Education Quarterly Reviews

This paper is based on the quantitative findings of a mixed-methods research that explored the effect of internationalisation of higher education (IoHE) on the global citizenship (GC) of graduate students. Specifically, the study sought to find out the effect of internationalisation of academic staff, curriculum, and the student community on the GC of graduate students at Makerere University in Uganda. Using the sequential explanatory research design, data were collected from 180 respondents via a partially-adapted self-administered questionnaire and analysed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings showed, among others, that the IoHE in terms of academic staff (R=0.236; R2=0.056; p=0.01), the curriculum (R=0.250; R2=0.062; p=0.01), and student community (R=0.202; R2=0.041; p=0.007), all had statistically significant positive effects on the GC of graduate students. These findings reinforced the earlier belief that the more internationalised a university is, the more likely its graduate students would become global citizens; thus, significant efforts need to be made to internationalise these, and other aspects of university operations. Indeed, this work presents to university management aspects of IoHE that greatly impinge on the GC of graduate students. No earlier works had similar results in the context of the global south where IoHE has not yet taken root.


Introduction
World over, education is regarded as a critical means to national development and global competitiveness of countries and their graduates (Bloom, David-Canning, & Kevin-Chan, 2014;Sehoole & Knight, 2013;Jowi & Obamba, 2013;Teferra, 2014).This is so especially with graduate education that equips students with skills needed for competitiveness.However, today, it is increasingly becoming important for universities to equip graduates with new competences and skills that will help them to live and work in a rather globalised world.In fact, as globalisation becomes a contemporary reality, higher education institutions (HEIs) have been tasked to produce global citizens.According to UNESCO (2015) and the International Association of Universities [IAU] (2012), higher education (HE) should foment graduates to be critical and ethical thinkers, informed, and socially-connected individuals who are able to promote peace, prosperity, and sustainability in the world.This desire for having HEIs to produce socio-economically relevant graduates has been re-echoed by the UN which emphasises fostering GC as one of the priorities of the Global Education First Initiative [GEFI] (UNESCO, 2014).Consistent with the global demands, the Uganda Vision 2040 (Government of Uganda [GoU], 2012) and the Uganda's Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) sector strategic plan -2007 to 2015 (cited in Makerere University, 2008) -also emphasise the need for having a HE sector that is responsive to the global environment.
Within this context of heightened interest in GC, HEIs world over have attempted to incorporate into their core activities, the international dimension of educating students.Consistent with this global trend, Makerere University has equally taken a strategic move towards internationalisation (see, Makerere University, 2008).However, hitherto, the nexus between her effort to internationalise and the GC of her graduates have not been sufficiently scrutinized.Elsewhere, Lilley, Barker, and Harris (2014) have argued that internationalisation of education is a key priority of universities today; yet, its benefits to students has persistently remained a lesser priority in many HEIs.Clifford (2009) has as well claimed that the concept of internationalisation as being for preparing students to "live and work in an internationalised multi-cultural world are less frequently discussed" (p.134).In this paper, however, the authors have considered how an internationalised HE in terms of academic staff, curriculum, and the community of students can be predictors of the GC of graduate students.
Theoretically, this study was anchored on the Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) advanced by Mezirow in 1991.According to the theory, new values, beliefs, and meanings are created or existing ones strengthened through an educational experience.The theory focuses on how people learn to negotiate to confront unfamiliar situations, to evaluate their values and those of others, understand social complexity through strong values of tolerance, social justice, and equality (Mezirow, 2000).It also considers how informed, free human choice, critical thinking, moral reasoning, self-awareness, and empathy are used as the outcomes of an educational experience.The theory assumes that learners become more liberated, socially responsible, and autonomous thinkers who are able to make informed decisions by becoming more critically reflective as dialogic thinkers through their engagement in a social context (Mezirow, 1991).In this regard, Mezirow opined that experience is the starting point for transformation and reflective dialogue; but practice is the ultimate evidence that transformation has occurred.From this theoretical point of view, the researchers hypothesized that students' experience with internationalised academic staff, curriculum, and other students of international status in various university activities has the potential to transform their beliefs and knowledge; thus, making them able to see and interpret the world from the local and global perspective -a hunch that this study intended to verify from the beginning.The TLT was also preferred in the study because it has been severally used in such research circumstances by other scholars (see, e.g., Clifford & Montgomery, 2015;Hanson, 2010;Lilley, 2013;Lilley et al., 2015) to gain a deeper insight into the impact of IoHE on GC.
Conceptually, this study focused on two key variables: internationalisation of higher education (IoHE) and global citizenship (GC).The concept IoHE has been variously defined by different scholars, but perhaps the most acceptable of those definitions is the one given by Knight (2008).Knight defined IoHE as a process of integrating an international, inter-cultural, and global dimension into the functions and delivery of HE.This definition looks at internationalisation in its totality -highlighting both cross border-education and other internationalisation activities at home.Drawing from Knight (2008), IoHE in this study was conceived to mean the integration of international, inter-cultural and global dimensions into the delivery of university programmes at Makerere University with the view of helping students develop international awareness and inter-cultural skills that can enable them to live and work in today's globalised world.But, the study also considered the conceptualisation of IoHE by Gao of 2015.According to Gao, IoHE is a multi-dimensional concept which looks at the different aspects of HE delivery including: governance and organizational support, students, academic staff, curriculum, and research and community engagement dimensions.In this study, however, IoHE was restricted and looked at in terms of the internationalisation of academic staff, curriculum, and student community.
According to Gao (2015), Sanderson (2008) and Brigham (2011), academic staff internationalisation refers to the way by which the academic team is internationalised and how the members of the academic staff integrate global and inter-cultural perspectives in their teaching process.In that regard, internationalisation of academic staff in this study was looked at in terms of: presence of international staff, global experience, and perspectives of academic staff, acknowledgment and response to diversity by academic staff, use of foreign experiences to deliver lessons, use of international academic resources, and appreciation of cultural differences and openmindedness of the academic staff.
Meanwhile, the internationalisation of curriculum generally refers to the incorporation of an international and inter-cultural dimensions into the content of the curriculum as well as the teaching and learning processes and support services of a programme of study (Leask, 2009).In this study, however, internationalisation of the curriculum was characterised by the incorporation of international perspective into the content of what must be taught and learnt (e.g., International languages, international courses, and comparative studies) as well as the conducting of joint teaching with an international university, and conducting of compulsory international internships.
The third aspect of IoHE that was studied was the internationalisation of the student community.According to Gao (2015) and Spencer-Oatey and Dauber (2017), student community internationalisation refers to the campus programmes and activities that bring about the integration of local and international students.In this study, student community internationalisation was looked at in terms of those activities which had the presence of international students such as international internships, workshops, conferences, joint national and international orientation programmes as well as clubs and associations that provide for the mixture of domestic and international students.
The other key concept that was looked at in this study was global citizenship (GC).This is also another concept which is difficult to define or be understood perhaps because the debates surrounding its meanings are still ongoing.But according to Nussbaum (1997), GC refers to the condition of giving one's primary loyalty to human beings irrespective of where they are in the world.This view about GC was also re-echoed by UNESCO in 2015 when it conceptualised it as a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity.It is this meaning of GC that was adopted for this study.According to Morais and Ogden (2011), feeling a sense of belonging to a broader community involves individuals and communities taking social responsibility for the events happening in the world.It also involves individuals developing global competence and engaging in global civic activities wherever they are in the world.In this study, the researchers borrowed this conceptual model and looked at the GC of graduate students at Makerere University in terms of their ability and willingness to take up social responsibility, engage in global civic activities, and develop competences that can enable them to live and work in any part of the world.
According to Morais and Ogden (2011), social responsibility refers to the individual's concern for others and for the environment.In this regard, socially responsible students are those that evaluate social issues and identify with efforts against global injustice.They also respect diverse perspectives and promote an ethos of social service to address issues with the understanding of the inter-connectedness between local behaviours and their global consequences.In this study, the social responsibility of graduate students was characterised by: awareness of social responsibility, global justice, and altruism and empathy.Global competence, on the other hand, refers to having an open-mind that actively seeks to understand other people's cultural norms and expectations (Morais & Ogden, 2011).According to these two scholars, globally competent students recognise their own strengths and limitations in engaging in inter-cultural encounters; demonstrate an array of inter-cultural communication skills; have the ability to engage in inter-cultural encounters successfully, and display interest in knowing about world issues and events.In this study, however, global competence was looked at in terms of the level of student's selfawareness, inter-cultural communication, and global knowledge.The third dimension of global citizenship that was looked at in this study was global civic engagement.According to Morais and Ogden (2011) again, global civic engagement refers to the demonstration of action and pre-disposition of individuals and groups towards recognised local, national, and global community issues, and how they respond to such issues through actions like volunteerism, political activism, and community participation.In this study, global civic engagement of graduate students at Makerere University was looked at in terms of their involvement in civic activities, local civic activism, and in having a political voice.

Problem
Contextually, this study took place at Makerere University in Uganda.It was premised on the realisation that the creation of global citizens is now a widely recognised university responsibility (Boni & Calbuig, 2015;Hanson, 2010).Yet, the efforts by universities in Uganda -Makerere in particular, to internationalise seemed not to have yielded sufficient dividends.In spite of the various activities aimed at internationalisation at Makerere, some studies provide a reason for worrying about the GC of its graduates (see, e.g., IUCEA, 2014;Kanyeheyo, 2015).Implied in these findings could be that the University's desire to produce graduates who are relevant in the globalised environment is not being effectively met.This points to a question: is internationalisation at Makerere University giving students the global outlook that the University aspires to give them?

Study objectives
This study was generally intended to explore the effect of IoHE on the GC of graduate students at Makerere University.But specifically, the study aimed at achieving the following objectives: 1.To establish the effect of internationalisation of academic staff (IoAS) on the GC of graduate students; 2. To find out the effect of internationalisation of the curriculum (IoC) on the GC of graduate students; and 3. To ascertain the effect of internationalizsation of the student community (IoSC) on the GC of graduate students at Makerere University.

Related Literature
Various scholars have already looked at the impact of IoHE on the GC of students in different contexts (see, e.g., Childress, 2010;Coryell, Spencer, and Sehin, 2014;Leask, 2013;Lilley, 2013).However, each of these scholars approached the issue of GC of students arising from internationalisation from different theoretical underpinnings and contextual perspectives.The current study was underpinned by the transformative learning theory of Mezirow (1991).In a qualitative study by Lilley (2013) which explored what being and becoming a global citizen meant in the contemporary university, the finding showed that academic staff indeed acted as cosmopolitan role models since they influenced the students' understanding of global issues.The study revealed that the academic staff was able to do this by encouraging comparative learning of issues by students.Several other studies that looked at the impact of IoAS on the GC of students, for example, revealed related findings; that is, IoAS positively impacts on the GC behavior of university students.However, there were a few scholars whose study findings disagreed with this view (see, e.g., Davies, 2006;Williams & Lee, 2015;Schuerholz-Lehr, 2007).
According to Davies (2006), meanwhile, when academic staff are overwhelmed by workloads, they are constrained to effectively impact on the GC of their students as much of their time is spent away on teaching.In addition, though the academic staff may be willing to engage their learners in international issues, they may lack the necessary skills for adding any meaningful international dimension to their courses (Leask, 2011).These contentions imply that there is still disagreement amongst scholars on the roles academic staff play in enhancing the GC of the students their students.In this study, an attempt was made to explore these controversies and to verify whether the IoAS significantly affects or not the GC of graduate students at Makerere University.
The other aspect of IoHE and GC that was investigated to some extent is the internationalisation of the curriculum (IoC).According to scholars like Boni and Calbuig (2015) and Coryel et al. (2014), IoC equally has a significant positive effect on the GC of university students.In a qualitative study by Boni and Calabuig of 2015 on the behaviors of students who were exposed to an internationalised curriculum, for example, it was reported that an international curriculum offered the students a framework to interpret the world, and to reflect and think about the social injustices in it.In the same study, it was revealed that the courses offered in the internationalised curriculum made the students to develop an open-mind; and it also widened their horizons about international issues.In fact, the students reported that the curriculum helped them to be built as persons, as professionals, and as citizens who can claim their rightful places in society.In spite of the established effect of IoC on GC of students, the above studies had methodological biases towards the qualitative approaches.Besides, the majority of the studies were largely conducted in the global north; thus, necessitating the need for such a study in the global south.
The third aspect of IoHE that was dealt with in this study was the IoSC.There is already substantial research in this area especially with respect to the effect of IoSC on the GC of students (see, e.g., Denson & Zhang, 2010;Lilley, 2013;Killick, 2012).According to Schaper and Mayson (2004), an internationalised student body benefits the students in diverse ways.First, the students benefit in terms of cultural diversity.Second, it can help in the break-down of national myopia among students; and in providing an opportunity for a multi-cultural, cross-cultural, and culturally inclusive teaching and learning environment.In yet another study by Denson and Zhang (2010) that was conducted among 5,464 graduate students in Australia, it was discovered that student interaction with diverse cultures had a significant positive effect on their appreciation of, and respect for diversity.This prompted the two researchers to recommend that HEIs should play a critical role in fostering a positive inter-cultural interaction amongst students of all levels and backgrounds.On the contrary, scholars like Green (2005), Harrison and Peacock (2013), Lunn (2008), andMontgomery (2009) in their different studies on the IoSC obtained contradictory findings to that of Denson and Zhang (2010) and Lilley (2013).Most of their studies, in fact, revealed that there were low levels of interest and participation by students in on-and offcampus international activities, which resulted into low levels of GC among university students.These contradictions and the earlier gaps highlighted in literature prompted the current researchers to generate the following research hypotheses that were verified in this study: H1: IoAS has a significant effect on the GC of graduate students.H2: IoC has a significant effect on the GC of graduate students.H3: IoSC has a significant effect on the GC of graduate students.

Methodology
This study was a mixed-methods study in which the sequential explanatory research design was employed.This meant that the study began with the collection of quantitative data before the qualitative ones were later collected.This design was opted for to enable a deeper understanding of the issues under investigation.In this paper, the researchers have presented only the quantitative results of the study.In the study, data were collected from a sample of 180 graduate students drawn from the various colleges of the University using stratified random sampling technique.However, to get a representative sample of the target population, colleges were stratified according to Biglan's (1973) classifications of disciplinary fields in higher education.As a result, four college strata, namely: hard-pure, hard-applied, soft-pure, and soft-applied, were created and from which the study respondents were drawn.Data were collected with the use of a partially adapted self-administered questionnaire which was prior tested for its validity and reliability.The results of the reliability test were as follows: IoAS (12 items, α=0.73),IoC (12 items, α=0.67),IoSC (11 items, α=0.79), global social responsibility (15 items, α =0.90), global competence (12 items, α =0.89), and global civic engagement (17 items, α=0.83).This questionnaire was considered to be reliable for as Cronbach (cited in Bakkabulindi, 2011) put it, any reliability alpha coefficients above 0.5 would indicate an acceptably reliable instrument.In this case, all items on the questionnaire -except those in the background were continuous and were each scaled on a five-point Likert scale whereby: 1 = Strongly Disagree (SD), 2 = Disagree (D), 3 = Not Sure (NS), 4 = Agree (A), and 5 = Strongly Agree (SA).This meant, therefore, that a higher score indicated higher levels of IoHE or GC, and viceversa.The data collected by using the said questionnaire were then analysed and presented using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Background Characteristics of Respondents
In this study, data were collected from a sample of 180 respondents.These were all graduate students drawn from six of the nine colleges and the School of Law of Makerere University.In terms of sex distribution, male respondents (109 or 60%) dominated in the study.This was in tandem with the enrolment data, which showed that there were more male graduate students than their female counterparts at the University -an inequality that needs to be separately addressed.In terms of disciplinary fields, the majority of the participants were drawn from the soft-applied (59 or 32.8%) and followed by soft-pure (41 or 28.8%) disciplines.These were followed by respondents from the hard-applied (49 or 27.2%) and then hard-pure (25 or 17.2%) disciplines.This finding was also in line with the enrolment distribution of graduate students in the different colleges in the Universitywhere more students were enrolled in the humanities and the social science programmes than in the natural sciences.Regarding the nationality of the study participants, the national students (154 or 85.6%) dominated in the sample as compared to the international ones (26 or 14.4%).This was not strange because there are more local students than their international counterparts.Finally, concerning travels abroad, the majority (62.3% or 112) of the study participants had never traveled abroad before enrolling on their current study programmes.This implied that the students' prior exposure to international issues was likely limited; and therefore, any change in their global citizenship could have been as a result of their participation on the graduate programmes and other activities of the University.

Summary of Descriptive Statistics on the Dependent Variable -Global Citizenship (GC)
On the basis of Morais and Odgen's (2011) conceptual model, GC was looked at in terms of the student's global social responsibility [SR] (15 items), global competence [GCo] (12 items), and their global civic engagement [GCE) (17 items).During the study, respondents were asked to express their opinions on several items measuring GC using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=Strongly Disagree (SD) to 5=Strongly Agree (SA).
Table 1 presents the descriptive results on SR as the first domain of GC.The results in Table 1 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' SR at the University with an overall mean response rate of 4.20 that corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of respondents agreed with all the items measuring SR with more or less similar standard deviations.This suggested that the respondents rated 'high' their levels of SR.
Global competence (GCo) was the second dimension of GC that was looked at in this study.In Table 2, the summary of descriptive results on GCo was presented.The results in Table 2 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' GCo at the University with an overall mean response rate of 3.77, which also corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of the respondents agreed with all -except one item (fluency in international languages) measuring GCo with more or less similar standard deviations.This also suggested that the respondents rated 'high' their levels of GCo.
The third dimension of GC that was looked at in this study was the global civic engagement (GCE) of graduate students.In Table 3, the summary of descriptive results on GCE was presented.The results in Table 3 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' GCE at the University with an overall mean response rate of 4.08 that corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of respondents agreed will all the items measuring GCE with more or less similar standard deviations.This suggested that the respondents rated 'high' their levels of GCE.
To find the overall image of how the respondents rated their views, opinions, and feelings on their GC, an average index termed GC was computed out of the three dimensions of GC that were looked at in the study; thus, GC = (SR+GCo+GCE)/3.On the basis of data presented in Tables 1 to 3, it emerged that at the 95 percent confidence level, respondents overall rated their GC to be 'high' with a corresponding mean response rate of 4.03, median of 3.97, and a standard deviation of 0.344.This implied that there was normal distribution of respondents' views or opinions on GC, which overall rated it as being high (Agree).

Summary of the Descriptive Statistics on the Independent Variable -IoHE
On the basis of Gao's (2011) conceptual model, IoHE was conceptualised in terms of: internationalisation of academic staff [IoAS] (12 items), internationalisation of the curriculum [IoC] (12 items), and the internationalisation of the student community [IoSC] (11 items).Again, respondents were asked to express their opinions on several items that measured IoHE using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=Strongly Disagree (SD) to 5=Strongly Agree (SA).The descriptive results on IoAS -the first dimension of IoHE, were presented in Table 4.

.643 Agree
My course instructors invite scholars from outside Uganda to give us lectures.

.711 Agree
The results in Table 4 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' IoAS at the University with an overall mean response rate of 3.91 which also corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of respondents agreed with all -except two items (some of my course instructors are from outside countries, and my University receives visiting lectures from universities abroad) measuring IoAS with more or less similar standard deviations.This also suggested that the respondents rated 'high' the level of IoAS at the University.
The second dimension of IoHE that was looked at in this study was the internationalisation of the university curriculum (IoC).The summary of descriptive results on IoC was presented in Table 5.

.776 Agree
The courses I have covered have exposed me to knowledge about different global issues.

.622 Agree
The results in Table 5 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' IoC at the University with an overall mean response rate of 3.66, which also corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of the respondents agreed with all -except three items (I have studied an additional internationally used language during the course of my programme; I am pursuing a degree that is jointly taught with another university outside Uganda; and internship outside Uganda is a compulsory aspect of my study programme) measuring IoC with more or less similar standard deviations.This also suggested that the respondents rated 'relatively high' the level of IoC at the University.The third and last dimension of IoHE that was looked at in this study was the internationalisation of the student community (IoSC).The summary of descriptive results on IoSC was presented in Table 6.The results in Table 6 showed a favourable rating of graduate students' IoSC at the University with an overall mean response rate of 3.91, which also corresponded to Agree on the Likert-scale used.The majority of respondents agreed with all -except two items (At my University, students are encouraged to do their internship from countries outside Uganda; and the University provides funding for student organisations to sponsor crossborder activities) measuring IoSC with more or less similar standard deviations.This also suggested that the respondents rated 'high' the level of IoSC at the University.
To find the overall image of how the respondents rated their views, opinions, and feelings on the IoHE at Makererre University, an average index termed IoHE was computed out of the three dimensions of IoHE that were looked at in the study; thus, IoHE = (IoAS+IoC+IoSC)/3.Based on the data provided in Tables 4 to 6, it emerged that at the 95 percent confidence level, respondents overall rated the IoHE at the University to be 'high' with a corresponding mean response rate of 3.91, median of 3.82, and a standard deviation of 0.397.This implied that there was a normal distribution of respondents' views or opinions on IoHE, which overall was rated as being high (Agree).

Test of Hypotheses
The researchers set out to verify three research hypotheses, as stated in the literature review section.In-line, the following null hypotheses were derived: H01: IoAS has no significant effect on the GC of graduate students.H02: IoC has no significant effect on the GC of graduate students.H03: IoSC has no significant effect on the GC of graduate students.
To test these null hypotheses, the researchers used simple linear regression analysis technique where the individual effects of each aspect of IoHE on GC of graduate students were established.Before the regression analyses, the researchers generated indices to measure each of the research variables basing on the descriptive results that had earlier on been computed.Then, the index measuring the dependent variable (GC) was regressed against the different dimensions of IoHE (i.e., IoAS, IoC, & IoSC) -the independent variables.The summary of results of the regression analyses was presented in Table 7.The results in Table 7 showed that: first, there was a significant relationships between each aspect of IoHE and the GC of graduate students at Makerere University (see for IoAS: B=0.236; IoC: B=0.250; IoSC: B=0.202).Second, each aspect of IoHE had a significant positive effect on the GC of graduate students (see IoAS: R 2 =0.056, p=0.001<0.05;IoC: R 2 =0.062, p=0.001<0.05:IoSC: R 2 =0.041, p=0.007<0.05).Therefore, all the three null hypotheses were rejected and their alternative hypotheses accepted.Literally, this meant that increased internationalisation of the academic staff, curriculum, and the student community led to better GC of graduate students and the reverse was likely true.

Discussion
This study explored the effect of IoHE on the GC of graduate students at Makerere University.From the study, three key findings emerged.First, the study established that the IoAS significantly affects the GC of graduate students.Second, it was also found out that IoC significantly affects the GC of graduate students.Lastly, the study also found out that the IoSC as well significantly affects the GC of graduate students.The finding that IoAS significantly affects the GC of graduate students supports Mezirow's theoretical claim in the TLT that new values, beliefs, and meanings are created or existing ones strengthened through an educational experience.This could suggest that the higher the IoAS, the more likely that their students would develop higher levels of GC and the reverse would likely be true.This finding also corroborated that of the earlier researchers (see, e.g., Coryell et al., 2014;Lilley, 2013;Simpson et al., 2014) that came up with similar findings.Based on the findings of this and other previous researches, therefore, it seems clear that for an educational institution to train students who are socially responsible, globally competent, and civically engaged globally, an internationalised academic team is vital.
Second, the finding that IoC significantly affects the GC of graduate students equally supports and validates Mezirow's theoretical stance which posits that new values, beliefs, and meanings are created or existing ones strengthened through an educational experience.This could suggest that the more internationalised a curriculum becomes, there is more likelihood of higher GC levels of the students exposed to such a curriculum.This finding also corroborated that of the earlier researchers (see, e.g., Boni & Calabuig, 2015;Hanson, 2010;Schattle, 2009) with similar arguments.Regardless of the noted Internationalisation of the curriculum directions at Makerere University, this study found out that international languages, joint teaching, and international internships, proposed by scholars such as Gao (2015) and Knight (2004;2008) as important elements of IoC, were not manifested at Makerere University (see Table 6).This suggests that any global citizenship attribute accruing from these may not necessarily be achieved by students.
Finally, the finding that IoSC significantly affects the GC of graduate students is in consonant with Schaper and Mayson's ( 2004) observation that having an internationalised community of students at a university has several benefits including breaking down of national myopia and creating an opportunity for a multicultural, crosscultural, and culturally inclusive teaching/learning environment.Again, like Killick (2012) argued, the experiences mentioned in this study, point to the potential for students to walk among others as they journey through their university lives, and in taking such steps, they are engaging in a process of becoming global citizens.This finding again resonates with other earlier researchers (see, e.g., Coryell et al., 2013;Henderst & Sperandio, 2009;Parsons, 2010) that got similar findings about the effect of IoSC on the GC of students as being significant and positive as well.In other words, the more internationalised the student community becomes, the more likely that students will be nurtured into global citizens.

Conclusions and Recommendations
In this article, the researchers explored the effect of IoHE (especially the three dimensions highlighted by Gao: IoAS, IoC, & IoSC) on the GC of graduate students.With the findings presented in this article, the researchers affirm that IoHE matters in augmenting the GC of graduate students.Indeed, the finding that IoAS significantly affects the GC of graduate students has accentuated the central role played by academic staff in enhancing GC amongst learners.Contextually, therefore, this study concluded that for the academic staff to inculcate the spirit of GC among the students they teach, integrating the international aspects of teaching and learning is critical.In fact, academic staff need not to abandon their traditional teaching styles, however, for their students to graduate as global citizens, they are encouraged to integrate international, comparative, and global perspectives in their teaching processes.This would help their learners to graduate as workers who are well knowledgeable about the world; and hence, able to practice anywhere in the world, while participating in world developments.
Second, the finding that IoC significantly affects the GC of graduate students has stressed the importance of the curriculum as an essential vehicle for the development of GC amongst graduate students.This study, therefore, concluded that integrating international aspects into the curriculum is essential if universities have to produce graduates who have the ability to locate themselves in the world by being responsible for their actions in the local and global community, having an awareness of world developments that affect humanity, and by participating in both local and global civic activities that make the world a better place for all humanity.It was thus recommended that curriculum developers need to ensure that students do not only learn about their local environments, but the globalized world as well.
Finally, the finding that IoSC significantly affects the GC of graduate students has emphasised the potential of an internationalised student community in the development of GC amongst learners.In conclusion, this study's finding suggests that a student community with students of different cultural backgrounds, with programmes and activities that enhance the interaction of these students, is essential in any university's attempt to train graduates who promote an ethos of social responsibility, an understanding of world issues and inter-connectedness, and participating locally and globally in activities that affect humanity.Therefore, it is important to establish intercultural communities within the university community of students composed of students from different countries and cultural communities.It is, however, not enough to have a multi-cultural community, Makerere and other universities should encourage programmes that enable domestic and international students to fully interact and integrate through a variety of opportunities such as student organisations and inter-cultural activities.These would enable universities to consolidate the idea of producing global citizens.

Table 1 .
Descriptive Statistics on Social Responsibility (SR)

Table 4 .
Descriptive Statistics on Internationalisation of Academic Staff (IoAS)

Table 5 .
Descriptive statistics on internationalisation of the curriculum (IoC)

Table 6 :
Descriptive Statistics on the Internationalisation of the Student Community (Iosc)