the total number.
In the Union of South Africa hours
of work are not limited by legislation.
In the Transvaal in the majority of
mines the white workers leave the
surface at 7 a.m. and return to it at
3.30 p.m. on the first five days of the
week and at 12.30 on Saturday. The
total travelling time, including the
return journey, is about 40 minutes,
and the break for a meal when taken
underground is about 30 minutes.
In Natal the usual length of a shift
reckoned from the time of entering the
pit to the time of leaving it is about
9 hours. The weekly hours of work of
white workers employed on surface
work are 48 hours.
In Europe the hewers are white
workers, whereas in the Union of
South Africa this work is done by
coloured labourers.

— 356 —
Les travailleurs indigènes occupés
aux chantiers d'abatage travaillent à
la tâche et leur journée est terminée
lorsque leur tâche est achevée. Il n'est
pas tenu compte des heures de travail;
ceux qui ont terminé leur tâche avant
l'heure officielle de la fin du poste sont
remontés dès que les circonstances le
permettent et, dans les mines accessibles par galeries, ils reviennent à la
surface par leurs propres moyens. Tous
les indigènes sont logés et nourris par
l'employeur.
Etant donné l'irrégularité de l'extraction par suite du manque de
wagons et des commandes, la durée
du travail au chantier d'abatage est
très incertaine.

The coloured labourers employed at
the coal face work on task rates and
their day ends when their task is complete. Hours of work are ignored; those
who finish their task before the official
hour for the end of the shift are brought
to the surface as soon as circumstances
permit, and in mines which can be
entered by an adit they return to the
surface on foot. All the coloured
labourers are housed and fed by the
employer.
In view of the irregularity of extraction owing to shortage of trucks and of
orders the time spent at the face is very
uncertain.

QUESTIONNAIRE

358
QUESTIONNAIRE ENVOYÉ AUX GOUVERNEMENTS

STATISTIQUES MINIÈRES POUR 193..
Pays (ou

bassin).

Eléments
(voir remarques à la fln du questionnaire)

Fond

Surface

Ensemble
(fond et surface)

I. Salaires:
1) Salaires nets en espèces en raison
2) Cotisations ouvrières d'assurance
sociale
3) Salaires bruts en espèces (1 + 2)
4) Allocations en espèces (allocations familiales, etc.) . . . .
5) Valeur des allocations de charbon
6) Valeur des allocations de logement, etc
7) Paiements pour congés . . . .
8) Gains effectifs totaux (3 + 4 + 5
9) Cotisations patronales d'assu4-6-1-71
rance
sociale
10) Frais globaux de main-d'œuvre
Id 4- 9)
II. Nombre total de postes et de journées de
travail :
11) Nombre de postes effectués. . .
12) Nombre de journées de travail
13) Nombre moyen des jours ou14) Nombre moyen de jours d'exploi15) Postes perdus pendant l'exploitation des mines (absence
volontaire et involontaire). .
16) Postes perdus par suite de nonexploitation des mines . . .
III. Nombre d'ouvriers occupés:
17) Nombre moyen d'ouvriers oc-

IV. Production totale:
19) Distribution au personnel (charbon gratuit ou à prix
21) Tonnage produit (déchets de lavage et triage) déduits
(18 + 19 + 20)

Tonnages
métriques

359
QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO GOVERNMENTS

COAL-MINING STATISTICS, 193...
Country

(or District):

Items
(see notes at the end of the questionnaire)

Underground
workers

Surface
workers

Total
workers

Wages:
(1) Net money wages for work done
(2) Workers' social insurance contributions
(3) Gross money wages (1 + 2) .
(4) Allowances in cash (family
allowances, etc.)
(5) Value of allowances of coal .
(6) Value of allowances for housing, etc
(7) Payments for holidays. . . .
(8) Total earnings (3 to 7) .
(9) Employers' social insurance
contributions
(10) Total labour costs (8 + 9) . .

II. Total number of man-shifts and mandays :
(11) Number of man-shifts worked .
(12) Number of man-days worked . .
(13) Average number of working
days in year
(14) Average number of days on
which mines were working
(15) Man-shifts lost when mine was
working( voluntary and involuntary absences)
(16) Man-shifts lost when mine was

I I I . Number of workers employed:
(17) Average number of workers .
Metric
tons
IV. Output of coal:
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)

Colliery consumption
Coal distributed to employees (free or at reduced prices)
Commercially disposable coal
Commercially saleable coal (18 + 19 + 20)

— 360 —

STATISTIQUES MINIÈRES POUR 193...
Pays (ou bassin):

DURÉE DU TRAVAIL 1
I. Durée du travail des ouvriers du fond:
Durée réglementaire du travail:
Jour ou poste:
Législation :
Conventions collectives ou sentences arbitrales:
Semaine :
Législation :
Conventions collectives ou sentences arbitrales:
Durée moyenne de la descente ou de la remonte:
collective :
individuelle :
Durée individuelle de présence dans la mine:
Jour de poste:
Semaine :
Durée moyenne des parcours souterrains:
Durée moyenne des pauses:
Durée moyenne totale des parcours souterrains et des pauses:
Durée de présence au chantier, pauses déduites:
Jour ou poste:
Semaine :
II. Durée du travail des ouvriers de la surface:
Durée réglementaire du travail:
Jour ou poste:
Législation :
Conventions collectives ou sentences arbitrales:
Semaine:
Législation :
Conventions collectives ou sentences arbitrales:
Durée réelle du travail:
Jour:
Semaine :
i Pour l'emploi de cette partie du questionnaire, se référer aussi aux études déjà
publiées par le Bureau international du Travail sur la durée du travail dans les mines
de charbon : Les salaires et la durée du travail dans les mines de charbon, Etudes et Documents,
série D (Salaire et durée du travail), n» 18, Genève, 1928; «Les salaires et la durée du
travail dans les mines de charbon en 1927, 1929, 1931 », Revue internationale du Travail,
octobre, décembre 1929 et janvier 1930; mai 1931; septembre 1933.

— 361 —
COAL-MINING STATISTICS, 193...
Country (or District):

HOURS OP W O R K 1
I. Hours of work of underground workers:
Regulation hours of work :
Day or shift:
Legislation :
Collective agreements or arbitration awards:
Week:
Legislation :
Collective agreements or arbitration awards:
Average winding time (descent or ascent) :
Collective :
Individual :
Individual time spent in the mine:
Day or shift:
Week:
Average travelling time underground:
Average length of breaks:
Total average travelling time underground plus breaks:
Length of time spent at face, less breaks:
Day or shift :
Week:
II. Hours of work of surface workers:
Regulation hours of work :
Day or shift :
Legislation :
Collective agreements or arbitration awards:
Week:
Legislation :
Collective agreements or arbitration awards:
Actual hours of work:
Day:
Week:
i In making use of this part of the questionnaire reference should also be made to the
studies already published by the International Labour office on this subject: Wages and
Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining Industry, Studies and Reports, Series D (Wages and
Hours of Work), No. 18, Geneva, 1928; "Wages and Hours of Work in the Coal-Mining
Industry in 1927, 1929, 1931 ", International Labour Review, October, December 1929;
January 1930; May 1931; September 1931.

— 362 —
REMARQUES
RELATIVES AU QUESTIONNAIRE

NOTES
ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Note générale
Tous les chiffres doivent s'appliquer aux
houillères (mines de lignite exclues), sans tenir
compte des établissements annexes (fabriques de
coke, briquettes, etc.). En outre, les données
doivent s'étendre dans la mesure du possible aux
ouvriers salariés proprement dits, à l'exception
du personnel d'administration, de surveillance et
des employés de bureau.

General Note
The figures in the form should relate only to
hard coal mines (excluding lignite) and should
exclude ancillary establishments (coke, briquette
works, etc.).
The figures should relate to wage earners and
exclude administrative supervisors and clerical
staff, as far as possible.

Notes afférentes aux diverses

rubriques

I) Y compris les paiements pour le travail
supplémentaire, complémentaire, etc.
4) Y compris les indemnités de cherté de vie,
de séjour, de déplacement, etc.
5) et 6) En cas d'allocations à prix réduit,
indiquer la différence entre la valeur normale des
allocations et le montant des prix payés par les
ouvriers.
II) Par «poste», entendre le travail effectué
par un ouvrier pendant la durée normale de
l'équipe. Exprimer en termes de « postes normaux », les postes supplémentaires, complémentaires et réduits, et les totaliser avec les « postes
normaux ».
12) Sans tenir compte de la durée du travail
ni du genre de poste effectué.
14) Indiquer la méthode d'établissement du
nombre moyen de jours d'exploitation ou
d'extraction.
16) Enumérer ce qui est considéré comme
« non-exploitation » totale ou partielle des mines,
et indiquer sur quelle base est calculé le nombre
de postes perdus pendant un jour de nonexploitation totale.
17) Calculer les moyennes de la façon suivante :
faire la somme des journées de travail (12), des
postes perdus pendant l'exploitation des mines
(15) et par suite de non-exploitation (16), et
diviser cette somme par le nombre moyen des
jours ouvrables (13). Au cas où le nombre moyen
d'ouvriers serait calculé d'après une méthode
différente, indiquer cette dernière.

Notes on the Items
(I) Payments for overtime and supplementary
shifts should be included.
(4) Cost of living bonuses, travelling allowances, etc., should be included.
(5) and (6) In the case of coal or housing
granted at a reduced price, give the difference
between normal value of the allowances and the
amount paid by the workers.
(II) By "shift" is to be understood shifts
of normal duration. Supplementary shifts, overtime shifts, short shifts should be expressed in
terms of normal and included in the total.
(12) In this item the length of the shift should
not be taken into account, nor the nature of the
shift.
(14) Indicate how the average number of days
in the year on which the mines were working is
computed.
(16) Indicate what is covered by the term
" mine not working " and how the number of
shifts lost during the days when the mine was
not working is computed.
(17) The average number of workers should
be computed by dividing the total number of
days worked and shifts lost (items 12 + 15 + 16)
by the average number of working days (item 13).
If some other method has been adopted, please
state the method.

INDEX
VOL.

A
Accident, Definition 59.
Age, Pensionable 115-116, 120, 121.
Allowances.
Cash 159-162.
Coal 135.
Confinement 110-112.
Dependants 65, 68.
Emergency 161.
Family 65, 69, 71, 156, 157.
Layette 110-112.
Pregnancy 111.
Unemployment 150, 151, 159-162.
Amount.
Contributions (Social
Insurance)
113-115, 144-146, 157-159.
Invalidity Pensions 133, 134.
Lump-sum Compensation (Death)
73.
Old-age Pension 123-127.
Annual Holidays with Pay.
See Holidays with Pay.
Appliances, Supplv of Surgical 60,
107, 108.
(See also Curative Appliances.)
Apprenticeship 52, 70, 101.
Assistance.
Medical.
See Medical Aid.
Obstetrical 110-112.
Pharmaceutical 106-110.
Attendance, Medical 59, 60.
By a Midwife 110-112.
By a Specialist 59, 106.
Australia.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195, 196,
199, 206, 208, 214.
Hours of Work 219, 221, 224. 256,
258, 259, 262, 265-271, 276, 286,
288, 289, 294, 295, 297, 301-314,
320, 321, 323.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
245.
Public Holidays 185.
Increased Wage Rates 191.
Unemployment Assistance 159.
Weekly Rest 176, 179, 182.
Workers in Coal and Lignite Mining
3.

Austria.
Annual Holidays with Pav 195, 199,
205, 207, 208, 210, 213.'
Hours of Work 218, 220, 222, 224,
253, 255, 261, 265, 267, 268, 270273, 277, 280, 281, 283, 285-289,
293, 295, 297, 298, 300, 301, 307,
309, 310, 312-314.
Public Holidays 184, 185.
Increased Wage Rates 191.
Weekly Rest 176-179.
Workers in Coal and Lignite Mining
3.
B
Basic Wage 61, 62, 113-115.
Belgium.
Annual Holidays with Pav 195-199,
206, 208, 209, 215.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
Employment Fluctuations 40, 41.
Hours of Work 217, 218, 220, 224,
254, 256, 258, 261, 265, 267, 268,
270, 275, 277, 280-283, 293-295,
297, 298, 302, 306, 307, 309, 311,
312, 314, 316-321, 323.
Mine, Definition of 237, 238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242, 247.
Output per Man-shift, and Employment 46.
Public Holidays 184, 186.
Unemployment 37, 40.
Unemployment Assistance 160.
Wages Bill, Index Numbers of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 178.

— 364 —
Belgium (continued).
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Benefits, Additional 107, 117.
Benefits, Duration of
Sickness Insurance 103, 104.
Unemployment Insurance 154-156.
Benefits, Funeral.
Workmen's Compensation 73.
Sickness Insurance 112.
Benefits in Kind.
Workmen's Compensation 59-61.
Sickness Insurance 106-110.
Benefits, Maternity 110-112.
Benefits, Rate of.
Sickness Insurance 104-106.
Unemployment Insurance 156, 157.
Benefits, Right to.
Sickness Insurance 103-104.
Unemployment Insurance 152-154.
Blanket Coverage 78.
Bonus, Nursing 110-112.
C
Canada.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Employment Fluctuations 41.
Hours of Work 218, 219, 222, 225,
255, 256, 258, 261-263, 267, 270,
276, 283, 286, 289, 293, 297, 298,
301, 309, 317, 320, 321, 323.
Mine, Definition of 236-238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
241, 244, 245, 249.
Public Holidays 184, 186.
Increased Wage Rates 192.
Unemployment 37, 38.
Unemployment Assistance 160.
Wages Bill, Index Numbers of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 180.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Young Persons 8.
Capacity.
Complete 128.
Earning 67.
Residual 128.

Childbirth 110-112.
Children, Dependent.
General 170.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
124-127, 135-140.
Sickness Insurance 109-110.
Unemployment Insurance and Assistance 156-158, 160.
Workmen's Compensation 65, 69,
71, 72, 73, 109, 110.
Chile.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195, 196,
200.
Hours of Work 219, 225, 262, 263,
265, 268, 270, 281, 283, 284, 297,
300, 304, 307, 310, 313.
Public Holidays 185, 186.
Increased Wage Rates 192.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 182.
China.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195,200.
Hours of Work 218, 219, 222, 226,
255, 256, 262,'265, 266-268, 276,
278, 279, 281, 283, 289, 303, 307,
311, 312, 314, 318-321, 323.
Mine, Definition of 239.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
241, 242, 245.
Public Holidays 184, 186.
Increased Wage Rates 192.
Weekly Rest 176, 181.
Compensation, Duration of 65, 66.
Compensation, Form of.
In Case of Death 71-75.
Permanent Incapacity 67, 68.
Compensation,- Rate of.
In Case of Death 73-75.
Permanent Incapacity 68-71.
Temporary Incapacity 63-65, 68, 70.
Confinement.
Allowances 110-112.
Contributions, Distribution of.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
146-148.
Sickness Insurance 113.
Unemployment Insurance 157.
Workmen's Compensation 75, 76.
Contributions, Rate of.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
144-146.
Sickness Insurance 113-115.
Statistics 165-174.
Unemployment Insurance 157-159.
Costs.
Compensation for Occupational Diseases 98-100.
Labour 170-171.
Medical Aid 60.
Social Insurance 162-173.
Workmen's Compensation 75-76.
Curative Appliances 59, 107, 108.
(See also Appliances, Supply of
Surgical.)

Currency 171.
Czechoslovakia.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195,198,
200, 206, 207, 209, 210, 214.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
Employment Fluctuations 40, 41.
Hours of Work 219, 220, 222, 223,
226, 256, 257, 259, 261, 265-270,
278, 279, 281, 283-286, 288, 289,
295-297, 302, 303, 305, 307, 308,
310-314, 316, 318-320, 323.
Manufacturing Industries: Average
Wages per Hour 21.
Mine, Definition of 238, 240.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
243-244.
Output per Man-shift, and Employment 46.
Public Holidays 184, 186.
Increased Wage Rates 192.
Unemployment 38, 40.
Unemployment Assistance 160.
Wages Bill, Index Numbers of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 179, 180.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining. 3
Young Persons 8.
D
Death, Compensation in Case of.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
135-143.
Sickness Insurance 112.
Workmen's Compensation 71-74.
Dental Treatment 106-108.
Dependants' Allowances 65, 68, 69,
155-157, 160, 161.
Funeral Benefit 112.
Maternity Benefit 111-112.
Medical Assistance 109, 110.
Sickness Benefit 101.
Workmen's Compensation 72-75.
(See also Family (Members of) and
Survivors' Pensions.)
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
Diseases.
Cost of Compensation 98-100.

Diseases (continued).
Incidence 78, 89-97.
Legal Provisions 80-86.
Schedule 77, 78.
Statistics 89-97.
Drugs, Supply of 59, 106-110.
Duration of Work 79.
E
Earning Capacity.
See Capacity.
Earnings and Wages 12.
Average, per Year per Worker 19.
Coal Mining: Comparison with Other
Industries 20.
Composition of 14.
Currency 33.
Different Elements 15.
Index Numbers 24.
Per Hour 17, 35.
Per Man-shift 17, 35.
Trend, in Mining and Other Industries 24.
Wages, Real 30.
Emergency Allowances 161.
Employers, Contribution of
General 165-174.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
143-148.
Sickness Insurance 113.
Employers' Liability 79.
Employment 37.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Fluctuations in 41.
Labour Shortage 51.
Mechanisation 47.
Output per Man-shift, and Employment 46.
Structural Factor 48.
Technological Factor 44.
Trends in 9.
Engineers, Mining 58.
English Week-end 182.
Extension of Normal Hours of Work
290-292.
F
Family Allowances 65, 69, 71, 156,
157.
Family, Members of.
General 170.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
117, 133-140.
Sickness Insurance 105-107, 109112.
Unemployment Assistance 160-162.
Unemployment Insurance 155-157.
Five-day Week 183.
Four or Five-day Week 184.

— 366 —
France.
Annual Holidays with P a v 195-197,
200, 206-209, 213, 215.'
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per W o r k e r 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
E a r n i n g s per H o u r and per Manshift 26.
Different E l e m e n t s of Earnings 15.
E m p l o y m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 40, 4 1 ,
42.
Hours of W o r k 217, 218, 220, 223,
226, 255-259, 261, 267-269, 271278, 280, 281, 283, 285, 286, 288,.
293-299, 301-304, 307-313, 315,
316, 318-323.
Manufacturing Industries : Average
Wages per H o u r 21.
Mine, Definition of 237, 238, 239.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
241-243, 245.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Public Holidays 184, 186.
Increased W a g e R a t e s 192.
U n e m p l o y m e n t 37, 40.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 160-161.
Wages Bill, I n d e x N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28. 32.
Weekly R e s t 176, 179, 180, 183.
Workers employed.
Above Ground a n d U n d e r g r o u n d
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Y o u n g Persons 8.
Funeral Benefit 73-75, 112, 135.
G
Germany.
Annual Holidays with P a y 195, 196,
198-202, 205, 206, 208, 209, 212213, 214, 215.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average E a r n i n g s per Year per
W o r k e r 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per W o r k e r 19.
Real E a r n i n g s per H o u r and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining a n d O t h e r Industries.
Earnings per H o u r and per Manshift 26.
Different E l e m e n t s of E a r n i n g s 15.

Germany
(continued).
E m p l o v m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 4 1 , 42.
Hours "of W o r k 219, 220, 221, 223,
228, 253, 255, 258, 259, 261, 264,
265, 267, 268, 271-273, 276, 279281, 283, 286, 288, 289, 293, 296300,303, 304,310-314,318-320,323.
Manufacturing Industries : Average
Wages per H o u r 2 1 .
Mine, Definition of 237-240.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
243, 247.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Public Holidays 184, 187.
Increased Wage R a t e s 192.
U n e m p l o y m e n t 38.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 161.
W a g e s Bill, I n d e x N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 180, 182.
W o r k e r s employed.
Above Ground a n d U n d e r g r o u n d
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Y o u n g Persons 8.
G r e a t Britain.
A n n u a l Holidays with P a y 195, 196,
202.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Y e a r per
W o r k e r 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per W o r k e r 19.
Real Earnings per H o u r a n d per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per H o u r and per Manshift 26.
Different E l e m e n t s of E a r n i n g s 15.
E m p l o y m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 40, 4 1 ,
42.
Holidays with P a v 187.
Hours of Work 218-220, 223, 228,
254, 256-259, 262, 263, 265, 266268, 270, 271, 276, 277, 283, 286,
287, 288-289, 294, 295, 297, 300302, 304-306, 310, 313, 314, 317323.
Manufacturing Industries : Average
Wages per Hour 2 1 .
Mine, Definition of 236, 237, 238,
240.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242, 243, 250.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Public Holidays 185, 187.
Increased Wage R a t e s 193.
U n e m p l o y m e n t 37, 38, 40.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 161.

— 367 —
Great Britain (continued).
Wages Bill, index Numbers of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 180, 182.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Young Persons 8.
H
Holidays with Pay 162, 1.65-170, 175.
Annual 195.
Length 198.
National Regulations 195.
Payment.
Calculation of Normal Wage 205.
Date of Payment 206.
Qualifying Conditions.
Continuity 196.
Minimum Period of Service 196.
Safeguarding Rights in Case of
Transfer 198.
Scope 195.
Utilisation 207.
Accumulation 208.
Cash Compensation 214.
Continuity 208.
Date 209.
Loss of Right 214.
Hours of Work 216.
Continuous Operations 274.
Definition 274.
Limits 277.
Organisation 276.
Special Provisions 278.
Development and Structure of National Regulation 217-234.
Distribution of Normal Hours of
Work 269.
Over Fortnight 271.
Over Other Periods 271.
Over Week 269.
Extension of Normal Hours of Work
290.
Grounds for Extension 291.
Length of Extension 308.
Procedure 305.
Remuneration 312.
Restrictions 315.
Suspension 317.
Form of National Regulations 218.
Existing Forms 223.
Legislative Regulation 218.
Other Forms 221-223.
Making up Lost Time 272.
Cases 272.
Methods 272.
Normal Hours of Work 251.
Definition and Limitation 252.
Surface Workers 264.

Hours of Work (continued).
Normal Hours of Work (continued).
Underground Workers 252.
Scope.
Definition of Scope as regards
Mines 235.
Definition of Scope as regards
Persons 241.
Supervision of Enforcement of Regulations 318.
Other Methods of Supervision 322.
Penalties 322.
Registers, Cards, Slips 320.
Time-tables 318.
Work in Unhealthy or Dangerous
Workplaces 278.
Definition 279.
Limit to Hours of Work 280.
Work on Sundays and Public Holidays 282.
Sunday Work 282.
Public Holidays 287.
Hungary.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195, 203,
215.
Hours of Work 219, 229, 258, 261,
263, 265, 267, 268, 286, 289, 308,
313, 314.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
246, 249.
Workers
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
I
Incapacity for Work.
General 127.
Degree 70, 128, 130, 131.
Duration 129-132.
Minimum Degree 128.
Nature 127, 128.
Occupational 127.
Permanent 66-71, 129.
Temporary .62-66, 129.
India.
Hours of Work 218, 219, 222, 256,
261, 265-267, 283, 306, 308, 317,
319-323.
Mine, Definition of 236-238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
246.
Weekly Rest 176.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Institutions, Insurance 56.
Insurance, Compulsory or Optional 57,
58, 100, 115, 151, 163.
Invalidity 115-116, 127-129.
(•See also Pensions and Risk.)

— 368 —
Italy.
A n n u a l Holidays with P a y 195, 203,
206, 208, 213.
Hours of W o r k 217, 219, 222, 229,
255, 259, 261, 266, 267, 268, 269,
271-277, 282-285, 293, 298, 299,
304, 306-308, 310, 313, 315-317.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
248.
Public Holidays 184, 187.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 179, 183.

J
Japan.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Real E a r n i n g s per Hour and per
Man-shift 3 1 .
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per H o u r and per Manshift 26.
E m p l o y m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 41, 43.
Hours "of WTork 219, 222, 229, 255258, 260, 264, 267, 276, 279, 281,
283, 285, 287, 299, 306, 310, 315,
318-320, 322, 323.
Manufacturing I n d u s t r i e s : Average
Wages per Hour 21.
Mine, Definition of 238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242, 243, 248.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Weekly Rest 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 , 181182.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and U n d e r g r o u n d
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 161.
Y o u n g Persons 8.

L
L i m b s , Supply of Artificial.
See Appliances, Supply of Surgical.
Lost Time, Making up 272.
L u m p Sum 67, 68, 70-75.

M
Maternity Benefit 110-112.
Mechanisation 44, 47.
Medical Aid 59, 63, 106-110.
Midwife, A t t e n d a n c e by a 110-112.

Mine, Definition of
Scope 234.
Persons employed 241.
Minimum Incapacity.
See Incapacity.
Morbidity R a t e (among Miners)

104.

N
Native Workers 70.
Netherlands.
A n n u a l Holidays with P a y 195, 198,
203, 210, 214.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per H o u r and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
W o r k e r 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Y e a r and per W o r k e r 19.
Real Earnings per Hour a n d per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
Employment Fluctuations 41.
Hours "of W o r k 219, 222, 230, 256,
257, 261, 267. 268, 270, 279, 281,
283-286, 289. 295, 301, 302, 309,
311-314, 318, 320, 322.
Mine, Definition of 237, 239.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242, 243.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Public Holidays 185, 188.
Increased Wage R a t e s 193.
U n e m p l o y m e n t 37, 38.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 161.
Wages Bill, I n d e x N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176-180.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and U n d e r g r o u n d
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
New Zealand.
Annual Holidays with P a y 195.
Holidays with P a y 188.
Hours of W o r k 217, 218, 219, 221,
230, 255, 258, 261, 265, 267-270,
277, 279-281, 283, 285, 286, 294,
305, 313, 314, 324.
Mine, Definition of 236, 238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
243.
Public Holidays 185, 188.
Weekly Rest 176, 179, 180, 183.
Normal Hours of Work, Definition and
Limitation 252.
Nursing Bonus 110-112.

— 369 —
Occupational Diseases.
See Diseases.
Old Age.
See Pensions and Risk.
Operations, Continuous 274.
O r p h a n s 135-143.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y ment 46.

Pathology of Coal Miners 76, 77.
Pension, R a t e s of.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
123-127, 133, 134, 141-143.
W o r k m e n ' s Compensation 68, 71,
73, 75.
Pensions, Invalidity.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
129-134.
W o r k m e n ' s Compensation
66-71.
Pensions, Non-contributory 117-119.
Pensions, Old-age 120-127, 143.
Pensions, Survivors'.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
135-143.
Period, Waiting 62, 79, 102, 103, 154,
155.
Period, Qualifying.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
121-123, 129, 132, 133, 140, 141.
Sickness Insurance 102.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Insurance 154-155.
P h a r m a c e u t i c a l Assistance 106-110.
Phthisis 86, 89.
Pneumoconiosis 86-89.
Poland.
A n n u a l Holidays with P a y 195, 196,
198, 203, 206, 208, 210, 213, 215.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
E a r n i n g s per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
E m p l o y m e n t Fluctuations 40, 41,42.
Hours of Work 217, 219, 220, 223,
230, 255, 257, 261, 264-268, 270272, 273, 274, 276, 277, 279-283,
286, 289, 294, 295, 297, 298, 303,
306, 307, 309, 310, 311, 314, 319,
320, 322, 324.
Manufacturing I n d u s t r i e s : Average
Wages per Hour 21.

Poland
(continued).
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
243.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
' Public Holidays 184, 189.
Increased Wage R a t e s 193.
U n e m p l o y m e n t 37, 38, 40.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 162.
Wages Bill, Index N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 179, 181.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Y o u n g Persons 8.
Pregnancy Allowance.
See Allowances.
P r e m i u m R a t e s 75, 76.
Public Authorities, Subsidies of.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
115, 118, 127, 143, 144, 146-150.
Sickness Insurance 100, 113.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance. 160-162
U n e m p l o y m e n t Insurance 154, 157,
158
Public Holidays 175, 184.
Determination of Public Holidays
185.
Increased R a t e s of Wages for W o r k
on Public Holidays 191.
Lost Time, Making up 190.
National Regulations 184.
P a y m e n t for Holidays when no
W o r k is done 194.
W o r k on 287.

Qualifying Period.
See Period, Qualifying.

Rates.
See under Benefit, Compensation,
Contributions, Morbidity, Pensions, P r e m i u m .
Rationalisation.
See Mechanisation.
R a t i o n s 159.
Real Earnings per Hour and per Manshift in Coal Mining, I n d e x N u m b e r s
of 31.
Relatives.
See D e p e n d a n t s ' Allowances, and
Family, Members of.
Relief.
In Kind 159-162.
W i n t e r 161.
W o r k 159-162.

Resources, Financial.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
143-150.
Sickness Insurance 113-115.
Unemployment Insurance 157-159.
Workmen's Compensation 75, 76.
Rest Periods, before and after Childbirth 111.
Risk.
Degree 75.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
115-117, 119, 127, 129.
Occupational Diseases 76-78.
Protection against 55, 56.
Workmen's Compensation 59.
Ruhr.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different Elements of Earnings 15.
Output per Man-shift, and Employment 46.
Wages Bill, Index Numbers of Aggregate 28, 32.
Rumania.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195, 203,
206, 214, 215.
Hours of Work 219, 223, 231, 255,
261, 265, 267, 268, 270, 277, 279283, 285, 286, 288, 289, 294, 297,
301, 303, 306, 307, 311, 313, 314,
317, 324.
Mine, Definition of 237.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242 248.
Public Holidays 184, 189.
Increased Wage Rates 193.
Weekly Rest 176, 177, 179, 181.
S
Salary.
Limit, for Insurance Purposes 144146.
Schemes.
General and Special 55, 56, 100,
115-119.
Inter-occupational and Occupational
115-117, 120.
Short Time 153, 154.
Silicosis 86-89.
Social Services 162, 174.
Societies, Friendly and Mutual Aid
55, 100, 151, 163.

Spain.
Annual Holidays with Pav 195, 198,
204, 206, 210.
Hours of Work 218, 220, 221, 231,
254, 256, 258, 259, 261, 265-268,
279, 281-285, 287, 294, 295, 297,
• 298, 301, 306, 307, 308, 310, 313315, 318, 320, 322, 324.
Mine, Definition of 236-240.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
244, 246.
Public Holidays 185, 189.
Weekly Rest 176-179, 181.
Specialist, Attendance by 59, 106.
State.
See Public Authorities.
Statistics.
Occupational Diseases 89, 97.
Social Charges 165-174.
Subsidies.
See Public Authorities.
Sundays and Public Holidays, Work
on 282.
Survivors' Pensions.
See Pensions.
Sustenance 159.
T
Treatment.
Dental 106-108.
Hospital 59, 107, 108, 110.
Medical 59, 60, 106-110.
Specialist 59, 106.
Surgical 106.
Turkey.
Hours of Work 218, 220, 232, 261,
265, 267, 268, 280, 281, 294, 297,
303, 306-308, 311, 313,
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
246.
U
Unemployment 37.
Continuous 153, 154.
Total 153, 154.
(See also Allowances and Benefits.)
Cyclical Factor 39.
Unemployment Assistance 159-162.
Unhealthy or Dangerous Workplaces
278.
Union of South Africa.
Annual Holidays with Pay 195-198,
204, 206-208, 211, 213-215.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average Number of Man-shifts per
Year and per Worker 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.

— 371 —
Union of South Africa
(continued).
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
E m p l o y m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 4 1 , 43.
Hours of W o r k 218, 219, 223, 232,
255, 263, 268, 270, 283,
Public Holidays 185, 189.
Wages Bill, I n d e x N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly R e s t 176, 183.
Workers in Coal and Lignite Mining
3.
United States of America.
Coal Mining.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per W o r k e r 19.
Average Earnings per Hour and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
W o r k e r 19.
Real Earnings per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
E a r n i n g s per H o u r and per Manshift 26.
E m p l o y m e n t Fluctuations 4 1 , 43.
Hours Of W o r k 217, 219, 221, 222,
232, 262-265, 267, 269, 270, 272,
275, 278, 285, 295, 297-299, 303,
304, 307, 308, 312, 313, 319, 322,
324.
Manufacturing I n d u s t r i e s : Average
Wages per Hour 21.
Mine, Definition of 239.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
241, 244, 246.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Public Holidays 185, 189.
U n e m p l o y m e n t Assistance 162.
Wages Bill, Index N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
Weekly R e s t 176, 179, 183.
Workers employed.
Above Ground and Underground
6.
Coal and Lignite Mining 3.
Y o u n g Persons 8.
U.S.S.R.
A n n u a l Holidays with P a y 195, 196,
198, 199, 204-206, 208, 210, 211,
214.
E m p l o y m e n t F l u c t u a t i o n s 4 1 , 43.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
W o r k e r s in Coal and Lignite Mining
3.
Hours of W o r k 219, 220, 223, 233,
255, 258, 261, 263, 265-267, 271,
278-281, 283, 285, 289, 299, 300,
303, 306, 311, 314, 318, 320, 322,
324.

U.S.S.R.
(continued).
Mine, Definition of 237, 238.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
242, 244, 246, 250.
Public Holidays 185, 189.
Increased Wage R a t e s 193.
Weekly R e s t 176, 177, 179, 184.
U p p e r Silesia.
Coal Mining.
Average Earnings per H o u r and
per Man-shift 17, 35.
Average Earnings per Year per
Worker 19.
Average N u m b e r of Man-shifts per
Year and per W o r k e r 19.
Real E a r n i n g s per Hour and per
Man-shift 31.
Coal Mining and Other Industries.
Earnings per Hour and per Manshift 26.
Different E l e m e n t s of Earnings 15.
O u t p u t per Man-shift, and E m p l o y m e n t 46.
Wages Bill, I n d e x N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
V
Vocational Rehabilitation 59, 6 1 , 1 5 3 ,
159.
Vocational Training.
See Vocational Rehabilitation.

W
Wages.
Basic W a g e : Sickness
Insurance
113-115.
Basic W a g e : W o r k m e n ' s Compensation 6 1 , 62.
Gross Money 168, 169.
Limit, for Insurance Purposes 101,
114, 119.
Increased R a t e s , for S u n d a y W o r k
179.
(See also Earnings and Wages.)
Wages Bill, Index N u m b e r s of Aggregate 28, 32.
W a i t i n g Period 62, 79, 102, 103, 154,
155.
Weekly R e s t 175-184.
Compensatory R e s t 179.
Determination of Weekly Rest D a y
176.
Exceptions 178.
Five-day Week 183.
F o u r or Five-day Week 184.
Increased R a t e s of Wages for S u n d a y
W o r k 179.
L e n g t h of 177.
National Regulations 175.
P a y m e n t for 181.

— 372 —
Weekly Rest (continued).
Saturday Half-holiday 182.
System of Twice-monthly Rest 181.
Widow, Widower.
Invalidity and Old-age Insurance
135-143.
Workmen's Compensation 72-75.
Women Workers 7.
Prohibition of Underground Work 5.
Workers employed.
Above Ground 6.
In Coal and Lignite Mining 2, 3, 9.
Native 70.
Non-manual 58, 101, 117, 119, 152,
157.
Underground 6.
Workmen's Compensation.
Costs 75-76.

Y
Young Persons 8, 52.
Yugoslavia.
Hours of Work 219, 223, 234, 256,
259, 261, 262, 264, 265-268, 270,
275, 277, 279, 281-283, 287, 289,
' 294, 303, 304, 306, 307, 309, 311,
312, 313.
Mine, Definition of Persons employed
244, 246.
Public Holidays 185, 190.
Increased Wage Rates 193.
Weekly Rest 176, 181.
Workers in Coal and Lignite Mining
3.