INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE
STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series N (Statistics) No. 1
YSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
OF
INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS
Report prepared for the International Conference
of Labour Statisticians (29 October to 2 November 1923)
DECEMBER 1923
GENEVA
IMPRIMERIE ALBERT KUNDIG —
GENÈVE
PRELIMINARY NOTE
An International Conference of Labour Statisticians was held
under the auspices of the International Labour Organisation at
Geneva from 29 October to 2 November 1923 for the purpose of
discussing the principles and methods upon which certain branches
of labour statistics should be drawn up from the point of view
of international comparisons.
The agenda, which was determined by the Governing Body of
the International Labour Office, consisted of the following three
subjects:
(a) The classification of industries and occupations for the
purpose of labour statistics.
(b) The statistics of wages and hours of labour.
(c) The statistics of industrial accidents.
A report on each ot these subjects was prepared by the Statistical
Section of the International Labour Office and circulated in advance
to the Governments, together with certain draft resolutions which
were submitted as a basis for discussion. These reports, though
prepared primarily for the Conference, are in effect self-contained
and independent studies of the different subjects and many problems are treated which were not discussed at the Conference. It
has therefore been decided to publish the Report separately from
the account of the proceedings of the Conference. The present
Report is as submitted to the Conference of Labour Statisticians,
with the exception of minor modifications in statements of facts.
The draft resolutions submitted to the Conference, together
with a résumé of the discussions and the definitive resolutions
adopted, will be found in the General Report of the Conference (')
which is issued simultaneously with this Report.
(*) INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE : International Conference of Labour Sta-
tisticians. Report on the International Conference of Representatives of
Labour Statistical Departments, held at Geneva, 29 October to 2 November
1923. Studies and Reports, Series N (Statistics) No. 4. Geneva, 1923.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PBEFACE
I. Introduction and General Considerations
II. Difference between "Occupation" and "Industry"
III. Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of a Classification
of Industries and a Classification of Occupation
IV. Existing Attempts at Standardisation
V. Classification of Industries :
A. Classification of the Main Groups of Industries and
Services
B. Classification of Manufacturing Industries
VI. Classification of Occupations
VII. Application to the Various Classes of Labour Statistics
VIII. Concluding Remarks
7
11
14
16
19
21
27
50
53
56
APPENDICES:
I. Bertillon's Draft Scheme for Classification of Occupations
II. Resolutions of the British Empire Statistical Conference
III. Scheme adopted in the "Répertoire technologique
des noms d'industrie et de professions"
IV. Scheme of the International Association of Industrial
Accidents Boards (North America)
V. Classifications adopted in Different Countries
59
60
61
63
65
PREFACE
A classification of industries and occupations forms the indispensable framework of all labour statistics. The International Labour
Office found it necessary from the very commencement of its work
to deal with this problem. A Resolution passed by the International Labour Conference at its First Session, held at Washington
in 1919, invited the Governing Body of the International Labour
Office to form an international commission "empowered to formulate recommendations upon the best methods to be adopted in
each State for collecting and publishing all information relative
to the problem of unemployment, in such form and for such periods
as may be internationally comparable."
As a result of this Resolution, the Governing Body of the International Labour Office decided, on 8 June 1920, to establish a Commission of three members, one from each group of the Governing
Body. This Technical Commission, which was assisted by a number
of experts, met at various dates during 1920 and 1921. In the
report which was prepared by the Commission, and with the
object of facilitating the agreement of the different governments,
the classification of industries and occupations given in the
Repertoire technologique des noms d'industries et de professions
was taken as basis. The report of the Technical Commission
on Unemployment was presented to the session of the Governing
Body of the International Labour Office which was held in
April 1921. The Governing Body, without pronouncing any
opinion on the drafts included in the Report, authorised the
Director of the International Labour Office to communicate the
proposals to the Governments of the Members of the International
Labour Organisation, which were requested to give their opinions
thereon (*). The replies received from the different Governments
t1) This was done on 16 September 1921.
— 8—
have been reproduced and examined in the brochure Methods of
Compiling Statistics of Unemployment: Replies of the Governments^1).
The replies of the governments showed that agreement could be
reached only by considering the problem in relation not merely
to unemployment statistics but to labour statistics generally, and
even to other statistics such as those of the general census. Thus
in the reply of the Canadian Government the opinion is expressed
that "it is greatly to be desired that any international classification put forward should be along lines dictated by principles
capable of general application," while it is indicated that the
Dominion Bureau of Statistics in its own statistical compilations
has effected a "co-ordination between such fields as the census,
statistics of the different phases of production, unemployment,
etc." The reply of the German Government shows that "as
regards German social statistics the comparison between the
results of trade censuses and with the classification which forms its
basis must be maintained," and that criticisms of the proposals
of the Technical Commission on Unemployment depend on the
classification of occupations adopted for the census.
The British Government stated that such modification as it is
likely to effect in the near future will be in the direction of making
classifications of unemployment data "correspond more closely with
the industrial and occupational classifications adopted in connection with the 1921 census of population".
The Belgian reply indicated that the classification adopted at
the time of the 1910 sensus forms the basis of all the official publications issued in that country.
The Norwegian reply states definitely that the "question of an
international classification of trades and industries cannot be
treated as an isolated problem and solved only with a view to
its connection with unemployment statistics. The problem must
be treated in connection with that of a general classification of
trades and industries, and the point of departure must be the
classification adopted for the needs of the census and for establishing statistics of the principal industries."
The conclusion reached by the International Labour Office as
a result of this first consideration was that "the problem of an
international classification of industries and occupations cannot be
(') INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE: Methods of Compiling
Statistics of
Unemployment ; Replies of the Governments. Studies and Reports, Series G
(Unemployment) No. 7. Geneva, 1922.
— 9 —
treated only in connection with the problem of unemployment
statistics but must also be considered in connection with social
statistics generally. An attempt has been made in each country
to consider the data supplied by these statistics in connection with
those derived from the general census, and, in consequence, an
attempt has been made, as a general rule, to harmonise the industrial or occupational classification adopted in unemployment statistics with those in use for the purposes of the general census.'^1)
The problem to be solved thus goes beyond the scope of unemployment statistics, and the necessity of a study of this problem on
general lines has been demonstrated. In preparing the present
report the considerations of the governments regarding the proposals made by the Technical Commission on Unemployment have
been of considerable value. They have revealed the difficulty of
effecting a greater degree of uniformity in the classifications of the
States except on the basis of agreement as to certain fundamental
principles. They have also indicated the possibility of agreement
on the main groups of industries and services, even if standardisation in the subdivisions is not attainable.
It is on these lines that the International Labour Office has
continued its study of the problem. An attempt has been made
to draft a system of classification based on principles capable of
general application.
(') Op. cit. p. 53.
REPORT ON SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
OF INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS
I
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Statistics of Industries and Occupations bave a two-fold purpose.
They are, first, of general interest as showing the importance of
the different industries in the national economy, the extent to
which a nation is engaged in or dependent on particular industries
or services, their growth and decay from time to time, or their
state of development as compared with those of other countries.
They have therefore an interest in themselves as giving an indication
of the economic structure of a country. They have, however,
special purposes, viz. their use, in combination with other factors,
in throwing light on social and industrial conditions. In all classes
of labour statistics (and also in other branches of statistics) it is
generally essential that the data should be grouped according to
industries and occupations. With these other branches (which
include, for example, cost of production, taxation, vital statistics,
etc.) this report is not primarily concerned, but as regards statistics
of wages, trade disputes, employment and unemployment, industrial
accidents, etc., it is essential that the data available should be
grouped, in some way or other, in order to show the variations within
the country or between different countries in the characteristic
considered (wages, unemployment, etc.), either from trade to
trade or occupation to occupation.
The general problem can be approached in either of two ways.
We may consider the matter a priori, and decide the nature of the
classes or groups, or we may examine the material existing — the
individuals in their various economic and social activities — and
see into what group they fall, and how they may be grouped by
recognisable and suitable characteristics. In considering the classification of workers from the point of view of international compari-
— 12 —
sons, M. Bertillon, in his scheme presented to the International
Statistical Institute in 1893, proceeded according to the first
method (f). This method is also generally adopted in those countries
which make a census of the population at long intervals (usually ten
years). The individual is invited to state what his occupation is
and the replies, which vary in completeness, accuracy and clearness,
are grouped, as best possible, according to some system of grouping
or classification previously laid down. In all these cases the individual worker as such is the unit of classification.
In the second way the classification is based not on the worker
as an isolated part of the economic body, but on some grouping
of the workers existing for definite purposes. These groupings
differ from country to country, but also according to the economic
organisation or social and industrial developments of the community. In some cases these are occupational groups, in some cases
industrial groups, and in certain cases they are social or localised
groups. An enumeration of the different branches of labour statistics brings this clearly to light.
Statistics of employment and unemployment are based on four
chief sources: trade unions, organisations (other than trade unions)
for the provision of unemployment benefit, labour exchanges, and
employers; and in each the classification is necessarily different.
In classifying statistics of unemployment based on trade unions
the system of organisation of the workers in trade unions must
necessarily be adopted. In some countries trade unions have
developed on industrial lines, but in the majority oí countries the
craft or occupational organisation is predominant (2), and statistics
of unemployment based on trade union returns are usually occu(') Dr. Bertillon's plan, in his own words, was as follows:
« (A). L'homme se procure les matières premières nécessaires à toute profession soit par l'exploitation du sol (I. Agriculture), soit par l'exploitation
du sous-sol (II. Extraction de matières minérales).
« (B). Ces matières premières sont ensuite transformées par l'industrie
(III. Industrie), portées à l'endroit où elles sont demandées par les moyens de
transport (IV. Transport), et distribuées entre les consommateurs par le
commerce (V. Commercé).
« (C). Pour veiller au bon ordre et à la sécurité des professions qui procèdent,
chaque pays possède une armée et une gendarmerie (VI. Force publique),
une administration publique (VII). Les professions libérales (VIII) et les personnes vivant de leurs revenus (IX) trouvent tout naturellement leur place
à la suite des professions que nous venons de passer en revue.
« (D). Enfin, il convient d'établir trois divisions professionnelles pour les
individus non classés ou sans profession: viz. (X) Travail domestique, (XI)
Désignations générales sans indication d'une industrie déterminée, (XII) Improductifs, Profession inconnue. »
(2) Recent developments appear to be in the direction of organisation more
on industrial lines.
— 13 —
pational in character. The basic unit is the trade union. Statistics of unemployment supplied by unemployment benefit organisations other than trade unions are generally based on the
individual worker. According to the details obtained, these may
be grouped occupationally, or occupationally and industrially.
Statistics derived from employment exchanges are "occupational"
and are intended to show the demand for a supply of workers in
different occupations. They are based on the individual worker.
Statistics of employment are based on the returns from employers
or from establishments, and are on a very different basis. The basic
unit is the establishment or, in the case of establishments carrying
on different branches of work, the department.
Statistics of rates of wages, earnings, and hours are based to a
large extent on two sources: data furnished by employers as to
rates and earnings of workers on their payroll, and data based
on collective agreements. In the first case the basic unit of the
statistics is the undertaking or branch of the undertaking. In the
second case the basic unit is usually the trade union. In certain
countries special wage censuses are taken from time to time (e.g. the
United Kingdom, 1906; Germany, 1920), but it should be noted
that these are based not on the individual worker as unit but on the
undertaking.
Statistics of industrial accidents and diseases are largely based
on establishments. It is the invariable rule that the onus of
preventing, of insuring against, and of notifying, accidents rests
with the employer or firm, and not with the individual worker.
Insurance against accidents is carried out either by employers'
associations or by private or State insurance companies, whose
rates of premium are usually based on payrolls.
Statistics of strikes and lock-outs are based on the establishment or reports from trade unions. An industrial grouping, based
on the establishment affected, is the grouping adopted in most
countries for the presentation of these statistics.
Statistics of collective agreements which are published by a few
countries aie based chiefly on information supplied by employers'
or workers' organisations, and remarks similar to those made
above as to statitics of unemployment and wages based on employers' and workers' organisations apply here.
Statistics of sickness and invalidity constitute a class somewhat
apart from other branches of labour statistics. In countries where
sickness insurance funds exist, the nature of the statistics depends
upon the organisation of these funds. These may be established
— 14 —
on the lines of special industries or of a combination of several
industries within the same locality or district. In the United
Kingdom and France the statistics are based on voluntary or
State-aided associations of workers with or without families. In
some countries the trade unions, and even social and religious
organisations, undertake sickness insurance.
II
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "OCCUPATION" AND "INDUSTRY"
The above paragraphs show that there are two distinct points
of view from which the economic activity of the population may
be regarded — t h a t of occupation and that of industry ('). The
former is personal to the individual, the second shows the position
of the worker in the economic structure of the country. The
basis of the latter is the firm, establishment, undertaking, or
service with which the worker is connected, and within this group,
categories of workers of various occupations are employed. The
phrase "engaged in occupations" (or, in the French phrase: la
population active) covers all those persons who are "engaged in the
production of utilities or in the rendering of services". Logically
this defmition covers all those wives and other members of a family
who render services for which no payment is usually rendered,
but as no economic bargaining or no "cash-nexus" enters into
their relation with the community, they are often excluded from
consideration, and the term "occupied" is here limited to those
"gainfully occupied".
The fact that occupations are personal and based on the individual worker, and that industries are based on the plant or establishment, implies that occupations exist within industries and not
vice-versa. It is true that certain occupations exist in only one
industry (for example coal miners in the mining industry), but
all the chief occupations are found in most industries. No extensive statistics exist at the present time to show the extent to which
occupations are divided among the different industries, but the
(*) In the reply of the British Government on the draft classification proposed
by the Technical Commission on Unemployment it is stated definitely that
"industrial" and " occupational " are quite distinct concepts, and if statistics
of industry and occupation are to illuminate the facts to which they relate,
they must be arranged according to distinct classifications.
— 15 —
following table is of interest as showing for certain workers insured
against unemployment in 1913 in the United Kingdom their
classification both according to their personal occupations and the
industry with which they are connected:
Industries
Occupations
Total
including
other
EnginConConSnipeering struction indusBuilding struction
tries
iron
of
of works building and
founding vehicles
Carpenters a n d
joiners
147,452
Plumbers
43,726
P l a t e r s , rivetters, a n d
boiler m a k e r s
412
Fitters and turners
5,138
Smiths
2,560
Metal machinists
61
Cabinet m a k e r s ,
french polishers,
etc.
4,718
Labourers
321,994
3,177
688
13,871
3,047
10,118
2,808
4,940 191,561
564 52,950
3,018
2,287
1,346
710
53,801 41,601
12,497 240,721
5,001
27,928
3,634 71,074
2,640 102,926
33,261 319,562
10,492 55,299
16,899 92,689
6
2,380
602
24,973 134,601 306,169
5,638 13,437
47,283 866,796
This table shows how distinct are the two classifications. Of
the carpenters, over 25 per cent, are employed in trades other
than the building trade, and of the platers and rivetters less than
50 per cent, are shipbuilding workers. Metal machinists are
found in nearly all industries, only 75 per cent, being in the engineering trade. The classification of industries must therefore be
considered independently of that of the classification of occupations.
There is not a "classification of industries and occupations",
but a "classification of industries" and a "classification of occupations".
The industrial classifications adopted in most countries, as has
been pointed out by the British Government^), "are arrived at
after condideration of the administrative and informative objects
which the statistics have to serve, and alterations cannot generally
be made in these classifications except as are calculated to further
those objects or could be shown to be imperative on grounds transcending those of administrative efficiency and of domestic inform(') INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE: Metkods of Compiling Statistics of
Employment; Replies of Governments. Studies and Reports, Series C (Unemployment) No. 7. Geneva, 1922.
— 16 —
ative utility". Classifications also differ from country to country
according to the natural resources and industrial development of the
country. Industries differ in importance and degree of development from one country to another, and the processes employed,
the progress of inventions and the division of labour lead to the
existence of certain occupations which do not exist in less developed
countries. For instance, in a country where coalmining is highly
developed the gradual development of technical processes and the
division of labour have necessitated very complicated and detailed
lists of occupations. In countries where very little or no coalmining is carried on, the terms and their meanings would be unknown, and the workers may be classified together under one heading
of "coalmining " or even grouped to some other industry (').
Notwithstanding these admitted difficulties it may be possible
to achieve some progress in rendering more comparable the systems
of different countries.
Ill
RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A CLASSIFICATION
OF INDUSTRIES AND A CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS
The chief advantage of a census of workers classified by occupations is that it may be made fairly complete. The censuses held
— usually at ten-yearly intervals — in most countries are effected
by a system under which a schedule is filled up in respect of
each individual. By decentralisation and local control it is possible
to cover every household or habitation in the country. A census of
workers classified by industries, can never claim the same completeness. It is impossible to cover every undertaking in the country,
especially small undertak ngs consisting of a few persons or even
of one person. There is also a risk of duplication ; individuals may
work for more than one establishment and may be included under
each, and branches of establishments might be included twice —once
as a branch, and again among the figures for the estab ishment as
a whole. Further, persons normally in employment but temporarily
unemployed would be excluded. Hence an enquiry by occupa-
ci In some countries the small amount of coal which exists is found on
the surface and workers are classified along with agriculture.
— 17 —
tions is of advantage if a complete record of the occupied population is required. Such records are required for general demographic purposes — statistics of mortality, fertility, occupational
diseases — and for housing questions. They are, however, less
likely to be accurate than statistics of industrial establishments.
In the first place the term "occupation" does not convey the same
idea to different individuals. Some workers have more than one
occupation, some change their occupation according to the season
of the weather or the state of trade. If a worker cannot obtain
employment in his normal occupation he frequently finds it in
another. An unemployed worker may give as his occupation
either his last occupation or no occupation. The terms used to
describe an occupation are frequently vague and lacking precision.
Often they are local or colloquial terms whose meaning is imperfectly
known. Even if correctly described they often cover different
categories of workers. Two individuals may both return themselves as "joiner'' or "turner", or "weaver", but in the one case the
worker may be a highly skilled worker and in the other a semiskilled or unskilled worker whose earnings and position ir the
establishment might be quite different from that of the former
worker. It has also been pointed out (*), for example, that "a
worker may quite correctly describe himself or herself as an 'embroidery worker', but the difference between hand and machine
embroidery is as great as that between a monk who transcribes
the Gospels and the machine operator who prints them." These
difficulties are partly minimised i', in addition, the name of the
employer or the nature of his business is also given and if careful
instructions are given (and followed) as to the exact description
of occupations to be given by the individual, but a trained staff
with intimate knowledge of local establishments and of technical
processes would be necessary for checking the various statements.
A correct occupational census requires a full and detailed description of the work performed by each individual or a comprehensive
"glossary" of occupational terms in which the various terms, local
and special, are described in detail (2). Enquiries based on the
(') Dr. SCHWAHZ-LYON, in Revue économique et statistique suisse, 57th year,
Vol. I l l , 1921.
(2) These difficulties can be illustrated by reference to the British and American experiences. The Report on the Occupational Statistics of the English
Census of 1911 states: "On the present occasion an experiment has been
made on a considerable scale in order to test the feasibility of introducing a
consistently personal classification of occupations which should tabulate by
the nature of the process performed by the individual worker those sections
— 18 —
personal occupation have also sought to obtain information as to
the industry or service with which the individual is connected, and
as to the place he occupies in the industry or service, but the
results have not hitherto been satisfactory. If it is desired to
know the extent to which the economic life of the country is
dependent on different industries, etc., the sources of the national
wealth and income, it is to the existing economic organisations
that attention must be drawn, i. e. the establishments or underof the list which are now classified only according to the nature of the product
or of the material worked in. Special cards were prepared for over 700,000
workers in the selected headings, and the description given in the household
schedule of the actual occupation was written on each card. The cards were
then sorted by hand according to the process carried on, persons classified
to the headings 'cutlers', 'scissor-makers' and 'tool-makers' for instance
being divided into buffers, grinders, finishers, etc., and makers of tools, scissors,
razors, etc., as the case might be, who gave no further description of their
occupation. The latter class was found in most cases to be so large that on
the whole the attempt can only be characterised as a decided failure. As a
result of the experience so gained we have reluctantly come to the conclusion
that unless by some improved means of collecting census information the
nature of the material to be tabulated can be greatly improved, any logically
consistent tabulation in our census of workers by personal occupation is
unattainable ana that the present system of classification partly by occupation and partly by product must be adhered to."
The difficulty that occupations may mean very different things in different
countries and require to be divided and sub-divided into such detail that any
international comparison is impossible may be illustrated by reference to
American practice. The following are the definitions of a "joiner" and of a
"patternmaker" as given in the Descriptions of Occupations published by the
United States Department of Labour: " J O I N E R : The duties of a joiner are to
construct high-grade woodwork and to assemble machine-made woodwork.
He must be an experienced hand, capable of reading drawings and sketches
and laying out and doing all classes of joinery work. He must be able to do
all classes of wood assembly work, such as making sashes and window frames,
doors and door frames, and general house' building, wood fixtures, desks,
file cases and special boxes and instrument cases, and installing mill-made
interior finish. He must be a competent bench hand and should have had
some experience in the use of woodworking machinery. PATTERN MAKER,
WOOD : The duties of a wood patternmaker are to make the wooden forms
by the use of which the foundryman shapes a mould for the purpose of producing metal castings. As a woodworker the patternmaker must be an allround skilled man in the use of common bench, woodworking and turning
tools, and in the operation of such woodworking machinery as the jointer,
planer, circular saw, band saw, disk sander and special core-box machinery.
He must know the best kind of wood to use in any given pattern. He must
understand draft and shrinkage as applied to pattern making and must have
a thorough knowledge of the most complex mechanical drawings, so that he
will be able to make a pattern drawing sketch from the shop drawing. He
must undertsand core making and the allowance for core and core print in
the construction of the pattern. He must be resourceful and able to determine
quickly the best method of making the pattern. He must know pattern
finishes and the care of finishing material and brushes. He must have good
health, ordinary strength, and endurance. He must have had experience
as a journeyman-patternmaker".
"Joiner" is one of the most frequently used terms in all occupational statistics and it would be of interest to know how many persons classified as
joiners in the different countries are comparable with this American joiner.
— 19 —
takings, and the services. A classification based on data
obtained from such units has the advantage of enabling information to be given as to the status of the workers — handworkers
and machine workers; skilled and unskilled and semi-skilled;
supervising and directing staff; productive workers and distributive workers, etc.
IV
EXISTING ATTEMPTS AT STANDAHDISATION
That there is need for some international scheme has been
repeatedly shown. Over thirty years ago the subject was frequently discussed at the meetings of the International Statistical
Institute and, at the present day, when international statistical
comparisons of wages, unemployment, etc., are being attempted
more than ever before, the need is even greater. The scheme prepared by M. BertiUon and approved by the International Statistical
Institute in 1893 has been referred to above. It is called a Statistique des Professions, but on examination it appears to be rather
a combination of a Statistique des Industries and a Statistique des
Professions. It consisted really of three schemes, the second and
third each being expansions of the preceding one. The first scheme
(given in Appendix I) contained 61 groups, the second 207 and the
third 499; and the general basis of his classification is given on
page 12 above.
That this classification was not logical can be shown be a few
examples. Under "Transport'' for example the classification is as
follows :
1. Transports par chemin de fer :
(a) Chemins de fer; administrateurs, employés, ouvriers, agents de
toutes sortes.
Under "Building" we have the following:
1. Industrie du bâtiment:
(a) Charpentiers et menuisiers:
Charpentiers ;
Menuisiers, rampistes;
Parqueteurs, raboteurs.
Under "Metallurgy" we have the following:
1. Fabrication des métaux:
La) Fabrication de ]a fonte, du fer, de l'acier; fours à puddler, laminage.
— 20 —
The first example seems to be a true industrial classification —
all railway workers are grouped together and no occupations are
separately shown. In the second example we get an occupational
classification, and carpenters, joiners, etc., are set out separately.
One naturally searches for the large number of carpenters and
joiners engaged in other industries. The only indication is t h a t
given in a footnote which states, against carpenters — not
including "charpentiers en bateaux et charpentiers marins". These
are to be included in the heading: "Constructions d'appareils de
transport: Construction de bateaux." The large number of carpenters
and joiners engaged in making vehicles, and the smaller, though
considerable, number engaged in engineering, mining, and, in
fact, nearly all industries, are not mentioned. In the third example
we are given a grouping which is neither an industry nor an
occupation, but a process of manufacture, and the occupations
therein, which are just as important as theparqueteurs and raboteurs
shown separately for the building industry, are not given. Other
and similar examples might be given from Bertillon's classification.
Another and fairly recent proposal is that put forward by the
British Empire Statistical Conference, held in January 1920
and attended by representatives of the United Kingdom, of
India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and of four
Colonies and Protectorates, for the purpose of discussing the coordination of statistics within the British Empire. As regards the
classification of industries and occupations it passed the following
resolutions :
The classifications [of industries and occupations] should be based on
two lists, one of industries and the other of occupations, each heading
being defined and given a reference number and the heading so arranged
as to be capable of grouping into classes according to a fixed and defined
system.
The basic principle of the industrial classification should be the product
or type of service, and that of the occupational classification, the process
carried out and the materials worked in.
It will be seen that this resolution insists t h a t there should be
two classifications — one of industries and another of occupations.
The resolutions in full, together with the proposed list of groups,
etc., are given in Appendix II.
A further effort, not for international standardisation b u t
moving in the same direction, was t h a t undertaken under the
auspices of the International Statistical Institute in 1909 for the
publication of a Repertoire technologique in English, French and
— 21 —
German, of Industries and Occupations. The system of classification was largely based on that adopted in the Censuses of France,
the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries. It is given
in Appendix III.
The attempt of the International Association of Industrial Accident
Boards may be mentioned, though it had only limited application.
This body comprises the administrative authorities of some
50 states of North America and Provinces of Canada, and has for
its object the improvement and standardisation of Accident
Statistics. It has prepared a standard list of industries suitable
for the classification of industrial accidents. This list comprises
8 divisions, 36 schedules, and 153 groups. The list of Divisions
and Schedules is given in Appendix IV.
Finally, reference should be made to the Classification
proposed in 1921 by the Technical Commission on Unemployment
of the International Labour Organisation. An examination of
the replies of the different governments (*) with regard to this
proposal indicates that there were various objections of a detailed
character to the draft outlined, and that furthermore, to obtain
general approval a scheme should be considered not only in
connection with the problem of unemployment statistics but also
in relation to labour statistics, and an attempt made to harmonise
as far as possible a classification appropriate for these purposes
with one suited to the purposes of the general census.
V
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES
A.
Classification of the Main Groups of Industries and Services
In considering the scheme of classification of industries it is
advisable to draw a distinction at the outset between the wider
meaning of the term "industry" in the phrase "classification of
industries", and its restricted and more frequent use to cover
factory and similar undertakings. To avoid confusion the term
"manufacturing industries" will be used in this report wherever the
latter meaning is intended.
The main object of classification of industries is to furnish a
(')
See
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE: Op. cit. pp. 27-54.
— 22 —
scheme for an appropriate division of the population into the
different branches of industrial life in order to enable a judgment
to be given on the productive and commercial capacity of a country
and on the part taken by the different sections of the population
in the total work done by the community. A judgment of this kind
is of the highest importance in the solution of labour problems,
and though different branches of labour statistics might, taking
account of their special purposes, demand a classification of industries somewhat different from one suitable for the general purpose
outlined above, the latter might nevertheless be considered as
taking the first place in our considerations. All the schemes of
classification mentioned in the previous section and of those
generally adopted in different countries, have been established
mainly with this purpose in view. They show that as regards
the main groups of industry there is general agreement, and these
may be dealt with first before considering the more difficult and,
from the point of view of labour statistics, the more important
group of manufacturing industries.
Where economic conditions are more simple than in modern
industrial communities^), specialisation of function is practised
to a small extent only, and many quite distinct tasks are performed
by the same individual. Most people are engaged in agriculture
and allied occupations, and it is impossible to separate those who
cultivate the ground, tend the animals or fell trees from those who
use the raw materials produced by these occupations, in the preparation of food, the making of clothing, or the construction of
buildings. Again, with the exchange of goods usually the same
individuals who produce the raw materials and work them into
a more useful form also transport them to the places where they
can be bartered for other goods, and undertake the commercial
functions involved. Even those engaged in the government of the
community often take a considerable part in agricultural, pastoral
and other productive activities. No doubt, however, some specialisation always existed and with economic and industrial development it became more and more possible to divide members of
different communities according to the work on which they were
chiefly engaged. A broad distinction can be drawn between
dwellers in the country chiefly engaged in obtainin graw materials,
whether by cultivating the soil or extracting various minerals,
(') Whether in early times or in non-industrialised communities at the
present time.
— 23 —
and town dwellers generally engaged in manufacturing various
finished products or in performing commercial or administrative
functions. The function of transportation developed largely
to provide a link between the two, while the specialisation of
individuals on the work of personal and domestic service or in
the different professions enabled other members of the community
to devote a greater part of their time to their special tasks. Thus,
although many individuals continue to perform two or more
distinct functions, it becomes possible to classify most members
of the community according to their principal task.
On the lines indicated, therefore, distinction may be made between
workers engaged in producing material goods and those rendering
services, i. e. who do not produce commodities but are engaged in
their sale and distribution or in satisfying moral or social needs.
The former group may be further divided into two broad classes
of primary producers, i.e. those engaged in the obtaining of raw
materials and food products from natural sources, and secondary
producers, which includes those concerned with the treatment
of raw materials.
We thus get the three principal divisions: primary production,
secondary production, and services; and these divisions are generally well defined and recognised groups which overlap to a small
extent only. Primary producers are usually divided into the two
distinct groups of "agriculture" (including fishing, forestry, etc.),
and "mining and quarrying". Services are often divided into the
five groups of "transport"; "commerce"; "public administration";
"professions"; "domestic and personal service". The subdivisions
of secondary production are dealt within detail in Section B (1).
These three principal divisions, with the sub-divisions mentioned,
are fairly well defined, and are found in practically all classifications.
This is evident from an examination of table I, in which a résumé is given of the official classification of about a dozen countries,
together with the Bertillon system of classification, which has been
adopted by about eight countries. These countries are, as far as
is known, India, Egypt, Bulgaria, Spain, Brazil, Chili, Venezuela,
and Mexico (2). The other countries included in the table are the
(') It is unnecessary to discuss in detail the subdivisions of the groups
of primary producers and of those rendering services, as there appears to be
general agreement with regard to them. A few borderline cases are considered
in footnote
(*), on page 26.
(a) It may be noted that for the census of 1920 in Spain, a new classification
(see Appendix V) has been adopted based largely on the Bertillon scheme,
but with certain modifications.
TABLE I .
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTÏ
Bertillon
United
States
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
Switzerland
I. Agriculture
and fishing
1. Agriculture
1. Fishing
2. Agriculture
1. Agriculture
2. Fishing
6. Primary
products
1. Agriculture
mining, fishing
II. Mining
2. Extraction
of minerals
3. Mining and
quarrying
3. Mining
III. Industry
3. Manufactur- 4-15. Indusing and metries
chanical industries
4. Manufactur- 5. Industry
ing
5.Construction
2. Industry
IV. Transport
4. Transportation
16. Transport
and communication
6. Transport
4. Transport
4. Transport
V. Commerce
5. Trade
17. Commerce
and finance
7. Trade (i.e.
dealers)
8. Finance
3. Commercial
3. Commerce
VII. Public administration
6. Public services and
defence
5. Public administration
and professions
VIII. Liberal
professions
7. Professional
18. Public ad- 9. Services, i.e. 1. Professional
pui-lic admiministration
and defence nistration. defence, domestic, and professions
19. Professions
IX. Domestic
8. Domestic
and Personal
21. Personal
service
6. Personal
VI. Defence
2. Domestic
X.Independent
7.Independent
XI. Unclassified
22. Other industries or
industry
not stated
10. Miscellaneous
7. Unknown
9. Clerical occupations
20. Entertainment and
sport
XII. Unoccupied
8. Dependents
SD SERVICES TN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Germany
Belgium
France
Italy
South Africa
1. Agriculture
and fishing
1. Agriculture
and fishing
1. Fishing
2. Agriculture
1. Agriculture
and fishing
4. Agricultural
2. Industry,
mining, and
construction
2. Mines
3. Quarries
3. Extractive
industries
2. Extractive
industries
5. Industrial
4-17. Industries
4. Industries
« de transformation »
3-8. Industries,
incl.transport
18-20. Transport
5. Transport
21-34. Commerce
35. Banking
and credit
36. Insurance
37. Intermédiaires commerciaux
35. Hotel
6. Commerce,
banking, entertainment
9. Commerce
7. Military, ci- 39. Public unvil, and liberal dertakings
professions
9. State services
10. Public administration,
defence, and
liberal professions
3. Trade, commerce, and
hotels
Imperial
Statistical
Conference
1. Primary
producers
(agriculture,
mines, and
fishing)
2. Secondary
producers
(treatment of
raw materials
and manufacture)
3. Commercial
(including
transport)
3. Transport,
communication, post and
telegraph
4. Trade and
commerce
1. Professional
5. Public administration,
defence, and
professions
2. Domestic
6. Domestic
6. Indefinite
7. Unspecified
7. Other in
dustries
7. Dependent
8. No industry
7. Liberal professions
4. Domestic
6. Unoccupied
8. Domestic
and personal
11. Unoccupied
— 26 —
United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Switzerland,
Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, and South Africa, and their
classifications are given in further detail in Appendix V.
Evidently it would be possible to apply other different systems
oí industrial classification to the population as a whole or in subdividing the groups outlined above. Thus the character of certain products or services of special importance to the community
as a whole whose uninterrupted supply is necessary to its existence
may be combined into a group "public utility services". Such a
grouping based in the special character of the products or services
may be necessary for certain purposes but is not of primary importance in showing the economic structure of a country. Again,
industrial units may be classified according to the nature of their
ownership and distinction drawn between publicly and privately
owned undertakings. Account may be taken of such distinctions within the groups proposed here, and a combination of subdivisions with like characteristics in different groups made to
meet special statistical requirements.
The following list, based on the clear delimitation of functions
of members of modern communities, and which is in conformity
with the divisions of almost all existing classifications (>), may be
put forward as one likely to meet with general acceptance:
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES AND SERVICES
A. Primary
Production
I. AGRICULTURE, i.e. the cultivation of the soil; the tending of animals,
etc.; fishing, forestry, etc.
II. MINING, QUARRYING, etc., i.e. extraction of minerals (2)
(') Although the main divisions and sub-divisions are similar in practically
all classifications and are generally distinct, some borderline cases may be
mentioned. Thus some countries, e.g. Belgium and Germany, give "Hotels,
Boarding houses, etc." with Commerce, a course which is adopted also in the
Bertillon scheme, though it is often given under the heading "Personal and
Domestic Service" (e.g. in the United Kingdom), a practice which is fol'owed
here). Again, "Transport" is almost always given separately as in the proposed
classification, but in South Africa is grouped with "Commerce". Stone cutting
is sometimes grouped (e.g. in Germany) with Quarrying, but in most countries among the manufacturing industries. Laundering is given in the British
classification under the heading "Personal Service". In France it is given
with the manufacturing industries under "Textiles" while, in Belgium and
Switzerland it is similarly included under "Clothing". In the proposed classification, stone cutting and laundering are given amongst the manufacturing
industries and are discussed in Section B.
(2) Here a general distinction is drawn between minerals and metals, the
" extraction" of metals from ore not being included in this group.
— 27 —
B. Secondary Production
III. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, etc., the transformation or modifi-
cation of materials, together with the construction of buildings,
roads, etc., and the repair of finished products.
C. Services
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION.
COMMERCE AND FINANCE.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEFENCE.
PROFESSIONAL SERVICES.
VIII. DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL, i.e. the supply of "board and lodging,"
and the rendering of personal services for which remuneration is
paid.
B. Classification of Manufacturing Industries
As already indicated, the term "manufacturing industries" is
used in this Report to cover all establishments engaged in the
secondary processes of production. The expression is not entirely
satisfactory, as one does not generally speak of the manufacture
of railways, or even of houses, but it accurately describes the
great majority of establishments included in this category, which
is of special importance in connection with labour statistics.
An examination of the attempts which have been made at
standardisation and a review of the classifications adopted in a
number of countries (•) indicate that a logical system of classification
might be established on one of the following bases: (1) the materials
used; (2) the process; and (3) the nature or purpose of the product.
As it is evidently desirable that principles capable of general
application should be adopted if possible in any international
classification, the bases mentioned will be examined in turn, in
order to discover their merits and defects.
I. The Materials worked in.
In the early stages of industrial development — and to a lesser
extent in new countries at the present time — the materials worked
in were fundamental in determining the industrial structure of a
community. Usually one material was taken and transformed into
a finished product, generally without being combined with other
materials of a different kind. In modern industry, largely as a
(') The classifications considered are chiefly those given in table II (see
pp. 30, 31), further details of which are given in Appendix V, while the subgroupings in the original sources have also been examined, as have various
other classifications mentioned in the text.
— 28 —
result of inventions of various kinds, products of mixed material»
have become much more common, while much more than formerly
the same product is made of different materials, or different
products of the same material. Metals, and particularly iron and
steel, have increasingly extended their sphere and are now used
in making a large number of articles previously made of wood
or stone. As examples of such changes mention may be made of
ships and bedsteads, which at one time were made only of wood
but are now made in some cases of wood and in others of iron.
Again, rubber is now being used in the manufacture of clothing
and many other products in which previously it was never used.
In some products, artificially made materials are used largely
where previously only materials from nature were used. The
difficulties under discussion are evident also from a somewhat
different point of view, namely, that often one material is used
in a large number of different industries. Thus establishments
working with wood are now found in the forestry, lumber, building,
engineering, shipbuilding, automobile, and furniture industries,
while a similar situation arises with regard to metals. These
changes, which have made modern industrial life so complex, have
rendered very difficult the problem of classification, and have
made any classification based only on the materials used quite
unsuitable for statistical purposes, and if strictly applied would
involve the formation of a very extensive and cumbersome "miscellaneous" group.
The difficulties are usually less in the early processes of manufacture than in the finishing stages. In early manufacturing
processes, when the raw material is being dealt with, generally
only one predominant material is worked in, and classification by
material is clear and definite, while any finished products for which
no complicated processes are necessary usually consist of one
material only. Thus in the metal industry the first processes are
smelting, converting, refining, etc. and are followed by such
secondary processes as founding. Industries so engaged, i.e. in
the production generally of partly manufactured goods, are often
best classified according to the material worked in. It is generally
only in the later stages of manufacture that great difficulties arise,
which can sometimes be solved by forming separate groups based
on the product. This is especially the case where the final processes
are quite distinct from the earlier ones, and carried on by different
industrial units. As examples of the types under discussion may
be given the textile industry which is mainly concerned not in the
— 29 —
manufacture of final products but in the manufacture of the
"raw material" of the clothing industry. A similar distinction
may be drawn between the metal processes outlined above and the
manufacture of machinery and other finished goods.
Where a group can be formed on the basis of the distinctive
character of the product, with industrial units and processes
generally different from those engaged in the production of the
partly manufactured goods, it appears desirable not to classify
according to material. Thus the products "boats and ships" are
quite distinctive in character, the industrial units engaged in
their construction do not generally produce other goods, and to
group them together instead of separating them according to the
predominant material is more satisfactory from the point of view
of giving a survey of the industrial structure of the community.
Many examples of a similar kind could be given. With some
products, however, of comparatively small importance, even if
made of mixed materials, it may be more convenient to classify
them according to the predominant material. This is especially
so where one material predominates very largely. Also in a number
of cases where the industrial units manufacturing the finished
products, and the processes used, are difficult to separate from
those engaged on the earlier stages of manufacture, it may be
preferable to classify according to the material used.
In certain cases industrial developments have left the materials
used unchanged, but the process used has been fundamentally
altered. This is particularly the case with textiles, where there has
been a change from hand-loom to power-loom weaving although
the main features of the materials handled and of the product
have been left unchanged. Where this is true the difficulty of
classification discussed above does not arise.
In order to facilitate the transference of workers from one
industry to another, a classification based on the materials used
might be considered from the point of view of labour statistics to
be of prime importance. It is evident that in many cases information is desired regarding the conditions of workers of the same
craft engaged in the manufacture of different products. Thus data
with regard to woodworkers may be required irrespective of whether
they are engaged in sawmilling, furniture making, in building or in
the construction of vehicles or wooden ships. A study of recent
developments, however, in the trade union movement in a number
of countries, shows that the workers themselves, though often
organised on craft lines, are now adopting more and more an
TABLE I I . —
CLASSIFICATION OF
United States
United
Kingdom
(Industrial)
7. Textiles
2. Textiles and
their products
7. Textiles and
textile goods
(not dress)
3. Textiles
2. Textiles and
dress
8. Leather,
skins
5. Leather and
its products
8. Skins and
leather
2. Animal product industries
4. Animal and
vegetable substances
9. Wood workers
4. Lumber and
its products
11. Wood and
furniture
4. Wood and
paper
10. Metallurgy
3. Iron and steel
and their products
6. Metal, machines, conveyances, etc.
5. Iron and
steel
6. Non-ferrous
metals
5. Metal and
other minerals
Bertillon
13. Railway repair
shops
Canada
Australia
10. Metals and
metal products
11. Ceramics
9. Stone, clay
and glass
products
4. Bricks, pottery, glass
7. Non-metallic
mineral,
industries
Under (1)
12. Chemical
products
8. Chemicals and
allied products
8. Chemicals,
paint, oils
8. Chemical
Under (1)
13. Food products
(and tobacco)
I. Food and
kindred products
7. Liquors and
beverages
II. Tobacco
10. Food, drink,
tobacco
1. Vegetable
product industries
3. Food and
drink
and
narcotics
14. Dress and
toilet
Under (2)
9. Clothing
Under (3)
Under (2)
15. Furniture
Under (4)
Under (H)
Under (4)
Under (4)
13.
l'O. Construction
7.
Under (6)
Under (5)
Under (1)
15. Gas, water,
electricity
Under transport and public utilities
6. Fuel, light,
and energy
12. Paper and
printing
Under (4)
1. Art and
mechanical
production
16. Building
17. Construction
of vehicles
12. Land vehicles
18. Production
and transmission of power
19. Industries
relating to
literature and
artistic trades
6. Paper and
printing
Building
and contracting
6.
20. Industries
of refuse
matter
21. Others
14. Miscellaneous
14. Other manufactures
9. Miscellaneous
Construction of buildings, roads,
and railways
Disposing
oí the dead
or refuse
9. Undefined
industrial
pursuits
¡MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Switzerland
4. Textiles
Under (5)
Germany
9. Textiles
11. Leather and
leather goods
Belgium
Italy
9. Textiles
4.
Industries
working
and using
textiles
13. Skin and
leather
Under (1)
Under (3)
12. Wood
12. Wood and
furniture
Under (1)
7. Metallurgy,
machines,
tools
5. Working of
metals
6. Machines
and a p p a ratus
4. Metal industries
2.
4. Stone and
earth industry
5. Ceramic
6. Glass
5. Chemical
products
(not food)
7. Chemical
8. F a t s , soap,
oil
1. Food and
drink
Trance
10. Textiles
and dress
4 F . Textiles
4H. Straw,
feathers
12. Animal and
vegetable
substances
41. Leather
and skins
4 J. Wood
8. Workers and
dealers in
a r t and
mechanical
productions
4K. Metallurgy
4L. Metals
4M. Jewellery,
watches,
etc.
Under (3)
Under " w o r k ing in
minerals"
4 P . Stone, etc.
7. Chemical
5. Chemical
industries
Under (8)
4C. Chemical
industry
13. Food
8. Food
14. Tobacco
1.
11.
45. Food
industry
2. Clothing
and toilet
14. Clothing
15. Cleaning
toilet
1. Clothing
Under (4)
Under (10)
4 a . Clothing
3. Building and
furniture
Under (12)
Under (12)
Under (1)
Under (8)
U n d e r (4J)
16. Building
1. Building
and construction
3.
3. Construction
4Q. Construction
Under (6)
Under (12)
Under (8)
Under (4 J)
Under (8)
U n d e r (4Q)
Under (8)
4D. Rubber
and paper
4 E . Printing
and bookbinding
Under (7)
Under (7)
5. Paper,
leather,
rubber
8. Polygraphie
arts
10. Paper
17. Printing
18. Fine a r t s
15. Paper
16. Book
17. Art and p r e cision
6.
Industries
working in
metals
South Africa
Industries
utilising
agricultural
products
Industries
working in
minerals,
buildings,
construction
Industries
corresponding to collective needs
Food,
drink, and
tobacco
14. Undefined
— 32 —
organisation based on the industrial unit and in relation to the
product rather than to the material worked in. In other words,
the same industrial developments which have rendered systems
-of classification on the basis of the materials used unsuited lo the
needs of modern communities are causing the growth of trade
unions organised on other bases than the materials worked in.
The classifications of various countries show the extent to which
they are based on the materials used, and what part is played by
other principles. Table II which gives the classification of manufacturing industries adopted in the Bertillon Scheme, and by
various countries, shows that this factor is of considerable
importance, and most of the classifications given include groups
for the textile, leather and skin, wood, and metal industries. In
sub-divisions, too, the material is often important, the textile
group, for example, being usually divided into the cotton, wool,
silk, jute, etc. branches. But even in the countries which tend to
make the material used the basis of their classifications there are
many exceptions. Thus practically all countries have a group
for "food", in which case the purpose of the product is the
basis. Many have a "building and construction" group, where
the process or the product is the principle considered. In the
Bertillon scheme, under the main division of manufacturing
industries, are given certain groups based on the materials used,
and including textiles, leather, wood and metal, and these are
followed by groups based on the purpose of the product including
food, clothing, furniture, and buildings. Here then two different
methods of classification are combined.
Certain countries base their classification or part of it on the
materials, but group these according to origin, i.e. generally into
the three divisions—vegetable, animal, and mineral. As an example
of a classification in which the materials are grouped according
to origin, that used in the Annual Report of the Trade of Canada,
31 March 1920, may be mentioned. The system is not used for the
presentation of details but for summaries and analyses (>)• The
classification according to origin has the main headings, articles
of vegetable origin, of marine origin, of forest origin, of mineral
origin, and of mixed origin (2). Each of the main headings has subdivisions for raw materials, partly manufactured articles, and fully
(') The whole classification is tripartite, the same data being grouped
according to the component material of the commodity and the use or purpose
•of each
commodity, as well as to the origin of the material.
(2) It is somewhat illogical to give separately articles of forest origin when
there is also a group of articles of vegetable origin.
— 33 —
or chiefly manufactured articles. A classification by origin of
material has value for certain summary purposes, but evidently
is incomplete, and must be supplemented by classifications based
on other principles. It suffers from the defect that the group of
articles of mixed origin is likely to be either extensive or arbitrary.
Again, the same principle is applied though less completely in
the classification of manufacturing industries given in table II
for Canada, where the groups "animal product industries" and
"vegetable product industries" are given, food, for example, being
divided between the two. Separate groups are given to "wood and
paper industries" although these are largely of vegetable origin,
and to "textiles", which could be given in part under "animal
products" (e.g. wool) and in part under "vegetable products"
(e.g. cotton).
In the Italian classification, one main division is given of "industries utilising agricultural products", while groups are given of
"industriesworking in minerals" and "industriesworking inmetals".
In the South African and Australian classifications, which are
almost identical, a group "working in food, etc." is given, with
sub-divisions "animal" food and "vegetable" food. The United
States food group is also subdivided into animal products and
vegetable products.
In the British classification the materials worked in play a large
part in determining the main divisions; the subdivisions, however,
indicate many processes, such as smelting, converting, refining
and rolling iron and steel, and textile dyeing, printing and bleaching,
etc., while many of the groups are based on products such as
clothing, vehicles, cutlery. In the metal etc. group quite arbitrarily
vehicles are given, with subgroups for the building of coaches and
carriages and for aeroplanes, airships, and balloons. In these
products, other materials than metals are used and in some cases are
predominant. Shipbuilding is also included in the metal group,
whether the vessels constructed are made of wood, iron, steel
or concrete. Again, boots and shoes are excluded from the leather
group, and, except when made of rubber, are given with clothing.
With these articles certain other countries keep more closely to a
classification based on the materials used. Thus Canada gives the
wagons and carriages and the canoe, rowboat and launch industries
which use wood largely, with the wood group, while the difficulty
with regard to shipbuilding is overcome by placing it as a subgroup
of "construction". Vehicles made primarily of metal such as
automobiles and cycles are given in the iron and steel group.
— 34 —
In the United States classification the material used is predominant in determining not only the main divisions but also the
subdivisions. A separate group is, however, given for vehicles for
land transportation, while the miscellaneous group is large, and
includes shipbuilding, subdivided into iron and steel, and wooden.
It also includes industries dealing with materials other than those
classified in the main divisions, e.g. rubber, ivory, fur, feather
and other industries, as well as many in which two or more materials
are used.
In Spain, the materials used are important in determining the
classification for the census. Also the Institut de Reformes sociales
uses, in connection with its labour statistics, a classification based
largely on the materials, but partly on the product, while data are
given separately according as the statistics refer to establishments
under public authorities or not.
The Belgian classification groups rubber clothing with rubber,
boots and shoes under leather, sabots and wooden ships with
wood, and iron ships with iron. The Italian system follows a «omewhat similar practice. The German classification, on the other hand,
keeps less closely to the material used. Thus boots and shoes are
included with clothing, not with leather, while the difficulty with
regard to shipbuilding and the construction of vehicles is avoided
by placing them in a group called the "manufacture of machines,
instruments, and apparatus". In Switzerland, too, boots and shoes
are given with clothing, while furniture is included with building.
In that country a number of products made of two or more materials,
e.g. wagons, carriages, and pianos, are included with the metal
group. The South African and Australian classifications give boots
and shoes, straw hats, etc. with clothing, while furniture, wagons
and carriages, boats and ships, machines, tools and implements,
saddlery, watches, philosophical instruments, etc. are given in
the group "art and mechanic productions", little attention being
paid to materials used. Groups are, however, given for textiles
including clothing, and skins and leather; also a group is given of
industries "working in minerals". New Zealand gives ship and
boat building with metals, and boots and shoes with clothing, thus
following closely the British practice.
These examples indicate a great diversity of classification from
the point of view of the material used, in the practice of different
countries. They also indicate the difficulties and incompleteness of
a classification based solely on the component material.
— 35 —
II. The Process.
Processes of manufacture may consist merely in shaping some
material in order to produce partly manufactured goods or finished
articles. They may consist, as is usual in the early stages of
manufacture, in splitting up or analysing composite raw materials
into separate components. This may be done either mechanially,
by the application of heat, as in the smelting and refining of metals,
or may involve chemical action. They may consist in combining
materials, either the same or different, together into a partly
manufactured good or into a finished product. Again the process
of combination may be mechanical or chemical. From the point
of view of the mechanical combination of materials the construction of ships might well be grouped with the construction of bridges,
buildings, railways, etc. The latter are generally given separately
from shipbuilding because although there is a certain similarity
of process, the industrial units are quite distinct and the materials
worked in and the products themselves differ. The construction
of buildings, of railways, of roads, etc. are often grouped together, as
the establishments engaged in constructing these different products
are often the same and the processes and the materials are generally
similar. Special attention may here be called to certain industries
which mainly manufacture goods to be used as the raw material
of other industries whose process is entirely different. In some
cases, however, they also make finished products by a process
similar to that employed in producing the "partly manufactured
goods". For example, the textile industry is generally quite
distinct in process from the clothing industry for which it produces
the raw material. Hosiery and similar goods, i. e. finished products, are, however, produced by a process very similar to various
processes in the textile industry proper. Some countries, tor
example the United Kingdom and the United States, group hosiery
with the textile industry on account of similarity of process and
industrial structure. Others group it with clothing.
The process of manufacture is not adopted in any country as
basis for a complete scheme of classification although it determines'
certain main divisions, e. g. engineering, building and other construction, and printing. These, however, usually include among their
subdivisions groups based on the material used or the product.
The process employed determines various subdivisions of such
groups as metals and textiles. Thus smelting, converting, refining,
and rolling of iron and steel, and spinning, weaving, dyeing, printing,
and bleaching of textiles are processes generally given as parts
— 36 —
of the main groups. Often both process and material or process
and product are combined. In the British classification, for
example under the heading "woolen manufacture (spinning and
subsequent processes)", i. e. a group based on material, there is
given the sub-group "wool-weaving", in which material and process
are combined. Similar practices occur in the groupings of most
countries. The process, however, appears to play a less important
part in determining various classifications than do the material
used and the product.
III. The Product.
As with the other possible bases of classification, the product
or purpose is rarely used alone, but is usually combined with one
or more of the other bases in determining the complete scheme.
Certains groups, for example food, clothing, furniture, etc. given
in the classifications of many countries are determined by this
principle, thus enabling certain products to be grouped together,
which on the basis of the material would be separated. As an
example of this, the group "boat and phipbuilding" may be given,
whereas if the material used is taken as basis this clear group will
be widely separated and given as subdivisions of the metal and
wood groups. The principal defect of this basis is due to the
almost infinite variety of products of modern industry and the
practical impossibility of combining them into groups which are
not only logically sound, but which provide for a clear view of the
productive organisation of the community to be obtained.
An attempt is made in the Canadian manufacturing code to base
the classification principally on the purpose of the product. Groups
are given for clothing, food, drink and tobacco, personal and
household utilities, books and stationery, material, equipment, and
miscellaneous. Evidently the difficulties in this classification lie
in the last three groups.
In the details of various classifications certain countries tend to
use the product as a determining factor more than others. It is
not necessary to repeat here the examples given in the discussion
above of the basis "materials used". It is sufficient to give one
example of the different practices adopted. Thus in the British
classification, straw hats, cloth hats and caps, and felt hats are all
given together in the clothing group; while in the United States
hats and caps other than felt, straw and wool are given in a group
"articles from textile fabrics for personal wear"; wool-felt hats and
— 37 —
fur-felt hats are given under "textile fabrics and materials", while
straw hats are given in the miscellaneous group.
It appears desirable where the undertakings engaged on making
a given product are quite distinct, to form them into a separate
industrial group. Thus establishments engaged in boat and ship
building are rarely engaged in producing other goods, and there
appears little reason for giving them as branches of the wood or
metal groups.
Summary
It is evident from the above review that certain countries have
constructed classifications mainly on one of the bases discussed,
while in others two or more have had considerable application.
Even where one basis seems to predominate, however, many
exceptions may be found, and in a number of countries historical
development, economic structure, and reasons of clearness and
practical convenience appear to have predominated in determining
the classification. It is only by forming a very lengthy and unwieldy miscellaneous group that a system based on one of these
principles seems possible.
The two bases which appear to have had the greatest effect in
determining the various classifications are the materials used and
the product, some countries tending to favour one and some the
other, but generally using both, while certain groups as indicated
above are determined by the process (d).
It has been shown that in the early stages of industrial development a comparatively small number of groups mostly based on
the materials worked in, certain groups based on the product, e. g.
food, clothing, etc., together with a group determined by such a
fundamental process as construction, were satisfactory. ¿.With
modern industrial development, however, the material worked in
is usually a determining factor in the early stages of manufacture,
while in the later stages the product is of prime importance, and
industrial units are organised not so much in relation to the material
worked in as in relation to the final product which may be composed
of many materials.
In proposing a classification suitable for general adoption, account
has been taken of the factors discussed above, and the principle
has been adopted of giving groups based on the materials used as
foundation, but wherever, the industrial organisation permits or
(') The Canadian Government in criticising the draft classification proposed
by the Technical Commission on Unemployment expressed the opinion "that
divergent points of view ought not to be introduced into any single scheme."
— 38 —
demands that an important group be given separately on the basis
of process or product, a separate group shall be formed. Such a
principle may be expected to lead to a classification which, when
used for statistical presentation, should give a clear indication as
to the industrial structure of a country. For the sake of keeping
the main groups small in number, certain industries engaged in
the production of comodities of relatively small importance have
been left as subgroups within the main group based on the materials
used, while in other cases separate products are grouped together,
e. g. food, drink, and tobacco.
In this connection and before discussing the proposed classification, one more problem may be outlined. It arises on account of
the fact that some establishments manufacture a number of
different products whether by having various plants or by having
various products from one plant. Other establishments may specialise in the manufacture of one of these products only. How
should the former establishments be classified ? Should an attempt
be made to divide them up according to the different products ?
Where one product is of chief importance and the the others
are by-products, should the undertaking be grouped solely according to the principal product ? Evidently in an ideal statistical
compilation each product would be grouped independently, so as
to enable accurate results to be obtained.
Suggested Classification
In proposing a scheme of classification on the principles outlined above, only the main groups of manufacturing industries
are distinguished, and certain of the more important borderline
cases and subgroups discussed. Within the groups proposed,
further expansion in the subgroups may be made by the more
detailed application of the principles here adopted.
With regard to most of the important groups there is little difficulty, while doubtful cases are classified either according to the
materials worked in or according to the product by taking into
account the characteristics of the industrial organisation, care
being taken, however, that the resulting groups may be clear and
definite. With regard to certain borderline cases it is unavoidable that the proposals made are somewhat arbitrary.
Taking first the principle of classification according to the
materials used the following separate manufacturing industries
may be distinguished : wood ; metal ; textiles ; leather, skins
and rubber. The nature of the product determines the groups
— 39 —
clothing; construction of boats, ships and other vehicles; of buildings, roads, etc.; the preparation of foods and drinks; the manufacturing of machinery; of bricks, pottery and glass; of paper, bookbinding and printing; of furniture making and furnishings; of
chemical and allied products; and the production and transmission
of gas and electricity and the supply of water and water power.
A separate group is given covering the manufacture of scientific
and musical instruments, of clocks and watches, together with
industries working in precious metals and stones. Finally, a
short group of other manufacturing industries combines various
groups of minor importance not elsewhere classified. Each of the
groups proposed is discussed below, and suggestions are made for
the classification of the most important borderline sub-groups.
Reference is also made to the practice of various countries both
as regards the main groups and the doubtful sub-groups.
(1) Woodworking industry. — The problem encountered in this
group as in others is that many articles are made partly of wood
and partly of metal or some other material, while many products
which used to be made entirely of wood are now made largely
of metal. The consequences of economic and industrial development on classifications are well illustrated in the case of shipbuilding, which would have presented no difficulty in the days
when all vessels were constructed of wood. Now, however, some
countries, for example the United Kingdom and New Zealand,
give boat and ship building in the metal group. In France, Belgium, Italy, and Canada wooden ships are given in the wood
group and iron ships in the metal group, while Australia
and South Africa include boats and ships as a sub-group of the
category "Art and Mechanic Productions". The difficulty with
regard to shipbuilding applies also to the construction of vehicles
for land and air transportation, and the classifications of the
different countries show considerable differences with regard to
these groups. As, however, ships and vehicles for land and air
transportation are sufficiently definite to form a separate group
based on the product, and as the undertakings concerned in the
production of these products are quite distinct from those engaged
solely in woodworking, they are here classified separately.
A second difficulty arises with regard to furniture which is
included as a branch of the woodworking industry in the classification of a number of countries. Here it is given as a separate
group for similar reasons to those outlined above with regard to
shipbuilding, and the construction of vehicles.
— 40 —
Certain countries, for example Canada, include paper-manufacturing in the wood group, but in the proposed scheme it is given
together with printing and bookbinding as a separate group. Straw
and basket work are included along with wood in the proposed
scheme, this being the practice of the United Kingdom, Germany,
Austria, the Netherlands and other countries (').
The wood group therefore includes saw-milling (2) and joinery
together with the manufacture of articles whose constituent material is mainly wood, with the exceptions or additions noted above.
(2) Furniture manufacture. — Although a number of countries
include furniture with the woodworking industry, it appears
preferable to follow the practice of other countries, e.g. New Zealand, and to give it as a separate group. It is true that many
articles of furniture are made almost entirely of wood, but with
regard to other articles such as upholstered furniture, other materials play a considerable part. Further, certain articles of furniture are made very largely of metal, as, for example, iron
bedsteads. It seems preferable, then, as furniture making constitutes a definite product and as the undertakings concerned in
its manufacture can generally be separated without difficulty from
those engaged in the manufacture of other products, to constitute
furniture-making into a separate group. In addition to ordinary
articles of furniture the group, here proposed may be taken to
include such furnishings as bedding, mattresses, etc.
(3) Metal industry. — In conformity with the practice of most
countries, the group includes (a) primary processes in the manufacturing of metals, as for example the smelting, converting, refining
and rolling of iron and steel, and the extracting and refining of
other metals (except precious metals) and alloys; (b) founding and
other secondary processes. Here, however, the conformity ceases/
and industries engaged in the manufacture of various important
products in which metal plays a considerable part are given
separately, and the metal group is confined largely to the production
of partly manufactured articles. Certain finished products of
metal are, however, included in the metal group, e.g. iron rails, the
direct product of the secondary processes. In these cases the
undertakings and plants and processes are so closely linked together
that to effect a separation would be almost impossible and would
give results of little value in relation to the industrial structure.
(') In France a separate group is given, which includes industries engaged
in working with straw, feathers, hair and leather, and in boot, shoe and glovemaking.
(2) Certain countries include saw-milling along with forestry.
— 41 —
Of the main industries often included in the metal group, but
which it is here proposed to give separately, mention may be
made of the manufacture of machinery and of miscellaneous metal
products such as cutlery, tools and utensils, the construction of
ships and vehicles for land and air transport, the manufacture of
scientific instruments, clocks and watches, and working in precious
metals. In these cases the product is generally manufactured
by establishments quite distinct from those of the metal processes
indicated above, and the process quite distinct.
The practice of various countries may be outlined. As already
indicated, most countries give the manufacture of machinery, etc.,
in the metal group. Germany, however, has adopted a practice
more nearly in conformity with that here proposed by giving
engineering separately from the metal group, but the engineering
group includes wagons and shipbuilding, the manufacture of
musical and mathematical instruments and apparatus, and the
production of electricity. In Austria a somewhat similar practice
is adopted. In the United States a separate group is given for
metals and metal products other than "iron and steel", and this
group includes watch making. In Canada separate groups are
given for iron and steel manufacture and for non-ferrous metal
industries, the latter including electrical supply factories.
(4) Manufacture of machinery and miscellaneous metal products. —
This group may be taken to include establishments engaged in
various engineering processes and in the manufacture of miscellaneous products such as cutlery, tools, utensils, etc. It will
include the manufacture of electrical apparatus and of agricultural
implements which in the United States are given in the miscellaneous group. It does not, however, include shipbuilding or the
construction of vehicles, the manufacture of scientific and musical
instruments, clocks and watches, nor working in precious metals,
which are formed into separate groups because of the special
nature of the processes and the independent character of the
establishments concerned. Where possible, too, plants engaged in
the production of iron furniture are excluded from this group.
It is not necessary here to refer to the practices of various countries
as these have already been mentioned in the discussion on the
metal group or are given later.
(5) Construction of boats, ships, and vehicles for land and air
transport. — These products are given in a separate group, because
they constitute a well-defined group in which the undertakings are
— 42 —
generally distinct from those of other groups. By constituting
them into a separate group also the difficulties are avoided of
giving them in the wood or in the metal group, although in many
cases they consist of both materials, or of dividing them between
the wood and the metal groups — a practice which appears unsatisfactory. Even in the most doubtful cases, namely, those of
such products as railway engines and bicycles which might well
be given in the group "manufacture of machinery", they may be
grouped equally well here as the establishments engaged in their
production are generally quite distinct. The group proposed
corresponds largely with sub-order 6, Vehicles, and sub-order 7,
Shipbuilding and Repairing and Marine Engineering, which are
parts of the metal group in the British classification. It includes,
however, the manufacture of steam locomotives which are given
in sub-order 4, Engineering (not marine or electrical). The practice
of various countries with regard to the products given here is very
indefinite and they are often scattered in different groups. Thus in
Denmark, France, and Canada, wagon and carriage building are
included in the wood group. In France, Belgium and Italy, iron
ships are given in the metal group, and wooden ships and boats
in the wood group. In Italy, wooden land vehicles are given in the
wood group and iron ones in the metal group. In Germany, wagons,
railway rolling stock, and shipbuilding are part of the engineering
group. In the United States, the manufacture of land vehicles is
given as a separate group, while shipbuilding, both wood and iron,
are given in the miscellaneous group. In the Netherlands, shipbuilding and vehicle construction are given as a separate group,
but bicycles and steam engines are included in the engineering
group. In New Zealand, carriages and wagons, motor cars, boat and
shipbuilding are included in the metal group.
(6) Manufacture of bricks, earthenware, glass, etc. (') — This
group is given separately in the classification of most countries.
Among the exceptions may be noted: Italy, which gives this
group along with industries working in minerals; Germany, which
gives quarrying as part of the group ; Switzerland, where the group
is given along with building and furniture; Canada, which gives
it as non-metallic mineral industries ; and Australia, which includes
it under art and mechanic production. Certain differences in
(') The Canadian Government in its reply on the draft classification proposed by the Technical Commission on Unemployment suggested the adoption
of the order followed here of gixing the group «bricks, earthenware and
glass» and that of «buildings, construction, etc.» consecutively.
— 43 —
detail also exist and mention may be made of stone and slate
cutting which in most countries is given here, but which in the
British classification is given together with cement, artificial stone,
and concrete in the group "mining and quarrying". In the proposed scheme they are included with the group under discussion.
There is an evident difficulty here, as certain parts of the group,
e.g. stone and slate cutting, and the manufacture of bricks concrete, etc. might well be classified according to the materials
worked in, especially as they serve as the "raw" materials of the
building industry. They are quite distinct from certain final
products, e.g. pottery etc. which on the principles adopted would
evidently be most suitably classified according to the product.
The two groups are here united largely as a matter of convenience,
and to avoid the necessity of forming two small groups. Within
the group itself, however, by subdivisions the distinction generally
adopted in the proposed scheme may be maintained, certain
branches being given together according to the materials worked
in, and others according to the product.
(7) Construction of buildings, roads, railways, etc. — This
group is given separately on account of a considerable degree
of similarity of process, and the fact that often building contractors
undertake the work of making or repairing roads, railways, bridges,
etc. Further the materials handled are so diverse as to render
impossible a classification based on the material.
Practice differs between the different countries as to whether
building is given separately or combined with establishments
contracting for the making and repairing of roads, railways,
bridges and canals, etc. The more usual course appears to be to
combine the two, and this course is followed here. Each may
however, be put separately as a sub-group, and therefore the proposed classification differs little from those which give separate
groups for building and for other construction. The group is also
taken to include the installation of gas, water, and electricity.
Among the chief exceptions mention may be made of Denmark
and Switzerland, which include furniture in the building and construction group. Switzerland gives stone cutting, cement, glass
and pottery, and also wood-sawing and cutting, and the manufacture of brushes and brooms on this group. The South African
and Australian group includes many things generally given in the
"public services" group. In Canada, shipbuilding is given as a
subdivision of the group "construction".
— 44 —
(8) Production and transmission of gas and electricity and the
supply of water and water power. — Difficulties with this group
are caused by the existence of important by-products such as
dyes in connection with the production of gas, and also because
electricity is produced in many cases directly in connection with
transport, and might be included in that group.
A considerable number of countries include parts of the group
under discussion with the chemical industry, while in others they
are distributed without any uniformity among various groups.
Some countries, however, give them as a separate group, and as
they appear to constitute a fairly clearly defined group this course
is followed here (i). This is in general conformity with the Bertillon
scheme, and with the British, Austrian and New Zealand classifications, while the Dutch scheme and the Australian classification give
fuel, light, and energy as a separate group. In Denmark, gas and
coke manufacturing are included in the group "chemical and
technical". In France, gas for lighting is classified with chemicals.
In Norway also, means of lighting and heating, and in Belgium and
Roumania, gas and electricity works are given with chemicals.
In Germany and Switzerland, the production of electricity is
included with engineering; in Italy, power, light and water, and
in Canada, power and light, are given as part of the public utility
services group. In the Netherlands and Roumania, waterworks
are included in the food and drink group; in South Africa, water
is given as sub-order 5 in the group "working or dealing in minerals",
which also includes coal, fuel, light, and energy (sub-order 2).
(9) Manufacture of chemicals and allied products. — This
group may be taken to include the manufacture of chemicals and
soap, varnish and paints, oils, fats, fertilisers, sheep dips, disinfectants, dyes, drugs, explosives, and matches. Most countries
give such a group, and exceptions as in the almost identical Australian and South African systems are due to the adoption of
large groups with many sub-divisions.
As already noted, a number of countries give gas or electricity
in the chemical group. France gives tobacco with chemicals.
In Germany, oils, grease and soap, together with forestry byproducts and gas manufacture, are grouped separately. Belgium
includes rubber manufacture in the chemical group. In the Italian
(') This course is recommended by the Japanese Government in its reply
on the draft classification proposed by the Technical Commission on Unemployment.
— 45 —
classiñcation, the group includes sugar manufacture, distillation
of alcohol, rubber and tobacco manufacture, while wines and
beers are also given in the chemical group. In Switzerland, a
group of non-food chemical products is given which includes
artificial silk making and also gas production. In Canada, explosives, drugs and medicines manufacture and oil refineries are not
included, being given together in the non-metallic mineral industries
group. The New Zealand classification gives with chemicals,
animal and vegetable products not otherwise classified, and in
consequence, several sub-groups not strictly belonging to the chemical group ere included, for example tanning, wool-washing, and
grain-threshing.
(10) Textile industry. — This group includes the ordinary
textile processes such as carding, combing, spinning and weaving,
and also textile dyeing, printing, bleaching and finishing. The
chief difficulty with regard to this group is as to the inclusion of
clothing. The majority of countries give clothing separately,
a practice which is followed here, as the products are quite distinct from the textile industry proper, and are generally the results
of processes which are different and are undertaken by different
establishments. In France, Italy, and the United States, however,
clothing is included in the textile group. In certain classifications,
for example those of the United Kirgdom and Canada, clothing is
given as a separate group, while hosiery and other knitted goods
are given as subdivisions of the textile group. The latter is done
because the hosiery process are closely allied with those of the
textile industry. As, however, establishments manufacturing
hosiery are usually distinct, hosiery is here given with the clothing
group. Again, certain classifications, for example the British, give
the manufacture of carpets aad rugs as part of the textile industry.
Here it is proposed to give them with furniture and furnishings.
(11) Clothing industry, including hosiery and boots and shoes. —
This group includes tailoring, dress-making, manufacture of underclothing — including hosiery goods — millinery, and the manufacture of hats, boots, and shoes. Articles of clothing whether made
of textiles, leather, rubber or other materials, are included in this
group as far as the distinct character of the undertakings allows.
in the case of rubber clothing it is not clear whether the industrial
structure is such that separate establishments are generally engaged
in making such goods only, or whether the various establishments
which produce rubber clothing also produce other rubber goods,
— 46 —
in which case it might be ncessary to give a separate group "rubber
and its products". A difficulty arises in the case of boots and
shoes which, for example in Belgium and Roumania, are given in the
leather group. A large number of countries, however, include
boots and shoes in the clothing group, and this practice is followed
here. A second difficulty arises with laundering, dyeing and
cleaning of clothing, etc., which, for example' in Germany, is
given as a separate group and in New Zealand is part of the personal and domestic service group. These processes are, however,
so closely connected with clothing that it appears more satisfactory
to include them in this group('). Other doubtful cases may be
mentioned; for example some countries classify the manufacture
of straw hats, sabots, rubber boots' and gloves and similar articles
of clothing in a group or sub-group based on the materials used.
Where possible it is proposed that these should be grouped with
clothing, but where the industrial organisation is such that these
articles constitute a small part only of the output of the industries
concerned and other articles of the same material are produced,
a classification based on the material may be necessary. Walkingsticks are given in the United Kingdom and Switzerland in the
clothing group, but it appears to conform more with existing praccite and to be clearer to include them in the wood group.
(12) Manufacture of leather, skins (other than boots, shoes
and gloves) and rubber. — This' group generally includes the
tanning, currying and dressing of leather, and the preparation of
furs and skins together with the manufacture of various articles
made of leather and skins not included in the clothing group,
for example, saddlery, leather belting, bags, and trunks. It would
be possible to separate out various products, but they are given
here for convenience in order to avoid forming a large number
of groups. For a similar reason rubber is here given. The question of the inclusion or exclusion of articles of clothing made of
rubber has already been considered.
It may be noted that various countries give boot, shoe, and
glove making in "leather and skins group". In the German
classification, rubber manufacture is included in the group "leather
and similar materials", while in Norway leather and rubber are
(') On the other hand, the reply of Finland with regard to the draft classification proposed by the Technical Commission on Unemployment includes
the statement that "laundry and cleaning work is in no way connected with
the clothing industries, and it would be better to transfer them to a heading
for miscellaneous work, for which a special group could be created."
— 47 —
grouped together, as is done in the present proposal. In Austria,
leather and paper are given together, while rubber is grouped with
wood.
(13) Preparation and manufacture of foods, drinks, and tobacco.—
Practically all classifications include a food group, but certain
countries give drinks and tobacco separately or in other groups.
The general practice is, however, to give them together with food(').
Amongst the exceptions, mention may be made of France which,
as already stated, includes tobacco with chemicals, of Belgium
which gives tobacco separately, and of Italy which gives sugar
and the manufacture of alcohol, beer, and other drinks, and of
tobacco, in the chemical group, and food in the group "industries
utilising agricultural products". The United States gives food
separately and subdivides it into animal and vegetable, while
Canada divides food between the groups vegetable products
manufacture and animal products manufacture. The United
States also gives separate groups for drinks and for tobacco. In
Canada, liquors and beverages are given in the vegetable products
group, except milk, which is given logically in the animal products
group. Tobacco is given in the former group. Among the doubtful commodities for inclusion or exclusion, mention may be made
of medicines and chemical foods. Certain countries include them
with the food group and others with chemicals. Some countries,
for example, the Netherlands and Roumania, include waterworks
in this group.
(14) Manufacture of paper, bookbinding and printing, including
photography. — Some countries, for example, the United Kingdom
and the United States, give paper and printing as a separate
group with sub-divisions, while others, for example the Netherlands, Germany, Austria(5), Denmark, and Belgium, give each
separately. Where this is the practice no difficulty would be
experienced by combining them into one group, as is here proposed.
In certain cases, however, for example Canada, paper manufacture (3)
is grouped with wood, consideration being given to the raw material
used, namely, wood-pulp. In the Italian classification, paper
(') In the replies of the governments, on the drafts of the Technical
Commission on Unemployment the desirability of grouping tobacco with
foods and drinks is indicated — for example by Czechoslovakia, Esthonia,
Finland, Germany, Netherlands and Switzerland.
(*) In the Austrian classification, leather and paper are grouped together.
(*) Together with printing.
— 48 —
manufacture is given in the group of agricultural and allied products.
A number of countries include photography as a branch of the
sub-group "printing", and this course is followed here. The
British classification includes the manufacture of pencils and
penholders in this group, whereas in other countries they are given
as part of the wood group, e.g. in Germany, or in the miscellaneous
group, e.g. in the United States. This last practice is followed
here. In Switzerland, paper, leather and rubber, and in France.
paper, cardboard and rubber, are grouped together, while printing
and photography are given as a separate group.
(15) Manufacture of scientific and musical instruments, clocks
and watches, and working in precious metals and stones. •—• This
composite group is suggested to avoid the necessity of giving these
industries as separate groups or of extending unduly the miscellaneous group. They are related to a certain extent by the high
degree of skill and delicacy of work often involved. Thus diamond
cutting might be grouped with ordinary stone cutting in a classification based on the material handled a course which is followed
in the Austrian classification, but such a grouping would be highly
inappropriate on account of the great differences in the processes involved and of the establishments.
In the Belgian classification a group is given of "Industries
d'art et précision", which corresponds closely with the one here
proposed, and includes the manufacture of scientific instruments
and apparatus, of clocks and watches, of musical instruments,
the working in precious stones, photography, and artistic trades.
France gives precious stones, watchmaking and jewellery as a
separate group. In Denmark and Switzerland scientific instruments and apparatus, and musical instruments, are given in the
metal group. In the Netherlands, where diamond cutting is of
considerable importance, it is given as a separate group, while
scientific instruments and apparatus are given in the metal group.
In the Austrian, Swiss, French, British, and a number of other
classifications, working in precious metals is given in the meta'.
group.
(16) Other manufacturing industries. •— An effort has been made
t o keep this group small. Its main purpose, as is evident from the
practice of a large number of countries, is to find a place for a
number of industries which do not fall clearly into one of the
other groups, and are not of sufficient importance to be given as
separate groups. The same principles may be applied as those
— 49 —
which determined the groups given above, and the industries given
here are generally based either on the material used oronthe product.
The following may be given as typical of the industries which
may be grouped here :
Bone, horn, ivory, tortoiseshell, celluloid, etc.
Feather dressing, cleaning and dyeing.
Artificial flower making.
Manufacture of toys, games and sports requisites.
Manufacture of pens, pencils, pipes, brooms and brushes, etc.
The practice of various countries differs very considerably with
regard to the miscellaneous group. Some countries have no such
group, this being possible either on account of the nature of the
classification or because of an arbitrary forcing of various industries
into inappropriate groups. Thus the United States gives the
manufacture of agricultural implements in the miscellaneous group,
while the British group "other manufacturing industries" includes
the manufacture of photographic plates, films and papers, which
here are grouped with chemicals. On the other hand, Belgium
gives toys, etc. in the wood group.
These examples show the difficulties encountered particularly
in this group, and demonstrate the necessity if a greater measure of
uniformity of classification is to be obtained of deciding clearly
the disposition of industries which tend to overlap the various
groups given.
The classification which is proposed within the main group of
Manufacturing Industries, and which has been discussed in some
detail above, may be summarised as follows:
Manufacturing
Industries
1. Woodworking industry.
2. Furniture manufacture.
3. Metal industry (other than precious metals), including primary
processes, founding, and secondary processes.
4. Manufacture of machinery and miscellaneous metal products, including cutlery, tools, utensils, etc.
5. Construction of boats, ships, and vehicles for land and air transport.
6. Manufacture of bricks, earthenware, glass, etc.
7. Construction of buildings, and the making and repairing of roads,
railways, bridges, canals, etc.
8. Production and transmission of gas and electricity, and the supply
of water and water power.
9. Manufacture of chemicals and allied products.
10. Textile industry.
— 50 —
11. Clothing industry, including hosiery and boots and shoes.
12. Manufacture of leather and skins (other than boots, shoes and gloves),
and of rubber and its products.
13. Preparation and manufacture of foods, drinks, and tobacco.
14. Manufacture of paper, bookbinding and printing, including photography.
15. Manufacture of scientific and musical instruments, clocks and watches,
precious metals and stones.
16. Other manufacturing industries, including those working in materials
such as- bone, horn, ivory, celluloid, etc., and those manufacturing
various products, e.g. toys, pencils, brooms and brushes, artificial
flowers, etc.
Difficulties would naturally be experienced by various countries
in adopting a classification different from those now in use. Apart
entirely from the reorganisation necessary, a change renders incomparable the statistics for different groups after the change with those
before. These difficulties indicate the desirability of avoiding
changes as much as possible, but it might be thought that the
advantages of a greater uniformity internationally outweigh the
temporary inconvenience. The adoption of the proposed or any
other uniform classification would not involve as many difficulties
as might be thought at first sight, as apparent divergences in
different countries are often due not to any great differences in
detailed classification but to differences in the manner of presentation. Thus two countries may have exactly the same basic groups
and yet show apparently totally different results. Country A may
have 100 separate basic groups and combine them into 20 larger
groups, and these 20 into six main divisions, while country B may
have the same 100 basic groups but combine them into 30 larger
groups and into 10 main divisions. The former may give "textiles"
as a main division, and the latter give three main divisions to
cotton, wool, and other textiles respectively. One country may
give paper and printing as a main division, while another gives
them separately. It is evident that in such cases rearrangements
could be effected without great difficulty in order to bring the systems into conformity with a uniform classification. Also, in order
to compare statistics forperiods after the change with those before,
a rearranging of the basic groups would be possible.
VI
CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS
In dealing with the classification of workers by occupations the
problem is somewhat different. Occupation is a personal character-
— 51 —
istic, and all occupations are exercised within an industry either
in the form of individuals working for an employer or working
on their own account. The starting point may therefore be either
the individual or the establishment in which the occupation is
found. If the individual is taken as the starting point, as is usually
done in the general population censuses of the different countries,
the process is to some extent a synthetic one and the results are
built up from the individual returns. If the undertaking or department is taken as starting point, the process is analytic and each
undertaking is analysed into the different occupations found therein.
The disadvantages of the first method are that it bears little if
any relation to the economic structure or industrial organisation
of the country and that it depends on the free statement of the
individual.
A classification of the individuals of a country according to their
personal occupation can only be carried out in detail by means of
a general census inquiry addressed to each household. In this way
every worker is reached and a complete conspectus of the occupational activities of the workers is obtained. Each person indicates
his personal occupation, and instructions are usually issued to the
individual or to the census agent indicating the type of answer
required and the degree of definiteness. The basis is usually the
material worked in or handled, or the process performed. The occupations usually returned are, however, so numerous and varied
that it is essential, in an attempt at classifying occupations, to
have a complete index of occupations. Most countries have such
a list and the extent of the detail necessary may be gauged from the
fact that these lists usually contain many thousands of entries.
The one used by Germany in 1907 contained over 10,000 entries,
while the one prepared for the British census of 1921 contains no
less than 35,000 entries. Such detailed lists are necessary for the
interpretation of the statements of occupations given by individual
workers, but in labour statistics generally and especially in connection with international comparisons, statistics by occupations
in any such detail are not usually required. As pointed out in
Section II it is generally only for placing workers in employment
or for demographic questions such as occupational mortality, etc.,
that an exact description of the process performed by the individual,
the material worked in, or the degree of skill are required. For
certain countries glossaries have been prepared showing the nature
of the work and the qualifications required for each specified
designation, and are very useful. These have been attempted in the
— 52 —
Répertoire technologique and the Description of Occupations of
the United States Government.
In a general way, each individual may be said to have two
occupations — his personal occupation and his occupation in the
particular industry with which he is connected. A "calenderer"
in a paper mill, for example, is very different from a "calenderer" in
a laundry or textile factory, and a general census of occupations
throws no light on these difficulties. One attempt which has been
made in certain countries (e.g. the United Kingdom) to get over
these difficulties is that of asking, in addition to the personal
occupation, for the name of the firm or the industry or service
with which the worker is connected, and though this frequently
enables doubtful and ambiguous cases to be satisfactorily described and classified, it still leaves a large number of doubtful
cases which perforce have to be described as "other workers",
The other method (adopted in Belgium for example) is that of
issuing at the same time a schedule to all industrial and commercial
establishments asking for the number of workers of various kinds
employed on the day of the Census. The establishments are then
classified according to industries, etc., and the numbers engaged
in the different industries are thus obtained. This system seems
on the whole preferable. Theoretically a national occupational
census by the expenditure of sufficient money and by elaborate
organisation and individual questioning should give whatever information is required, but as a matter of fact it does not.
From the point of view of labour statistics, what is most important is not the precise detailed occupation of the individual. It
is generally immaterial whether the worker is a grinder or a slotter ;
a plumber or a gas fitter. An examination of the published statistics of wages, hours, unemployment and accidents, etc., will show
that such detailed information is never utilised outside the census
returns. What is required is a classification of occupations showing
the position of workers in relation to the establishment. An
establishment knows not only the number of its employees but
also their working hours, their status, their skill, the nature of
their work, the processes they perform and the exact position of
each employee in the plant. An establishment also possesses the
material by which it can classify its workers into skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled. This classification cannot be done by any
census based on individual or household questionnaires nor even,
in some cases, by trade unions, for the title of the occupation alone
does not always indicate whether the worker is skilled or not.
— 53 —
Many occupations mean little when considered apart from the
industries in which they are pursued, and the best form of classification for our purposes is an occupational classification with an
industrial framework. We then take into consideration primarily
the milieu in which the worker exercises his calling and not the
commodities, etc., which he produces. It is, for example, important
to know the grade of occupation of persons gainfully occupied, i.e.
whether they are employers, working on their own account, working
for an employer, or assisting the head without wage or salary;
whether they are occupied in a factory, a workshop, an office, in
the house, in the open air, etc. These different categories can then
be grouped if necessary according to the different products.
Labour statistics are primarily concerned with those occupied
workers who are working for salary or for wages, and it is generally
of greater importance to know the grade, skill and position in the
establishment than the actual product on which the worker is
engaged. Hence they might be classified according to whether
they are engaged directly in production or only indirectly ; whether
they are skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled, apprentices etc.; whether
they are technical or supervisory staff, clerical staff, craftsmen,
warehousemen and packers, porters and messengers, outworkers,
etc. and a classification of this nature would prove much more
useful for most branches of labour statistics than the ordinary
detailed classification of personal occupation.
VII
APPLICATION TO THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF LABOUR STATISTICS
It is now necessary to consider again the principal classes of
labour statistics and see to what extent the remarks in the previous
sections apply.
As regards statistics of wages, the two main sources of information for rates are employers and trade unions, while for earnings,
employers' returns alone are almost the only source. The comparison
of wages between different countries, different periods, or different
categories of workers would be greatly simplified if the information
was based on employers' returns classified according to some
agreed and uniform scheme, such as that presented in Section V.
In statistics of wages, information is required not only as to wages
in different industries, but also as to different groups of workers
— 54 —
within each industry. Within each industry or establishment
information could be obtained by sex, by age, by occupation, by
skill or by process. The grouping by occupation would naturally
vary according to the nature of the industry. The most useful
groups concerning which comparisons are of greatest value between
different industries or different countries are the skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled, and these could be grouped in the absence
of further information or of definite lines of demarcation, according
to the level of wages paid. As regards wage rates, in so far as these
are based on trade union agreements, it is impossible to make much
progress towards international comparison owing to the fact that
they are based on trade union organisation which is sometimes on a
craft basis {e.g. a carpenters' trade union), sometimes on an industrial basis (e.g. a railwaymen's trade union), sometimes on a basis
of a group of kindred crafts (e.g. a union of workers in wood),
or sometimes on a sex basis (e.g. a union of women weavers) and
other bases, but in this case information is frequently available
as to rates of wages for skilled and unskilled workers.
As regards statistics of employment and unemployment, the
sources as a rule are, in the case of the former, the establishment,
and of the latter the workers' organisations and labour exchanges.
In the first case the remarks above as to statistics of wages
(earnings) largely apply. The industrial classification of the
establishments could be the same as that for wages, but information
in the same detail as to the occupations within the industry is not
so necessary. Unemployment chiefly affects industries as such,
and not especially occupations or groups within that industry.
Skilled and unskilled workers are usually equally affected by the
state of trade. As regards statistics of unemployment based on
workers' organisations, the remarks made above as to the statistics
of union rates of wages are applicable and little progress can be
made in this sphere. Thus the British Government in its criticism
of the draft classification proposed by the Technical Commission
on unemployment states that "as regards trade union statistics,
neither exclusively occupational nor an exclusively industrial
classification can be adopted, since some unions base their
membership on craft and others on industry while others are
partly craft an partly industrial". Again the reply of the Netherlands Government indicates that in that country, unemployment
data are furnished by the trade unions, without any distinction
as to the calling of the members. In consequence, "such a
distinction, howe /er useful and desirable it may be would be very
— 55 —
difficult to adopt in the Netherlands at the present time, and
there can be little hope of its being achieved". It is further pointed
out that "when the members of several different trades form one
federation, the organisations involved only take their own particular interests into account, and existing occupational divisions
have no influence on the result". Evidently then, unemployment
or other data obtained from trade union sources can be classified largely only according to groups formed for the purposes of
the labour orgai isations of the different countries, and which
do not correspond with those formed for other purposes.
Labour exchanges exist primarily for placing the "right man
in the right job", and a classification of workers for use in
labour exchanges must therefore in the main be occupational
and also extremely detailed. It must indicate not only occupation
but the different classes or grades must be indicated. It is not
sufficient, for example, to describe a man as a fitter. He must
be classified as an electrical fitter, die sinker, machine tool fitter,
etc., in order that he might be placed in a job suitable to his qualifications and experience. In using statistics of labour exchanges
as a measure of unemployment, i.e. as showing the demand for and
supply of labour, it is usual to group the detailed classification into
the main occupational groups, and in this case there is nothing to
prevent the grouping being made according to a definite scheme
or so as to fit into any other existing scheme of classification. One
other source of unemployment statistics should be mentioned,
viz. that derived from schemes of insurance which are not worked
through workers' organisations. Only one or two countries
publish information of this nature. In the United Kingdom for
example the classification follows closely that used in the general
Census of the Population and it based on the individual worker.
Each worker is required, on becoming insured to state his occupation and where he works. On the basis of this information the
number of insured workpeople and the number unemployed
at any date can be classified according to a list of occupations
and a list of industries. Statistics as to unemployment in the
different occupations, however, are not published, but only those
in the different industries.
As regards statistics of industrial accidents, the basic unit in this
is the establishment in which the worker is engaged or sometimes
an association of employers grouped together for the purpose of
insurance. Statistics of industrial accidents are never obtained
direct from the workers or workers' organisations. The general
— 56 —
scheme of classification, therefore, must be an industrial one based
on the establishment. For accident statistics, however, the classification according to cause of accident, nature of objects bandied
or machinery used is perhaps of greater value than classification
by industries.
With regard to statistics of strikes and lock-outs, the sources
of information are employers (or employers' associations) and
workers' organisations, but even when information is obtained from
workers' organisations it is generally based on the establisment
in which a strike or lock-out has occured, for in most countries
the statistics give the number of establishments affected in each
industrial group. Statistics of strikes and lock-outs, however,
have one special feature, in that it is very often necessary to
distinguish the branch or department of an establishment. Trade
disputes sometimes originate and are confined to a certain branch
of an employer's business; and in this case the establishment is
sometimes too broad a unit.
As regards statistics of sickness and old age insurance, these
are somewhat distinct from labour statistics properly so
called, for not only the gainfully employed but also women and
children and employers may be covered in the scheme, and the
methods adopted differ very greatly from country to country,
according to the legislation in force. The statistics may cover
voluntary or compulsory organisation; they may cover only
employed persons or all persons with less than a certain income;
sometimes the scheme is worked through workers' organisations,
sometimes through an employer or an employers' association in
the same industry, sometimes through local bodies which cover
several or all industries. These schemes often overlap and individuals may be insured in more than one way, and at the present
stage there is little hope of co-ordination in this field.
VIII
CONCLUDING REMARKS
We see than that there are two distinct aspects in which the
economic activities of the people may be regarded. There is the
industry or service with which the worker is connected, and there
is also the personal occupation carried on within that industry.
These two are quite distinct and cannot be treated together. A
— 57 —
classification of industries and services is best based on the establishments or plants in which the occupations can be carried on.
They cannot be grouped according to any logical scheme such as
the final purpose or nature of the product or service, the process
carried on or the material worked in, but it is perhaps possible on the
basis of existing classifications and of agreement as to certain
borderline or overlapping cases to draw up a list of the main groups
which would prove acceptable.
The classification of occupations depends to some extent on
the branch of statistics for which they are required. Though
in some cases very detailed classifications might be required, yet
generally in labour statistics, such as wages, hours, employment,
the most suitable picture of the occupational position of each
worker is an occupational classifications within an industrial
framework by means of which emphasis is laid not so much on the
materials handled or the processes performed as on the grade and
social position of the worker within the establishment which supplies his means of livelihood.
APPENDIX I
Bertillon's Draft Scheme for Classification of Occupations
General Divisions
Production of Raw Materials.
I. Exploitation of the surface of the
ground and water.
II.
Extraction of minerals.
Tramformation and Use of flaw Materials.
III. Manufactures.
(a) Industries classified according to the materials used.
(b) Industries classified according to the nature of the
needs to which they apply.
IV.
(c) Not grouped.
Transport.
Commerce.
First Classification
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
C.
Publio Administrations and Liberal Arts.
VI. Public force.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Public administration.
Liberal arts.
Persons living principally on their
private means.
Various Occupations.
X. Domestic work.
XI. General designation without Indication of a determined occupation.
XII. Unproductive and unknown? occupations.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
Agricultural works.
Fishing and hunting.
Nomad population.
Mines.
Quarries.
Salines.
Textiles.
Leather, skins, and hard animal matters.
Wood workers.
Metallurgy.
Ceramics.
Chemical products proper and similar
articles.
Food products.
Industries of dress and toilet.
Furniture making.
Building industries.
Construction of vehicles.
Production and transmission of power.
Industries relating to literature and artistio
trades.
Industries of refuse matters.
Other industries.
Transport by sea.
River and canal transport.
Transport on streets, roads and bridges.
Transport by rail.
Post, telegraphs, telephones.
Banks, credit, exchange and insurance.
Brokerage, commission, exportation.
Trade ¡^textiles.
Trading in leather, skins.
Trading in wood.
Trading in metals.
Trade in'ceramic goods.
Trading in chemical products, drugs, paints,
and dyes.
Hotels, coffee-houses, restaurants, bars, and
drink merchants.
Other trades in alimentary products.
Trading in articles of dress and toilet.
Trade in furniture.
Trading connected with house property.
Trade in means of transport.
Trade in fuel.
Trading ¡n luxuries and articles connected
with science and arts.
Trade in refuse matters.
Other trades.
Army.
Navy.
Police and coastguards.
Public administration.
Religious bodies.
Judicial bodies.
Medical professions.
Educational professions.
Science, literature, and art.
54. Persons living principally on their private
means.
55. Domestic work.
56. Merchant, employee, day worker or without further description.
57. Persons temporarily unemployed.
58. Persons without occupation.
59. Non classified persons.
60. Beggars, vagabonds, and prostitutes.
61. Occupation unknown.
APPENDIX II
Resolutions of British Empire Statistical Conference
In January 1920 the Conference of Statisticians of the British
Empire, held to discuss the co-ordination of statistics within the
British Erapire, passed the following resolutions concerning industrial
classifications :
RESOLUTIONS
1. The adoption of uniform systems of classification and listing of industries
and of occupation for census and other statistical purposes within the Empire
is of utmost importance.
2. The Classifications referred to in the above Resolution should be based
on two lists, one of industries and the other of occupations, each heading
being defined and given a reference number, and the headings so arranged as
to be capable of grouping into classes according to a fixed and defined system.
3. (i) The basic principle of the industrial classification should be the
product or type of service, and that of the occupational classification the
process carried out and the materials worked in.
(ii) As regards the industrial classification the principle of arrangement
under the following heads should be adopted subject to any modification found
necessary after detailed consideration of the further sub-division of these
main groups. It should be the function of the proposed British Empire
Statistical Bureau to endeavour to define suitable sub-groupings for a uniform
presentation of industrial statistics for Empire purposes. The main groups are:
1. Primary production (including agriculture, mines,fishing,forestry, etc.)
2. Secondary production, including treatment of raw materials, and
including manufacture.
3. Transport and communication, posts, telegraphs.
4. Trade and commerce.
5. Public administration, defence, and professions.
6. Domestic services.
7. Other industries.
8. No industry.
APPENDIX III
System adopted in the " Répertoire technologique des noms
d'industries et de professions ".
I. Fishing.
II. Foresty and Agriculture.
Forestry.
Agriculture.
Gardening.
Breeding.
III. Mines and Quarries.
Coal mines.
Metal mines.
Other mines.
Quarries.
IV. Preparation
of Food
and Kindred Products.
Milling.
Butter, cheese.
Sugar.
Distillery, spirits.
Drinks.
Baking, confectionery.
Preserves.
VIII. Polygraphy.
Bookbinding.
Printing, engraving.
Photography.
IX. Textile Industry.
Unspecified materials :
spinning.
Unspecified or mixed materials: weaving.
Flax, hemp, etc.
Cotton.
Wool.
Silk.
Bleaching.
Finishing.
Dyeing.
Hosiery.
Laces.
Light fabrics.
Embroidery.
Trimmings.
X. Manufacture of Clothing.
V. Chemical Manufacture.
Starch, potato flour.
Pharmaceutical products.
Tobacco.
Oil, grease, glue.
Manures.
Acids, alkalis, salts.
Electrochemistry.
Explosive substances.
Distillation (wood,
coal, etc.).
Colouring matter.
VI. India-Rubber, Gutta.
VII. Paper, Pasteboard.
Sacking, sailcloth, etc.
Bedding, upholstery.
Dress making.
Linen.
Umbrellas.
Hats, slippers.
Artificial flowers.
Laundering and cleaning.
XI. Basket ware, Matting.
XII. Hair and Feathers.
XIII. Leather and Skins.
Skins and furs.
Leather.
— 62 —
Leather goods.
Boots and shoes.
Gloves.
XIV. Woodworking
Industry.
Sawing.
Carpentry.
Wooden ships.
House carpentry.
Vehicles.
Wooden wares.
Furniture, cabinet-making.
•j
Musical instruments.
Toys, games.
XV. Metallurgy.
Iron and steel.
Other metals.
X y i . Metal Working.
Forge.
Cutlery, edged-tool
making.
Wire drawing, chains.
Iron and steel wares.
Iron building.
Sheet iron goods.
Arms.
Iron ships.
Boiler making.
Iron founding.
Mechanical engineering.
Cycles, motor cars.
Electrical machinery.
Coppersmith's wares.
Copper and brass foundry.
Cutting-out, stamping.
Surgical instruments.
Precision instruments.
Musical instruments.
Tinplate goods.
Zinc goods.
Tin goods.
Leaden goods.
Engraving on metal.
Watch and clock making.
Galvanoplastie.
XVII. Precious Metals.
Refining.
Gold and silver wares.
Jewellery.
XVIII. Stone Cutting.
XIX. Works of Construction,
Building.
Public works, navy.
Water, electricity supply.
Roofing, plumbing.
Masonry. 4 - ;
Painting, glazing.
XX. Lime, Ceramic, Glass.
Lime, plaster, cement.
Bricks, tiles, pottery.
Crockery, chinaware.
Glass making.
XXI. Conveyance.
Loading and unloading,
Post, telegraph.
Land transport.
Railways.
Street railways.
Sea shipping.
Inland navigation.
Air navigation.
APPENDIX IV
Scheme of the International Association of Industrial
Accident Boards (North America)
I.
Agriculture.
1. Agriculture.
II. Mining, Metallurgy, and Quarrying.
2. Mining.
3. Metallurgy.
4. Quarries and stone crushing.
III.
Other Extractive Industries.
5. Forestry.
6. Fisheries.
IV.
Manufacturing.
1. Food.
8. Textiles.
9. Clothing.
10. Laundries, cleaning, and dyeing.
11. Leather.
12. Rubber and composition goods.
13. Paper and pulp manufacturing.
14. Paper goods.
15. Printing.
16. Wood products.
17. Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills.
18. Metal goods.
19. Machinery (not forging or woodwork).
20. Fine machines and instruments.
21. Vehicles.
22. Stone products.
23. Clay products.
24. Glass products.
25. Chemicals.
V.
Construction.
26. Construction (not building erection nor shipbuilding).
27. Building erection and demolition (occupational classification).
28. Shipbuilding.
VI. Transportation and Public Utilities.
29. Water transportation.
30. Steam and electric railroads.
31. Cartage and trucking.
32. Utilities.
— 64 —
VII. Trade.
33. Commercial.
Vili. Clerical and Professional Service.
34. Clerical and professional employments.
35. Care and custody of buildings and grounds.
36. Miscellaneous occupations (domestic service, policemen, firemen,
etc.).
APPENDIX V
Classifications adopted in different countries
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA (Census of 1911)
I. Professional.
1. Persons engaged in the general or local government (not otherwise
classed) or in the defence or protection of the country.
2. Persons ministering to religion and charity, law, health, education, art,
literature, science, and amusement.
II. Domestic.
3. Persons engaged in domestic offices or household duties.
4. Persons engaged in the supply of board and lodging and in rendering personal offices and attendance on man.
III. Commercial.
5. Persons who buy, sell, exchange or insure, keep or lend money, property
or goods of all kinds.
6. Persons engaged in the conveyance of men, animals, goods, and messages.
IV. Agricultural.
1. Persons possessing, working, or cultivating land; raising or dealing
in animais, or following pursuits subsidiary thereto.
V. Industrial.
8. Persons working or dealing in art and mechanic productions, in which
matters of various kinds are employed in combination.
9. Persons engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, railways,
roads, docks, earthworks, water storage works, and in the disposal
of the dead, dead matters, refuse.
10. Persons working or dealing in textile fabrics, in dress, and in fibrous
materials.
11. Persons working or dealing in food, drinks, narcotics, and stimulants.
12. Persons working or dealing in animal and vegetable substances.
13. Persons working or dealing in minerals.
14. Persons engaged in mechanical operations or labour the nature of which
is undefined.
( l ) The countries are given in alphabetical order as determined by their French
names.
— 66 —
VI.
Indefinite.
15. Persons of property or rank, or indépendant means not returned under
any occupation, also persons whose pursuits are imperfectly described.
VII. Dependents.
16. Persons dependent for support upon natural guardians.
17. Persons supported by the community.
VIII. Unspecified.
18. Persons whose occupation is unknown or unspecified,
GERMANY (Industrial Census of 1917)
A.
Agriculture, Tending of Animals, Fishery.
I. Gardening, horticulture, care of fruit trees, etc.
II. Tending of animals (except those to be used for agricultural purposes)
and fishery.
B.
Industry, including Mining and Construction.
III. Mining, smelting, salt-mines, brine pumping and evaporation, peatcutting.
IV. Stone and earth industries.
V. Working of metals.
VI. Machines, instruments, apparatus industry.
VII. Chemical industry.
VIII. Forestry by-products,production of gas.soap,fats,oil,candle-making,
colouring matters.
IX. Textile industry.
X. Paper industries.
XI. Leather and similar goods.
XII. Wood and similar goods.
XIII. Food, drink, etc.
XIV. Clothing.
XV. Cleaning, laundry, toilet.
XVI. Building.
XVII. Printing.
XVIII. Fine arts.
C.
Trade and Commerce, including Hotel Industry.
XIX. Trade.
XX. Insurance.
XXI. Transport and communications.
XXII. Hotels, etc.
XXIII. Music, theatres, etc.
AUSTRALIA (Census of 1911)
A. Breadwinners.
I.
Professional.
1.
2.
3.
4.
General Government.
Local Government.
Defence.
Law and order.
— 67 —
5.
6.
7.
tS.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Religion.
Charity (except Hospital).
Health.
Literature.
Science.
Civil engineering, architecture, and surveying.
Education.
Fine arts.
Music.
Amusements.
II. Domestic.
1. Board and lodgings.
2. Domestic service and attendance.
III.
Commercial.
1. Dealing in property and finance.
2. Dealing in art and mechanic productions.
3. Dealing in textile fabrics, dress, and fibrous material.
4. Dealing in food, drinks, narcotics, and stimulants
5. Dealing in animals and animal and vegetable substances.
6. Dealing in fuel and light.
7. Dealing in metals and other minerals.
8. General and undefined merchants and dealers.
9. Speculators on chance events.
10. Engaged in storage.
IV. Transport and Communication.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
On railways (not construction).
On roads.
On seas and rivers.
On postal service.
On telegraph and telephone service.
Delivery of documents, parcels, etc. by hand.
V. Industrial Class.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Working in art and mechanic productions.
Working in textile fabrics, dress, and fibrous material.
Working in food, drinks, narcotics, and stimulants.
Working in animal and vegetable substances.
Working in metals and other minerals.
Working in fuel, light and other forms of energy.
Constructing buildings, roads railways, etc.
Disposing of the dead or of refuse.
Engaged in undefined industrial pursuits.
VI. Primary Producing Class.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Agricultural pursuits.
Pastoral pursuits.
Hunting and similar pursuits.
Fisheries.
Forestry.
Water conservation and supply.
Mines and quarries.
— 68 —
VII. Independent.
Persons of indépendant means having no specific occupation.
B. Non-Breadwinners.
VIII. Dependent.
Persons dependent upon relatives or natural guardians, including wives,
children and others not otherwise engaged in pursuits for which
remuneration is paid; and all persons depending upon private charity,
or where support is a burden on the public revenue.
AUSTRIA (Census of 1910).
A. Agriculture and Forestry.
I. Agriculture, etc.
II. Forestry, etc.
III. Fisheries.
B. Manufacturing Industries.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
Mining and smelting.
Stone and earth industries.
Working of metals.
Engineering.
Chemical industry.
Gas, electricity, water stations.
Building.
Printing.
Textile industry.
Paper and leather industries.
Working in wood, other carved materials, and rubber.
Food and drink.
Clothing.
Others.
C. Trade and Commerce.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
General trade.
Finance, credit, etc.
Railways.
Other means of transport.
Other forms of trade and commerce.
Hotels, etc.
Domestic service.
T>. Public Services, Professions, etc.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
Defence.
State and royal services, etc.
Education, etc.
Other professional services.
Persons of independent means, etc.
Persons living in different institutions, etc.
— 69 —
BELGIUM (Census of Industries and Commerce, 1910)
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS
Section I. — Industrial Occupations
A.
Fisheries.
I. Sea fishing.
II. Fresh water fishing, pisciculture, oysterculture, mussel-culture.
B.
Industry.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
Mining.
Quarries.
Raw metal industry.
Metal manufacturing.
Pottery.
Glass industry.
Chemical industry.
Food and drink industry.
Textile industry.
Clothing industry.
Construction.
Furniture and wood industry.
Hide and leather industry.
Tobacco industry.
Paper industry.
Printing and bookbinding industry.
Making of instruments (including watchmaking and jewellery).
Section II. — Commercial Occupations
I. Sale or hiring of industrial or agricultural products.
II. Banking, insurance, transport, agents, and hotel industry.
CANADA (Census of 1921)
I. Industrial
1.
Classification
Agriculture.
1. Mixed farming.
2. Crop specialisation.
3. Animal husbandry.
2. Logging, fishing, and trapping.
1. Logging.
2. Fishing and trapping.
3.
Mining.
1. Metalliferous mining.
2. Non-metallic mineral mining.
4.
Manufacturing.
(a) Classified according to component material of principal product:
1. Manufactures of vegetable products.
2. Manufactures of animal products.
— 70 —
3. Textile industries.
4. Wood and paper industries.
5. Manufactures of iron and steel.
6. Non-ferrous metal industries.
7. Non-metallic mineral industries.
8. Chemical and allied industries.
9. Miscellaneous.
Note: No. 4 may be regarded as a sub-division of 1, if necessary, and No. 3
divided between 1 and 2.
(£>) Classified according to use or purpose of principal product:
1. Food.
2. Clothing.
3. Drink and tobacco.
4. House furnishings.
5. Books and stationery.
6. Vehicles and vessels.
7. Producers materials.
8. Industrial equipment.
9. Miscellaneous.
(c) Classified according to extractive origin of principal product :
1. Manufactures based on agriculture.
2. Manufactures based on fisheries.
3. Manufactures based on forestry.
4. Manufactures based on mining.
5.
Construction.
1. Excavation and construction under or on the ground — not building.
2. Buildings and structures above ground.
3. Shipbuilding.
6. Transportation and Public Utilities.
1. Transportation.
2. Public utilities.
7.
Trade.
1. General trade.
2. Trade in vegetable products.
3. Trade in animal products.
4. Trade in textiles.
5. Trade in wood and paper.
6. Trade in iron products.
7. Trade in non-ferrous metal goods.
8. Trade in non-metallic mineral goods.
9. Trade in chemical and allied products.
10. Trade in miscellaneous commodities.
8.
Finance.
1. Banking.
2. Investment and loan operation.
3. Insurance.
9.
Servite.
1. Professional establishments.
2. Public administration.
— 71 —
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Recreational service.
Custom and repair.
Personal service (hotels, barbers, laundries, land agents).
Business service.
Personal service (boarding houses, charwomen, domestic servants, etc.).
10. Miscellaneous categories.
II. Occupational Classification
All industries are classified into the following groups :
Proprietors.
Officials.
Professionals.
Foremen and overseers.
Clerical employees.
Skilled employees.
Semi-skilled employees.
Labourers.
Miscellaneous.
SPAIN (Census of 1920).
1. Fishing.
2. Forestry and agriculture.
3. Mines and quarries.
4. Food industries.
5. Chemical industries.
6. Rubber.
7. Paper.
8. Printing.
9. Textile industries.
10. Clothing.
11. Basket making and manufacture or articles of esparto.
12. Hair and feathers.
13. Leather and skins.
14. Wood industries.
15. Metallurgy.
16. Metal working.
17. Working in precious metals.
18. Building, shipbuilding, etc.
19. Lime, earthenware, glass.
20. Transport.
21. Commerce.
22. Domestic service.
23. Miscellaneous industries.
24. Defence, police, etc.
25. Public administration.
26. Clergy.
27. Liberal professions.
28. Persons living principally on their private means (Rentiers).
29. Pensioners.
30-34. Various, including persons without occupation, students, etc.
— 72 —
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (Industrial Census 1920)
I. Food and Kindred Products.
Animal products.
Vegetable products.
II. Textiles and their Products.
Textile fabrics and materials.
Articles from textile fabrics for personal wear.
Other textile products.
III. Iron and Steel and their Products.
Crude iron and steel and rolled products.
Other iron and steel products.
IV. Lumber and its Manufacture.
V. Leather and its Finished Products.
VI. Paper and Printing.
VII. Liquors and Beverages.
VIII. Chemicals and Allied Products.
IX. Stone, Clay, and Glass Products.
X. Metals and Metal Products other than Iron and Steel
XI.
XII.
Tobacco Manufacture.
Vehicles for Land Transportation.
XIII. Railroad Repair Shops.
XIV. Miscellaneous Industries.
FRANCE (Census 1906).
Industrial Classification
1. Fishery.
2. Forestry and agriculture.
3. Extractive industries.
(a) mining.
(b) quarries.
4.
Manufacturing.
(a) Industries not strictly defined.
(b) Food industry.
(c) Chemical industry.
(d) Rubber, paper industries.
\e) Printing and bookbinding.
(f) Textiles.
(g) Clothing and textile goods.
(h) Straw, feather, and hair insdustries.
(¿) Hides and leather.
(/) Wood and wood products.
(k) Metallurgy.
— 73 —
(l) Working in metals.
(m) Working in precious metals.
(n) Precious stones cutting.
(o) Precious stones cutting and polishing.
(p) Embankments and building in stone.
(q) Ceramics and pottery.
5. Loading and Unloading, Conveyance.
(a) Loading and unloading.
(b) Transport and conveyance.
6.
Commerce, Entertainments, Banking.
(a) Trade of different kinds.
(6) Hawkers and showmen, entertainments, etc.
(c) Banking, insurance.
7. Liberal Professions, Religion.
(a) Liberal professions.
(b) Religion.
8.
Personal and Domestic Services.
(a) Personal services.
(6) Domestic service.
9.
State, Departmental, and Communal Services.
(a) General public services.
(¿) Defence.
(ii) Various administrations.
(b) Industrial public services.
10.
Industries and Occupations non specified.
HUNGARY (Census of 1910).
I. Production of the soil, etc.
A. Agriculture, horticulture, etc.
B. Forestry, hunting, charcoal burning.
C. Bee keeping, silk growing, pisciculture.
D. Fishing.
II. Mining and metallurgy: industry proper, trade and finance, transport
A. Mining and metallurgy (primary processes).
B. Industry.
Industry
Proper.
1. Metallurgy (founding and other secondary processes).
2. Machine and vehicle construction, electrical engineering, manufacture of musical and scientific instruments, etc.).
3. Quarries, stone working, pottery, glass, etc.
4. Wood and bone.
5. Leather, rubber, oil cloth, feathers, etc.
6. Textiles.
7. Clothing.
— 74 —
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Paper.
Food industries.
Chemical industry.
Building.
Printing, art, etc.
Hotels, restaurants, baths, etc.
Other goups.
Other Industries.
1 and 2. Domestic industries, etc.
C. Trade and Finance.
1. Trade in animals, agricultural products, etc.
2. Trade in wood, and other forest products, and in minerals.
3. Trade in metal goods, machines., household utensils, scientific
and musical instruments.
4. Trade in earthenware and glass products.
5. Trade in articles of wood, skin, rubber, paper (books excluded),
etc.
6. Trade in textile and clothing articles.
7. Trade in food and drinks.
8. Trade in medicines and chemicals.
9. Trade in books and works of art.
10-18. Miscellaneous trade, together with financial organisations
such as banks, insurance societies, pawnbrokers' establishments, etc.
D. Transport.
1. Public roads.
2. Railways and tramways.
3. Shipping, port and river services, etc.
4. Postal, telegraphic, and telephonic services.
5-6. Miscellaneous.
III. Public administration, clerical and liberal professions.
IV. Military, naval, and police forces.
V. Day labourers engaged on casual work, or on work of a variable
character.
VI. Persons living principally on their private means, pensioners, etc.
VII. Other occupations.
VIII. Persons without occupation, or of unknown occupation.
ITALY (Census of 1911)
A. Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing.
1. Agriculture, forestry, cattle breeding, hunting.
2. Fishing.
B. Extractive Industry.
1. Mining.
2. Quarrying.
3. Saltworks, peat, mineral waters.
— 75 —
C.
Industries manufacturing and using Products of Agriculture, Hunting,
and Fishing.
1. Wood.
2. Raw materials similar to wood.
3. Cereals.
4. Fruit, vegetable, seeds.
5. Animal products.
6. Spoils of animal.
7. Paper.
8. Various objects produced from agricultural, products, etc.
D.
Industries working in and using Various Metals.
1. Production of cast iron and steel (primary processes).
2. Production of other metals (primary processes).
3. Manufacturing of metals (subsequent processes).
4. Engineering and construction of heavy machines for agriculture,
industry, and transportation.
5. Other mechanical constructions and working of precious metals.
E.
Industries working in Minerals, Construction of Buildings, Road Making
and Water Works.
1. Extraction and working of minerals.
2. Construction of buildings, roads, and water-works.
F.
Industries working or handling Textile Fibres.
1. Silk.
2. Cotton.
3. Wool.
4. Flax.
5. Hemp.
6. Jute.
7. Other textile fibres.
8. Special textures.
9. Clothing, furnishings.
10. Manufacturing of different textile fibres.
11. Manufacturing of other fibres not specified.
G.
Chemical Industry.
H.
Industries and Services of public utility or satisfying public nteds.
1. Printing, etc. industries.
2. Production and distribution of power, light, water, heat.
3. Transport by road, rail, and water.
4. Public services, hygiene, sanitation, and fire extinction.
I.
Commerce.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
J.
Dealing in goods and food-stuffs (retail and wholesale).
Dealing in miscellaneous goods by the same dealer.
Dealing in goods non specified.
Hotels, restaurants, cafés, barbers.
Entertainments.
Credit and exchange, insurance, commissions, agencies.
Public and Private Administrations, Professions, and Arts.
1. Public administrations.
2. Private clerical employment.
— 76 —
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Domestic service. Gleaning.
Defence.
Ecclesiastical.
Education.
Sanitary professions.
Legal professions.
Letters and Science.
Fine arts.
K.
No Occupation.
L.
Unspecified Occupation.
NORWAY (Census of 1910)
I. Agriculture, Cattle Breeding, Forestry, Fisheries.
1. Agriculture and cattle breeding.
2. Gardening.
3. Other land industry.
4. Forestry and hunting.
5. Fisheries.
II. Mining and Manufacturing Industries.
1. Mines, quarries, extraction of turf, and ice.
2. Earth and stone industry.
3. Metal industry and manufacturing of machines, tools, instruments, means of transport, etc.
4. Chemical industry ; manufacturing of materials for lighting,
heating ; fats, oils, etc.
5. Textile and similar industries.
6. Paper industry.
7. Leather und rubber industry.
8. Woodworking.
9. Manufacturing of foodstuffs, drinks, sweets, tobacco.
10. Clothing and toilet industry.
11. Building industry.
12. Polygraphie industry.
13. Unknown or unspecified.
III. Commerce and Communication.
1. Trade in Commodities.
2. Money transactions and insurance.
3. Hotels, restaurants, cafés.
4. General transport by land.
5. Railways, tramways.
6. Post, telegraph, telephone.
7. Navigation, shipping, harbours, light-houses, pilotage, rafting,
diving, etc.
IV. Public Service and Liberal Professions.
1. Civil service, law courts, barristers.
2. Military and naval service.
3. Public health and medical service.
4. Teaching, literary and artistic professions.
5. Church and charities.
6. Other and unspecified public affairs.
— 77 —
V. Domestic Occupation and Service and insufficiently specified occupations
1. Domestic occupation and service.
2. Insufficiently specified occupations and services.
VI. Income from rents, annuities, pensions, etc.
VII. Without Occupation or Income.
1. Private maintenance.
2. Public relief.
3. Miscellaneous.
VIII. Occupation unknown,
SWITZERLAND (Census of 1910)
A.
Extracting and Production of Raw Materials.
(a) Mining and other extractive industries.
(¿>) Agriculture, cattle breeding, gardening.
(c) Forestry, hunting, and fishing.
B.
Transformation of Raw Materials.
(a) Food and drink industries.
(6) Clothing and toilet necessities.
(c) Building and furniture.
(d) Textile industries.
(e) Paper, leather, and rubber industries.
(/) Chemical industry excluding food.
(g) Metallurgy, machinery, and tools.
(h) Printing industries, etc.
C.
Commerce.
(a) Commerce, banking, insurance.
(£>) Hotels, cafés, restaurants, boarding, lodging houses.
D.
Transport.
(a) Communication and transport.
(b) Other means of transport.
E.
Public Administrations, Liberal Professions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
{e)
(/)
(g)
Public administrations.
Legal profession.
Hygiene and medicine.
Education.
Ecclesiastical professions.
Other liberal professions.
Fine arts.
F.
Domestic and Personal Services and Other Undefined Occupations.
G.
Persons without Defined Vocation or without Occupation.
(a) Persons of independent means.
(6) Persons without occupation.
— 78 —
UNITED KINGDOM (Census of 1921)
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
Industrial Classification.
Fishing.
Agriculture.
Mining and quarrying, and treatment of non-metalliferous mine and
quarry products.
Manufacture of bricks, pottery, glass, etc.
Manufacture of chemicals, dyes, explosives, paints, non-mineral oils,
grease.
Manufacture of metals, machines, implements, conveyances, jewellery, watches.
Manufacture of textiles and textile goods (not dress), cellulose.
Preparation of skins and leather, and manufacture of goods of
leather and leather substitute (not boots or shoes).
Manufacture of clothing.
Manufacture of food, drink, tobacco.
Wood working; manufacture of cane and basket ware, furniture,
fittings (not elsewhere enumerated).
Paper making; manufacture of stationery and stationery requisites;
printing, bookbinding and photography.
Building, decorating, stone and slate cutting and dressing, and
contracting.
Other manufacturing industries.
Gas, water, electricity.
Transport and communication.
Commerce and finance.
Public administration and defence.
Professions.
Entertainments and sport.
Personal service (including hotels and catering, but excluding
government and local authority).
Other industries, or industry not stated.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA (Census of 1921).
A. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing.
I. Agriculture, horticulture, tending of animals.
II. Forestry, hunting, fishing.
B. Manufacturing Industries.
I. Mines.
II. Metallurgy.
III. Working in metals.
IV. Engineering.
V. Stone and earth industries.
VI. Glass industry.
VII. Chemical industry.
VIII. Gas works, production and transmission of electricity, distribution
of water, etc.
IX. Wood industry.
X. Paper industry.
XI. Printing industry and art.
XII. Textile industry.
— 79 —
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
Leather industry.
Manufacture of clothing.
Articles of toilet.
Food industry.
Building.
Other industries.
C. Trade, Banking, and Transport.
I. General trade ^excluding co-operative societies).
II. Co-operative societies, etc.
III. Hawkers, etc.
IV. Hotels.
V. Subsidiary branches of trade.
VI. Banking.
VII. Posts, telegraphs, and telephones.
VIII. Railways, etc.
IX-X. Other means of transport, including auxiliary branches.
D. State and other Administrative Services, Professions and Army.
I. Public administrations.
II. Education.
III. Ecc'esiastical professions.
IV. Police.
V. Public health services.
VI. Lawyers, etc.
VII. Liberal professions.
VIII. Army.
E. Domestic and Personal Services, other occupations and occupations nofstated,
I. Indépendant domestic services.
II. Servants unemployed.
III. Casual workers.
IV. Persons without occupation.
V. Pensioners, etc.
VI. Beggars, etc.
VII. Persons in hospitals, prisons, etc.
VIII. Students not living with their families.
IX. Other occupations and occupations not stated.