INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

STUDIES AND

REPORTS

Series B (Social and Economic Conditions) No. 24

THE

CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT
AND

BETTER NUTRITION
Standard
Education

Definition

of

Foodstuffs

of Producers and

Consumers

GENEVA
1937
Published in the United Kingdom
For the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE (LEAGUE OF NATIONS)

By P. S. KING & SON, Ltd.
Orchard House, 14 Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. 1

PRINTED BY ALBERT KÜNDIG, GENEVA

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. — Action taken by the Agricultural Co-operative
Organisations
I.

II.

Page
5

13

Scientific Researches, Experiments and Other Measures
with a View to the Improvement of Animal and
Vegetable Species

13

Scientific Research relating to Methods of Manufacture
or Cultivation. Training of Technicians. Education of Producers

18

III.

Encouragement of Emulation among Technicians and
Producers
IV. Disciplinary Action.
Regulations.
Inspections.
Control Societies. Sanctions. Testing of Raw Product and Finished Product. Guarantee Marks .
Products not Undergoing any Important Industrial
Transformation
Products Undergoing an Industrial Transformation
Guarantee Marks

27
34
44

CHAPTER II. — Action taken by the Distributive Co-operative
Organisations

45

I. Measures adopted in connection with Purchase, Warehousing and Distribution of Products
Choice of Articles and Choice of Suppliers . . . .
Checking of the Quality
Preservation, Handling and Packing

45
45
48
53

II.
III.

24
26

Measures adopted by the Producing Establishments of
the Distributive Co-operative Organisations . . . .

57

Educational Efforts

60

IV. Collaboration between the Distributive Co-operative
Organisations and the Public Authorities

65

INTRODUCTION

The enquiry on nutrition problems jointly undertaken by the
Health and Economic Organisations of the League of Nations, the
International Labour Office, the International Institute of Agriculture, the International Committee for Inter-Co-operative
Relations, and other bodies qualified to collaborate in dealing with
the matter, has involved a wide network of consultation and
research. These have extended to facts and their causes, t h e
manifold economic and social aspects of the question, and the
various aspects also of a co-ordinated nutrition policy aimed at
immediate or less immediate results.
Among the forms of action possible to-day, at the present stage
of information and comprehension and with the existing machinery,
mention must undoubtedly be made of the efforts to educate
consumers in the economics and the hygienics of nutrition, and
to secure the genuine character and constant quality of goods
offered to the public in general and the poorer strata of society
in particular.
The need for an international exchange of information and ideas
on the subject was expressed in the following form in a resolution
relating to the nutrition of workers adopted by the International
Labour Conference at its Twentieth Session in 1936:
" In regard to the work of the Office in this connection, the Conference
considers it particularly desirable . . .
to collaborate with the
appropriate organs of the League of Nations in studying the activities
of all institutions and organisations, both public and private,
which . . . are endeavouring to find the means of guaranteeing
the constant and wholesome quality of foodstuffs placed at the disposal
of consumers.
. . . "
Moreover, the Assembly of the League of Nations, desirous of
supporting the efforts made to provide the public with sufficient
supplies of the necessary foodstuffs, and particularly of protective

— 6—
foods, decided at its 1936 Session to make a number of recommendations to Governments. These included the following:
" (3) To conduct a vigorous policy of education on popular nutrition
for the instruction of the general public in this subject;
" (5) To facilitate and promote international co-operation in
education and propaganda and in the exchange of information, and, in
particular, to encourage all appropriate international organisations to
lend their help ;
" (9) With a view to assuring purity of food, and in the interest of
public health, to promote, so far as possible, the international standardisation of the technical analysis and control of foodstuffs, and of the
control of preparations sold primarily for their vitamin content, on the
basis of the work being conducted on the standardisation of biological
products ;
" (10) To set up standards of reference and specifications for grading
foods of all kinds according to quality;
Each of these resolutions, either in the passages quoted above
or elsewhere, points out the need for an appeal to the experience
of private institutions and organisations as well as for the collaboration of official bodies and services, in order to undertake this
general consultation and follow it up with action.
The organisations of agricultural producers and of consumers
are naturally among the private bodies whose help in studying
the problem of nutrition can be most valuable. Constituted largely
on a co-operative basis, the agricultural organisations are in many
countries responsible for a large part (often for the greater part)
of the production and marketing of certain important foodstuffs,
while t h e consumers' societies are t h e commonest organised form
of popular food distribution. 1 It was therefore essential systematically to collect information on the special experience obtained by
these bodies and the measures they have used for educating
producers and consumers ; and for improving, defining, supervising
and guaranteeing the quality of the food products which they put
on the market or distribute.
This, then, was the twofold object of the enquiry, the results of
which are found below. It was undertaken, not by the International
Labour Office itself, but, at the request of the Office, by the Inter1

Cf. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE: Workers' Nutrition and Social Policy

(Studies and Reports, Series B, Social and Economic Conditions, No. 23).
Geneva, 1936: pp. 152-165.

— 7 —

national Committee for Inter-Co-operative Relations, under
conditions which will be indicated.
It should be remembered that the Committee is composed of
representatives, in equal numbers, of the International Co-operative
Alliance and the International Commission of Agriculture, with an
independent chairman from outside these members, chosen by the
representatives of the two foundation organisations. Under its
Standing Orders, adopted on 9 February 1931 and amended on
20 September 1932, its duty is to promote the development of
moral and economic relationships between agricultural co-operative
societies and distributive co-operative societies, and further, " to
act as a liaison body between the co-operative movement as a whole
and international institutions, in particular the Economic Organisation of the League of Nations, the International Labour Office,
and the International Institute of Agriculture".
Established to secure collaboration betweeen the two great
international organisations of co-operative societies, and to maintain
relations between them and the official international institutions,
the Committee was thus fully qualified to take successful charge
of this enquiry. It therefore did not hesitate to undertake the
work when, at its session of October 1935, having noted the resolutions adopted in the same year by the International Labour
Conference and the Assembly of the League of Nations, it was
requested to do so by its chairman, who is the Director of the
International Labour Office.
The enquiry was carried out in two stages. In the first, a
provisional questionnaire, after having been submitted to the
officers of the Committee for their approval, was communicated
to a small number of co-operative organisations in each of the
two groups. In this way preliminary material of a very useful
character was collected; and the method also had the advantage
of putting the draft questionnaire through a test such as would
reveal its faults in advance. In the course of its session of March
1936, the Committee adopted this questionnaire with certain
alterations of detail, and opened the second stage of the enquiry
which was now extended to a larger number of co-operative
organisations. In the relatively short period available it was not
possible to notify all the organisations capable of furnishing
information, nor did the object of the enquiry demand such a
course. Still less was it possible to be certain of obtaining replies
from all the organisations consulted. But on the whole the Committee had reason for congratulation on the reception given, even

__ 8 —
in certain distant countries, to its request for information. The
following is a list of the organisations and individuals t h a t answered,
and the date of arrival of the replies:
I. — Agricultural Co-operative Organisations
1. California Fruit Exchange, Sacramento, California. 17 January
1936.
2. The National Co-operative Milk Producers' Federation, Washington
(D.C.). 17 January 1936.
3. California Fruit Growers' Exchange, Los Angeles. 17 February
1936.
4. Verband schweizerischer Eierverwertungsgenossenschaften, Küssnacht, Zurich. 29 June 1936.
5. Zentralverband schweizerischer Milchproduzenten, Berne. 29 May
and 19 June 1936.
6. Centrala Savieniba " Konzums ", Riga. 25 June 1936.
7. Allgemeiner Verband für das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftswesen in Oesterreich, Vienna. 24 July 1936.
8. Pacific Egg Producers' Co-operative Inc., New York City. 24 July
1936.
9. Dansk Andéis jEgexport (D.A.M.), Copenhagen. 29 July 1936.
10. " Fructus ", a Gyümolosértékesito és Szeszfözö Szövetkezetek
Központja, mint Szövetkezet, Budapest. 30 July 1936.
11. Norske Eggcentraler, Oslo. 1 August 1936.
12. Norges Kj0tt og Fleskesentral, Oslo. 3 August 1936.
13. Fédération Nationale de la Mutualité et de la Coopération agricoles,
Paris. 3 August 1936.
14. Zenkoku Beikoku Hanbaikobaikumiai Rengokai, Tokyo. 3 August
1936.
15. De Samvirkende danske Andels-Svineslagterier, Copenhagen.
15 August 1936.
16. " Pienocentras ", Kaunas. 17 August 1936.
17. Algemeene Nederlandsche Zuivelbond (A.N.Z.), The Hague.
17 August 1936.
18. Voinvientiosuusliike Valio, Helsinki. 21 August 1936.
19. New Zealand Dairy Board, Wellington. 16 September 1936.
20. Ch. Schandl, President of the Hungarian Committee for InterCo-operative Relations, Budapest. 25 September 1936.
21. South African Co-operative Citrus Exchange, Pretoria, 12 October
1936.
22. " Centrocooperativ ", Prague. 19 October 1936.
II. — Distributive Co-operative Organisations
1. Union Suisse des Coopératives de Consommation, Basle. 1 February
1936.
2. Kooperativa Förbundet, Stockholm. 21 March 1936.
3. " Hangya " Termelò-. Ertékesito és Fogyasztasi Szövetkezet:
a Magyar Gazdaszòvetség Szòvetkezeti Központja, Budapest.
3 July 1936.

— 9 —
4.

Savez nabavljackih zadruga drzavnih sluzbenika, Belgrade. 10 July
1936.
5. Centrale Bond van Nederlandsche Verbruikscoöperaties, The
Hague. 13 July 1936.
6. Zwiazek Spóldzielni Spozywców Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Warsaw.
17 July 1936.
7. Société générale coopérative, Brussels. 21 July 1936.
8. Fœllesforeningen for Danmarks Brugsforeninger, Copenhagen.
31 July 1936.
9. Co-operative Union Ltd., Manchester. 7 August 1936.
10. Kulutusosuuskuntien Keskusliitto (K.K.). Helsinki. 10 August
1936.
11. The Co-operative League of the United States of America, New York
City. 12 August 1936.
12. Yleinen Osuuskauppojen Lutto r.y., Helsinki. 28 August 1936.
13. Ch. Schandl, President of the Hungarian Committee for InterCo-operative Relations, Budapest. 25 September 1936.
14. Magasin de gros des Coopératives de France, Paris. 30 November
1936.
In publishing the results of this enquiry, the International
Labour Office sincerely thanks all the organisations and individuals
in question for their collaboration, as well as the International
Committee for Inter-Co-operative Relations, which prepared and
directed the enquiry and contributed so much by its invaluable
experience and authority.
*
*
*
The information received as a result of the enquiry has been
classified in two chapters, one relating to agricultural and the other
to distributive co-operative organisations.
In view of the nature of this information and of the conditions
under which the enquiry was carried out, it has been thought best
to arrange the particulars in a form as similar as possible to t h a t
chosen by their authors, and thus to bring the reader into the
closest contact with the original sources. The information obtained
is therefore submitted in the shape of lengthy extracts from or
summaries of the replies themselves, bringing out the salient facts
of general significance or of special value as examples.
For the same reasons, it has been considered desirable to reproduce
here the general remarks with which the International Committee
on Inter-Co-operative Relations concludes its enquiry:
" Hygienists do not confine themselves, in the present state of scientific
knowledge, to determining the composition of the food ration of a man,
according to age, occupation, climate, etc.

— 10 —
" They are also aware, and have insistently called attention to it,
of the importance of another problem of a practical character: that of
assuring to consumers the quality and genuineness of the food products
placed at their disposal; that is to say, of obtaining and giving a guarantee that such products comply exactly, uniformly, and constantly
with definitions established with precision and scrupulously observed.
" The foregoing information shows the means employed by the
co-operative organisations for solving this problem. It has also another
scope. It furnishes an occasion for elucidating the problem itself, reflecting
on it, and recognising its extraordinary complexity.
" How is it possible to secure that, from numerous orchards and
pastures, widely dispersed and varied, cultivated by producers not
possessed of considerable financial and technical resources, apples or
oranges of the same variety, the same quality, the same colour, etc.,
or butter of an identical chemical composition, taste, and smell shall,
week by week and year by year, be put not only on the local and regional,
but even on the international markets ?
" If the pieces proceeding in a practically unlimited series from an
embossing machine are all identical with each other and perfect, this
is due to the perfection of the machine and the perfect homogeneity
of the metal plates with which it is fed.
" If the products issuing from a multitude of rural undertakings appear
on the market in a practically unlimited series, homogeneous and of
irreproachable quality, it is no exaggeration to say that such uniformity
and quality is due to the co-operative organisation.
" It is true that, especially in food-exporting countries, the State
frequently ensures the control of the finished product and gives its
guarantee, or superimposes its control and guarantee on those of the
co-operative organisation. Apart, however, from the fact that this is
not always the case, it is a fact worthy of remark that in almost all cases
the initiative for a control and for a guarantee mark has come from the
co-operative organisations, which have preceded and even guided the
action of the State, and that State control has not been imposed on the
co-operative organisations but demanded by them, and that they
collaborate actively in such control.
" Finally, the control of the finished product is merely the end and
consecration of a long preparatory process from which it derives its
virtue. It eliminates defective products. It does more: it marks the end
to be attained, it fixes the rules and definitions or at least invests them
with a certain constraining force. It creates the necessity for observing
such rules and definitions, but it does not furnish the means for doing so.
" The isolated producer does not possess these means and may not
even know of them. As regards some of these means at least, it is not
sufficient to procure them for him or to teach them to him. He must
procure them for himself or accept them voluntarily and without reserve,
since their effectiveness depends in large measure on his adhesion to
them.
" If agricultural producers had been able to carry their technical
resources to the degree of perfection which has been seen, they owe this
first of all to the financial means which their associated forces have
been able to provide and thanks to which laboratories have been instituted and continual research carried on. But this alone would not have
been enough; if they have been able to develop their own sense of
responsibility, identify themselves individually—during their daily
round of work—with the common task of progress, and to compete
together therein; if they have been able to submit to the most exact

—11 —
prescriptions, the most meticulous checks, and even accept punishment—
all of which would have been intolerable if imposed by an outside authority: they have been able to do so because the discipline to which they
submit is the expression of the aims and the will of their societies, is
based on rules they have themselves framed or voluntarily accepted,
and thus draws its compulsory strength from within themselves.
" As regards the distributive co-operative societies, emphasis should
be placed on their sustained and varied efforts for the enlightenment
and guidance of consumers—efforts towards what may be called the
latters' ' food education ' ; on the basis of the knowledge acquired by
specialists in food hygiene, and even in some cases by taking a direct
part in such researches.
" It is further desirable to mention the assistance which they are able
to render to the public authorities in the repression of fraud and in all
action directed to progress in the matter of food.
" Lastly, the enquiry has been of undoubted help in drawing attention
to the care exercised by the distributive co-operative societies, on their
side, in the choice and verification of the goods which it is their duty to
distribute, and the inspection, check and test which they apply to the
manufacture and preparation of the goods they produce themselves.
In this connection, their most characteristic efforts take the form, first
of all, of precautionary measures relating to the preservation, handling
and packing of foodstuffs, and secondly, the establishment of laboratories
for analysis, which apply severe tests to raw materials for manufacture,
the process of manufacture itself, the finished products, and the goods
offered for sale to the central organisations and their affiliated bodies.
" The work of the consumers and of the agricultural co-operative
societies in this field is thus mutually complementary.
" All the products which the agricultural marketing co-operative
societies put on the market are not all delivered direct to the actual
consumer. Wherever, however, they are directly received for transformation or preparation by the distributive co-operative organisations
an uninterrupted and complete chain of provisions extends from the
place of production to the household of the consumer, which fully
ensures and guarantees their character as well-defined and wholesome
food products.
" In cases where such direct contacts are established between agricultural co-operative organisations and distributive co-operative organisations, they may even, as certain replies have shown, lead to confident
collaboration between the parties concerned, which makes it possible to
simplify the controls and to bring the nature and quality of the products
more completely into harmony with the requirements of consumers.
" Inter-co-operative relations appear, therefore, to secure not only
an economic advantage by the elimination of superfluous expenditure,
but also an advantage as regards genuineness and hygiene in the trade
in foodstuffs."

CHAPTER I
ACTION TAKEN BY THE AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIVE
ORGANISATIONS

The measures which the agricultural co-operative, organisations
have adopted to improve, define, check and guarantee the quality
of products which they put on the market constitute a continuous
chain. For the sake of convenience, we shall try to divide this
chain into the following sections and examine them one by one:
scientific researches and experiments, improvement of animal and
vegetable species, improvement of the technique of production,
training and education, encouragement of emulation, disciplinary
action and supervision.
I. — SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES, EXPERIMENTS AND OTHER MEASURES
WITH A V I E W TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE
SPECIES

The efforts directed to putting on the market a product of high
quality do not begin with the phase of industrial transformation
or preparation leading up to the finished article. They are applied
in the first place to each of the factors which will affect the quality
of the raw product: the soil, the grass seeds which will produce
the best fodder for the animals to be raised, the physical conditions
of the animals intended to supply meat, the health and productivity
of milk cows, the quality of laying hens, the quality and fecundity
of fruit trees, etc. It is to these manifold and exacting tasks t h a t
the great central organisations of the agricultural marketing
co-operative societies devote themselves, with or without the
co-operation of the public authorities, sometimes by the systematic
elimination of defective elements, sometimes by seeking and
producing better strains, most frequently by both of these methods.
As regards the improvement of the productivity of the soil, it

— 14 —
is a characteristic fact that in Finland, for example, it is " Valio ",
the great central export organisation of the co-operative dairies,
which has taken up the matter. Its laboratory produces the necessary bacteria for enriching the soil with azote ; its specialists have,
in different provinces, improved more than 11,000 hectares of
meadowland, about 3,000 hectares of which have been converted
into model pastures.
It is not less significant that in Denmark the effort to obtain,
produce and distribute selected seeds has been carried so far that
it has become the sole function of a special co-operative society
for the production and sale of seed (Danske Landboforeningers
Froforsyning).
In Czechoslovakia too, a similar function is exercised by the
" Selecta " Association for the growing of plants and seeds. This
Association which possesses its own testing and experimental
services and a network of seed-raising stations, is actively engaged
in improving the internal and external qualities of widely cultivated
plants by means of selection and crossing. It sells selected products
to growers through the co-operative agricultural warehouses, and
seeks by every available means to draw the attention of producers
to the advantages of cultivating selected seeds and plants. A large
number of selected varieties, composed of high quality seed, are
raised in the various districts served by co-operative agricultural
societies, and care is taken to limit the varieties of seed in accordance
with a definite plan, in order to ensure that the different grainproducing districts shall be sown with the varieties best suited to
them, thus making it possible to harvest grain of uniform quality.
The same measures are adopted as regards other cereals, namely
brewing barley, rye, oats, and also as regards beans as well as
potatoes of which the most suitable early, semi-early and late
varieties are selected, thus ensuring a constant national supply.
In the campaign against cattle diseases and for the elimination
of infected animals, the co-operative associations are not less
active.
In the United States the National Co-operative Milk Producers'
Federation, which represents over 350,000 farmer families, states
that it has been instrumental in promoting prophylactic legislation
for the eradication of tuberculosis and Bang's disease, that it has
assisted in raising the necessary funds for this purpose, and that

— 15 —
the co-operative dairies affiliated to it have already succeeded
in eliminating poor and diseased and tuberculosis-infected cattle
from their members' herds, and t h a t a definite movement is now
on foot to eliminate cattle infected with Bang's disease and mastitis.
Similarly, in France, co-operative societies and mutual agricultural societies for insurance against mortality among cattle are
rendering assistance in the enforcement of the law for the prevention
of bovine tuberculosis. With this object they organise the periodic
inspection of their members' cattle, and instruct and assist the
persons concerned in the action to be taken, and it is these societies
also which make good the losses arising from the slaughter of
infected animals.
In Luxemburg also, the veterinary supervision established since
1932 over the co-operative dairies has led to the elimination of a
number of tubercular animals. The co-operative societies or the
mutual insurance societies pay compensation to the owners of
these animals. 1
As regards vegetables, mention should be made of the activity
in France of " societies for combating the enemies of crops " and
the powers which may, in certain circumstances, be conferred
upon them by Prefectural Order for carrying out on their own
authority the necessary measures of protection.
The South African Co-operative Citrus Exchange observes:
" Much of the insect pest control work is done co-operatively for the
members by the local co-operative citrus companies, which are members
of the Citrus Exchange. Such pest control operations as fumigation
could not be done by the smaller farmers excepting on a co-operative
basis."
The following is a brief description of its action in the same
domain given by the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, which
comprises 210 societies with 13,000 members:
" The Exchange, representing 75 per cent, of the industry, naturally
is a leader in encouraging numerous lines of investigation by State and
federal agencies bearing directly on pest and disease control in the orchards and cultural practices as they affect both quality and quantity
production. . . .
It co-operates with all federal, State and county
agencies in co-ordinating research activities and pest control work along
the lines most urgently needed. It also investigates carefully the result
1
Dr. Carlo HEMMER: Die Genossenschaften der Bauern und Winzer im Grossherzoglum Luxemburg. Luxemburg, 1936.

— 16 —
of all commercial pest control methods and materials in use as well as
trying out new ones to determine the most efficient from the standpoint
of effective pest control and the effect on fruit quality and production.
The results of these investigations and the information secured is made
directly available to Exchange growers and indirectly to others."
In addition to these operations of prophylaxis and selection by
way of elimination, attention should be called to the work carried
out in most countries by the " breeding societies ", associations
in the co-operative form or created and supported by co-operative
organisations, which devote themselves with perseverance and
success to the improvement of breeds of oxen, swine and sheep
by hiring out to breeders reproductive males registered in a " herdbook ", keeping regular records of coverings, registering the births
of young animals, the progeny of the selected males, and also in
most cases co-operating in the prevention of contagious diseases.
The results obtained by these organisations have been frequently
noted. It will be sufficient to recall the classic example of the
Danish breeders, who were originally accustomed to produce a
heavy variety of fat pig for the requirements of the German market
and who, when they were compelled to give up this market,
succeeded in a very short time, with a view to meeting the entirely
different requirements of the British market, in producing a less
heavy, longer and more muscular pig, suitable for furnishing bacon.
The " Centro-Go-operative " of Prague in Czechoslovakia has
obtained similar results. With the help of the " Zemka ", a
Livestock and Game Co-operative Society, the producers in certain
districts have succeeded in making great progress in their attempts
to standardise the production of livestock, by means of a careful
choice of breeds and rational feeding methods. As regards pigbreeding, efforts are being made to reduce the number of breeds
to one or two, in order to market pigs of a weight and quality
such as required by consumers.
A similar work of selection is carried out in regard to hens.
The following information, for example, is given on this point by
the Pacific Egg Producers' Co-operative of the United States
(25,000 members).
" Breeding (i.e. of improved laying stocks) is a specialised activity in
the areas in which our Associations function and special R.O.P. groups
(record of performance) have been in operation several years, encouraging the use of latest facts developed by geneticists in the State
Colleges. The R.O.P. groups are encouraged to breed for the
characteristics which are sought by those marketing the product."

— 17 —
Co-operative societies or their central organisations frequently
of course supply breeders with eggs for hatching produced by layers
of recognised quality. This is done, for example, by the General
Federation of Agricultural Co-operative Societies of Austria and
also by " Coopeuf " in France.
As regards the selection of fruit trees the South African Co-operative Citrus Exchange Ltd. mentions that its Field Staff, among
other things, has to keep records of trees producing good crops of
superior quality fruit for purposes of securing dependable parent
trees from which to propagate young trees.
We may further take a particularly instructive example from
the records of the central marketing organisation of the co-operative
societies of producers of citrus fruit in California. The following
extract from a report of the Fruit Growers' Supply Company, an
auxiliary society of this central organisation, contains. in fact
detailed information on the measures adopted for improving the
quality of such fruit and increasing the production of trees by the
scientific selection of the original stocks from which the young
plants are drawn:
" Acting upon the request of some of the leading citrus growers in
Southern California, the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States
Department of Agriculture in 1909 began an investigation for the
purpose, first, of ascertaining the variations which had taken place in the
important commercial citrus varieties grown in California through bud
variations, and to learn the comparative value of the different strains
arising from these variations for commercial fruit production; second,
to determine the extent to which undesirable variations have been
propagated as shown by the percentage of such undesirable trees existing
in parent bearing orchards; third, through improved methods of
propagation to reduce the number of undesirable variations which enter
into commercial citrus fruit orchards.
" Prior to this investigation, California citrus growers noted the
presence of undesirable trees in their orchards. This condition seemed
more apparent in young orchards or those further removed from the
original trees from which the varieties developed than in the older
orchards which were more closely related to the original parent trees.
Many of these trees produced irregular light crops of inferior quality.
In some cases the commercial and eating quality of the fruit from the
off-type trees proved to be so poor that it became necessary to sort them
out from the general crop and throw them into the cull bins.
" These investigations were carried on by means of records and
observations of individual trees. The term ' performance record ' is used
for determing the type of the trees by means of individual tree records of
products, observation, descriptive notes and photographs.
" As a result of the findings of the Bureau of Plant Industry the
California Fruit Growers Exchange recognised the commercial importance of this work, and in May 1917, the Fruit Growers Supply Company

— 18 —
established a department of Bud Selection. The work of this department
is to secure bud wood from superior performance record trees and to
distribute it to propagators. The object of the work is to put into
practice the results of the investigation of the subject by the United
States Bureau of Plant Industry in order to improve the quality and
quantity of citrus fruit production in the State as a whole. It is looked
upon by those interested as a public service both to the producer and to
the consumer, and for this reason has enjoyed the whole-hearted
co-operation and support of everyone concerned. The service is performed
at cost and from the beginning has been self-supporting.
" Since its beginning the Bud Selection Department of the Fruit
Growers Supply Company has furnished to nurserymen and growers
5,861,649 buds which have been cut from trees of known performance.
To give some idea of the work entailed in supplying the buds from trees
of known and satisfactory performance, we might add that records have
been kept on a total of 57,796 trees from which only 5,912 trees were
selected."
Mr. A. D. Shamel of the United States Department of Agriculture,
in charge of this work, states in a bulletin of the United States
Department of Agriculture as follows:
" The utilisation of the results of scientific research in the improvement
of citrus fruit relative to bud selection has largely been made possible
through an organised citrus industry. While the investigation on
this subject could probably have been carried on without this organisation, it was, as a matter of fact, largely encouraged and fostered by it.
In the opinion of the writer, the widespread use of the improved methods
of bud selection and propagation could not have been so quickly and
efficiently introduced commercially in the citrus industry without the
active participation of the co-operative growers organisation."

II. •— SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH RELATING TO METHODS
OF MANUFACTURE OR CULTIVATION.

TRAINING OF

TECHNICIANS.

EDUCATION OF PRODUCERS

One of the tasks which the central organisations of agricultural
marketing co-operative societies had to undertake at an early
period was the education of producers in the best methods of cultivation, breeding, milking, gathering, etc., and the training of technicians, particularly for industrial transformations of the raw
product.
In the most important of these central organisations this
educational work is supported by a research department, to which
is most often attached a service of inspection of co-operative
establishments and peasant undertakings. It is carried on by
means of classes, lectures, meetings, and the publication of technical
periodicals, books and pamphlets.

— 19 —
The following is a brief description, by way of illustration, of
the activity of the laboratory of research and analysis of the
central organisation of co-operative dairies of Finland, " Valio ".
" The commercial activity of ' Valio ' is supplemented by a
well-developed action in the field of scientific research and propaganda.
In the summer of 1931 a new five-storey laboratory was inaugurated,
to which are attached a hot-house and sheds for biochemical analyses.
The chief of the laboratory is Prof. Artturi Wirtanen, one of the most
highly reputed Finnish chemists. He is assisted by a staff of eight
qualified chemists and bacteriologists, who are themselves assisted by an
auxiliary staff. The laboratory carries out all kinds of chemical research
relating to the dairy industry, as, for example, the determination of the
quality of finished dairy products, the examination of raw materials and
materials necessary for production and sale : chemical products, packing
paper, etc. The Laboratory further cultivates the bacteria necessary
for the fermentation of milk and cheese and the enrichment of the soil
with azote. . . . The results of the work of the laboratory were
collected in 1930 in twenty-four studies, published in Finnish, Swedish,
German, English, etc.
" Another important task of ' Valio ' consists in the training of qualified staffs. ' Valio ' carries on at its own expense a dairy institute, for
the training of dairy managers and teaching staff. Numerous classes
and lectures are organised in the most varied branches of the dairy
industry." 1
As long ago as 1913 " Valio ", with a view to assisting co-operative
dairies to undertake the making of cheese, created two centres for
the training of future cheesemakers.
In most countries where milk producers are organised on a
co-operative basis institutions are met with in the same form or
in other forms with the same object.
In France, the Dairy School and the Dairy Industry Station at
Surgères were created at the request and with the assistance of
the Central Association of Co-operative Dairies of Charente and
Charente Inférieure and Poitou. The School works in close cooperation with the Central Association. It furnishes the managing
staff for numerous co-operative dairies in the rest of France,
particularly in the western regions. In addition to analyses of
milk, water, butter, etc., the Dairy Industry Station has devoted
itself to numerous experiments, particularly in regard to the
treatment or purification of water by ultra-violet rays, the treatment
of the residuary water of dairies by the use of superphosphates
of lime, etc.
In the Netherlands,

the Dutch Union of Co-operative Dairy

1
Die Molkereigenossenschaften in Finnland und deren Zentralorganisation
Valio, p. 14.

— 20 —

Societies, which comprises 130,000 members, instituted in 1908,
that is to say 8 years after its foundation, examinations for diplomas
of heads of factories, butter-makers, cream extractors, supervisors
of breeding societies, cheesemakers, mechanicians, etc. In the
course of 22 years it granted 1,400 diplomas among 3,400 candidates
who had presented themselves for examination. For the purposes
of preparation for these examinations it published a number of
manuals and pamphlets dealing with the technical, economic and
pedagogic problems of the dairy industry.1
In New Zealand, the co-operative dairies, through a levy collected
by the Dairy Board, have been paying large sums for the purpose
of scientific research, with a view to improving quality, and steady
progress has been made.
In the United States, dairy co-operatives have taken advantage
of their relations with agricultural schools to arrange for their
representatives to conduct educational programmes with the
students. These representatives stress the need for agricultural
co-operation and of cleanliness in milk production, point out how
bacteria develop and how that development may be kept at a
minimum in the production of milk and cream. They also assist
such schools in holding dairy shows, offer prizes at dairy exhibitions, etc.
In Hungary, the Central Association of Co-operative Dairies
exercises a similar influence by furnishing, at the beginning of the
different seasons of production, through the local societies, useful
information in regard to the hygiene of cowsheds, feeding, the
means of preventing differences in quality due to changes in
fodder, the hygiene of productive co-operative establishments,
and the precautions to be taken in the transport of raw or semifinished products.
In Latvia, the Central Union of Co-operative Dairy Societies
states that it organises special courses for the foremen of buttermaking establishments, and also visits to establishments and
exhibitions, as well as the technical inspection of dairies.
In Switzerland, the public authority entrusts this task to the
societies and even imposes it on them as an obligation. The Swiss
regulations for the supply of milk prepared by the Swiss Milk
1
Cf. L'industrie laitière en Hollande, published by the Dutch Union of
Co-operative Dairy Societies.

— 21 —
Commission, adopted by the Central Union of Milk Producers and
the Swiss Union of Purchasers of Milk, ratified by the Agriculture
Division of the Department of Public Economy, provided in
Article 43 as follows:
" Every dairy or cheesemaking society shall convene every winter
at least one meeting of suppliers and cow-keepers, at which experts
(professors of agriculture, veterinary surgeons, inspectors of cheese
factories, local experts or cheesemakers) shall deal with the question
of milk supply."
The same education effort is observable in the co-operative
organisations in regard to the production and sale of eggs, fruit, etc.
The 62 co-operative bacon factories in Denmark, which comprise
180,000 breeders, are all combined in a federation which, among
its other functions, conducts researches concerning the improvement of the pedigree and breed of pigs, as well as experiments
relating to the best methods of feeding pigs. This federation
reports as follows regarding the education of breeders.
" The farmer members are all, partly through lectures, farmers' high
schools, farmers' societies and agricultural papers, and partly through
information and instructions from their factories, educated on such lines,
that the feeding and treatment of pigs in their care have steadily
improved and have reached a state of efficiency surpassed nowhere else."
The same kind of activity is carried on in Norway by the
Norwegian Central Union for the Marketing and Export of Bacon,
which comprises altogether nearly 90,000 producers and which, in
co-operation with other farmers' associations, organises courses in
all parts of the country.
In Czechoslovakia, a special mention is made of the educative
and disciplinary action exercised on the producers of brewing
barley, with a view to the utilisation of selected seeds.
" The 'Co-operativa' has drawn up certain special rules for the growing
and preparation for the market of brewing barley, which are distributed
every year to producers through the co-operative organisations. The
barley departments of the Co-operativa and the Agrasol have published
a monograph on the cultivation of brewing barley, while lectures on this
subject are organised throughout the districts where the cereal is grown.
Both through personal contact and through the issue of pamphlets, the
co-operative agricultural societies recommend to growers the varieties
of barley which are in demand, especially on the foreign market, the
Co-operativa being one of the biggest exporters of brewing barley. As
regards the campaign against plant diseases and pests, the cauterisation
of seeds is recommended. Propaganda is also carried on, by various
means including the cinema, to illustrate the proper use of chemical
manures. Booklets on this subject are distributed to growers. This

— 22 —
whole educative movement is the result of a close and continuous
collaboration between the technical and professional agricultural societies
and organisations, the agricultural research institutes, the seed checking
stations, the scientific brewing institutes, etc.
" In order to popularise as far as possible these educative efforts,
various experiments in sorting, in the use of chemical manures, etc., are
carried on by experts, the state of the crops throughout the period of
growth being closely checked both by the Central and local co-operative
societies."
In the United States the marketing agency of the Pacific Egg
Producers Co-operatives has replied as follows to a question
addressed to them in this connection:
" Special instructions have been given to members of our Associations
for many years covering the care of poultry flocks and handling the product while it remains in the poultryman's hands. These instructions
have been given in regular monthly and special meetings in the form of
lectures, forums and the like. Latterly, moving pictures have been
shown depicting the manufacture of feeds in our own mills. This year
one of our Associations is making a film showing the progressive stages
from the breeding right down through the hatchery, rearing of the chicks,
feeding, handling the product on our own ranches through the packing
plants and in fact through the retail merchandising units up to the
consumer."
In connection with the question of eggs and poultry again, the
following is the reply of the great Central Co-operative Union of
the Hungarian farmers " Hangya ".
" In the scheme of winter lectures we teach our producers methods of
production,.breeding and collection. Our professional publications are
also placed at the service of this activity."
As regards fruits, the same organisation refers to similar action.
" In winter we organise meetings of farmers at which we give lectures
on the care of fruit trees, the gathering of fruit, and preparation for
markets. The organ of the Central Union, moreover, continually
publishes instructive communications for the education of fruit growers.
In the centres of production we have organised export establishments
where hundreds of workers are trained in methods of handling, classification and packing of fruit and other products of the soil."
In Austria also the Central Union of Agricultural Co-operative
Societies states in regard to the Farmers' Union of Styria:
" This Union instructs the organisations affiliated to it, the great
fruit growers and dealers in the methods of sifting, packing and despatching fruit. It publishes, in collaboration with the Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry of Styria, weekly bulletins relating to fruit."
The following are the replies received on the same subject from
the Federation of Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Co-operative

— 23 —
Societies (France), from the California Fruit Exchange, from the
California Fruit Growers' Exchange, and from the South African
Co-operative Citrus Exchange:
" The education of fruit growers is conducted on the spot by the
directors of agricultural services, by professors of agriculture interested
in the trade union and co-operative movements, by the directors of
co-operative societies under the advice of the Federation, by the delegates of the Federation. Special meetings are held, and lectures and
demonstrations are given in the districts concerned. Advice is given in
the matter of sifting, packing, grouping and despatch of products."
(National Federation of Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Co-operative
Societies, France.)
" For fifteen years the Exchange and its members have been studying
the best methods of preparation for sale, and have finally developed for
each type of fruit a very detailed scheme of specifications concerning
quality, etc., with which the individual producer must comply. . . .
Apart from this, each member receives a copy of a monthly publication,
the ' Blue Anchor ', which contains advice concerning the growing and
care of fruit, etc." {California Fruit Exchange.)
" The Exchange has both a Research and Field Department Laboratory
in which the men are constantly experimenting with various methods of
improving both the methods of handling the fruit and, also, the improvement of sanitary practices to insure cleanliness and aseptic conditions
in the packing houses handling the various citrus fruits.
" This information developed in the laboratories is given the associations through personal contact and through circulars sent out from the
main office." (California Fruit Growers Exchange.)
" The South African' Co-operative Citrus Exchange maintains its
own field staff composed of five technically trained field officers working
under the direction of a technical adviser.
" The functions of the field staff are, in particular, as follows:
" (i)

To carry out investigations in the various citrus producing
areas of the Union with a view to determining the most
economical methods of producing bigger crops of better quality
fruit. These investigations cover cultivation, irrigation, fertilising and manuring, disease control, insect pest control,
better methods of picking and of handling the fruit from tree
to packhouse, decay prevention and grading;
" (ii) To keep every grower in close touch with the results of these
investigations and with the results of investigations carried
out by the Department of Agriculture and other private or
semi-private institutions. This is done by personal visits by
the field officers to the growers and by means of roneoed
circulars, printed articles, lectures to meetings of growers and
demonstrations of the results of different treatments on the
trees and on the quality of fruit;
" (iii) To control the grades and quality of fruit packed under the
Exchange Trade Mark.

" In addition to the above the Citrus Exchange initiates much of the
research work in citrus undertaken by the Department of Agriculture and

— 24 —
in special cases even finances such work."
Citrus Exchange Ltd.)

(South African Co-operative

The reply from the National Federation of Agricultural Gooperative Marketing Societies of Japan relates to various products.
It is as follows:
" Conferences about co-operative selling business of each kind of
agricultural products are held by our federation or local federations
several times a year in each district; and at that time many instructions
are given to members of local associations or groups with regard to
working up or preparing raw products."

I I I . — ENCOURAGEMENT OF EMULATION AMONG TECHNICIANS AND
PRODUCERS

By the organisation of exhibitions and competitions which bring
into play all the forces of emulation and which sometimes, moreover,
furnish a new opportunity of concrete instruction, producers and
technicians are encouraged to utilise, supplement and improve the
knowledge and methods which have been imparted to them.
The following are examples of the activity of the co-operative
organisations in this field, taken from the replies received in
connection with dairy produce, meat, eggs, fruit, etc.
" Co-operative associations maintain exhibits and have their representatives at State and county fairs, they attend different adult educational meetings in which dairymen are interested so that any arising
questions may be answered and active contacts maintained." (The
National Co-operative Milk Producers' Federation, United States.)
" To safeguard their interests and at the same time to increase the
professional skill of their staffs, the co-operative dairies in each province
have organised Co-operative Dairy Unions, which employ a secretary
and consulting advisers for milk production and machine installation.
These Dairy Unions hold several Butter and Cheese Exhibitions each year.
They give technical advice to the member dairies and organise competitions in which every side of dairy-farming
is thoroughly gone into from
the professional point of view." 1 (Finland.)
In Hungary the co-operative institutions do not organise
independent exhibitions, but they take part in those which are
held. The following is the reply received on the subject from the
central co-operative organisation of Hungary:
" The National Hungarian Farmers' League has for the last twenty
years organised a National Agricultural Exhibition every spring.
Farmers and co-operative organisations always participate in this event
1

Finnish Butter, p. 15.

— 25 —
in large numbers. Various regional or urban agricultural organisations
also organise agricultural exhibitions at irregular intervals, with the
assistance of the co-operative dairies, generally in connection with cattle
competitions, in which a large number of breeders and co-operative
dairies regularly participate."
" Up to 1934 dairy competitions were organised by the agricultural
and industrial fair of Kaunas. The co-operative dairies took part in
them in the proportion of 70 per cent. Since 1935 the Central Union
of Co-operative Dairies of Lithuania has itself organised competitions in
regard to the quality of dairy products. The basis of these competitions
is the percentage of products of first-rate quality and in a good state of
preservation supplied by the dairies. The chiefs of the manufacturing
departments of the thirty leading dairies receive honorary distinctions
and money prizes. The co-operative dairies themselves only receive
honorary distinctions.
" The Union further inaugurated in 1935 annual competitions among
farmers for ascertaining those who supplied the dairies with milk
containing the largest quantity of fat substance per hectare of land.
The Union has awarded prizes to the most important suppliers of each
co-operative dairy, to the most important milk suppliers of each administrative district of the country and to the three leading milk producers
in Lithuania. The last-named have also received decorations from the
President of the Republic." (Central Union of Co-operative Dairies of
Lithuania.)
In Switzerland, competitions have been organised for the supply
of clean and wholesome milk. These competitions, which have
been held over a period of five years (1926 to 1932) under the
auspices of the Swiss Milk Committee, have been discontinued.
They will shortly be resumed.
In Norway, the Central Union for the Marketing and Export of
Bacon distributes prizes for good quality beasts shown at competitions organised each year by the Royal Society for Public Welfare
in Norway.
" Individual growers and associations belonging to the California
Fruit Growers' Exchange always take part in the Annual National
Orange Show which has been held at San Bernardino, California, since
about 1910." (California Fruit Growers' Exchange.)
The Californian Fruit Growers' Exchange also exhibits specimens
of fruit of various qualities and methods of packing at local or
State fairs.
" The South African Citrus Exchange does not organise regular Citrus
Shows or competitions but through its field staff encourages members
to participate in the Shows organised by the general Agricultural
Societies. In addition, it actually supports the Imperial Fruit Show
held in London and encourages its members to participate."
" Several exhibitions and competitions are in operation simultaneously
over the territory served by our Associations. In one State the Annual

— 26 —
Fair is held at which the largest exhibit is comprised of several hundred
dozens of specially selected eggs. One day in the week is given over to
the celebration for poultry products and the organisations engaged
therein. Competitions for grade improvements are held all over the
territory under the auspices of the local Associations sponsored by the
Co-operative Associations." (Pacific Egg Producers Co-operative Inc.,
United States.)
" The Union of Agricultural Co-operative Societies of Lower Austria
takes part in the Vienna fair twice every year. In other Federated
Provinces also the co-operative organisations regularly participate in
provincial and district agricultural exhibitions." (General Union of
Austrian Agricultural Co-operative Societies.)
" The ' Hangya ' Co-operative Society for the production and sale
of honey takes part in exhibitions organised in the autumn in different
regions of the country by the various organisations of agriculture
interests. It co-operates with the Foreign Trade Office in the organisation of export fairs in connection with such exhibitions. The society
is still in the first year of its existence and this accordingly is the first
time that it has organised such exhibitions. It proposes, however, to
continue this activity. Great interest is taken in these exhibitions and
export fairs, and they have, moreover, been organised at the request
of those concerned." (Hungary.)
" In order to popularise the movement both among growers, whose
interest it is to produce only the best variety of plants, and among
consumers, who should make certain that all their needs are being satisfied, competitions and exhibitions are regularly organised in provincial
towns with the assistance of the local co-operative warehouse and the
branch of the Agricultural Union, the central agricultural association in
Czechoslovakia. Other highly successful centres of propaganda are the
local exhibitions, held in the counties and provinces, in which the leading
co-operative and occupational organisations participate, and, lastly,
the great National Agricultural Exhibition held every May." (" Centrokooperativ ", Czechoslovakia.)
" Exhibitions and competitions organised locally are held several
times a year by districts, by local co-operative societies, by agricultural
co-operative societies or with their collaboration." (National Federation
of Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Societies, Japan.)

IV.

—

DISCIPLINARY

CONTROL SOCIETIES.

ACTION.
SANCTIONS.

AND FINISHED

PRODUCT.

REGULATIONS.

INSPECTIONS.

TESTING OF R A W
GUARANTEE

PRODUCT

MARKS

Most agricultural co-operative organisations do not confine
themselves to instructing, informing and encouraging their technical
staff with a view to enabling them to supply products of high
and constant quality. Co-operative discipline creates constraints
which go much further. By the mere fact of conforming to the
statutes of a co-operative society the members undertake to
submit to a series of imperative and detailed provisions contained

— 27 —

in such statutes and supplemented by severe regulations, which
are continually brought into agreement with technical progress.
Inspections carried out by officials of the co-operative societies,
or by special societies to which the latter delegate this function,
make it possible to control the scrupulous observance of such
provisions, rectify errors committed and furnish new members with
advice and assistance. Such inspections not only take place in
manufacturing establishments (where the product undergoes an
industrial transformation). They are also carried out on members'
farms, in their sheds, orchards, etc. The product itself is subject
to a whole series of tests, from the time of delivery up to the time
of its being placed on the national or international market. At
each stage of this control the observance or non-observance of the
prescribed rules is enforced either by various prizes or bonuses,
or by fines and even by expulsion from the society.
In almost all cases moreover, the price paid to the producer for
the raw product, and the price paid to the transforming co-operative
society for the finished product, vary in accordance with rules
established in advance, in proportion as the definition and quality
of the product differs from the agreed definitions and qualities.
All such provisions, notwithstanding considerable diversity in
detail, are sufficiently similar in their general lines in all countries.
They naturally differ chiefly according to the nature of the product
and particularly according to whether it is a product which undergoes industrial transformation or not. For this reason it is desirable
to describe them separately and successively, first as regards eggs,
fruit and honey, then as regards butter, cheese and bacon.
The regulations in question are so manifold and complex, the
measures of inspection, control and sanctions follow so closely on
each other through the various stages followed by the product,
and even overlap to such an extent that it is often difficult to isolate
them. It is therefore proposed to explain them in the case of each
product under consideration, from the natural source to the market,
without attempting to divide the process into uniform stages which
would run the risk of being artificial.
Products not Undergoing any Important Industrial Transformation
As regards eggs, the following are a few extracts from the reply
received from the Pacific Egg Producers' Co-operative Inc. (United
States), covering the principal points in the enquiry :

'

— 28 —

" Field men employed by the Associations make inspections on
members' premises and offer suggestions for improvement. This embraces
functions of a veterinarian, nutritionist and expert in egg quality . . .
" Measures of hygiene are largely in the hands of the respective States
in which our Associations are active. Some of our Associations have
veterinarians in their employ and in every instance the Association cooperates very closely with the State veterinarian. Various procedures
are recommended to the poultrymen as in the case of vaccination for
pox. Constant struggle is made against the sale and use of various
nostrums which are foisted on any gullible poultryman.
" Payments to producers vary with the quality of the raw product
delivered at the packing plants, in accordance with standards and
definitions agreed upon in advance.
" Control of the eggs after shipment from the various packing plants
is retained by the Associations in their local markets and to a central
sales agent, Pacific Egg Producers' Co-op. Inc., for distribution in that
portion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in foreign
countries. In other words, control of the product is maintained by the
Associations up to the jobber and in a large portion of their business,
up to the retail store. The latter is achieved in their local markets, in
their function as jobbers."
In Austria the supply of eggs to the co-operative societies is
effected by weight, after sorting and '" candling ".
In Lithuania the collecting centres only buy fresh and sound
eggs and pay for them at the same rate, while they themselves
only receive for second-rate eggs prices 30-40 per cent, below the
normal prices.
In France the members of the Agricultural Co-operative Society
" Coopeuf " receive 30 francs more per thousand for brown, heavier
and better preserved eggs. In the course of four years the
proportion of brown eggs supplied rose from five to fifty per cent.
In Hungary the producer who supplies the largest quantity of
products of the best quality and the best appearance receives a
special allowance by way of bonus at the end of each financial
year from the surplus of the " Hangya " co-operative society for
the sale of poultry and eggs.
The Danish Co-operative Egg Export Society (D.A.^E.) comprises eight hundred local societies acting as collecting centres in
the following manner:
Each of the societies collects eggs from producers at least once
a week and sends them to the nearest depot. These depots, of which
there are twenty-one distributed over the different regions, examine
the eggs by holding them up to the light, classify them, sort them
and carefully pack them.

— 29 —
" Our testing system is simple but effective. Each local member
stamps all his eggs with the number of his group and his number as
member of the group (e.g. X 258 X 25 X ). By means of this system it
is very easy to find the producer of eggs of second quality, and as the
difference in value for such second quality eggs is deducted from the
payment to the producer, the system acts as an incitement to produce
the finest possible quality, and this is the principal reason for the high
reputation of eggs from Ò.A.JE.
The information received from the Norwegian Farmers' Cooperative Egg Export Association brings out very clearly the
importance which consumers attach to the practice of stamping,
such as that described in the case of Denmark. It shows, in fact,
t h a t the stamp immediately acquired in the eyes of the public
the value of a guarantee mark and t h a t it in fact led to the introduction of such a mark. The reply from this organisation, moreover,
furnishes an opportunity for a definition of a first quality egg. The
reply is as follows:
" The co-operative egg-marketing organisation in our country has
always given consideration to the question of the improvement of the
quality of eggs. For the last forty years producers of the co-operative
movement have stamped each single egg with a number by which the
actual producer can be identified and whereby he is made responsible
for the quality of his eggs. As a result of this ' producers ' stamped
eggs' became known to consumers as specially good eggs.
" This, however, led the wholesalers outside our organisation to register
their trade marks, consisting of letters or figures as similar as possible to
those of the producers of the co-operative organisation. These marks
were stamped on the eggs at the wholesalers', the eggs being then sold
as ' stamped eggs ' in competition with those stamped by the producers
themselves. This misleading stamping could not be stopped, as anyone
may use a registered trade mark for his goods. ' Stamped eggs '
therefore gradually came to offer the consumer no guarantee as regards
quality, and the organisation had to adopt new methods for securing
the reputation of their eggs. This was done in 1934, from which time
each single egg passing through the organisation Norske Eggcentraler s/1,
Oslo, has been ' candled ', and only eggs of the very highest quality
receive the first-class stamp (Sol-egg, that is Sun-egg; a sun is stamped
on the shell of each egg). After the Norske Eggcentraler had been
practising this new method for about a year and a half and their ' sol-egg '
had become recognised as of the very best quality, a Government system
of control was established which was based directly on the experience
acquired by the Norske Eggcentraler, s/1. The following is what is
demanded as regards the quality of the higher class:
"First Class (Sol-Egg)
Air Chamber: Not more than 5 mm. regular and immovable.
Yolk: Invisible or slightly visible, without clear outline, must not
change appreciably from its central position on the egg being
suddenly turned.
White: Firm, transparent, without spots or visible filaments.

— 30 —
Shell: Clean, intact and smooth.
Other characteristics: Good normal shape; no unusual smell, no spots
of blood or foreign bodies.
" The eggs of our organisation are still stamped by the producers
with their numbers. Eggs not of the best quality are not paid for at
full rate, but either at reduced rates or not at all.
" Complaints may occasionally be received from retailers or consumers.
In order to give due consideration to complaints, the sun mark on the
egg is stamped one week in green, the next week in black, another week
in blue or red. By this arrangement we can always say which week
within four weeks the eggs complained of were controlled by us."
The following are some particulars of the same nature relating
to fruit received from the co-operative organisations of the United
States, Turkey, France, Hungary, and the Union of South Africa.
The California Fruit Exchange pays the producers the price
which it is able to obtain for their fruit, which varies according
to quality, subject to the deduction of a commission. A corps of
trained inspectors is employed by the Exchange, who examine the
fruit supplied by members and are entitled to reject that which
does not meet with their approval. Fruit is also subject to inspection
in the premises of the Exchange and during transport, up to the
moment at which it is delivered to the consumer.
The inspection is not limited to a comparison of the fruit delivered
with the standards imposed. Although the fruit is marketed in
its natural state, certain hygienic measures are necessary, for
example, getting rid of parasites which may be present in such
fruit. The following are the precautions adopted in this matter
by the Exchange:
" Fruit which is sprayed with arsenate of lead as a protection against
moth, such as pears and apples, is washed in a hydrochloric acid solution
and subsequently rinsed in pure water before packing, in order to comply
with international regulations. Every car of such fruit is subjected to
rigid federal and State inspection and chemical analysis, which ensures
compliance with the strictest health requirements throughout the
world.
" Many fruits are wrapped in special hygienic paper. All are packed
in new, clean fruit boxes, often lined with paper and protected with
special packing material."
In dealing with the same problem, the Union of Agricultural
Marketing Co-operative Societies of Aydin in Turkey decided to
abandon the process of dipping figs and raisins affected with
parasites in boiling water, as this process destroys the vitamins
and spoils and hardens the fruit. After a few months in warehouse
products treated i n this way are unfit for consumption. The Union

— 31 —
engaged American specialists to construct powerful fumigation
installations, working by depression, for the destruction of the
parasites.
In order to receive the mark of the California Fruit Growers'
Exchange, fruit of each species must comply with the most precise
definitions as to degree of ripeness, dimensions, quantity of juice
(25 per cent, of the volume as regards lemons for example), etc.
They have to be packed according to conditions minutely specified.
The inspection service of the Exchange, consisting of about
forty inspectors, has the duty of supervising the observance of
these various rules and regulations.
" In addition to the manager and assistant manager of the Field
Department, there is a supervisor for each of the different divisions,
namely: picking inspection, orange and grapefruit inspection, lemon
inspection, pest control, and laboratory. Inspection department
inspectors, under the respective supervisors, are delegated to certain
territories and their duties are to inspect and report on all packing
houses in their respective territories. In addition to working in the
regulatory capacity, they' also perform a valuable service in an advisory
capacity."
In case of wilful or persistent violation of the regulations imposed,
an inspector is sent to the establishment and remains there for a
period which may be as much as thirty days at the expense of the
delinquent Society, for the purpose of supervising the fruit at the
time of packing. Finally the right to use the mark may be withdrawn.
In France each of the groups affiliated to the National Federation
of Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Societies is bound to exercise a
strict control over the production of its members. By way of
example, the following extracts are given from the internal regulations of an important grape producing organisation in Vaucluse:
" Members must furnish the Co-operative Society with healthy
products of an irreproachable commercial and marketable value and of
normal ripeness.
"The fruits delivered to the Co-operative Society, packed with the
greatest care and without concealment of inferior specimens, in the
material supplied by the Co-operative Society, are inspected and tested
by the director. They must conform to the indications furnished as to
quality and calibre.
" The director has the right to refuse fruit of an excessively inferior
quality or which will not bear transport.
" In the event of the Co-operative Society receiving complaints of
bad deliveries due to concealment of inferior specimens, cheating or
otherwise, the Co-operative Society has the right to take action against
the offending member, and in case of a repetition of the offence, the
Board of Directors must impose a sanction which may extend to
expulsion."

— 32 —
The National Federation also exercises a control over its marketing agencies. Delegates regularly visit sellers and distributors and
supervise their operations.
The following information is taken from the reply received
from the Hungarian Central Go-operative Organisation, " Hangya" :
" We have established qualitative categories for fruit supplied by
producers for export purposes, and the prices paid to the producer vary
with the different categories. Further, part of the surplus of the Cooperative Society is distributed at the end of the year in the form of
bonuses to meritorious producers . . .
" The first inspection is effected at the place of production on the
receipt of the products. A selection is afterwards made, where suitable,
at the time of making up consignments for export. In addition to the
control exercised by us before the departure of the goods, official inspection bodies further examine all consignments. In case of despatch of
goods to distant destinations, the consignments are subjected to further
examination as regards their condition at the intermediate frontier
stations. We further give attention to reloading, supply of ice and anything else that may be necessary, in order that consignments may reach
their destination in perfect condition. These control organisations,
after long practice, work perfectly. In case of negligence the service
found at fault is suspended and the station excluded for the rest of the
year from co-operative exports."
In the same country the Co-operative Society " Hangya " for
t h e sale of honey supplies the following information:
" The prices on delivery of honey are determined by the quality of the
goods delivered, in such manner that beekeepers supplying products of
excellent or improving quality are naturally favoured. At the end of the
year meritorious beekeepers receive allowances by way of bonus, for
furnishing which a part of the surplus of the society is set aside."
The following is a description of the measures taken by the
South African Co-operative Citrus Exchange Ltd., for the picking
and transport of fruits and the means employed for checking the
quality of the fruits put on the market:
" The local co-operative citrus companies take every known precaution
to ensure freedom of the fruit from mechanical injury and wastage.
" Such precautions include picking of the fruit with gloves, using
proper orange clippers, preventing grit and sand getting into the field
boxes, the spraying of picking boxes and other machinery with fungicides
daily, etc.
" Producers' earnings vary with the quality of fruit produced in
accordance with standards and definitions agreed upon in advance.
" As far as the fruit exported is concerned, the minimum grades of
quality to which the fruit must conform, are laid down by a Grading
Committee appointed by the Co-operative Citrus Exchange.
" This Committee obtains the views of the Chief Fruit Inspector, the
Principal Government Horticulturist and all other interested persons,
before taking its decisions.

— 33 —
" It meets at the end of each season to review the operation of the
export regulations during the previous season and to decide in what
respects the regulations for the coming season should be amended.
" Before the decisions of the Grading Committee become law, they
have to be approved of by the Minister of Agriculture. In practice the
Minister usually approves of the recommendations made by the
Grading Committee.
" When once the regulations become law, they apply to all citrus
fruit exported.
" The actual application of the regulations is left to a Governmentappointed body of fruit inspectors, working under the direction of
a chief fruit inspector.
" Fruit inspectors are stationed at various inland loading centres and
at the ports of shipment.
" A small percentage of fruit from each consignment is inspected and,
if it complies with the regulations, it is allowed to go forward for export
but is subject to check inspection at the ports. If it fails, it is rejected
and must be either repacked to conform with the regulations or be
sold on the local markets.
" Up to the present no regulations apply to the quality and standard
of fruit sold on the local markets. The Citrus Exchange, however, is
endeavouring to get the necessary legislation introduced to ensure the
control of the quality of fruit sold on the local markets."
This description is supplemented by the information furnished
by the Exchange and reproduced below which make it possible
to appreciate the efficiency of the measures adopted:
" Through the activities of the Citrus Exchange Field Staff in the
Rustenburg District of the Transvaal, the average production of navel
trees of full bearing age has been more than doubled and the average
juice percentage of the fruit has been increased from 44 per cent, to
50 per cent, with a proportionate increase in the ratio of sugar to acid
in the juice.
" This was the first area in which the Exchange commenced field work
five years ago. Similar improvements are commencing to show up in
the other areas where field work was undertaken at a later date.
" The gradual improvement in the quality of fruit exported is reflected
in the following comparison between the minimum export regulation
requirements for fruit exported in 1928 and for fruit exported in 1936.
Percentage juice

Sugar-Acid ratio

1928

1936

1928

193G

No minimum set
Do.

44

6.0 : 1

7.5 : 1

Variety of citrus

Navels
Valencias
Seedlings
Grapefruit

Do.

1

Do.

]

46
43
42
36
38

5.5 : 1
[ 5.0 : 1
I No minif mum set

6.0 : 1
5.5 : 1
4.5 : 1

— 34 —

"The trade mark 'Outspan' introduced at the commencement of 1936
denotes the success of the efforts made towards the improvement of the
products. The minimum requirements as far as internal quality and
external appearance are concerned for fruit packed under this trade mark
are higher than the minimum requirements of the Government Export
Regulations. This trade mark serves as a guarantee to the consumer
of the superior quality of the fruit, and assures to the producers of this
quality a better revenue."
Products Undergoing an Industrial Transformation
These are principally dairy products and also meat where it is
used for making bacon, sausages and the like, tinned meats, etc.
As regards dairy products in particular, attention must be drawn
in the first place to the part played by " control societies ", " milk
control societies ", etc., in certain countries in the supervision of
cowsheds, and of the health and feeding of milch cows. Such
supervision has gradually perfected its methods and is based on a
series of observations which have become more and more precise
and which need to be carefully registered and checked: weight and
testing of the milk of each animal under control, examination, in
respect of weight and food units, of the fodder which the animal
consumes, variations in the weight of the animal, calving, etc. It
presupposes the possession of special knowledge and involves the
use of apparatus which is sometimes costly. For all these reasons
it has sometimes been thought desirable to relieve the co-operative
dairy organisations, which are already burdened with many delicate
tasks, wholly or partially from such supervision. It was in this
way that " control societies " came into existence. The first was
established in Denmark in 1895. This country now possesses
several hundreds. They are also numerous in Finland, Hungary,
etc., where their activity sometimes replaces and sometimes supplements the inspections carried out locally by the co-operative dairies.
Most of the central organisations of co-operative dairies, especially
those in export countries, have supplied abundant information
relating to the work of supervision which they carry out in connection with their affiliated societies and which they cause the latter
to carry out in relation to their members. Some of the replies
make it possible to give a more detailed account of the rules and
regulations imposed on members; others insist rather on the
methods of inspection and their results, the control carried out
during manufacture, the control of the finished product or the
sanctions inflicted, etc. Extracts are given, from the replies
received which supplement and cross-check each other.

— 35 —
The following are some examples
in the " Regulations for the supply
by the Central Federation of Swiss
an integral part of the contract for

of the provisions to be found
of cream or butter " enforced
Dairy Societies and forming
supply of cream or butter:

" 1. The supplier of cream or butter, or the weigher, shall see that the
milk intended for the extraction of cream is delivered to him twice a day
and complies in all respects with the requirements of the regulations
for the supply of milk adopted by the competent federation. He shall
regularly check the cleanliness and condition of the milk receptacles
of the producers.
" 8. Every consignment of cream shall be accompanied by a label
bearing in legible characters the date of delivery, the name of the
consigner, the number of cans and the gross and net weight in kilograms.
" 9. On the arrival of every consignment, the central butter factory
shall ascertain the net weight and fat content of the cream. Such
content shall be determined by means of controlled butyrometers.
. . . The supplier shall in every case be immediately notified in
writing of the results obtained.
" 10. . . . All cream showing defects (bad taste, metallic taste,
mustiness, greasiness, rancidity, acidity, addition of water, too great
concentration or any other kind of defect) shall be declassed or returned
by the central organisation.
" 1 1 . The managements of the central butter factories shall inform
the suppliers of cream so far as possible of all defects noted. They shall
assist in ascertaining the causes of such defects and shall assist the cream
supplier in the application of the measures to be taken.
" 13. . . Consignments of bad quality shall be declassed, that is to
say, only the price paid on the market for the lowest quality of butter
without the subsidies of the Central Federation will be paid."
Either alone or in co-operation with the official institutions, the
Swiss producers' co-operative organisations see to the observance
of the measures prescribed by the public authorities or by themselves. The Swiss milk supply regulations provide, among other
things, as follows:
" Section 30. — Every dairy or cheesemaking society shall appoint
at least two local supervisors. It shall furnish them with such instructions as will enable them effectively to assist the cheesemaker or the
weigher and the competent control authorities in supervising delivery,
either by inspecting cowsheds, or by collaborating in milk inspection.
" Section 31. —The cheesemaker, the weigher, and the local supervisors
shall at suitable periods, independently of the inspector of cheese factories
and cowsheds, carry out detailed inspections relating to foddering,
the service of cowsheds, the upkeep of milk receptacles, the care of
milk and the state of the udders (examination of the milk from each
teat). The observations made at such inspections shall be entered in
the inspection register and communicated to the milk suppliers.

— 36 —
" Section 33. — A register of inspection of milk and cowsheds and a
notebook of reports shall be kept and brought up to date by each dairy
or cheesemaking society.
" The cheesemaker or the weigher and the competent organs of the
society shall occupy themselves alone or jointly in remedying the defects
noted.
" Section 34. — The cheesemaker or the weigher shall immediately
notify to the president of the society all defects which he is unable
himself to remedy. He shall at the same time notify the competent
control authority and request its assistance. It shall be his duty, and
that of the local supervisors, to assist the said authority in every way
on the occasion of any inspection.
" Section 45. — Every dairy federation shall establish, either by itself
or in agreement with the associations of milk buyers, regulations providing for the inflicting of disciplinary (agreed) fines on defaulting
producers, either after conviction by the courts for fraud in the supply
of milk, in accordance with Article 36 or 37 of the Act relating to the
trade in foodstuffs, or for any other infringements of the milk supply
regulations, after previous warning and providing such warning has
proved ineffectual."
Further, the Central Federation of Swiss Dairy Societies " refuses
in principle all guarantee of prices for cheese or butter and any
other subsidy to members of the society who fail to observe the
provisions of the Swiss milk supply regulations relating to manuring, foddering and obtaining milk, or to societies which neglect
to appoint the prescribed control officers or to supervise their
activity. The federations must apply these provisions in principle
also to suppliers of milk for consumption."
As regards cheese, the payment for milk cannot be calculated
according to quality, since technical means are lacking for ascertaining the quality of milk for purposes of cheesemaking. With
a view, however, to encouraging the production of good cheese,
the Central Federation grants special bonuses for quality to the
cheesemakers of Emmenthal.
A small pamphlet, published by the Ministry of Agriculture, 1
Denmark, states the circumstances under which the special brand
of butter called " Lur " came into existence and gives the precise
definition to which butter has to conform in order to come under
this brand:
" In 1900 a special Society was formed for the purpose of having a
National Brand applied to all Danish butter, viz. the so-called ' Lur
Brand '.
" In a very short time this mark was in use in almost all Danish
dairies. It was registered in Denmark, England and Germany.
1

All About Danish Agricultural Produce, Copenhagen, 1930.

— 37 —
" Having accomplished this by voluntary action the dairy industry
caused the Government to pass in 1906 a law making the Lur Brand
compulsory for all Danish butter exported from Denmark. In 1911
a new law was passed, which is still in force, giving regulations for the
use of the Lur Brand. When the State took over the Lur Brand, this
was registered in the name of the Danish Ministry of Agriculture in
England, Germany and in other countries as a ' common or standardisation mark '.
" To obtain the right to use the Lur Brand the dairy or creamery must
notify the police. When the proper authorities have given their sanction,
the creamery is then accepted for control and may produce butter for
export. All butter produced in a creamery accepted for control must be
marked by the Lur Brand. This is applied to two opposite staves in casks,
or to the two ends of boxes. Paper labels of thin paper, with the Lur
Brand printed on them, so-called Control Labels, are to be placed on
the butter itself, one label on the top and one on the bottom surface
of the butter.
" The manufacture of lur-branded packing material and paper labels
bearing the Lur Brand is confined to firms having contracts with the
Ministry of Agriculture, and all reproduction of the Brand by others is
prohibited by law. The lur-branded articles are delivered to the creameries by order of the controlling authorities, and these cause them to
be marked by numbers which must not be removed. One number is
applied to the staves of casks or ends of boxes, another number to the
control labels inside the cask or box. These numbers, although different,
correspond in a way known only to the controlling authorities. The
identity of the butter can therefore be traced until it reaches the first
receiver abroad.
" Danish butter must not be exported from Denmark except when
marked with the Lur Brand, and it must fulfil the following requirements.
" 1 . It must be prepared from pasteurised cream, and is therefore free
from danger of contamination by tuberculosis. The pasteurisation
which is strictly controlled is by the flash point method, the cream being
heated to at least 80° G. (176° F.). 16,500 samples of cream or buttermilk
were tested in 1928 to see whether they had been pasteurised and
also 13,000 samples of the skim milk, as this must also be pasteurised.
Contraventions are punishable by fines.
" 2 . It must not contain above 16 per cent, of water and must contain
at least 80 per cent, of butterfat. Contraventions are punishable by fines
and the goods are to be confiscated. Both the creamery and the merchant
who has sold the butter may be punished. 11,500 samples were taken in
1928 for analysis at the creameries, butter stores, and in warehouses.
" 3. It must contain no other preservative than common salt. Other
preservatives have never been used or deemed necessary in Denmark
and have therefore never been found by analysis.
" 4. It must contain no aniline dye. The only butter colour used is
annatto prepared with vegetable oil.
" 5. It must not be adulterated. Denmark was the first of all countries
to legislate for the regulation of the trade in margarine. The first law is
of 1885, the present one is of 1 April 1925. Adulteration of butter which
never was more than feebly attempted has for many years been quite
out of the question and the chief reason is this, that the importance of the
butter industry and of the butter export for the whole life of the nation
is so generally understood. The punishment for adulteration of butter is

-

38 —

imprisonment without the option of a fine. Some thousands of samples
of butter and of margarine are analysed annually. All margarine must
contain a tell-tale substance, sesame oil, recognisable by a simple colourreaction. The whole manufacture of and trade in margarine is under
special control, and books, open to inspection, have to be kept showing
the manufacture and sale of the products. Margarine has to be kept in
special packing, must not be found on the premises where butter is made,
and so on.
" 6. The butter, to bear the Lur Brand, must maintain a certain quality.
If the quality of the butter is found to be below a certain minimum, the
Minister of Agriculture will deprive the creamery of the right to use the
Lur Brand which means that the butter from that creamery cannot be
exported. All creameries accepted for control are, at the request of the
Central Organisation of the Danish Dairy Associations, under an obligation to send whenever requested an already packed cask of butter to
the State butter testing in Copenhagen. The butter is paid for at the
current price. The butter is judged at the age it would have when
received by the purchaser abroad in the ordinary course. The judging
is done by three groups of judges, two butter merchants and one dairy
representative in each group. Each of the nine judges must specify
which faults he finds in the butter. The result of the judging is communicated to the creamery for its guidance. Not only the quality of the
butter, but also its apparent moisture as well as the packing, are
examined.
"If the quality is inferior which is reported to the creamery, another
cask is called for as soon as possible, and if the quality of this is no better,
the manager is advised to call in the Government dairy expert for the
district whose services are free. If this advice is not taken the creamery
is deprived of the right to use the Lur Brand. If the dairy expert is
called in, some time is allowed in which to find and remove the cause
of the faulty quality and if after that time the butter is still unsatisfactory
the creamery is deprived of the right to use the Lur Brand. This is done
by the police removing all lur-branded packing material from the
creamery. When the creamery has succeeded in improving the quality
it will again be accepted for control and receive the lur-branded articles."
In Finland, the Co-operative Butter Export Association,
" Valio ", explicitly states t h a t a member may be expelled from
his co-operative society if, after notification, he neglects to comply
with the obligations imposed by the statutes.
In all undertakings working for export, moreover, that is to say
in the great majority of cases, the milk supplied by the farmer
is paid for according to quality. The milk is subjected to examination
from the point of view of hygiene, content in fatty matters and the
presence of foreign bodies. The Gerber method is applied for
determining fatty matters, while the Barthel-Orla-Jensen method
is used for fixing quality. The price is determined according to
the quantity of fat per kilogram of milk; other qualities in the milk
are a matter for increase or diminution of the basic price. 1
1
Die Molkereigenossenschaften in Finnland und deren Zentralorganisation
" Valio ", p. 9.

— 39 —
In order to maintain interest in the improvement of quality,
Valio pays its member dairies according to the quality of the
cheese they send in. The cheesemaker of each dairy receives a
bonus from " Valio " for every cheese placed in one of the four
highest grades. His salary from the dairy is also generally so
arranged t h a t in addition to a fixed remuneration, he receives a
definite bonus (usually the value of a kilo of cheese) for every
cheese placed at the official examination in one of the highest
grades.
There is also another system of rewards which Valio has started
in order to improve the quality of the cheese produced. . Rewards
in money and certificates are awarded each year to those cheesemakers who have done most to improve the quality of the produce
of their dairy as compared with the preceding year. 1
It is interesting to note that until 1913, in the absence of supervision by the State, only butter furnished by the co-operative
dairies affiliated to Valio and intended for export was subject to
supervision. Since that date the control authorities of the State
deal with all exported butter. Since 1924 the system of supervision
has been extended to cheese, but it was applied voluntarily by
the co-operative dairies up to 1928, after which date it became
compulsory.
As regards the Netherlands, a pamphlet published in French by
the Dutch Union of Co-operative Dairy Societies, which has already
been referred to, " La Coopération laitière en Hollande ", furnishes
exact and complete information on the conditions of delivery and
the various phases of control and the sanctions attached to them.
The following are a few extracts:
" The testing and inspection of dairy products, carried out in a regular
and permanent manner, commences from the moment of reception of
the milk at the factory.
" Every day, before weighing, the consignments of milk of every
member are carefully examined from the point of taste, smell and
appearance and also from that of the cleanliness of the cans. A sample is
then taken from each consignment and the inspector carries out detailed
analyses in the dairy laboratory, which permit of estimation of the milk
both from the hygienic point of view and as regards its richness. The
samples are subjected to the following tests: determination of the
percentage of fatty matter, degree of acidity, lactofermenter and
lactosedimenter tests. If this examination shows that the consignment
of one of the members does not comply with the normal requirements
from the point of view of quality, the inspector of the dairy visits the
farm with a view to discovering and remedying the irregularities.
1

A Brief Account of the Making and the Export of Finnish Cheese, pp. 8-9.

— 40 —
" The inspectors of the regional associations are also at the service of
breeders in regard to the hygienic and rational installation of their cowsheds. They organise classes for milkers in the villages. . . .
" The members of the societies are paid in Holland according to the
percentage of fatty matter in their milk. In many co-operative dairies,
moreover, regard is had also, for purposes of payment, to the condition
and the cleanliness of the milk, with a view to further stimulating
members to deal with the milk on the farm itself with all desirable
precautions.
" Inspections of the quality of butter and cheese are organised
periodically by all the regional associations, and every affiliated dairy
is obliged to take part in these. . . . The consignments of each
dairy are taken from the production of any day arbitrarily fixed by the
association. . . .
If the butter or cheeses of a dairy obtain certain
marks throughout the year, the dairy receives a diploma, accompanied in
some associations with a bonus to the butter or cheesemaker concerned."
It should be added that State control of butter and cheese is
superimposed on all measures of control applied by the Dutch
Union. It should be further noted that in the Netherlands, as in
most other countries, official control was established on the
initiative and at the request of the co-operative organisation.
In Hungary:
" The co-operative dairies may give instructions to all their members
as regards the cleanliness of cowsheds and the foddering of cattle. The
most important of these provisions relate to the prohibition of certain
fodders. In the interest of the improvement of the quality of milk,
the co-operative societies may inflict fines and even expel defaulting
members.
" The supervision of members' undertakings is carried out from the
point of view of milk production by the co-operative dairies federated
in the central organisation. Every co-operative dairy is bound to employ
a manager who has passed a vocational examination and who inspects
the cowsheds of members without previous notice, accompanied by a
delegate of the central organisation.
" With a view to securing the uniform quality of butter, the
co-operative dairies do not themselves make butter; they confine
themselves to collecting, extracting and refrigerating the cream and
transporting it to central transformation establishments in each region.
" The majority of them pay for the milk supplied by their members
according to quality and content in fatty matter.
" Supervision is carried out in the following manner from the place of
production to the place of sale :
" (a) The manager of the co-operative dairy supervises the delivery
of milk and the cowsheds of the members.
" (b) The itinerant master buttermakers of the co-operative
societies control the co-operative dairies in their district and in proper
cases the farms producing the milk.
" (c) The master buttermakers of the State carry out inspection
of co-operative and private commercial undertakings in each county.
" (d) The Royal Hungarian Control Station for Dairy Products
undertakes the testing of all the butter admitted for export.

— 41 —
" The sanctions available to the co-operative supervision authorities
are fines and expulsion. The sanctions which may be applied by the
official authorities are withdrawal of authorisation to use the guarantee
mark or even to make butter."
In

Austria:

" The co-operative dairies possess laboratories for examining the
quality of milk supplied by producers. The acceptance of milk and the
price paid depend on its quality (content in fatty matters). Inspections
are carried out without previous notice in the co-operative cowsheds
by the co-operative dairies. Numerous co-operative dairies have
introduced bonuses for the quality of milk. The co-operative societies
of Lower Austria constituting the Union of Agricultural Co-operative
Dairies of Lower Austria are, moreover, under the supervision of the
Chamber of Agriculture of Lower Austria, which carries out inspections
on the spot from time to time. A test of butter is, moreover, carried
out twice a month."
In

Latvia:

" Every dairy examines the content in fatty matter of the milk
delivered, its cleanliness and its taste. The price paid for the milk
depends on the results of the examination. The statutes of the dairies
contain articles providing for disciplinary penalties."
In Lithuania the manufacture of dairy products is subject to
regulations enforced by inspectors. Every manipulation contrary
to the rules of hygiene involves the dismissal of the person responsible. The co-operative dairies are fined for every dairy delivery
in this respect.
As in the co-operative dairies in other countries, milk and cream
are sterilised. It is to be observed, however, t h a t this practice is
not the subject of any legislative provision or regulation.
The price paid to the dairies depends on the quality of the butter
supplied, which is judged by the control authorities of the State.
The price paid to producers for the milk supplied to the cooperative dairies is calculated according to content in fatty matters.
In from 50 to 60 per cent, of such dairies the price further depends
on certain other requirements established in advance which permit
of a classification of butters according to their qualities as a whole.
This system will be made general in 1937.
The quality of butter intended for export is controlled by the
State authorities. In this case, where it does not comply with
the required conditions, it is subject to an export duty which
renders export unremunerative.
This supervision was established at the request of the co-operative
organisations.

— 42 —
In Czechoslovakia:
" All the co-operative dairies check the percentage of acid in the
milk supplied to them by producers, and arrange for reductions in
price in the case of acid milk. Acting upon instructions received from
their headquarters, they consequently inform their members as to the
measures to be taken in order to obtain sweet milk with a low percentage
of acidity. Milk collecting centres with a common refrigerating system
only exist in certain localities, but the big dairies lend refrigerators to
their members and organise the construction of milk storehouses.
Courses and lectures are instituted on milk hygiene.
" All the big dairies carry out tests for the cleanliness of milk, and
communicate the result to their members. The co-operative agricultural dairies lend filters to their members, and insist upon the
importance of supplying clean milk. The staff of these dairies pay
visits to agricultural concerns and firms in order to keep a check on
dairy farmers and to give them the necessary instructions.
" On the initiative of the co-operative dairy organisations, a
Government Order was made in 1934 regarding the production of and
trade in milk and dairy produce. This laid down the measures of
hygiene to be observed in the production of milk and dairy produce."
In New

Zealand:

" From a quality point of view on the farm, a number of companies
have appointed farm dairy instructors whose job it is to visit the
supplying farms and assist them towards improving the quality of the
cream they supply. These officers are paid partly by the co-operative
company and partly by the Government with a view to their having
certain Government powers. At the factory the cream is graded by
an employee or employees of the co-operative company. These graders
can only operate under licence from the Government. The co-operative
company fixes the price to be paid for the cream, but the Government
fixes the differentials between finest, first or second grade cream."
In the United

States:

" Dairy co-operative associations maintain a field force which
constantly checks tests for butterfat, checks weight of members' milk
and tests individual herds for the elimination of low butterfat-producing
cows. These men also constantly check on the quality of producer
members' milk, urging at all times to use better methods, suggesting
new practices in order to improve the quality. . . .
" The associations also work with the State and city health departments so that a common understanding may be had in regard to farm
inspection, milk plant inspection, and the like."
For the purpose of encouraging the improvement of the milk
supplied to the Washington market a method of dairy farm scoring
has been introduced.
" Under this system producers are paid over and above the contracted
price. This extra bonus in some cases may be as much as the contracted
price the producers receive. With a farm score of 98 to 100 and a
cattle score of 99, a producer receives 46 cents per 100 pounds additional

— 43 —
on his Class 1 milk and 1 1 % cents per pound butterfat on milk sold
for cream. However, with a farm score of 90 to 94.9, a producer will
receive 23 cents per 100 pounds additional and 6 cents per pound
butterfat for cream and with a farm score ot 80 to 84.9, he will be
paid 12 cents per 100 pounds additional on his Class 1 milk and 3 cents
per pound butterfat on his milk sold for cream. These premiums he
knows about and it falls on his shoulders so to improve his farm score
that he will receive maximum premiums."
As regards meat, the Norwegian Central Union for the Marketing
and Export of Pork Bacon furnishes the following information:
" Veterinary control of all the cattle that pass through Oslo Kj0tthall
(the market-place for meat and pork in Oslo) is carried out by a municipal veterinary surgeon. Together with this sanitary control a quality
control by the Central is carried out. The Central has for the last
few years distributed diplomas to the butchers who treat their goods
in such a way that they appear on the market in a delicate condition.
" All settling of accounts for meat and pork takes place according
to the classification of quality. Especially first-class pork is given an
addition of 0.03-0.05 Kr. per kilogram over the top-price as a qualityprize. For bad quality a deduction is made."
Finally, the following is extracted from the reply received from
the Federation of the Danish Co-operative Bacon Factories:
" Payment for the pigs from the farmers according to quality, with
punishment in form of a reduction in price for inferior meat, has been
in force for many years with the result that the farmers take the greatest
care in supplying the highest number of first grade pigs.
" Similar steps are taken to prevent a farmer from delivering diseased
animals, and the fact that he himself has to bear a proportionate loss
if a pig when delivered to the factory is found to be diseased is a great
incentive to farmers to do all in their power to breed only first class,
healthy animals.
" The surroundings in which the pigs are kept also receive the
attention of the bacon factories' management, and such points as
fresh-air ventilation, temperature and regular disinfection of pigsties, etc. are subjects on which farmers are carefully instructed.
" When delivered to the bacon factories the live pigs are inspected
by a veterinary surgeon, such inspection being compulsory and having
the object of preventing animals suffering from certain infectious
diseases from mixing with healthy animals, and in certain circumstances
from entering the premises of the factory.
" All pigs killed are thereafter carefully examined by the veterinary
surgeon, and any faulty animal is partly or wholly rejected as unfit
for human consumption.
" This veterinary inspection is a result of collaboration between the
health authorities and farmers' organisations, who at an early stage
recognised the importance and value of scientific guarantee of their
products, and it is now by law ensured that one veterinary surgeon
only has to examine a certain number of pigs per week; should this
number be exceeded, two or more surgeons must be employed to ensure
a thorough examination, and their decision on all points relating to
their office is final. . . .

— 44 —
" The health authorities, in collaboration with the bacon factory
organisations, have also prescribed a number of rules and regulations
relating to the localities used for the slaughter of pigs, curing of bacon
and handling of by-products, such regulations mainly aiming at the
most hygienic treatment of the meat and safeguarding public interests.
The health authorities see that these regulations are enforced, and in
case of breach thereof, the management of the factory is immediately
warned.
" Apart from the veterinary control, the factories are also subjected
to inspection by an inspector from the bacon control, an institution
created at the instigation of the Joint Committee of the bacon factories,
and which is directly responsible to the Ministry of Agriculture.
" The bacon inspector and his assistants have at regular intervals to
inspect each factory and to control such technical functions in connection with the bacon production as: temperature in various departments,
strength of the brine used for curing, proper trimming of the bacon
sides, purity of various articles used, such as salt, saltpetre, wrapping
material, etc., general cleanliness in the factory and proper and uniform
handling of the products.
" The inspector, in collaboration with his superiors, in cases of breach
of regulations has power: in the first case to warn the factory management; in case of repetition to inflict a monetary fine, and as a last
resort to withdraw the use of the ' Lur ' mark, which in reality means,
that the factory is unable to export bacon for such period as the
withdrawal lasts.
" In those departments where the by-products are handled and
manufactured into finished articles, for instance, tinned goods and
sausages, and in lard refineries, similar thorough regulations pertaining
to cleanliness and hygiene are in force, and tinned goods leaving a
factory must have a State control number embossed on the lid of each
tin as a proof that that particular tin contains meat from sound and
healthy animals only and that the meat has been inspected by the
meat control."
Guarantee

Marks

All this effort of discipline and supervision has led to a production
of recognised and consistent quality. All the great central organisations of agricultural co-operative marketing societies have
ratified this result by the establishment of marks which furnish
a secure guarantee both to the producer and the consumer. As
has been pointed out where opportunity has arisen, the obtaining
of this mark is subject to rigorous conditions and the right to use
it may at any moment be withdrawn if the beneficiary ceases to
deserve it. In exporting countries the withdrawal of the mark
amounts to a prohibition to export. In such countries it is frequently the State which has established and issues the mark.
In most cases, however, this has been done at the instigation
and with the collaboration of the co-operative organisations.

CHAPTER II
ACTION TAKEN BY THE DISTRIBUTIVE CO-OPERATIVE
ORGANISATIONS

The facts which have been collected in connection with the
present enquiry make it possible to define the attitude of the
Consumers' Co-operative Organisations in respect of the problem
of dietetics, this attitude being successively examined in its four
principal aspects:
(1) Care taken in the purchasing, warehousing and distribution
of foodstuffs.
(2) Endeavour to produce themselves the greatest possible
number of these products in the best conditions of hygiene.
(3) Educational action on their staff, members and on the
public at large.
(4) Collaboration with public authorities.
I. — MEASURES ADOPTED IN CONNECTION WITH

PURCHASE,

WAREHOUSING AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS

Choice of Articles and Choice of

Suppliers

As the " Finnish General Co-operative Union of Distributive
Societies " (Y.O.L.) and the "BritishCo-operative Union" observe
at the very commencement of their replies, not only one of the
chief concerns, but one of the reasons for the existence of distributive co-operative societies is to supply their members with
products which are genuine and wholesome. 1
1
By way of illustration the Finnish General Union mentions in this connection that the Finnish co-operative movement has concerned itself with this
question from the first years of its existence, at the Congresses of 1907 and
1908, and has frequently discussed it since, and that finally the Congress of
1935 took the initiative in demanding general legislation in relation to the
making, importing and trade in foodstuffs.

— 46 —
This does not necessarily lead them to seek for luxury or fancy
articles, to use the expression employed by the Belgian General
Society. It is a matter of discernment, as is shown by the
following remark of the Swedish Co-operative Union:
" It should be noted, however, that this seeking after irreproachable
quality does not logically lead to the encouragement of the consumption
of luxury goods. The dearest qualities of a given product are not always
superior to the cheaper standard qualities from the standpoint of health
and nutrition, and from the housewife's point of view they are often even
inferior. But as the sale of luxury products often brings in a larger
profit to the seller, private retailers are usually particularly anxious to
push these goods. The distributive co-operative societies, whose object
is to protect the interests of the home, have occasion in certain cases
to guide demand into other channels than those promoted by private
trade."
The care which consumers' co-operative societies need t o take
in the choice of the articles which they purchase and in the choice
of their suppliers is one of the reasons which have led them to
combine in central organisations, to which they delegate to a
large and increasing extent the function of buying and even that
of the industrial production of the articles which they distribute.
Further, a considerable number of them, among others the
distributive co-operative organisations of Belgium,
Finland,
France, Hungary, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, point out
that it is this which has led them or which has led their wholesale
societies to obtain their supplies from agricultural co-operative
organisations, having regard to the guarantee of quality which
the latter furnish.
The purchases made from agricultural co-operative societies by
the distributive co-operative societies in Belgium, which are
principally concerned with butter, are not indeed very considerable,
but it is remarked t h a t " quality is the determining factor in
these purchases".
In Finland, on the other hand, and for the same reason of
security in quality, the Co-operative Wholesale Society (S.O.K.)
of the General Co-operative Union of Distributive Societies, for
example, receives a large quantity of goods from the Agricultural
Marketing Co-operative Societies. The following is the statement
of the Union on this point:
" The S.O.K. tries to buy from such firms as are certain to deliver
high class merchandise. As an example may be mentioned that S.O.K.
buys butter and cheese for its member societies from " Valio " x, which
Central Organisation of Co-operative Dairies of Finland.

— 47 —
has its own investigation laboratory by which it controls the quality
of its products. Through the Egg Export Society " Muna " S.O.K. buys
the eggs for its member societies and these eggs are examined when
received. Meat products are bought by S.O.K. from the Co-operative
Cattle-selling Societies. The quality of these products is controlled by
experts and sanitary authorities. For other foodstuffs, which S.O.K.
buys from agricultural co-operative marketing organisations, it has
fixed exact standards of quality according to which the goods are
received and controlled. In this way S.O.K. has raised the level of
quality of foodstuffs."
As for France, the Co-operative Wholesale Society observes:
" In general, the choice of articles and consequently that of the
purveyors plays an important part in our decisions.
" Our arrangements with the Federation of Fruit and Vegetable
Growers' Co-operative Societies guarantee us the delivery of commodities
of the best quality.
" It is with the same intention of receiving commodities of the best
quality and of our choice that we send seeds to co-operative organisations
in Morocco." 1
Similarly in Hungary, the great Central Co-operative Organisation
" Hangya " which has founded seven central co-operative societies
for the marketing of various products (honey, fruit, cattle, poultry,
eggs, etc.) reports as follows:
" The urban co-operative societies affiliated to our Union, especially
the great society of Budapest, obtain from these societies all the products
with which they deal, so that they may always be sure of receiving goods
of irreproachable quality, the more so that these marketing societies
attach the greatest importance to the qualitative improvement of
Hungarian agricultural produce."
In Poland the Union of Co-operative Dairies is the sole supplier
of butter to the urban distributive co-operative societies for the
reason that " this Union possesses all the scientific apparatus and
means of control which secure the excellent and hygienic quality
of its production ", and the Union of Distributive Co-operative
Societies, " Spolem ", confirms the importance which it attaches
to this consideration by the following observation in which the
concern for hygiene prevails over the question of price:
" It is for this reason that the prices paid for its butter are higher than
those of private traders and it is the quality of its products which secures
this premium."
The following is the reply from the Swiss Union of distributive
co-operative societies, which not only marks its preference for
supplies coming from the agricultural co-operative societies, but
1
The French Co-operative Wholesale Society has, besides, contracts which
give it the control and monopoly of certain mineral sources in Vichy and Vals.

— 48 —
further makes the interesting remark that, in certain cases, these
inter-co-operative relations have had the effect of influencing
agricultural production so as to bring it more into harmony with
the taste of consumers:
" The question as to whether certain foodstuffs are bought from central
organisations of agricultural marketing societies partly to ensure that
they shall be of unimpeachable quality can be answered in the affirmative.
For instance, we obtain from the Union of East Switzerland Agricultural
Co-operative Societies at Winterthur our supplies of dried applies, dried
beans, dried peas and unfermented wine, the high quality of which
is greatly appreciated by our members. Other goods obtained from
agricultural co-operative societies include potatoes, apricots, apples
and pears, cherries, strawberries, cabbages and bulbs. In this connection
it may be noted that the closer relations established of recent years
between the agricultural societies and our own Federation have played
a decisive part in improving quality and grading; greater attention
is now paid by growers to the sorting and packing of their goods, and
this has conduced to larger sales. Our organisation has contributed very
substantially to the improvement in the quality of cabbages, bulbs
and other field produce by advising the growers how to produce marketable goods."
The Union of State Officials' Distributive Societies in Yugoslavia
also endeavours, so far as possible, to secure supplies for its
affiliated societies from agricultural co-operative societies and
encourages the latter to give continually increasing attention to
the quality, handling and packing of their products.
Checking of the Quality
Whatever their source, the goods distributed by the distributive
co-operative societies are usually subjected to analyses and test
with a view to ascertaining their genuineness, freshness, and
nutritive value. In certain cases this inspection and testing is
partially secured by the retail co-operative societies themselves or
on their initiative, most frequently by the co-operative wholesale
societies. Although it is in some cases still open to improvement,
and is in fact being continually improved, it has in most cases
reached a high degree of development and efficiency, both as to
extent and strictness, as is shown by the information which has
been collected in the course of the enquiry.
Part played by retail societies
It is especially in Great Britain that examples are found of large
retail societies possessing all the technical resources necessary for
such a checking. 1 The following are some examples:
1
In other countries, such as Belgium and the United States, societies are
mentioned which undertake such checking, but in a less systematic manner.

— 49 —
" The London Society 1 —the largest retail co-operative society in
Great Britain—has employed qualified people in its creameries and milk
factories for a number of years. Up to two years ago, these were
supervised by an independent analyst who was paid by means of a
retainer plus the expense incurred in making tests. The Society has now
appointed an analyst to the staff for the purpose of making tests of the
commodities—both food and textiles—retailed, with a view to protecting its members' interests. The Society's laboratory works independently of any section of the business. The chief analyst reports direct to
the General Manager, and copies of his weekly report are provided for the
Board of Management, who, in addition, interview the analyst four times
a year.
" Apart from the point of view of members' welfare, the department
has been able to render valuable assistance in dealing with unjust claims
and complaints which have been made and, in addition, the tests have
revealed to the Society's buyers essential details for determining the
values of the commodities handled.
" Besides the foregoing, there have been quite a number of instances,
where definite savings to the Society have been made as a result of the
information provided by the department.
" Other large Societies submit to rigid tests the milk received from
dairies :
(a) upon receipt from the farms and collecting stations, and
(b) after pasteurisation.
" Analytical tests are conducted for the presence of bacteria and coli.
The cleanliness of milk bottles after the washing process is also subject
to laboratory tests.
" The Birmingham Society established a laboratory in connection
with its Dairy Department some seven or eight years ago and at the
present time a large amount
of testing and analysis is done to ensure a
clean, pure milk supply.2
" From time to time commodities are submitted to a well-known
firm of public analysts in Birmingham to determine their standard in
relation to the. claims made for such commodities in advertising
announcements.
" Samples of foodstuffs are occasionally submitted by large retail
societies for analysis by independent experts."
Part played by wholesale societies
It is most frequently the wholesale societies which play the largest
part in the system of checking, not only as regards the goods which
they produce themselves, which will be considered later, but also
1
2

The Society has 575,000 members and an annual trade of about £12,000,000.
Mention should be made here, as another method not only of checking but
improving the quality of the products received, of the system of bonuses for
quality, similar to the system used by the agricultural marketing or transforming societies in their relations with their members, of which the Birmingham
society furnishes an example. This bonus scheme for farmers was established
some years before the present Accredited Milk Scheme launched by the Milk
Marketing Board came into operation, and this has resulted in more than
95 per cent, of the milk supplied to the Society being of Grade "A" standard.
4

— 50 —

as regards those which they purchase or which are offered by
private wholesale traders to their affiliated societies.
In Belgium it is the Laboratory of the General Co-operative
Society * at Micheroux, concurrently with the official laboratories
of the State, Provinces and the Communes, which discharges this
office chiefly as regards butter, cocoa, vinegar, alimentary oils, flour,
yeast, fats and pharmaceutical products.
The Union and Wholesale Society of the Danish distributive
societies (F.D.B.), which in 1934 comprised 1,835 societies with an
aggregate of 331,000 members, possesses a central chemical and
biological laboratory, founded in 1929, which employs 4 chemists
in addition to the managing staff. The operations of the laboratory
will be capable of considerable further development when the
erection of the new buildings is completed.
The central laboratory is used by the commercial departments
of the Union for analysing samples of goods offered and examining
any complaints which may be made. During 1935, the laboratory
carried out 2,193 analyses. The distributive co-operative societies
also have recourse to the services of the laboratory.
In Finland, the Wholesale Society (O.T.K.) of the Central Union
of Distributive Societies (110 societies with 358,450 members in
1934) has also possessed, since 1923, a central laboratory which at
the end of 1935 employed 10 persons. It tests all goods which
are offered to the purchasing services, all those delivered and those
which have been warehoused for some considerable time. The
retail distributive societies also frequently send it samples for
analysis. In 1935 it carried out 3,225 analyses, 200 of which had
been applied for by retail societies.
The other Finnish co-operative wholesale society (S.O.K.), the
Wholesale Society of the General Union of Distributive Societies
(417 societies with 243,335 members in 1934) has maintained a
chemical investigation laboratory since 1 November 1913. In
1935 it employed 16 persons, including apprentices, and carried
out 3,690 analyses comprising 230 different classes of goods (as
against 2,301 analyses and 183 classes of goods in 1931). By a
calculation, the method of which is not explained, the Director
of the S.O.K. estimates that the control carried out by the laboratory
produces an annual saving of from 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 Finnish
1

This comprised 95 societies with 310,435 members in 1934.

— 51 —
marks by eliminating adulterated or defective goods from the
market.
The central laboratory of the English Co-operative Wholesale
Society (1,052 societies with 5,983,810 members in 1934) was
founded in 1917. It deals with all foodstuffs, raw materials, textiles,
leather and general products used and sold by the co-operative
organisations. Its staff consists of 31 persons, and it is estimated
that the number of samples examined during the current year will
be approximately 20,000. The Scottish Co-operative Wholesale
Society also undertakes a large number of analyses for the retail
co-operative societies, particularly as regards butter, milk, sugar
and butcher's meat.
The Hungarian Wholesale Society also possesses a chemical
laboratory which is chiefly used for checking the quality of the raw
materials purchased for the co-operative factories, but also for
testing other goods.
In the Netherlands, the Wholesale Society of the distributive
co-operative societies (288 societies with 200,000 members in 1934)
has maintained a laboratory since 1934.
In Poland, the Union of Distributive Co-operative Societies
(975 societies with 275,600 members in 1934) established a chemical
laboratory in 1932 with a very complete equipment, which employs
a chemical engineer and two assistants. This laboratory carries
out the analyses and researches which are frequently required
from it by the retail societies in regard to the goods offered to
them by private traders. In 1935 it carried out 564 analyses
dealing principally with confectionery and chocolate products.
In addition to the laboratories in operation in each of its
productive establishments, the Swedish Co-operative Union set up
a general analytical laboratory in 1935, which analyses meat and
meat products as well as other foodstuffs. Any retail society may
have analyses carried out by it.
The Swiss Union of Distributive Co-operative Societies (534 societies with 397,142 members in 1934) gives a somewhat detailed
description of the working of its laboratory. This description is
here reproduced in its entirety:
" Checking of the quality of the goods distributed by our societies is
ensured by the Chemical Laboratory, set up in 1905 to strengthen the
precautions taken to ensure that only good and moderately priced wares

— 52 —
should be delivered to the societies. The Chemical Laboratory is intended
to serve as an inspection centre for all the goods distributed by the central
organisation and was set up at a time when the Federal Act on foodstuffs
was being drafted but had not yet come into force. The Laboratory's
work consists in the testing, chemical analysis and tasting of all the
goods bought to supply the needs of the societies. Special attention is
paid to the goods sold under the Organisation's own brand " Co-op " ;
these are subjected to regular tests as regards their raw materials,
manufacture and composition as well as the quality of the finished goods,
so that in buying co-operative brand articles customers may be sure
of getting really moderately priced goods of reliable quality. The
number of articles which, although not produced in the Organisation's
own factories, are manufactured under its permanent supervision, is
now 50, including cocoa, chocolate, cigarettes, Italian pastes, soap, etc.
It is also the duty of the Chemical Laboratory to inspect the goods in the
Federation's warehouses in order to ascertain whether, and to what
extent, they have deteriorated by keeping.
" The Laboratory employs two chemists to carry out the chemical
analyses. For tasting, etc. the expert buyers for the various branches
are sometimes called upon to help. The number of analyses carried out
in the past few years is as follows:
1935
1934
1933
1932

4,241
3,925
5,023
4,007

" Instances of the enquiries carried out by the Laboratory are given
in the annual reports of the Co-operative Union and Wholesale Cooperative Society of Switzerland."
Some results of checking

examination

For the purposes of the enquiry it will not be without utility
to note some of the defects or adulterations brought to light by
the researches of the laboratories of the distributive co-operative
organisations. The following are some of the results of the researches
carried out by the S.O.K. in Finland in connection with goods
offered for consumption:
Ryemeal. — A sample of ryemeal contained 2 % per cent, of
sand. Another sample of ryemeal contained lime. A great.
many samples of ryemeal have smelt mouldy.
Wheatflour. — A large number of wheatflour samples have been
spoilt by vermin and caterpillars.
Potato-flour. — Several samples of potato-flour have had a sour
smell and taste. From several samples it appears t h a t
tapioca-starch has been sold as potato-flour.
Cheese. — Half-skim and even skim-milk cheeses have been
offered as full-milk cheese.

— 53 —

Butter. — A sample of butter contained 40 per cent, of water.
Several butter samples have been found to contain margarine.
Lard. — A sample of lard contained 38.8 per cent, of water.
Coffee. — Coffee has often been dyed and made better looking.
Even sea-damaged coffee has been offered as a perfect
commodity.
Cocoa. — A commodity containing 90 per cent, of ground cocoa
shells has been offered as cocoa.
Tea. — Most of the tea samples have been worthless.
Chicory. — Chicory has been found to contain sand up to
15 per cent.
Berry juices. — Artificial makes have been sold as sugared
berry juices made of natural berries.
Honey. — Artificial honey has been sold as natural honey.
Wine-vinegar. — A product containing about 4 per cent, of
tartaric acid and water dyed by aniline colours and perfumed
by an artificial perfume has been sold as French winevinegar.
Dried fruit. — Dried fruits have been found to contain too much
zinc and sulphurous acid.
A sign of the efficiency of this test is perhaps to be found in the
fact reported by the two Finnish wholesale societies that the
percentage of goods refused after examination tends to decrease
regularly (it being of course understood that the number of products
being distributed by the co-operative organisations has not diminished). The percentage was 26.25 in 1931 and 20.03 in 1935 in
the S.O.K. laboratory. It fell from 35.9 in 1923 to 14.6 in 1935
in the O.T.K. laboratory. In the latter case the fact is noted, and
is deserving of remark, that the percentage temporarily increased
during the years of depression. Having fallen to 12.8 per cent, in
1928, it rose to 14.6 in 1929, 17.4 per cent, in 1930 and 21.2 per
cent, in 1931, after which it progressively decreased to 18.5 per
cent, in 1932, etc.
Preservation, Handling and Packing
The replies received furnish some indication of the precautions
taken by the distributive co-operative organisations, both in

— 54 —
warehouses and distributing stores, in the preservation, handling
and packing of goods intended for food.
On this point the replies received from the co-operative organisations of Great Britain, Sweden and Switzerland, which will be
reproduced in their entirety, give the principal characteristic features,
which will be confirmed or supplemented from the information
received from Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, the United
States and Yugoslavia.
The following is the reply received from the British Union:
" Cold storage accommodation is now fairly prevalent for the preservation of perishable goods such as butcher's meat, cooked meats, butter,
margarine, etc.
" Glass screens, and wholly or partially enclosed windows, are used for
the protection of provisions from dust, mud splashes, and handling
by customers; glass-fronted counters or show-cases which are dustproof
and, sometimes, refrigerated, are used to protect cooked meats, sausages
and similar goods from dirt and flies, and also to prevent decomposition.
" As an example, all the fifty-one Fresh Meat Departments of the South
Suburban Society (London) are provided with thermostatic control
refrigerators, as are also their fourteen milk depots. The Royal Arsenal
Society, also in London, has provided all its butchery shops, and practically all the provision departments with refrigerating chambers. Milk
distribution depots have refrigerating cabinets for the accommodation
of butter and eggs sent out for distribution on the rounds.
" In all but the smaller societies, the bulk of the dirty work, e.g. bacon
processing, ham cooking, fruit cleaning and the unpacking of boxes,
cases, etc., is done in the warehouse, where adequate facilities are provided for the cleaning of the personnel, tools and equipment.
" In the modern warehouse the packing-room is light, airy and clean.
Many commodities, such as flour (plain and self-raising), rice, sugar, dried
fruits, etc., are pre-packed, ready for retail sale, in the central warehouse,
thus minimising the risk of contamination by (1) reducing the period of
exposure to the air, and (2) ensuring that such exposure as is unavoidable
is under the cleanest possible conditions.
" In the shops, specialisation of duties tends towards the maintenance
of cleanliness by making each member of the staff responsible for the
cleanliness and protecting of stock in a given section."
The Swedish Co-operative Union emphasises certain other
aspects.
The following is the passage concerning the disposition of
premises :
" The greatest care is taken to ensure that all premises shall be as
hygienic as possible and easy to keep clean. As a rule the floors are
tiled and the walls of butchers' shops and dairies covered with
marble or glazed tiles. For salted herrings, salmon, and other similar
products sold loose out of barrels, a special place is provided with a
slightly lowered floor and a drain. As a general rule flour is kept in a
special room in order to prevent the dust from spreading. The butchers'
shops have cold storage rooms and cellars for storing salted goods.

— 55 —

In the dairies the milk cans are kept in cooled tanks, and nothing else
but bread is kept in the shops which sell milk. Fresh meat is always
sold on special premises, and the same is true of fresh fish.
" What has been said above applies even to the smallest stores."
As regards the methods of packing, this is what the Swedish
Co-operative Union writes:
" In 1923 the organisation purchased a machine to pack margarine,
which had formerly been sold loose because the manufacturers demanded
a substantially higher price to supply it in packets. As the Co-operative
Union did not raise the price for margarine made up into packets,
customers took to buying it in this form, and thus forced the other
manufacturers to abolish the surcharge for packets. The change-over
from the sale of loose oatmeal to that done up in packets also happened
in the same way.
"Flour was formerly packed in jute sacks. The Co-operative Union
first began to use cotton sacks, and this form of packing has now been
generally adopted.
" A factory has also been set up for preparing, sterilising and packing
dried fruit, which is able to keep the distributive societies constantly
supplied with freshly packed fruit. In this way the fruit is prevented
from deteriorating, as it would do if it had to be transported for long
distances when ready packed."
The following extracts are taken from the reply of the
Union of Distributive Societies:

Swiss

" Wherever possible, goods are packed mechanically ; this is the case
for coffee, groceries and tea, which are packed in the Union's
warehouses, and also for cocoa, sweets, chocolate, Italian pastes,
soap, etc. . . .
" As regards the setting up of depots to ensure that foodstuffs are
properly stored, the Federation tries to assist the branch societies by
sending round its inspectors from time to time. Most of the societies
have special arrangements, refrigerators, etc., for storing cheese, porkbutchers' goods, etc."
Packing in the warehouses, which is mentioned in the above
replies, is also referred to by the " Hangya " Society. It is
moreover a practice which is almost universal. There are now
hardly any retail stores where goods are delivered loose and packed
on sale.
Similarly, cold storage chambers and other installations for
preserving by refrigeration are not the exclusive privilege of the
British, Swedish and Swiss co-operative organisations. Their use
is also mentioned by the Co-operative League of the United States,
by the French Co-operative Wholesale Society, and by the General
Union of Finnish Distributive Co-operative Societies, and it is
becoming more and more general.

—

56 — •

The damp and dark shops which, up to a recent period, constituted almost a tradition among distributive co-operative societies,
are now rapidly disappearing.
" In their interior arrangement our distributive shops are in no way
inferior to the great private shops ", says the Yugoslav Union of State
Officials' Distributive Societies. " In small localities our distributive
shops set an example to the local traders by their order and cleanliness
and the installations of all kinds which are absolutely necessary for the
proper preservation of foodstuffs."
The Swedish Co-operative Union (K.F.), the Union and Wholesale
Society of the Danish distributive societies (F.D.B.) have even
created special architectural service for considering and carrying
out the most rational and hygienic plans of disposition for their
societies' premises. Other organisations also refer to reforms which
have been introduced in the same field. The following are their
replies :
Reply of the Union of the Danish Distributive Societies :
" I n 1929, F.D.B. founded an architect's office. This office now
employs 35 architects, in addition to the office staff properly so called.
It works both for the Union and the affiliated Societies. Its principal
object is the re-arrangement of distributing shops and model warehouses.
The majority of our architects are engaged in modernising the existing
premises and in building new ones. Great importance is attached to
furnishing the Danish distributive societies with suitable and hygienic
places for storing their goods. During the last seven years, about onethird of all the distributing shops of our societies have been modernised
with the assistance of the architect's office."
Reply of the General Union of Finnish Distributive Co-operative
Societies :
" Especially during recent years many co-operative societies have had
their premises rebuilt, having simultaneously given attention to the
satisfactory preservation, of foodstuffs both in shops and warehouses.
New special shops have also been established for the sale of milk, meat,
fruit and groceries, possessing their own refrigerators."
Reply of the " Hangya " :
" Throughout the country the distributing shops are distinguished
by their practical arrangement and their cleanliness. Some time ago
our Wholesale Society established a standard type for distributing
shops, and all such shops will be altered in accordance with this type
in the near future. A considerable part of the goods supplied by the
wholesale society to the affiliated societies are delivered in uniform
packages, which is very important from the hygienic point of view. The
inspectors of our Union regularly visit the distributing shops and it is
their duty strictly to control the observance of the rules of hygiene."

— 57 —
II. — MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE PRODUCING ESTABLISHMENTS
OF THE DISTRIBUTIVE CO-OPERATIVE ORGANISATIONS

There is, as is well known, a continually progressing tendency
among distributive co-operative organisations to produce the
greatest possible proportion of the provisions and articles which
they distribute.
The retail societies themselves follow this tendency, although
only to a modest extent. Bread and pastry constitute their
principal production, and the distributive co-operative societies of
most countries possess bakeries, mainly large bakeries of the
industrial type. Certain retail co-operative societies possess establishments of their own for milk and dairy products (Switzerland),
mineral water factories (Finland), butcheries (United States,
Hungary, Switzerland), establishments for the production of bacon,
ham, boiled ham, potted meats, sausages, etc. (Finland, France,
Great Britain, Hungary, Poland). The value of the foodstuffs
produced in 1934 by the British retail co-operative societies is
estimated at £30,000,000.
As regards most of the staple articles of consumption which admit
of a certain delay in transport, it is the wholesale societies or federal
societies with special objects which ensure their production, either
wholly or in part.
The following are the principal commodities produced or prepared
by the central organisations which have taken part in the enquiry
and furnished the desired information on this point:
The English and Scottish co-operative wholesale societies produce
almost all the staple foodstuffs required by their members. In
1934 the value of the bacon, biscuits and cakes, butter, cheese,
canned foods, flour and meal, lard, margarine, preserves, peels and
pickles, etc., produced by the English Co-operative Wholesale
Society amounted to £14,384,000. In the same year the value for
the Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society was £2,250,000 (bacon,
flour, and meal, margarine, preserves, sausages, etc.).
The other co-operative wholesale societies have not, as a rule,
in their production or preparation of foodstuffs, reached the same
variety or the same volume as those of Great Britain. These
efforts at present in the various countries affect the following
commodities:
Belgium: Margarine, jams, syrups, chocolate, confectionery,
mustard, mineral waters, chicory.

— 58 —
Denmark: Margarine, chocolate, sweetmeats, flour, semolina.
Finland: Butter, cheese, margarine, flour and groats, sweetmeats, sugared berry juices, macaroni, twisted biscuits,
omelette powder, jelly products, etc.
France: Preserved vegetables, "canned fish, pies and various
forms of preserved meat, jams, chocolate, butter, coffee,
roasting, bananas (ripening), salts.
Hungary: Alcoholic liquors, vinegar, mustard, coffee.
Netherlands: Tea, coffee, flour, puddings, cocoa, colonial
produce, vanilla sugar, oils and fats, jams, apple and pear
syrups, sugar-cane syrups, fruit juices, lemonade, petitsfours, biscuits, rusks, cakes, sweetmeats, cocoa, chocolate.
Sweden: Flour (wheat and rye), various kinds of meal, macaroni, Swedish crisp bread, margarine.
Yugoslavia: Flour.
Where retail co-operative societies and their central organisations
have engaged in manufacture, it is generally and principally with
a view to absorbing and placing at the disposal of their members
the profits arising out of the industrial transformation. In
certain cases, however, and to a certain extent it has also been
done with a view to distributing goods of irreproachable quality
and satisfying all the requirements of hygiene. This is shown,'
for example, by the information given by the distributive co-operative organisations of Finland, France, Hungary, the United States
and Yugoslavia.
In any case, both as regards the retail co-operative societies and
their central organisations, the replies received call attention to
the precautions and the checking measures adopted by both for
ensuring the quality of the goods which they manufacture or prepare.
These measures regard the raw materials employed, the process
of manufacture itself and the finished product.
The retail co-operative societies do not all possess the necessary
means of checking and test for all their products. In the Netherlands
some of those which produce bread have solved the problem by
combining to form the " baking and milling station " at Wegeningen. This institution provides for the permanent supervision of
the bakeries affiliated to it. It subjects their bread and other
products to periodical examinations as regards the content in
water (and in fatty matters in the case of milk bread), the content

— 59 —
in dry matters, the method of baking, cleanliness, etc. Where
successive examinations show defects in the goods, the bakery
in question is expelled from the association.
Most frequently, however, retail co-operative societies engaged
in production have recourse to the laboratory of their central
organisation. These institutions not only test, as has been seen,
the provisions for immediate consumption which are offered to
their members, but also the raw materials which are to be employed
in their manufacture and the finished product. This practice is
noted in particular as regards the Finnish Co-operative Wholesale
Society (O.T.K.) and the English Go-operative Wholesale Society.
As regards the producing establishments of the wholesale societies
and the federal societies with special objects, they are not only
assisted and supervised by the central laboratories already
mentioned and which are, for the most part, of recent creation.
Each of these producing establishments has a laboratory of its
own carrying out a daily inspection and test in collaboration,
where necessary, with the principal laboratory. This is the case
in Denmark.
It is also the case with the English Co-operative
Wholesale Society, which possesses more than 100 factories and
workshops. It is equally the case with the Scottish Co-operative
Wholesale Society in regard to which the following information,
furnished by the British Co-operative Union, is quoted by way of
illustration :
" All raw materials on arrival are tested to see that they are up to
the standard of sample. Throughout the process of manufacture the
chemists exercise supervision to ensure a uniform standard of production. After manufacture the finished product is sampled and subjected
to chemical and practical tests. These act as a final check of quality,
purity and accuracy of manufacture."
Similar information has been furnished in the replies relating to
France, Hungary, Poland and Sweden.
The Central Union of t h e Dutch Distributive Co-operative Societies states on this subject that the management of the producing
establishments of the co-operative' wholesale society intends
gradually to introduce the system of stamping a control number
on every package. This system, which is similar to t h a t employed
by the agricultural marketing co-operative societies, will make it
possible to fix responsibility in case of fault.
The reply of the Swedish Co-operative Union (K.F.) shows how
the test laboratory may also serve as a research laboratory.

— 60 —
The following is the information furnished in this reply in regard
to the control of cereals and flour:
" The factories have been provided with laboratories in which both
the raw materials and the finished products are examined. The laboratory for the flour mills was set up in 1922 and now has a staff of nine
persons. It examines the grain before it is purchased and carries out
trial bakings in order to ascertain whether the flour is of good baking
quality. The laboratory also carries out a large number of tests on
behalf of the distributive co-operative societies."
Further on it adds:
" Since 1925 the Co-operative Union has employed the services of a
specialist with several assistants to investigate the vitamin contents of
different kinds of foods. This specialist also tests, on behalf of the
Union, provisions manufactured by private firms, which in many cases
have subsequently been obliged to drop misleading advertisements as a
result of the Union's representations."
It gives elsewhere another example of its researches.
" Meal made from hips, a food which is particularly rich in vitamin C.
Formerly the hips were cooked and strained before being made into
soup, a process which took several hours and also diminished the
nutritive value of the food because the vitamins were affected by being
cooked for so long a time. The Co-operative Union accordingly carried
out various experiments, which led to the discovery that the hulls
of the hips could be ground into meal, after which they needed cooking
for only a short time and retained their full vitamin value."
In the field of production by consumers' co-operative organisations, it is perhaps useful to note an interesting form of international collaboration. The International Co-operative Wholesale
Society has instituted among the twenty-four central organisations
of which it is composed the exchange of the methods of manufacture.
It has recently made known to them methods of fruit drying
recommended by the Swedish co-operative organisations.

III.

•— EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS

In order fully to exercise the functions confided to them by the
households which they represent, the distributive co-operative
organisations were necessarily led to develop among their members,
and among their managing and executive staff, a knowledge of
commodities to serve for guidance in the purchase of foodstuffs
and their preparation.
The replies received, from which the essential passages will be
quoted, show the systematic character and variety of form taken

— 61 —
by this educational activity. All the organisations have their own
organs in the Press and most frequently, in addition to an official
and technical review, a weekly organ in a popular form which
reaches the home of each member. In these popular organs more
particularly considerable space is given to articles and discussions
on health in general, on food hygiene, on the composition of bills
of fare, on the best way of utilising the nutritive value of foodstuffs, etc. The same questions also figure in the agendas of special
meetings to which members are invited and which are chiefly
attended by housewives. They are sometimes discussed in booklets,
pamphlets, almanacks, etc., which are distributed gratuitously or
at a moderate price. Exhibitions, tastings and demonstrations are
organised with a view to extending the use of particular products
or showing the manner of preparing them. Courses of instruction
and lectures are regularly given to the managers of shops and all
categories of employees. Schools have even been established with
this special object. Finally, use is sometimes made of broadcast
talks and cinematograph exhibitions for the education of members
and of the general public.
The following is the information which has been collected of this
manifold activity, showing the sources from which it is derived:
General Co-operative Society of Belgium (S.G.C.)
" Educational action is carried on in the co-operative societies and for
the benefit of the public by exhibitions, cooking demonstrations, tastings,
distribution of samples, appeals through the Press and lectures to housewives. Meetings of the selling staff are held for the purpose of initiating
them in their professional duties."
Union of Danish Co-operative Societies (F.D.B.)
" The Danish Co-operative School established in 1932 (Den danske
Andelsskole), which is attended by 100 pupils, teaches the science of
merchandise. The popular co-operative organ (Brugsforennigs bladet),
which appears every fortnight in an issue of 260,000 copies, and other
publications are issued with the object of propagating such knowledge
progressively."
Co-operative League of the United Stales
" Some of our distributive co-operative organisations give information
concerning the selection and preparation of food products . . -1
" Most of the information concerning the selection and preparation
of foods is given by clerks in co-operative food stores to the consumer
members.
1
The Co-operative League published a leaflet entitled : " How to buy wisely
at your Co-operative Store", which gives in simple language some elementary
notions on the characteristics of various foodstuffs, the composition of
menus, etc.

— 62 —
" Co-operative societies could improve the hygiene of foodstuff by
securing better standardisation and the labelling of packages in such a
way as to convey accurate information of the contents."
The General Union of Distributive Co-operative Societies (Y.O.L.),
Finland
" The Finnish Co-operative School has been in operation since 1919.
Great attention is being paid to the knowledge of merchandise and its
judgment. Capable employees have been educated in the School to
serve the movement. In addition special courses are organised for the
employees. Amongst the subjects to be taught there are knowledge of
merchandise and its management in shops and stocks. Also the Cooperative Societies have courses for employees at which the hygienic
treatment of foodstuffs is a subject. For housewives there are held
general meetings at which the quality of commodities is discussed.
In the co-operative periodicals there are published articles on foodstuffs
and their quality. The S.O.K. Laboratory officials have delivered
several speeches in the radio of the Broadcasting Company. Pamphlets
for housewives have been issued to give advice for baking. At the
foodstuffs exhibitions and fairs, the necessity of the good quality of
foodstuffs is also underlined and their hygienic packing methods are
explained."
French Co-operative Wholesale Society (M.D. G.)
" Education is given by the following means:
(1) Co-operative technical schools;
(2) Experienced committees composed of the managers of the big
societies ;
(3) Meetings of purchasers where lectures are given on the manufacture, preservation, and the methods of distribution of certain
foodstuffs;
(4) Films of the principal products of the French Co-operative
Wholesale Society."
Co-operative Union of Great Britain
" Through trades and business conferences, lectures to officials, and
instructional visits to laboratories and places of manufacture, the
managing bodies of local co-operative societies receive education in the
selection of commodities. When appointments of co-operative buyers
are made, notice is taken of the educational certificates earned through
courses of study in appropriate subjects.
" The Co-operative Union, through its Education Department,
prepared courses of instruction for apprentices, salesmen, branch
managers, departmental managers and general managers, which cover,
inter alia, knowledge of commodities and the selection and preparation
for sale of foodstuffs.
" Exhibitions of co-operative manufacture are from time to time held
in large centres, and the demonstrations and displays shown to the public
are in some measure educational as regards the selection and the preparation of food products. The Co-operative Wholesale Society also has a
series of cinematograph films which may be said to be educational in this
way.
" Instruction is given through local classes, correspondence courses,
and lectures at the Co-operative College. These courses are conducted

— 63 —
during the winter months, and supplemented by courses taken at technical summer schools. The Co-operative Union has prepared textbooks
for (a) Apprentices in Foodstuffs Department, (b) Salesmen in Grocery
Departments, in Butchery Departments, and in Dairy Departments and
is preparing a textbook for (a) Apprentices in Foodstuffs Departments,
(¿>) Salesmen in Grocery Departments, in Butchery Departments and in
Dairy Departments, and is preparing a textbook for Branch Managers
in Grocery Departments. Other books will follow.
"During the Session 1935-36, the following were the numbers of
students from Foodstuffs Departments enrolled in the respective grades
of classes:
Apprentices
1,786
Salesmen
1,382
Branch Managers
109
Departmental Managers . .
18
" By an extension of tuition and examination work along practical
lines. It is now five years since practical tests (including a commodities
test) were made an integral part of the examination for all salesmen.
" By a development of tuition moving from the side of production of
foodstuffs, sources of supply, preparation for sale, etc., and by stressing
the importance of food values and dietetics.
" By the education of the consumer."
Hangya (Hungary)
" With a view to developing the knowledge of commodities our Union
regularly organises courses of instruction for the managing staff of local
societies and the managers of distributing shops and it does not neglect
the education of apprentices. It has further published a manual for
directors of local societies and another for managers of distributing shops,
which contain a detailed description of the principal commodities and
advice as to their handling. The importance of our efforts in this matter
has been greatly appreciated by the competent authorities and even in
commercial circles. The education of our members is carried out by means
of lectures, films and our official organ. Local societies, moreover,
frequently organise tastings and cooking tests for their members."
The Central Union of Dutch Distributive Co-operative Societies
" The Wholesale Society (Haka) has this year established a practical
school in which the selling staff receives suitable instruction and in which
knowledge of commodities is taught. The Co-operative Press also deals
continually with these questions. Haka also publishes an excellent
cookery book which housewives can obtain by means of coupons
attached to Haka packages."
Union of Distributive Co-operative Societies of the Polish Republic
" In all efforts for the education of our staff emphasis is placed on the
importance of a thorough knowledge of commodities and methods of
control. In 1935, 375 special courses on knowledge of commodities
were held, which were attended by 3,591 persons."
Swedish Co-operative Union (K.F.)
" In the Co-operative Union's School for employees the study of the
composition of goods is given an important place, particularly in the

— 64 —
courses for employees in co-operative stores. As a rule the classes are so
divided that part of the time is devoted to special categories of goods
and the rest to an outline of the physiology of nutrition. The students are
also given the opportunity of studying displays of goods.
" The course of instruction is planned with the object of enabling
the students to advise housewives how to make their purchases most
economically. Attention is therefore focussed not so much on details
of manufacture as on the finished goods and their progress from shop
to the table. In accordance with this policy, cooking lessons are also
included in the course.
" The most important material used in teaching consists in the
displays of goods mentioned above. Publications of various kinds are
also used, such as cookery books, the staff newspaper ' Var Tidning\
Professor von Wendt's books ' Kost och kultur ' (Food and Culture)
and lRakost ocW (Raw Foodstuffs and Raw Preserves) and Mr. Iwan
Bolin's book 'Rainläggning Varnkännedorn for hemmet'' (Knowledge of
Commodities for the Home), etc.
" The Co-operative Union has also sought other means of propagating
knowledge of the composition of goods. For many years past it has
helped to organise women's evenings in the rooms of the co-operative
societies. Certificated teachers of cookery or other competent persons
spend one or two evenings in explaining the manufacture of different
products in the factories and their preparation in the home. In order
to give the members an opportunity of studying the problems of nutrition, a special handbook has been issued, arranged in the form of
question and answer and based on various standard books on the
subject. The members form discussion groups to study the various
problems with the aid of the handbook, and send in answers to some
of the more important questions to the Co-operative Union, which
verifies their accuracy. Some 300 of these study groups with about
3,600 members have been organised up to date. The weekly newspaper " Konsumentbladet ", which has a circulation of about half a
million, often contains articles dealing with the subject. In 1932 the
Co-operative Union founded a research fund, which had a capital of
396,370 Swedish crowns on 1 January 1936, and which it intends to
enlarge in the future in order to enable it to contribute to scientific
research, particularly in the field of nutrition.
" The local societies also try to spread knowledge of the composition
of goods among their members by a variety of means. The women's
evenings and study groups have already been mentioned. The societies
also organise lectures at these meetings from time to time; last year,
for instance, the Stockholm Distributive Co-operative Society organised
lectures on problems of nutrition at all the local meetings, and engaged
the most eminent experts in Stockholm as lecturers. The books on
commercial products issued by the Co-operative Union are also distributed among the staff and members."
Co-operative Union and Wholesale Societies of Switzerland
" The Swiss co-operative movement does a great deal to spread
information about the goods sold among its members, and in particular
among its staff. Among the methods employed are the permanent
courses of the Co-operative Seminar (Bernhard Jaeggi Foundation),
supported by the whole co-operative movement, lectures to the local
societies (staff and members), information spread by the heads of the
Chemical Laboratory and other competent persons, information to
consumers, published in the press, etc."

— 65 —

It should
Societies of
study " On
of its Test

be added that the Go-operative Union and Wholesale
Switzerland has published in French and German a
the knowledge of Goods " prepared by the Director
Laboratory.

Union of State Officials and Consumers' Co-operative Societies (Yugoslavia)

" General education is partly by lectures organised by the different
societies and partly by the co-operative press.
" The Union organises each year in Belgrade fairly long courses for
the training of staff. Exchanges of staff have been introduced in order
that salesmen in small shops may accustom themselves to work in
more important and better organised establishments.
" The Union possesses a ' Milos Stibler fund ' the income of which
is used in sending members of the staff of the Union and the Societies
to improvement courses at home and abroad. There is a special fund
for the instruction of apprentices."
IV. — COLLABORATION BETWEEN THE DISTRIBUTIVE CO-OPERATIVE
ORGANISATIONS AND THE PUBLIC AUTHORITIES

In a certain number of countries the public authorities have
realised the effectiveness of the efforts made by the distributive
co-operative organisations in the matter of food hygiene, and have
not hesitated to recognise their special qualifications to represent
the interests of consumers in this domain. They have accordingly
accepted or invited the collaboration of these organisations in the
preparation or control of measures aiming at the repression of
fraud and adulteration or at promoting general progress in matters
of food.
Mention has already been made of the initiative taken by the
Managing Committee of the General Union of Distributive Cooperative Societies of Finland with a view to obtaining an amendment of the legislation in force relating to the manufacture, import
and trade in food products. The Government having appointed
a Committee to prepare the necessary bill, the General Union of
Distributive Co-operative Societies was represented on this Committee by the Director of the Laboratory of the wholesale society.
In Great Britain the Joint Parliamentary Committee of the
Co-operative Congress has frequently assisted by submitting
voluminous evidence to the Departmental Committee on Food
Laws, and co-operative representatives have frequently been
selected to sit on bodies appointed by the Government to consider
new measures.

— 66 —
In Hungary " Hangya " also states t h a t it participates in the
work of committees and official bodies established for preventing
and repressing frauds, improving the quality of foodstuffs and
preparing the necessary legislative measures.
The Swedish Co-operative Union (K.F.) furnishes the following
information on this point:
" Any proposals for the amendment of the regulations concerning
foodstuffs, whether drafted by the authorities or submitted by the
producers themselves, are usually referred by the Government or other
authorities to the Co-operative Union for its opinion. Any comments
which the Co-operative Union may make on these proposals are taken
into consideration, and representatives of the Union are also invited
to take part in the preliminary discussions.
The Swiss Union of Distributive Co-operative Societies refers to
a similar kind of collaboration:
" By taking part in conferences, and in particular in the preparation
of Federal regulations concerning foodstuffs, the Union is also able to
co-operate in the promotion of official measures to guarantee the quality
of the food and other goods sold."
Finally the Union of State Officials' Distributive Co-operative
Societies, Yugoslavia, also states t h a t in all matters relating to
trade in foodstuffs the public authorities closely collaborate with
the co-operative organisations.