Transformational Leadership Scale

Transformational Leadership Scale (TLS) - Multidimensional Measure

TLS
MLQ
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

The Transformational Leadership Scale (TLS), operationalized in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), was developed by Bass and Avolio (1985, 1991) to measure leadership styles across a continuum from transactional to transformational. Transformational leadership comprises four dimensions: idealized influence (role modeling and inspiration), inspirational motivation (articulating compelling vision), intellectual stimulation (encouraging innovation), and individualized consideration (personalized development). The scale has become foundational in organizational psychology and management research for understanding leadership effectiveness and organizational outcomes.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1991). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Form 5X. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

servant-leadership-scale organizational-justice-scale psychological-safety-scale organizational-commitment-scale job-satisfaction-survey


Transformative Mixed Methods Design

Transformative Mixed Methods Research Design

transformative design
advocacy mixed methods
emancipatory mixed methods
social-justice mixed methods

Donna M. Mertens; John W. Creswell & Vicki L. Plano Clark

Transformative mixed methods design embeds a social-justice or advocacy theoretical framework — such as feminism, critical race theory, disability studies, or indigenous worldviews — as the overarching lens that guides every decision about data collection, integration, and use. Both quantitative and qualitative strands serve the goal of advancing equity, challenging power structures, and producing actionable knowledge for marginalized communities.

Quantitative data (surveys, tests, instruments) and qualitative data (interviews, focus groups, documents)

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3rd ed.). Sage.

Mertens, D. M. (2009). Transformative Research and Evaluation. Guilford Press.


Transformer

Transformer Model for Natural Language Processing

Transformer Modeli (NLP)
attention-based language model
self-attention network
transformer NLP

The Transformer is an attention-based deep learning model, introduced by Vaswani and colleagues in 2017, that performs text classification, named-entity recognition, and language modelling by letting every token in a sequence attend directly to every other token. It replaced earlier recurrent designs with a self-attention mechanism that processes whole sequences in parallel.

Text classification, NER, language modelling

Vaswani, A. et al. (2017). Attention Is All You Need. NeurIPS.

random-forest xgboost autoencoder logistic-regression


Transit Photometry

Transit Photometry Method for Exoplanet Detection

Photometric Transit Method
Planetary Transit Detection

Transit photometry is an observational technique that detects exoplanets by monitoring the periodic dips in stellar brightness as planets cross in front of their host stars. First systematized by William Borucki in 1984, this method became the most successful exoplanet detection technique, with the Kepler space telescope discovering thousands of confirmed exoplanets using this approach.

Borucki, W. J., & Summers, A. L. (1984). The photometric method of detecting other planetary systems. Astrophysical Journal, 281, 537-553.

Fressin, F., et al. (2013). The false positive rate for Kepler and the validation of Kepler objects of interest. Astrophysical Journal, 766(2), 81.

Charbonneau, D., Brown, T. M., Latham, D. W., & Mayor, M. (2000). Detection of planetary transits across a sun-like star. Astrophysical Journal, 529(1), L45-L48.


Transmission Disequilibrium Test

Transmission Disequilibrium Test for Family-based Association Analysis

The Transmission Disequilibrium Test (TDT) is a family-based statistical method for testing genetic association with disease or traits while inherently controlling for population stratification. Developed by Spielman and Ewens in 1993, the TDT examines whether an allele is preferentially transmitted from heterozygous parents to affected children compared to unaffected children. By comparing transmission patterns within families, the TDT avoids the confounding effects of population structure that plague case-control studies, making it particularly valuable in admixed or stratified populations.

Spielman, R. S., McGinnis, R. E., & Ewens, W. J. (1993). Transmission test for linkage disequilibrium. American Journal of Human Genetics, 52(3), 506–516.

Sham, P. C. (1998). Statistics in human genetics. London: Arnold.

Laird, N. M., & Lange, C. (2006). Family-based designs in the age of large-scale gene-association studies. Nature Reviews Genetics, 7(5), 385–394.

qtl-mapping polygenic-risk-score f-statistics ibd-mapping


Transmission-Line Matrix Method

Transmission-Line Matrix Method for Electromagnetic Simulation

The Transmission-Line Matrix (TLM) method is a direct discretization of Maxwell equations using an equivalent transmission line network. Introduced by Johns and Beurle in 1971, TLM models electromagnetic fields as voltage and current waves propagating on coupled transmission lines. The method is intuitive, numerically stable, and efficient for both transient and frequency-domain electromagnetic problems. TLM remains competitive with FDTD and FIT for many RF and microwave applications.

Transmission line network analogous to electromagnetic fields

Johns, P. B., & Beurle, R. L. (1971). Numerical solution of 2-D scattering problems using a transmission-line calculator. Proceedings of the IEE, 118(9), 1203-1208.

Johns, P. B. (1987). A symmetrical condensed node for the TLM method. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 35(4), 370-377.

Christopoulos, C. (1995). The Transmission-Line Modeling Method: TLM. IEEE Press.


Stages of Change Questionnaire

Transtheoretical Model Stages of Change Scale

James O. Prochaska and Carlo C. DiClemente

The Transtheoretical Model (TTM), also called the Stages of Change model, is a framework developed by James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente in 1983 to understand how people modify problematic behaviors and adopt healthier ones. The central premise is that behavior change is not an all-or-nothing event but a process that unfolds over time through distinct, recognizable stages: Precontemplation (not considering change), Contemplation (thinking about change), Preparation (planning to change), Action (actively modifying behavior), and Maintenance (sustaining change). The Stages of Change questionnaire assesses which stage an individual occupies, enabling clinicians and researchers to match interventions to readiness level. This framework is widely applied in smoking cessation, substance abuse treatment, diet change, exercise adoption, and mental health treatment.

Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390-395.

Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102-1114.


Transwell Assay

Boyden chamber assay
chemotaxis assay
invasion chamber assay

The Transwell assay (also called the Boyden chamber assay after its originator Stephen Boyden) is a quantitative method for measuring cell migration and invasion in response to chemical gradients or through matrix barriers. The assay uses a membrane insert with defined pore size suspended in a multi-well plate: cells are placed in the upper chamber, a chemoattractant is placed in the lower chamber, and cells that successfully migrate through the pores accumulate in the lower chamber, where they can be counted or visualized. Variants that coat the insert with matrix proteins (Matrigel, collagen) enable measurement of invasion capacity. The Transwell assay is a gold-standard method in cell biology for evaluating cell motility, tumor metastatic potential, and the effects of growth factors and inhibitory compounds.

Boyden, S. (1962). The chemotactic effect of mixtures of antibody and antigen on polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 115(3), 453-466.

Albini, A., Iwama, Y., Odaka, C., & Bomstein, P. (1987). Exogenous ATIII inhibits basic fibroblast growth factor-induced angiogenesis in vitro. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 84(17), 6142-6146.

Kramer, N., Walzl, A., Unger, C., et al. (2013). In vitro cell migration and invasion assays. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 752(2), 142-195.

scratch-wound-assay live-dead-assay cam-assay mtt-mts-assay


TF-CBT
trauma-focused therapy
PTSD treatment

Judith A. Cohen, Anthony P. Mannarino, Esther Deblinger

Trauma-Focused Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) is a structured, manualized psychotherapy designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and trauma-related symptoms in children, adolescents, and adults. Developed by Judith Cohen, Anthony Mannarino, and Esther Deblinger beginning in 1998, TF-CBT is now an evidence-based first-line treatment for PTSD with demonstrated efficacy across diverse trauma types and populations.

Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2006). Treating trauma and traumatic grief in children and adolescents. Guilford Press.

Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2017). Trauma-focused CBT for children and adolescents: Treatment applications. Guilford Press.


Travel Cost Method

TCM
Recreation Demand Model
Zonal Travel Cost

The Travel Cost Method (TCM), developed by Harold Hotelling in 1949 and formalized by Marion Clawson and Jack Knetsch in the 1960s, is an econometric approach for valuing recreational sites and environmental amenities by inferring value from the travel costs (transportation, time, entry fees) that people incur to visit them. The core principle is that distance traveled and travel costs reveal how much people value a recreation site: those traveling far incur high costs, implying high value.

Revealed preference recreation demand model

Hotelling, H. (1949). An Economic Study of the Monetary Valuation of Recreation in the National Parks. U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service.

Clawson, M., & Knetsch, J. L. (1966). Economics of Outdoor Recreation. Johns Hopkins Press.

English, D. B., Kellogg, F. W., & Larson, D. M. (2003). Estimating the Value of Protecting Forests from Fire. Journal of Forest Economics, 9(3), 51–73.


Travel Motivation Scale

The Travel Motivation Scale (TMS) measures the underlying reasons and psychological drivers that prompt individuals to take vacations and choose specific destinations. Developed by Crompton (1979) and Iso-Ahola (1982), and theoretically grounded in push–pull motivation theory, the TMS operationalizes intrinsic motivations (escape from routine, self-discovery, social connection) and destination-specific attractions (beaches, cultural sites, activities). Understanding travel motivation is central to destination positioning, experience design, and visitor segmentation, as different motivational profiles require different marketing messages and service configurations.

Plog, S. C. (1974). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58.

Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424.

Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1982). Toward a social psychological theory of tourism motivation: A rejoinder. Annals of Tourism Research, 9(2), 256-262.

Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 132-140.

tourist-satisfaction-scale destination-image-scale place-attachment-scale perceived-value-scale-tourism travel-motivation-scale


TMQ

The TMQ is a self-report instrument designed to measure motivation for substance abuse treatment and predict treatment engagement and outcomes. Developed by Simpson and colleagues in the context of the Drug Outcome Research Study (DORS), the TMQ assesses both intrinsic motivation (desire to address problems, commitment to change) and perceived barriers to treatment engagement. The TMQ is useful in addiction treatment settings to identify individuals with high versus low treatment motivation and to tailor motivational interventions accordingly.

Ryan, G. W., & Wagner, E. F. (2010). Operator and stakeholder engagement in participatory research and evaluation of addiction treatment programs: A systematic review. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 5(1), 21.

Simpson, D. D. (1997). Effectiveness of drug treatment: a review of research findings from the Drug Outcome Research Study (DORS). Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 25(1–2), 15–38.

readiness-to-change-questionnaire brief-addiction-monitor sadq dudit


The Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire for Medication (TSQM) is a 14-item generic measure developed by Atkinson and colleagues in 2004 to assess patient satisfaction with medication across diverse therapeutic areas and disease conditions. It measures four key dimensions—Effectiveness, Side Effects, Convenience, and Global Satisfaction—with standardized 0–100 scoring, making it suitable for cross-disease comparison and health economic evaluation. The TSQM has become a standard outcome in pharmaceutical research, clinical trials, and real-world medication effectiveness studies.

Atkinson, M. J., Sinha, A., Hass, S. L., Colman, S. S., Kumar, R. N., Berman, B. M., & Wolpert, B. (2004). Validation of a general measure of treatment satisfaction, the Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire for Medication (TSQM), using a national panel of chronically ill individuals. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 2(1), 12.


Tree Height Measurement

Dendrometric Height Assessment and Vertical Structure Quantification

Dendrometric height
Tree elevation measurement
Stand height determination

Bitterlich and classical forestry mensuration

Tree height measurement—determining the vertical distance from ground to tree top—is a cornerstone of forest inventory and biomass estimation. Ranging from classical optical instruments (clinometer, Abney level) to modern laser hypsometers and airborne LiDAR, tree height quantification enables calculation of volume, biomass, site index (productivity), and forest structural characterization essential for management, research, and carbon accounting.

Bitterlich, W. (1984). The Relascope Idea: Relative Measurements in Forestry. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.

Loetsch, F., Zöhrer, F., & Haller, K. E. (1973). Forest Inventory. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft.

Larjavaara, M., & Muller-Landau, H. C. (2013). Measuring Tree Height: A Quantitative Comparison of Two Common Field Methods in a Moist Tropical Forest. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 4(9), 793–801.

Parker, G. G., Harding, D. J., & Berger, M. L. (2004). Ground-Based LiDAR: A New Tool for Forest Science. Bioscience, 54(10), 961–970.

forest-inventory-sampling stand-basal-area-measurement allometric-biomass-equation canopy-cover-estimation


Tree Testing

Reverse Card Sort
Card Sorting Validation

Tree Testing is a quantitative, task-based validation method for evaluating information architecture and navigation structures. Users are presented with a text-only representation of a website or app hierarchy (a tree) and asked to locate specific items or complete tasks by clicking through the structure. Unlike card sorting, which reveals user mental models during design, tree testing validates whether a proposed structure allows users to find items efficiently. The method captures success rate, time-to-completion, and paths taken, providing metrics for comparing navigation designs.

Task-based testing of navigation structures

Tullis, T., Fleischman, S., McNulty, M., Ciccone, C., & Bergel, M. (2002). An empirical comparison of lab and remote usability testing of web sites. In Proceedings of the Usability Professionals Association Annual Conference.

Katz, S. J., & Macleod, M. C. (2014). Optimal usability testing using tree testing. Journal of Usability Studies, 9(2), 50–69.

card-sorting first-click-testing heuristic-evaluation contextual-inquiry


Trend Research

trend study
trend survey
longitudinal trend study
time-series survey

Mid-20th century (formalised in social science methodology ~1950s–1960s)

Earl Babbie and survey research tradition

Trend research is a longitudinal quantitative design that tracks changes in a characteristic of a general population over time by surveying different, independently drawn samples at two or more time points. Unlike panel studies, the same individuals are not followed; rather, each wave draws a fresh sample from the same population, allowing researchers to detect population-level shifts in attitudes, behaviours, or conditions while avoiding the attrition and panel conditioning problems of repeated-measures designs.

Quantitative longitudinal research design

Repeated cross-sectional survey data (quantitative)

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). Sage.

Babbie, E. (2016). The Practice of Social Research (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.

longitudinal-research panel-research cohort-research cross-sectional-research survey-research descriptive-research


Triangulated Delphi Technique

Delphi with triangulation
mixed-method Delphi
multi-method Delphi
triangulation-enhanced Delphi

Delphi: 1963; triangulation integration: 1970s–1990s

Norman Dalkey & Olaf Helmer (Delphi); triangulation principle from Norman Denzin

The Triangulated Delphi Technique combines the structured expert-consensus process of the classic Delphi method with deliberate triangulation — integrating data from at least one additional source or method (e.g., systematic literature review, interviews, survey data) to cross-validate findings and enhance the credibility of expert judgments. It retains the iterative, anonymous, multi-round panel format while embedding verification steps that reduce reliance on panel consensus alone.

Expert-consensus data collection with multi-method validation

Expert ratings, rankings, open-ended panel responses, supplementary qualitative/quantitative data

Dalkey, N., & Helmer, O. (1963). An experimental application of the Delphi method to the use of experts. Management Science, 9(3), 458–467.

Hasson, F., Keeney, S., & McKenna, H. (2000). Research guidelines for the Delphi survey technique. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32(4), 1008–1015.

delphi-technique triangulated-focus-group triangulated-survey mixed-methods nominal-group-technique triangulated-structured-interview


Triangulated Diary Method

diary triangulation
multi-method diary study
triangulated diary research
diary-based triangulation

1977–1978 (seminal formulations); compound approach from 1990s onward

Triangulation principle: Norman K. Denzin; Diary method: Donald H. Zimmerman & D. Lawrence Wieder

The triangulated diary method combines participant-generated diary records with at least one additional independent data source — such as interviews, observations, or documents — to verify, deepen, and cross-check findings. Rooted in Denzin's (1978) principle of methodological triangulation and Zimmerman and Wieder's (1977) diary-interview method, it uses the natural, time-stamped richness of diary data while mitigating the subjectivity and recall bias that a diary study alone cannot address.

Qualitative/mixed-methods data collection technique

Participant diary entries (text, audio, or multimedia) combined with complementary data sources

Denzin, N. K. (1978). The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Zimmerman, D. H., & Wieder, D. L. (1977). The diary-interview method. Urban Life, 5(4), 479–498.

diary-method triangulation multi-source-diary-method longitudinal-diary-method experience-sampling-method mixed-methods-research


Triangulated Document Collection

documentary triangulation
multi-source document collection
cross-source document analysis
data triangulation via documents

1978 (triangulation); 2009 (document analysis as method)

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation principle); Glenn Bowen (document analysis formalization)

Triangulated document collection is a qualitative data collection strategy in which documents from multiple independent sources are gathered and cross-checked against one another. By drawing on different document types — such as official records, personal archives, institutional reports, and media artifacts — the researcher reduces reliance on any single source and strengthens the credibility of the evidence base. The approach applies Denzin's data triangulation principle directly to documentary material.

Qualitative/mixed-methods data collection strategy

Documents from multiple independent sources (archival, institutional, personal, digital)

Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40.

document-collection triangulated-participant-observation multi-source-document-collection triangulated-structured-interview content-analysis mixed-methods-research


Triangulated Field Notes

multi-source field notes
cross-observer field notes
triangulated observation notes
TFN

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation); Yvonna Lincoln & Egon Guba (trustworthiness framework)

Triangulated Field Notes is a qualitative data collection technique in which field notes are recorded independently by multiple observers, from multiple vantage points, or at multiple time points and then systematically compared to strengthen the credibility and completeness of observational data. Rooted in Denzin's triangulation framework and Lincoln and Guba's trustworthiness criteria, the approach counters observer bias by cross-checking accounts before analysis begins.

Qualitative data collection and verification technique

Field notes, observation logs, researcher memos (text data)

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Sage.

participant-observation ethnography field-research member-checking thematic-analysis mixed-methods


Triangulated In-depth Interview

Triangulated In-depth Interview Data Collection

triangulated IDI
multi-source in-depth interview
triangulated qualitative interview
converging in-depth interview

1978 (triangulation framework); in-depth interviewing ~1950s onward

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation framework); in-depth interviewing practice is longstanding in qualitative research

Triangulated in-depth interviewing applies Denzin's triangulation logic to the in-depth interview method by deliberately combining multiple sources of convergent evidence — different informants, interviewers, time points, or corroborating data types — to strengthen confidence in qualitative findings. Rather than relying on a single interview account, the researcher gathers rich, open-ended accounts from several vantage points and cross-checks them for consistency and divergence, treating agreement as corroboration and disagreement as analytically meaningful.

Verbal/text data from multiple interviewers, informants, or time points

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). Sage.

in-depth-interview semi-structured-interview triangulated-focus-group multi-source-in-depth-interview triangulated-document-collection triangulated-participant-observation


Triangulated Mobile Experience Sampling

Triangulated Mobile Experience Sampling Method

triangulated ecological momentary assessment

2000s–present (as an integrated mobile ESM variant)

Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (ESM, 1983); Denzin (triangulation, 1978); integrated in HCI/health informatics research from the 2000s onward

Triangulated Mobile Experience Sampling combines the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) — repeated, real-time self-reports delivered via smartphone — with deliberate triangulation across two or more data sources, instruments, or methods. By converging mobile survey prompts with passive sensor streams, behavioral logs, or complementary qualitative probes, the technique strengthens construct validity and enables cross-verification of findings collected in participants' natural environments.

Mixed/multi-source data collection technique

Real-time repeated-measures data (self-reports, sensor streams, behavioral logs) collected via mobile devices

Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1983). The Experience Sampling Method. In H. T. Reis (Ed.), Naturalistic Approaches to Studying Social Interaction (pp. 41–56). Jossey-Bass.

mobile-experience-sampling ecological-momentary-assessment multi-source-mobile-experience-sampling longitudinal-mobile-experience-sampling experience-sampling-method diary-method


1958 (observer roles); 1978 (triangulation applied to observation)

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation framework); Raymond Gold (observer roles taxonomy)

Triangulated non-participant observation systematically combines two or more independent non-participant observation streams — using multiple observers, different time points, or distinct vantage points — to cross-validate field records of naturally occurring behaviour. The researcher remains outside the setting as a detached observer, and triangulation across sources reduces single-observer bias while strengthening the credibility of descriptive findings.

Observational field records, structured observation logs, multiple observer notes

Gold, R. L. (1958). Roles in sociological field observations. Social Forces, 36(3), 217–223.


Triangulated Research Diary

reflective diary triangulation
multi-method research journal
triangulated reflexive diary
diary-based triangulation

1970s–1980s (triangulation formalized by Denzin 1978; diary methodology developed through 1980s)

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation framework); Mary Louise Holly (research diary practice)

A Triangulated Research Diary is a qualitative data collection approach in which a researcher's ongoing reflective diary is used as one strand within a triangulated data collection strategy. The diary records observations, decisions, emotions, and emerging interpretations across the study, while at least one other data source — such as interviews, documents, or observations — is collected in parallel. Cross-checking diary entries against other sources increases the credibility and depth of the findings.

Researcher reflective diary entries combined with at least one other data source

Holly, M. L. (1989). Writing to Grow: Keeping a Personal-Professional Journal. Heinemann.

research-diary field-notes triangulated-field-notes triangulated-document-collection diary-method participant-observation


Triangulated Semi-structured Interview

triangulated qualitative interview
multi-source semi-structured interview
triangulated in-depth interview
convergent interview strategy

Formalized in practice from the late 1970s onward

Synthesized from Norman K. Denzin (triangulation) and H. Russell Bernard (semi-structured interviewing)

A triangulated semi-structured interview strategy combines the flexibility of open-ended, guided interviewing with deliberate triangulation across multiple informant groups, data sources, or interview occasions. By applying the same semi-structured protocol to different participant perspectives — such as clients, providers, and managers — or by pairing interviews with documents and observations, the approach cross-validates emerging themes and reduces the risk that any single viewpoint dominates the findings. The result is richer, more credible qualitative data than a single-source interview study can deliver.

Verbal/text data from multiple informant groups or sources

Bernard, H. R. (2006). Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (4th ed.). AltaMira Press.

semi-structured-interview triangulation focus-group key-informant-interview thematic-analysis mixed-methods-research


Triangulated Sensor Data Collection

multi-sensor triangulation
sensor fusion data collection
redundant sensor sampling
cross-sensor validation

1980s–1990s (formalized in sensor fusion and IoT research)

Hall & Llinas and the multisensor data fusion community

Triangulated sensor data collection deploys two or more independent sensors measuring the same phenomenon simultaneously, then cross-validates and aggregates their readings to obtain data that is more accurate, robust, and trustworthy than any single sensor alone. Widely used in environmental monitoring, structural health monitoring, IoT systems, and field experiments, the approach borrows the logic of triangulation from research methodology — using multiple independent sources to converge on a more reliable measurement.

Time-series sensor readings, spatial measurements, environmental or structural signals

Hall, D. L., & Llinas, J. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion. CRC Press.

sensor-fusion iot-data-collection environmental-monitoring triangulation structural-health-monitoring remote-sensing


Triangulated Structured Interview

triangulated standardized interview
multi-source structured interview
cross-validated structured interview

1978 (Denzin's triangulation framework); structured interviews in use from early 20th century

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation framework); structured interview tradition predates

A triangulated structured interview applies the triangulation principle — using multiple independent sources, methods, or perspectives to cross-validate findings — to the structured interview format. The researcher administers the same fixed set of questions across different respondent groups, time points, or complementary data sources, then systematically compares the results to confirm, qualify, or explain discrepancies. This strengthens confidence in the accuracy of the data beyond what any single structured interview session could provide.

Triangulated quantitative/qualitative data collection technique

Structured verbal responses; standardized numerical or categorical survey data

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

structured-interview triangulated-survey multi-source-structured-interview triangulated-focus-group face-to-face-structured-interview mixed-methods-research


Triangulated Survey

survey triangulation
multi-method survey
convergent survey design
cross-validated survey

1978 (Denzin); widely operationalized in survey contexts from the 1990s onward

Norman K. Denzin (triangulation concept); Alan Bryman (mixed-methods survey application)

A Triangulated Survey deliberately combines a structured survey instrument with at least one additional data source — such as interviews, focus groups, observation, or a second survey — so that findings from each source can be cross-validated against the others. Rooted in Denzin's concept of methodological triangulation, the design strengthens credibility by checking whether independent lines of evidence converge on the same conclusions. It is especially common in applied social, educational, and health research.

Survey responses combined with qualitative or alternative quantitative data sources

Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

survey online-survey multi-source-survey semi-structured-interview focus-group mixed-methods


Trimmed Mean Test

Two-Sample Trimmed Mean Test (Yuen's Test)

Yuen's test
Yuen-Welch test
robust mean comparison
kırpılmış ortalama testi

The trimmed mean test compares two groups using trimmed means, which discard a fixed proportion of the most extreme observations in each tail before averaging. Introduced by Karen K. Yuen in 1974, it is a robust alternative to the classical t-test when the data are non-normal or contain outliers and the population variances are unequal.

Yuen, K. K. (1974). The Two-Sample Trimmed t for Unequal Population Variances. Biometrika, 61(1), 165-170.

Wilcox, R. R. (2012). Introduction to Robust Estimation and Hypothesis Testing (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

mann-whitney-u welch-t-test permutation-test median-test mad-estimation


Tromp Curve

Partition Curve
Classification Efficiency Curve
Grade Recovery Curve

The Tromp Curve, introduced by K. Tromp in 1937, is an empirical model that quantifies the performance of size classifiers (cyclones, screens, jigs) by showing the fraction of particles at each size that report to the target stream (overflow or underflow). It is universally used in mineral processing to evaluate classifier performance, design circuits, and diagnose operational problems.

Empirical model for size classifier performance

Tromp, K. (1937). Separation of fine particles from slurries by hydrocyclone. Colliery Guardian, 155(4), 251-256.

Lynch, A. J., & Rao, T. C. (1997). Hydrocyclones in mineral processing. In Classification and segregation. Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration.


TrueSkill

Bayesian Skill Rating
TrueSkill Ranking System
Gaussian Skill Model
Beceri Derecelendirme Modeli

Ralf Herbrich, Tom Minka & Thore Graepel

TrueSkill is a Bayesian skill rating system developed by Herbrich, Minka, and Graepel at Microsoft Research and introduced at NeurIPS 2006. It represents each player's skill as a Gaussian distribution parameterized by a mean (estimated skill) and a variance (uncertainty). After each match outcome, the system updates these distributions via approximate message passing, yielding a principled ranking that handles team games, draws, and partial observations in online settings.

Approximate message passing (Expectation Propagation)

Herbrich, R., Minka, T., & Graepel, T. (2007). TrueSkill: A Bayesian skill rating system. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 19, 569–576.


Trust in Physician Scale

TPS
Interpersonal Trust Measure
Patient-Provider Trust Scale

The Trust in Physician Scale (TPS) is an 11-item self-report instrument that measures the degree to which a patient trusts their physician, including dimensions of confidentiality, competence, honesty, and care. Developed by Anderson and Dedrick in 1990, the TPS assesses the patient's confidence that the physician acts in the patient's best interest, respects privacy, possesses the needed expertise, and is truthful. Trust in the physician-patient relationship is foundational to healthcare engagement and is strongly correlated with adherence, disclosure of sensitive information, and health outcomes. The TPS is widely used in research, quality improvement, and studies examining factors that build or erode physician trust.

Anderson, L. A., & Dedrick, R. F. (1990). Development of the Trust in Physician Scale: A measure to assess interpersonal trust in patient-physician relationships. Psychological Reports, 67(3), 1091-1100.

Hall, M. A., Dugan, E., Zheng, B., & Mishra, A. K. (2001). Trust in physicians and medical institutions: what is it, can it be measured, and does it matter? Milbank Quarterly, 79(4), 613-639.

collaboste-scale patient-enablement-instrument patient-reported-communication-scale care-transitions-measure


Time-Series Cross-Validation

Time-Series Cross-Validation (Rolling/Expanding Window)

Rolling-Origin Cross-Validation
Walk-Forward Validation
Expanding Window Evaluation
Zaman Serisi Çapraz Doğrulama

Time-series cross-validation is a resampling procedure designed for sequentially ordered data. Instead of randomly partitioning observations — which would destroy temporal structure and introduce data leakage — it advances a forecast origin one step at a time, fitting a model on all past data up to that origin and evaluating it on the immediately following out-of-sample period. Economists, financial analysts, and meteorologists use it whenever an honest, operationally realistic estimate of predictive accuracy is required for a time-ordered process.

Respects temporal order; no data leakage

Bergmeir, C., & Benítez, J. M. (2012). On the use of cross-validation for time series predictor evaluation. Information Sciences, 191, 192–213.


TSMixer

TSMixer (All-MLP Architecture for Forecasting)

All-MLP Time Series Mixer
Time Series Mixer
TSMixer Forecasting Model
Zaman Serisi Karıştırıcı

TSMixer is a multivariate time-series forecasting model introduced by Si-An Chen and colleagues at Google in 2023. It challenges the prevailing dominance of Transformer-based architectures by demonstrating that a simple stack of interleaved MLP layers — alternating between mixing along the time axis and mixing across feature channels — achieves strong forecasting accuracy while remaining computationally efficient and easy to interpret architecturally.

All-MLP multivariate time-series forecasting model

Input: Multivariate time series (look-back window)

Output: Multi-step ahead forecasts

Chen, S.-A., Li, C.-L., Yoder, N., Arik, S. O., & Pfister, T. (2023). TSMixer: An all-MLP architecture for time series forecasting. Transactions on Machine Learning Research.


Tsunami Shallow Water Model

The tsunami shallow water model is a numerical method based on shallow water equations that simulates tsunami wave propagation from earthquake source regions to coastal areas. Developed by Kenji Satake and colleagues in the 1990s, this approach provides rapid estimates of tsunami arrival times, wave amplitudes, and inundation extents for operational early warning systems. The model forms the computational backbone of tsunami warning centers worldwide.

Satake, K. (1995). Linear and nonlinear computations of the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake tsunami. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 144(3-4), 455-470.

Goto, T., Ogasawara, Y., Tanioka, Y., & Satake, K. (2011). TUNAMI code. Available at: https://www.gsaj.org/activity/tsunami/


Turbo Code

Claude Berrou, Alain Glavieux, and Punya Thitimajshima

Turbo codes, introduced by Berrou, Glavieux, and Thitimajshima in 1993, are a landmark in channel coding history. They achieve performance within 0.5 dB of the Shannon limit—the theoretical boundary for reliable communication—a feat previously thought impossible with practical complexity. Turbo codes use concatenated convolutional codes with an interleaver and iterative decoding via belief propagation. They were adopted in 3G (UMTS) and remain important in 4G/5G systems alongside LDPC codes.

Berrou, C., Glavieux, A., & Thitimajshima, P. (1993). Near Shannon limit error-correcting coding and decoding: Turbo-codes. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), 1064-1070.

Richardson, T. J., & Urbanke, R. L. (2002). The capacity of low-density parity-check codes under message-passing decoding. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 47(2), 599-618.

ldpc-codes polar-codes ofdm mimo shannon-capacity


Turnitin and iThenticate Similarity Detection

Turnitin and iThenticate: Text-Matching Similarity Detection Tools for Plagiarism Screening

text-matching software
plagiarism detection software
similarity detection
originality reports

Turnitin (1997), iThenticate (commercial variant)

Turnitin and iThenticate are commercial text-matching software tools used by educational institutions and academic journals to screen submissions for potential plagiarism. Turnitin is designed for student assignments; iThenticate is designed for researcher manuscripts. Both tools compare submitted text against billions of sources (web pages, academic databases, previously submitted documents) and generate a Similarity Index showing what percentage of the submission matches existing sources. These tools are screening instruments, not plagiarism detectors—they flag suspicious content for human review.

Turnitin. (2023). Turnitin similarity detection and plagiarism detection technology. Retrieved from https://www.turnitin.com/products/similarity

Turnitin (iThenticate division). (2023). iThenticate: Originality checking for researchers. Retrieved from https://www.ithenticate.com

Declerck, K., Decock, P., Macq, B., & Vandenbossche, J. (2021). Similarity index in plagiarism detection: A critical perspective. Research Integrity and Peer Review, 6, 1-8.


TVN-MULTIMOORA

TVN-MULTIMOORA (MULTIMOORA under Triangular-Valued Neutrosophic Number Environment) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Stanujkić, D. Zavadskas, E.K. Smarandache, F. Brauers, W.K.M. Karabašević, D. in 2021. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Neutrosophic MULTIMOORA — Triangular-Valued Neutrosophic Number (TVNN: <(tl,tm,tu),(il,im,iu),(fl,fm,fu)> with each component ∈[0,1], 0≤tu+iu+fu≤3)

Stanujkić, D., Zavadskas, E.K., Smarandache, F., Brauers, W.K.M., Karabašević, D. (2021). Cloud Computing Technology Selection Using a Novel Neutrosophic Extension of the MULTIMOORA Method. In: Smarandache, F., Abdel-Basset, M. (eds.) Neutrosophic Operational Research. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, Cham


TVP-FAVAR

Time-Varying Parameter Factor-Augmented VAR

Dynamic factor model with time-varying parameters

TVP-FAVAR is a hybrid framework combining factor-augmented VARs with time-varying parameter estimation via Kalman filtering. Introduced by Bernanke et al. (2005) and refined by Primiceri (2005), it extracts latent economic factors (e.g., a 'common monetary policy shock') from high-dimensional data while allowing VAR coefficients to evolve stochastically over time. This framework captures both reduced-dimensionality patterns and structural instability, making it ideal for studying evolving policy regimes and shock dynamics.

Bernanke, B. S., Boivin, J., & Eliasz, P. S. (2005). Measuring monetary policy. Journal of Political Economy, 113(1), 161-208.

Primiceri, G. E. (2005). Time-varying structural vector autoregressions and monetary policy. Review of Economic Studies, 72(3), 821-852.


TVP-VAR

Time-Varying Parameter Vector Autoregression

TVP-VAR is a Bayesian multivariate time-series model in which both the VAR coefficients and the shock covariance matrix are allowed to evolve continuously over time as random walks. Introduced by Primiceri (2005) to study U.S. monetary policy transmission, the model captures structural changes and regime shifts without requiring ex-ante knowledge of when breaks occurred, making it indispensable for macroeconomics, finance, and any setting where economic relationships are suspected to be unstable across time.

Minnesota-type / diffuse priors on initial states

Primiceri, G. E. (2005). Time varying structural vector autoregressions and monetary policy. Review of Economic Studies, 72(3), 821–852.


Two-mode Network Analysis

Two-mode Network Analysis (Bipartite Graph Analysis)

bipartite network analysis
affiliation network analysis
two-mode SNA
dual-projection network analysis

Two-mode network analysis examines networks built from two distinct types of nodes — such as actors and events, authors and papers, or companies and board members — connected only across types. By analysing this bipartite structure directly or projecting it onto one-mode networks, researchers uncover affiliation patterns, shared memberships, and structural duality that are invisible in standard one-mode social network analysis.

Affiliation / membership data (two distinct node sets)

Breiger, R. L. (1974). The duality of persons and groups. Social Forces, 53(2), 181–190.

Borgatti, S. P., & Everett, M. G. (1997). Network analysis of 2-mode data. Social Networks, 19(3), 243–269.

social-network-analysis modularity-analysis exponential-random-graph-model betweenness-centrality community-detection multiplex-network-analysis


2PL IRT

Two-Parameter Logistic Item Response Model

2PL IRT — İki Parametreli Madde Tepki Modeli

The two-parameter logistic item response model, formalised by Frederic Lord (1980), describes the probability that a respondent answers a binary test item correctly as a smooth S-shaped function of the respondent's latent ability. By estimating a separate discrimination parameter for each item alongside a difficulty parameter, 2PL allows items to differ in how sharply they distinguish high- from low-ability respondents — making it the standard model for large-scale educational and psychological assessments.

Item response model / latent trait model

Discrimination (a) and difficulty (b) per item

Item characteristic curves and latent ability (θ) estimates

Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of Item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems. Erlbaum.

Embretson, S. E. & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists. Erlbaum.

rasch-model three-pl-irt graded-response-model exploratory-factor-analysis confirmatory-factor-analysis cronbach-alpha


2SLS Regression

Two-Stage Least Squares (Instrumental Variables) Regression

two-stage least squares
2SLS
instrumental variables regression
IV regression
İki Aşamalı En Küçük Kareler (2SLS/IV)

Angrist & Pischke (textbook treatment); classical instrumental-variables estimation

Two-Stage Least Squares is a two-step instrumental-variables estimator that addresses endogeneity, the situation where a regressor is correlated with the error term. In the first stage the endogenous regressor is predicted from instrumental variables, and in the second stage the structural equation is estimated using those predictions. It is a central tool in applied econometrics, developed in textbook treatments such as Angrist and Pischke (2009).

Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J.-S. (2009). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton University Press.

ols-regression gmm-estimation panel-fixed-effects tobit-model quantile-regression


Two-Way ANOVA

factorial ANOVA
two-factor ANOVA
İki Yönlü ANOVA

Two-Way ANOVA is a parametric hypothesis test that simultaneously examines the main effects of two independent categorical factors and their interaction effect on a single continuous dependent variable. The technique was developed within the broader framework of the analysis of variance established by Ronald A. Fisher in 1925 and remains the standard approach whenever an experiment or survey includes exactly two between-subjects factors.

main effect A, main effect B, interaction A×B

Montgomery, D. C. (2017). Design and Analysis of Experiments (9th ed.). Wiley.

one-way-anova repeated-measures-anova ancova manova kruskal-wallis welch-anova


Type I and Type II Errors

Type I and Type II Errors: Understanding False Positives and False Negatives in Hypothesis Testing

alpha error
beta error
false positive
false negative

In hypothesis testing, two types of errors can occur: Type I error (false positive, rejecting a true null hypothesis) and Type II error (false negative, failing to reject a false null hypothesis). Formalized by Neyman and Pearson (1933), these errors are at the heart of statistical decision-making. The probability of Type I error is controlled by the significance level α (conventionally 0.05); the probability of Type II error is β, and power = 1 − β. Understanding and balancing these errors is critical for designing robust, reliable research.

Neyman, J., & Pearson, E. S. (1933). On the problem of the most efficient tests of statistical hypotheses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 231, 289–337.

Altman, D. G., & Bland, J. M. (1994). Statistics notes: Diagnostic tests 1: sensitivity and specificity. BMJ, 308(6943), 1552.

Lehmann, E. L., & Romano, J. P. (2005). Testing Statistical Hypotheses (3rd ed.). Springer.

p-value-significance statistical-power null-hypothesis confidence-interval


Type Ia SN Light Curve Fitting

Type Ia Supernova Light Curve Fitting for Distance Measurements

Supernova Light Curve Analysis
SN Ia Standardization
SALT2 Fitting

Type Ia supernova light curve fitting is a technique for measuring cosmic distances by observing the brightness evolution of thermonuclear explosions in binary star systems. Developed systematically by Mark Phillips in 1993, this method revealed that SNe Ia can be standardized to provide precise distance measurements, playing a central role in the discovery of cosmic acceleration and dark energy.

Phillips, M. M. (1993). The absolute magnitudes of Type IA supernovae. Astrophysical Journal Letters, 413(2), L105-L108.

Guy, J., et al. (2005). SALT: a spectral adaptation list for type Ia supernova. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 443(3), 781-791.

Betoule, M., et al. (2014). Improved cosmological constraints from a joint analysis of the SDSS-II and SNLS supernova samples. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 568, A22.


Typical Case Sampling

typical case selection
modal case sampling
representative case sampling
average case sampling

1980s (systematized in Patton 1990/2002)

Typical case sampling is a purposive strategy in which the researcher deliberately selects cases that represent what is ordinary, normal, or most common within a target group. Rather than seeking outliers or the widest possible variation, the goal is to illustrate and communicate what a typical experience, program, or phenomenon looks like to stakeholders or audiences unfamiliar with it. The strategy is widely used in qualitative evaluation research and program reporting.

Qualitative or mixed data from interviews, observations, documents

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

purposive-sampling maximum-variation-sampling deviant-case-sampling snowball-sampling theoretical-sampling stratified-sampling


Typography Legibility Testing

Typeface Readability Assessment
Font Performance Evaluation

Typography Legibility Testing is a systematic method for evaluating how easily and accurately audiences can read typefaces in specific contexts. Pioneered by Miles A. Tinker in the mid-twentieth century, this pipeline combines perceptual metrics, user testing, and psychophysical measurement to ensure text achieves optimal clarity for its intended medium and audience.

Tinker, M. A. (1963). Legibility of Print. Iowa State University Press.

Dyson, M. C., & Kipping, G. J. (2004). The Legibility of Typefaces for Children. Journal of Typographic Research, 1(4), 16–32.

Richardson, J. T. E., & Alcantara, J. (2003). The Effect of Font Size on Reading Speed and Comprehension in Older Adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B, 58(4), 230–237.

color-harmony-analysis image-aesthetics-assessment visual-balance-measurement contrast-ratio-measurement gestalt-principles-analysis


Typological Analysis

Typological Analysis in Humanities and Social Sciences

typology construction
artifact typology
type analysis
classificatory typology

Late 19th century (Montelius ~1885); extended broadly through 20th century

Oscar Montelius (seriation/typology in archaeology); formalized across disciplines through 19th–20th c. comparative humanities

Typological analysis is a systematic method for grouping objects, texts, legal categories, or social phenomena into defined types based on shared attributes. Originating in archaeology and linguistics, it is now widely applied across the humanities and social sciences to impose analytical order on diverse corpora, trace historical change, and enable meaningful comparison across cases or cultures.

Physical artifacts, texts, legal/social categories, linguistic forms, cultural objects

McKern, W. C. (1939). The Midwestern Taxonomic Method as an aid to archaeological culture study. American Antiquity, 4(4), 301–313.

archaeological-stratigraphy hermeneutic-analysis textual-criticism comparative-legal-analysis content-analysis case-study


U-MIDAS

U-MIDAS (Unrestricted MIDAS) is a regression framework designed to handle mixed-frequency data—when explanatory variables arrive at different sampling frequencies (e.g., monthly GDP mixed with daily stock returns). Introduced by Ghysels and colleagues (2007), it eliminates the restrictive lag-structure polynomial constraints of the original MIDAS approach, allowing fuller use of high-frequency information. This flexibility makes it ideal for nowcasting and real-time economic forecasting.

Foroni, C., Ghysels, E., & Marcellino, M. (2015). Mixed-frequency vector autoregressive models. International Journal of Forecasting, 31(4), 1051-1070.

Ghysels, E., Santa-Clara, P., & Valkanov, R. (2007). There is a risk-return trade-off after all. Journal of Financial Economics, 76(3), 674-704.


U-Net

fully convolutional segmentation network

U-Net is a fully convolutional encoder-decoder architecture, introduced by Ronneberger, Fischer, and Brox at MICCAI 2015, that produces dense pixel-wise segmentation masks by combining a contracting path that captures context with a symmetric expanding path that enables precise localization — all bridged by skip connections that preserve fine spatial detail. It established the standard baseline for biomedical image segmentation and has since become one of the most widely adopted architectures for any pixel-level prediction task.

Encoder-decoder convolutional network with skip connections

Semantic (pixel-level) image segmentation

Dense pixel-wise class map (segmentation mask)

Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., & Brox, T. (2015). U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation. In N. Navab et al. (Eds.), Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention – MICCAI 2015, LNCS 9351 (pp. 234–241). Springer.

Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., & Courville, A. (2016). Deep Learning (Ch. 9: Convolutional Networks). MIT Press.

convolutional-neural-network fully-convolutional-network resnet vgg deeplabv3 mask-rcnn


UCLA Loneliness Scale

University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA LS)

UCLA LS
UCLA Loneliness Scale
Russell Loneliness Scale

The UCLA Loneliness Scale is a widely used instrument for measuring subjective feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Developed by Daniel Russell in the late 1970s, the scale measures the discrepancy between desired and actual social relationships. The UCLA LS has become the gold standard in loneliness research and is used across clinical, epidemiological, and social psychology studies worldwide.

Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20–40.

Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290–294.

Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys. Research on Aging, 26(6), 655–672.


UCLA Prostate Cancer Index

cancer-specific quality of life, prostate cancer

The UCLA Prostate Cancer Index (UCLA PCI) is a 20-item, prostate-cancer-specific quality-of-life instrument focused on functional outcomes (urinary, sexual, bowel) rather than general cancer QoL. Developed by Litwin et al. in 1998, it has become the standard functional assessment tool in prostate cancer outcomes research, particularly for treatment comparison studies evaluating surgical vs. radiation outcomes.

Litwin, M. S., Hays, R. D., Fink, A., Ganz, P. A., Leake, B., & Brook, R. H. (1998). The UCLA Prostate Cancer Index: development, reliability, and validity of a health-related quality of life measure. Med Care, 36(7), 1002–1012.

Litwin, M. S., & Tan, H. J. (2017). The diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer: a review. JAMA, 317(24), 2532–2542.


Ulrichsweb Global Serials Directory

Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory

journal directory and verification tools

Bowker (originally R.R. Bowker), now ProQuest LLC

Ulrichsweb is a comprehensive, subscription-based global serials directory cataloging over 300,000 print and electronic journals, magazines, newspapers, and other periodical publications. Developed by ProQuest (originally R.R. Bowker), Ulrichsweb has served librarians and researchers for over 90 years as the authoritative source for journal metadata, publication information, and peer-review verification. A unique feature is Ulrichsweb's verification program: editorial staff contact journals directly to confirm peer-review claims, marking journals as 'refereed' only after validation. This verification process distinguishes legitimate peer-reviewed journals from predatory publishers falsely claiming peer review.

ProQuest. (2024). Ulrichsweb: Global Serials Directory. Retrieved from https://ulrichsweb.serialssolutions.com/

ProQuest. (2023). Ulrichsweb Features & Journal Verification. https://www.proquest.com/products-services/ulrichsweb-global-serials-directory.html

doaj-directory web-of-science scopus-database journal-citation-reports issn


Ultimatum Game

Werner Güth, Rolf Schmittberger, and Bernd Schwarze

The Ultimatum Game is a two-player economic decision-making task that reveals preferences for fairness and social norms. One player (proposer) receives money and offers a portion to a second player (responder). The responder accepts or rejects the offer; if accepted, both receive their share; if rejected, both receive nothing. Economic theory predicts responders should accept any positive offer (better than zero), yet responders often reject unfair offers. This gap between predictions and behavior reveals that fairness concerns, equity sensitivity, and social punishment shape economic decisions.

Güth, W., Schmittberger, R., & Schwarze, B. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 3(4), 367-388.

Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., et al. (2005). 'Economic man' in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(6), 795-855.

Sanfey, A. G., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the ultimatum game. Science, 300(5626), 1755-1758.

dictator-game economic-decision-making fairness-norm social-preference


Ultrasonography in Veterinary Medicine

Systematic Ultrasound Imaging and Interpretation in Veterinary Diagnostic Medicine

ultrasound examination
sonography
B-mode imaging

Medical ultrasound adapted for veterinary use

Ultrasonography is a diagnostic imaging method using high-frequency sound waves to create real-time images of internal structures. Adapted from human medical ultrasound beginning in the 1960s-1970s, veterinary ultrasonography is now essential for soft tissue imaging, particularly for abdominal, cardiac, and thoracic assessment. Modern portable ultrasound units enable point-of-care evaluation, and Doppler techniques allow assessment of blood flow and cardiac function.

Mattoon, J. S., Selberg, R. B. (2015). Ultrasound Physics and Instrumentation. In D. E. Thrall (Ed.), Textbook of Veterinary Diagnostic Radiology (7th ed., pp. 120-160). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Lisciandro, G. R., Lagutchik, M. S., Mann, K. A., et al. (2016). Accuracy of Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasonography for Diagnosis of Pneumothorax in Dogs and Cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 248(4), 399-404.

Kealy, J. K., McAllister, H., Graham, J. P. (2011). Diagnostic Radiology and Ultrasonography of the Dog and Cat (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders.


UMAP

uniform manifold approximation and projection

UMAP (Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection) is a fast, scalable nonlinear dimension-reduction method grounded in manifold-learning theory, introduced by McInnes, Healy and Melville in 2018. It compresses high-dimensional data into a low-dimensional embedding for visualisation and downstream analysis.

Nonlinear manifold-learning dimension reduction

McInnes, L., Healy, J. & Melville, J. (2018). UMAP: Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Dimension Reduction. arXiv:1802.03426.

pca t-sne k-means factor-analysis random-forest


Umbrella Review

Umbrella Review (Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews)

Overview of Reviews
Meta-Review
Review of Reviews

Grant & Booth (2009), Refined by AMSTAR-2 (Shea et al., 2017)

An umbrella review is a systematic synthesis of multiple systematic reviews addressing overlapping or related research questions, typically on the same topic or intervention. Also called a 'review of reviews' or 'overview of reviews,' umbrella reviews consolidate evidence when two or more high-quality systematic reviews exist on the same clinical question. Grant and Booth (2009) formally categorized this methodology; Shea et al. (2017) developed AMSTAR-2, the critical appraisal tool for assessing the quality of included reviews. Umbrella reviews are essential when numerous systematic reviews produce conflicting conclusions, when rapid synthesis of evidence is needed for policy or clinical guidance, or when evidence has accumulated faster than any single systematic review can capture.

Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91–108.

Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., et al. (2015). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Systematic Reviews, 4, 1.

Shea, B. J., Reeves, B. C., Wells, G., et al. (2017). AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both. BMJ, 358, j4008.

systematic-review scoping-review-methodology meta-analysis evidence-synthesis-framework rapid-review-methodology


Uncertainty Quantification

Uncertainty Quantification (Polynomial Chaos Expansion and Kriging Surrogate)

Belirsizlik Nicelleştirme (UQ — Polynomial Chaos, Kriging Surrogate)

Norbert Wiener (polynomial chaos, 1938); extended to Wiener–Askey scheme by Xiu & Karniadakis (2002)

Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) is a computational framework for systematically measuring how uncertainty in the inputs of a model propagates into uncertainty in its outputs. Building on Wiener's polynomial chaos theory (1938) and formalised for general stochastic problems by Xiu and Karniadakis (2002), UQ uses two primary strategies: Polynomial Chaos Expansion (PCE), which represents the model output as a series of orthogonal polynomials matched to the input distributions, and Kriging (Gaussian process) surrogates, which replace an expensive simulation with a fast statistical approximation fitted to a small set of carefully chosen runs.

Computational uncertainty analysis framework

Polynomial Chaos Expansion (PCE) / Kriging (Gaussian process) surrogate

Output: Output distribution, mean, variance, Sobol sensitivity indices

engineering, natural sciences, environmental modelling, biological sciences

Xiu, D. & Karniadakis, G.E. (2002). The Wiener-Askey Polynomial Chaos for Stochastic Differential Equations. SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing, 24(2), 619–644.

Smith, R.C. (2013). Uncertainty Quantification: Theory, Implementation, and Applications. SIAM.

monte-carlo-simulation quasi-monte-carlo latin-hypercube-sampling surrogate-optimization kriging-interpolation global-sensitivity-analysis stochastic-differential-equations variance-reduction-mc bayesian-optimization system-dynamics


Unfolding Model

Ideal Point Model
Preferential Choice Scaling
Coombs Unfolding
Katlanma Modeli

The Unfolding Model is a geometric approach to preference analysis that represents both individuals and choice objects (stimuli) as points in a shared low-dimensional space. Originating with Clyde Coombs's foundational 1950 work on preferential choice and rigorously systematized by Borg and Groenen (2005), the model assumes each person prefers the stimulus closest to their personal ideal point, thereby 'unfolding' rank-order preference data into a joint spatial map.

Preference scaling via ideal-point representation

Input: Rank-order or rating preference data

Output: Joint map of stimuli and ideal points in low-dimensional space

Borg, I., & Groenen, P. J. F. (2005). Modern Multidimensional Scaling: Theory and Applications (2nd ed.). Springer.


UNIFAC

UNIFAC (Universal Functional-group Activity Coefficient) Model

UNIFAC predictive model
UNIQUAC functional-group contribution

Aage Fredenslund, Russell Jones, John Prausnitz

UNIFAC (Universal Functional-group Activity Coefficient) is a predictive model for liquid-phase activity coefficients of multicomponent mixtures. Developed by Fredenslund, Jones, and Prausnitz in 1975, it decomposes molecules into functional groups and uses group interaction parameters to estimate non-ideal behavior. UNIFAC is revolutionary because it can predict phase equilibria for mixtures never experimentally measured, making it invaluable for process design and chemical engineering.

Activity coefficient model; predictive liquid-phase property method

Fredenslund, A., Jones, R. L., & Prausnitz, J. M. (1975). Group-contribution estimation of activity coefficients in nonideal liquid mixtures. AIChE Journal, 21(6), 1086-1099.

Prausnitz, J. M., Lichtenthaler, R. N., & de Azevedo, E. G. (2001). Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.

Gmehling, J., Li, J., & Schiller, M. (1993). A modified UNIFAC model for the prediction of phase equilibria and excess enthalpies. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 32(1), 178-193.


UHDRS

Huntington's disease severity and progression

The Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) is the comprehensive, multidomain assessment instrument for Huntington's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder caused by expanded CAG trinucleotide repeats. Developed by the Huntington Study Group in 1996, the UHDRS measures motor, cognitive, functional, and psychiatric manifestations of disease. The UHDRS is the gold-standard outcome measure in Huntington's disease clinical trials and longitudinal natural history studies.

Huntington Study Group (1996). Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale: Reliability and consistency. Movement Disorders, 11(2), 136-142.

updrs edss-multiple-sclerosis tardive-dyskinesia-rating-scale msfc


Unit Commitment

Unit Commitment for Power Generation Scheduling

UC
Generator Commitment
Thermal Unit Scheduling

Unit Commitment (UC) is the problem of deciding which power generation units should be switched on or off over a planning horizon (typically 24-168 hours) to minimize total operating cost while meeting demand and reserve requirements. Introduced by Baldwin et al. in 1959, UC is a fundamental scheduling problem in power system operations, combining combinatorial optimization (which units to commit) with continuous optimization (optimal power output). UC remains one of the most important and computationally challenging problems in power systems.

Combinatorial optimization for generator turn-on/turn-off scheduling

Baldwin, C. J., Dale, K. M., & Dittrich, R. F. (1959). A study of the economic shutdown of generating units in daily dispatch. AIEE Transactions, 78(3), 272-282.

Padhy, N. P. (2004). Unit commitment in power systems. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 26(5), 363-375.

Wood, A. J., Wollenberg, B. F., & Sheblé, G. B. (2013). Power Generation, Operation, and Control (3rd ed.). Wiley-Interscience.


Unit Hydrograph

Unit Hydrograph Theory for Rainfall-Runoff Transformation

The unit hydrograph (UH) is a linear transformation that converts rainfall excess into streamflow for a watershed. Introduced by Sherman in 1932, the UH assumes that rainfall-runoff response is linear and time-invariant, enabling synthesis of flood hydrographs from design storms for dam spillway design and flood risk assessment.

Linear transformation from rainfall to streamflow

Sherman, L. K. (1932). Streamflow from rainfall by the unit graph method. Engineering News-Record, 108(14), 501-505.

Snyder, F. F. (1938). Synthetic unit-graphs. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, 19(1), 447-454.

Clark, C. O. (1945). Storage and the unit hydrograph. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 37(4), 419-432.


Universal Kriging

Universal Kriging (Kriging with a Trend)

kriging with a trend
kriging with drift
trend kriging
evrensel kriging

Universal kriging generalizes ordinary kriging to data whose mean varies systematically across space — a spatial trend or 'drift'. It models the mean as a function of the coordinates (or covariates) and krigs the residuals, so it can interpolate variables that drift in a preferred direction, such as temperature falling with latitude or a pollutant gradient, while still returning prediction variances.

Geostatistical interpolation with spatial trend

Output: Prediction + kriging variance

Matheron, G. (1963). Principles of geostatistics. Economic Geology, 58(8), 1246–1266.

Cressie, N. A. C. (1993). Statistics for Spatial Data (Revised ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

kriging cokriging inverse-distance-weighting geographically-weighted-regression


Universal Soil Loss Equation

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is an empirical model that estimates annual soil loss due to sheet and rill erosion on hillslopes caused by rainfall and runoff. Developed by Wischmeier and Smith in 1978 from decades of erosion plot experiments, USLE has become a standard tool for erosion risk assessment, conservation planning, and best management practice design. The Revised USLE (RUSLE) updated the original model with improved factor algorithms.

Wischmeier, W. H., & Smith, D. D. (1978). Predicting rainfall erosion losses: A guide to conservation planning. USDA Agricultural Handbook 537.

Renard, K. G., Foster, G. R., Weesies, G. A., McCool, D. K., & Yoder, D. C. (1997). Predicting soil erosion by water: a guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). USDA Agricultural Handbook 703.


University Student Satisfaction Scale

University Student Satisfaction Scale (USS)

Elliot & Shin; variations by institution

The University Student Satisfaction Scale measures students' satisfaction with their overall university experience, including instruction quality, academic advising, campus services, and campus climate. Multiple validated instruments exist (e.g., Student Satisfaction Index), each capturing dimensions of the student experience considered critical to retention and institutional quality. This tool enables universities to gather comprehensive feedback on the student experience and prioritize institutional improvements that enhance satisfaction and outcomes.

Elliot, K. M., & Shin, D. (1997). The student satisfaction index (SSI): A new instrument for measuring student satisfaction with higher education. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 8(2), 27–44.

Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. Jossey-Bass.

classroom-environment-scale academic-burnout-scale academic-resilience-scale peer-learning-scale academic-help-seeking-scale


Unscented Kalman Filter

The Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) is a nonlinear state estimation algorithm that approximates nonlinear systems without requiring explicit Jacobian computation. Introduced by Julier and Uhlmann in 1997, the UKF uses the unscented transform—a deterministic method to capture mean and covariance statistics through a carefully chosen set of sample points (sigma points)—making it more accurate than the Extended Kalman Filter for highly nonlinear systems while avoiding the computational burden of derivative calculations.

Julier, S. J., & Uhlmann, J. K. (1997). A new method for the nonlinear transformation of means and covariances in filters and estimators. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 45(3), 477-482.

Wan, E. A., & Van Der Merwe, R. (2000). The unscented Kalman filter for nonlinear estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE 2000 Adaptive Systems for Signal Processing, 153-158.

Sarkka, S. (2013). Bayesian Filtering and Smoothing. Cambridge University Press.


Unstructured Interview

open-ended interview
non-directive interview
in-depth interview
conversational interview

Mid-20th century (Rogers ~1942; Spradley ~1979)

Rooted in anthropological and sociological fieldwork traditions; systematised by James P. Spradley and Carl Rogers (non-directive counselling interview)

An unstructured interview is a qualitative data-collection method in which the researcher enters the conversation with a broad topic or grand-tour question rather than a fixed questionnaire, allowing the participant to direct the flow and depth of the discussion. The approach prioritises the participant's own conceptual categories and narrative logic over the researcher's pre-formed agenda, making it especially powerful for exploratory inquiry into unfamiliar or complex social phenomena.

Spoken narrative (audio/video recordings, field notes, transcripts)

Spradley, J. P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (2005). The interview: From neutral stance to political involvement. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed., pp. 695–727). Sage.

phenomenology ethnography grounded-theory narrative-analysis focus-group thematic-analysis


MDS-UPDRS

Movement Disorder Society-Sponsored Revision of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale

Christopher G. Goetz and Movement Disorder Society

The MDS-UPDRS is the gold-standard clinician-administered rating scale for assessing motor and non-motor manifestations of Parkinson's disease. Developed by the Movement Disorder Society in 2008 to enhance the original UPDRS, it measures disease severity across daily living, motor function, and treatment complications. Used globally in clinical trials, longitudinal cohort studies, and routine neurological practice.

Goetz, C. G., et al. (2008). Movement Disorder Society-sponsored revision of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS): Scale presentation and clinimetric testing results. Movement Disorders, 23(15), 2129-2170.

edss-multiple-sclerosis nihss msfc rivermead-mobility-index unified-huntington-disease-rating


UEFS

UEFS
Upper Extremity Functional Status Scale

Stratford, P. W., & colleagues (various modifications; occupational therapy adaptations used)

The Upper Extremity Functional Scale (UEFS) is a self-report outcome measure designed to quantify functional limitation and capacity in the upper extremity (arm, hand) across everyday activities. Various versions exist; the most commonly used in occupational therapy and rehabilitation derive from adaptations of functional capacity assessment frameworks, measuring activities such as eating, dressing, grooming, reaching, grasping, and fine motor tasks. The UEFS is widely used in occupational therapy, orthopedic rehabilitation, and ergonomic assessment to track improvement in arm/hand function following injury, surgery, or therapy.

Stratford, P. W., Binkley, J. M., Riddle, D. L., & Guyatt, G. H. (1996). Sensitivity to change of the Roland-Morris Back Pain Index: Part 1. Physical Therapy, 76(2), 122-133.

Pransky, G., Feuerstein, M., Gatchel, R. J., Linton, S. J., & Volinn, E. (2007). Shoulder disorders: A review of diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment with focus on work. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 17(1), 1-30.

copm nine-hole-peg-test jebsen-hand-function-test wolf-motor-function-test


Uranium-Thorium Dating

Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dating is a chronometric method that determines the age of carbonates, shells, bones, and coral by measuring the ratio of uranium isotopes to thorium-230. First applied by Harmon Craig in the 1950s, it exploits the natural radioactive decay chain of uranium. U-Th dating is particularly valuable for dating materials from 500 to 500,000 years old, filling a crucial chronological gap between radiocarbon and potassium-argon dating.

Edwards, R. L., Chen, J. H., & Wasserburg, G. J. (1987). U-238, U-234 and Th-230 in seawater. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 51(5), 1213-1225.

Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Hoff, J., Gallup, C. D., Richards, D. A., & Asmerom, Y. (2000). The half-lives of uranium-234 and thorium-230. Chemical Geology, 169(1-2), 17-33.

Pike, A. W. G., Hedges, R. E. M., & van Calsteren, P. (2007). The radioactive decay of uranium-234. Quaternary Geochronology, 2(1-4), 118-124.


Urban Form Analysis

Urban Form Analysis and Morphological Assessment

urban morphology
morphological analysis
urban fabric analysis

Urban Form Analysis is a systematic method for studying and characterizing the physical structure, layout, and historical development of cities and neighborhoods. Pioneered by M.R.G. Conzen in 1960, it examines how blocks, streets, plots, and buildings combine to create distinct urban patterns, and how these patterns influence social interaction, economic vitality, and environmental performance.

Conzen, M. R. G. (1960). Alnwick, Northumberland: A Study in Town-Plan Analysis. Institute of British Geographers Publication 27.

Moudon, A. V. (1997). Urban Morphology as an Emerging Interdisciplinary Field. Urban Morphology, 1(1), 3-10.

Whitehand, J. W. R., Conzen, M. P. (2009). Urban Landscapes. International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Elsevier.


Use Case Point Estimation

Use case point (UCP) estimation quantifies software development effort by analyzing use cases and environmental factors. Introduced by Karner (1993) for Objectory methodology, UCP provides structured approach to estimate labor hours from system requirements. Organizations use UCP to forecast project duration, allocate resources, and validate high-level project plans early in development.

Karner, G. (1993). Resource estimation for objectory projects. Objective Systems SF, Inc.

Schneider, G., & Winters, J. P. (2001). Applying Use Cases: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley.

Rameyer, B., & Glinz, M. (2007). Validating and improving use case variants. In Proceedings of the ICSE Workshop on Scenarios and State Machines (pp. 1–8).

agile-velocity-tracking technical-debt-measurement defect-prediction-model software-complexity-metrics


Use-Wear Analysis

Use-Wear Analysis (Microwear of Stone Tools)

Use-wear analysis (also called microwear or tool-use analysis) is a method that infers the function of stone tools from microscopic wear patterns on their cutting edges and surfaces. Pioneered by Lawrence Keeley in the 1970s-1980s, this technique examines damage patterns, polishes, and edge rounding produced as tools contact different materials during use. By analyzing these wear patterns, archaeologists can determine whether a tool was used to cut plant material, meat, bone, hide, or wood—revealing detailed information about task specialization and subsistence practices in prehistoric societies.

Keeley, L. H. (1980). Experimental Determination of Stone Tool Uses. University of Chicago Press.

Grace, R. (1997). The chronology of microwear polish formation. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24(11), 983-998.

Williamson, B. S. (2003). Lithic microwear analysis. Journal of World Prehistory, 17(3), 277-330.


User Experience Questionnaire

Bettina Laugwitz, Theo Held, Martin Schrepp

The User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ), developed by Laugwitz, Held, and Schrepp in 2008, is a practical instrument for assessing user experience of interactive products and systems. It measures six dimensions of user experience using semantic differential item pairs, balancing comprehensive coverage with brevity (26 items in the full version, 8 items in the short form UEQ-S). The UEQ has become widely adopted in software engineering, human-computer interaction, and usability research to evaluate websites, applications, and digital interfaces.

Laugwitz, B., Held, T., & Schrepp, M. (2008). Construction and evaluation of a user experience questionnaire. In A. Holzinger (Ed.), HCI and Usability for Education and Work (LNCS 5298, pp. 63-76). Springer.

nasa-task-load-index cognitive-load-scale interface-usability-measure operator-performance-scale


UTA

UTA (UTilités Additives (Additive Utility Assessment)) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Jacquet-Lagrèze, E., Siskos, J. in 1982. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Regression-based additive utility elicitation (LP, single-error)

Jacquet-Lagrèze, E., Siskos, J. (1982). Assessing a set of additive utility functions for multicriteria decision-making, the UTA method. European Journal of Operational Research


UTADIS

UTADIS (UTilités Additives DIScriminantes (Additive Utility Sorting)) is a sorting multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Devaud, J. M., Groussaud, G., Jacquet-Lagrèze, E. in 1980. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Additive-utility preference-disaggregation sorting via LP-learned class thresholds

Devaud, J. M., Groussaud, G., Jacquet-Lagrèze, E. (1980). UTADIS: Une méthode de construction de fonctions d'utilité additives rendant compte de jugements globaux. European Working Group on MCDA, Bochum


UTASTAR

UTASTAR (UTA* — Additive utility disaggregation from reference ranking (revised UTA)) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Siskos, Y., Yannacopoulos, D. in 1985. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Additive utility disaggregation — LP from ordinal reference judgements

Siskos, Y., Yannacopoulos, D. (1985). UTASTAR: An ordinal regression method for building additive value functions. Investigación Operativa

ahp anp bwm bwm-bayesian ccsd cilos cimas critic


UTAUT Questionnaire

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) Questionnaire

The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was developed by Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis in 2003 and published in MIS Quarterly. UTAUT integrates insights from eight prior technology acceptance theories into a unified framework, identifying four core constructs—Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, Social Influence, and Facilitating Conditions—that together predict behavioral intention to use and actual technology adoption.

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance and use of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425-478.

Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: Extending the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. MIS Quarterly, 36(1), 157-178.

tam-questionnaire tam2-questionnaire technology-readiness-index is-success-model


UV-Vis Spectrophotometry

UV-Vis spectroscopy
absorption spectroscopy
colorimetry

UV-Vis spectrophotometry is an optical analytical technique that measures the absorption of ultraviolet and visible light (wavelengths 190–900 nm) by substances in solution. Founded on the Beer-Lambert law (developed by August Beer and Pierre Bouguer), it is one of the oldest and most widely used quantitative analytical methods. UV-Vis spectrophotometry is economical, rapid, and applicable to a vast range of organic and inorganic compounds, making it indispensable in pharmaceutical, clinical, environmental, and research laboratories.

Beer, A. (1852). Bestimmung der Absorption des rothen Lichts in farbigen Flussigkeiten. Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 86(5), 78–88.

Skoog, D. A., West, D. M., Holler, F. J., & Crouch, S. R. (2014). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Knowles, A., & Burgess, C. (Eds.). (1989). Practical Absorption Spectrometry (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall.

potentiometric-titration ion-chromatography atomic-absorption-spectroscopy coulometry voltammetry


Utrecht Work Engagement Scale

UWES
Work Engagement Scale
Schaufeli Work Engagement

Wilmar Schaufeli, Arnold Bakker, and Marisa Salanova

The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) is a 17-item instrument measuring work engagement—a positive, fulfilling psychological state characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption in work. Developed by Wilmar Schaufeli and colleagues in 2002, the UWES operationalizes engagement as the positive antipode to burnout, reflecting energetic involvement, strong commitment, and deep focus in occupational tasks. The scale has become the standard measure for assessing work engagement in organizational research and occupational health.

Occupational well-being and engagement scale

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92.

Bakker, A. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2010). Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. Psychology Press.

Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716.


V-measure

V-measure (Homogeneity and Completeness Harmonic Mean)

V-measure score
homogeneity completeness V-measure

V-measure, introduced by Rosenberg and Hirschberg in 2007, is an external clustering evaluation metric based on the harmonic mean of homogeneity and completeness. It measures whether clusters contain only points from a single true class (homogeneity) and whether all points from a true class are assigned to the same cluster (completeness). Values range from 0 to 1.

Rosenberg, A., & Hirschberg, J. (2007). V-measure: A conditional entropy-based external cluster evaluation measure. In Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning (pp. 410-420).

normalized-mutual-information adjusted-rand-index fowlkes-mallows-index silhouette-score davies-bouldin-index


Vaccination Confidence Scale

The WHO Vaccination Confidence Scale (VCS) is a multi-domain instrument measuring three conceptually distinct dimensions of vaccine hesitancy: Confidence (trust in vaccine safety and effectiveness), Complacency (perceived need for vaccination), and Convenience (accessibility and practical barriers). Developed by the WHO SAGE Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy in 2015, it has become the international standard for measuring determinants of vaccination decisions across diverse populations and pathogen contexts.

World Health Organization. (2015). Vaccine hesitancy: A growing challenge for immunization programmes. WHO SAGE Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy. Geneva: WHO.

Larson, H. J., Jarrett, C., Schulz, W. S., Chaudhuri, M., Zhou, Y., Dube, E., ... & Wilson, R. (2015). Measuring vaccine hesitancy: The development of a survey tool. Vaccine, 33(34), 4165–4175.


Vaccination Protocol Design

Evidence-Based Vaccination Protocol Design in Veterinary Medicine

immunization protocol
vaccine scheduling
vaccination planning

Vaccination protocol design is a systematic approach to planning and administering immunizations in animals to prevent infectious disease. Formalized by organizations such as the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) from the 1990s onward, evidence-based protocols balance disease risk, individual animal factors, vaccine efficacy, duration of immunity, and regulatory requirements to optimize herd and individual protection.

Day, M. J., Horzinek, M. C., Schultz, R. D., Squires, R. A. (2016). WSAVA Guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 57(4), E1-E45.

Larson, L. J., Schultz, R. D., Drazenovich, T. L. (2011). Prevalence of serum antibody titers against canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus in dogs entering a Florida animal shelter. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 238(3), 331-335.

Schultz, R. D. (2006). Duration of immunity for canine and feline vaccines: A review. Veterinary Microbiology, 117(2-4), 75-79.


Validity and Reliability in Research

Research Validity and Reliability: Concepts and Assessment

measurement validity
test-retest reliability
internal and external validity

Lee Cronbach, Paul Meehl (1950s); Donald Campbell, Julian Stanley (1960s); Samuel Messick (1990s)

Validity and reliability are two foundational concepts in research quality. Reliability refers to the consistency and reproducibility of measurements: do repeated applications of an instrument yield the same results? Validity refers to the truthfulness of inferences: does an instrument measure what it claims to measure, and do study findings answer the research question appropriately? Cronbach and Meehl (1955) distinguished construct validity from other validity types; Campbell and Stanley (1963) categorized internal and external validity threats in experimental designs; and Messick (1995) unified validity concepts as 'the degree to which evidence and theory support the intended interpretations of test scores.' Contemporary frameworks encompass multiple validity types (construct, criterion, content, internal, external) and reliability estimates tailored to measurement context.

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Houghton Mifflin.

Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: validation of inferences from persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749.

Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302.


Value-Added Modeling

Value-Added Modeling (VAM) is a method for assessing the contribution of schools or teachers to student achievement growth, developed by Sanders and Horn (1998). VAM isolates the effect of a teacher or school by comparing student gains (value added) while controlling for prior achievement and student characteristics.

Longitudinal student achievement modeling

Kane, T. J., Rockoff, J. E., & Staiger, D. O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review, 27(6), 615-631.

Sanders, W. L., & Horn, S. P. (1998). Research findings on classroom heterogeneity and achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 91(5), 294-303.

Koedel, C., Mihaly, K., & Rockoff, J. E. (2015). Value-added modeling: A review. Economics of Education Review, 47, 180-195.

latent-transition-analysis case-cohort-design rule-space-methodology pls-sem


Value at Risk

Value at Risk (Historical, Parametric, Monte Carlo)

Riske Maruz Değer (VaR — Historical, Parametric, MC)

Jorion (textbook benchmark); popularised by RiskMetrics / J.P. Morgan

Value at Risk is a financial risk measure that estimates the maximum loss a position or portfolio could suffer over a fixed holding period at a given confidence level. It is the standard benchmark in risk management and regulatory capital calculations, developed in the textbook tradition of Jorion (2007) and the Basel market-risk framework.

Lower-tail quantile of the return distribution (historical, parametric delta-normal, or Monte Carlo)

No — VaR is not sub-additive; CVaR is coherent

Jorion, P. (2007). Value at Risk: The New Benchmark for Managing Financial Risk (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (2019). Minimum Capital Requirements for Market Risk. Bank for International Settlements.

conditional-value-at-risk realized-volatility arima garch monte-carlo-simulation


Value Stream Mapping

VSM
Material and Information Flow Mapping
Lean Flow Mapping
Değer Akış Haritalama

Value Stream Mapping (VSM) is a lean management technique used to visualize, analyze, and improve the flow of materials and information required to bring a product or service from raw input to customer delivery. Introduced by Mike Rother and John Shook in their 1999 workbook Learning to See, VSM draws on the Toyota Production System tradition to expose waste, delays, and non-value-adding activities across the entire production value stream.

Output: Current-state and future-state maps

Rother, M., & Shook, J. (1999). Learning to See: Value Stream Mapping to Add Value and Eliminate Muda. Lean Enterprise Institute.


Van der Meer Scan

beam scan
transverse beam profile
luminosity measurement

The Van der Meer scan is a precision measurement technique for determining the absolute luminosity at particle colliders by mechanically separating the colliding beams and measuring the collision rate as a function of beam separation. This fundamental calibration is essential for all cross-section measurements and physics analyses at the LHC and other hadron colliders.

Van der Meer, S. (1985). Stochastic damping of betatron oscillations in the ISR. CERN-ISR-PO/85-5.

Bruning, O., et al. (2004). LHC Design Report. CERN-2004-003.

Hertzbach, S. S., et al. (2009). Precision measurement of luminosity at hadron colliders. Modern Physics Letters A, 24(07), 531–548.


Van der Waerden Test

normal scores test
Van der Waerden k-sample test
Van der Waerden Testi — Normal Skor

The Van der Waerden test is a nonparametric k-sample hypothesis test that converts observations into normal scores — the quantiles of a standard normal distribution — before comparing groups. Introduced by Bartel Leendert van der Waerden in 1952, it can achieve higher statistical power than the Kruskal-Wallis test when the underlying distributions are symmetric, making it a compelling bridge between rank-based and parametric methods.

Nonparametric k-sample comparison via normal scores

van der Waerden, B.L. (1952). Order Tests for the Two-Sample Problem and Their Power. Indagationes Mathematicae, 14, 453–458.

kruskal-wallis mann-whitney-u jonckheere-terpstra siegel-tukey-test one-way-anova friedman-test


Vancouver Referencing Style

Vancouver Citation and Referencing Style

Vancouver style
numbered citation
ICMJE style

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (Vancouver Group, founded 1978)

Vancouver style is the standard citation format for biomedical and clinical research journals, established by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) and detailed in their Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals. In Vancouver style, citations are numbered sequentially in the text (e.g., [1], [2], [3]) and linked to a numbered reference list at the end of the manuscript. The style emphasizes conciseness and is widely used in medicine, nursing, and life sciences. Unlike author-date systems (APA), Vancouver style de-emphasizes author names in the text, allowing more natural prose flow.

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (2023). Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals. Retrieved from https://www.icmje.org/

National Library of Medicine (2023). Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/formats/recommendedformats.html

apa-style-guide imrad-structure scientific-writing-clarity journal-submission-process


Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scale

VADTRS
Vanderbilt ADHD
Parent Rating Scale
Teacher Rating Scale

The Vanderbilt Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Rating Scale, developed by Mark Wolraich and colleagues in 2003, is a validated screening instrument for identifying ADHD symptoms and comorbid behavioral/emotional problems in children aged 6–12 years. Available in parent and teacher versions, it is widely used in primary care, pediatrics, and developmental clinics for initial ADHD screening and symptom tracking during treatment.

Wolraich, M. L., Lambert, W., Doffing, M. A., et al. (2003). Psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parent Rating Scale in a referred population. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28(8), 559-567.

Bard, D. E., Wolraich, M. L., Neas, B., et al. (2013). The psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder diagnostic parent rating scale in a community sample. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 34(5), 344-352.

conners-rating-scales strengths-difficulties-questionnaire cbcl-child-behavior achenbach-youth-self-report


Vapor Compression Cycle

Vapor Compression Cycle for Refrigeration and Heat Pumps

The Vapor Compression Cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic cycle for refrigeration systems and heat pumps. It describes how mechanical work is used to transfer heat from a cold space (evaporator) to a warm space (condenser), operating against the natural temperature gradient. The cycle consists of four processes: isentropic compression, isobaric condensation, isenthalpic throttling, and isobaric evaporation.

Stoecker, W. F., Jones, J. W., & Sunnam, B. A. (1998). Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Incropera, F. P., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., & Lavine, A. S. (2007). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (6th ed.). Wiley.


VAR Model

vector autoregression
VAR
VAR Modeli (Vektör Otoregresyon)
vektör otoregresyon

Lütkepohl (textbook treatment); Sims (1980) macroeconometric tradition

Vector Autoregression is a multivariate time-series model that treats several interdependent series symmetrically, letting each variable depend on its own past values and the past values of all the others. It is the standard tool for capturing mutual causality and joint dynamics, developed in the modern multiple-time-series tradition treated by Lütkepohl (2005).

Lütkepohl, H. (2005). New Introduction to Multiple Time Series Analysis. Springer.

vecm-model arima ardl-bounds-test ols-regression


Variable Neighborhood Search

VNS
Değişken Komşuluk Araması (VNS)
variable neighbourhood search

Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) is a metaheuristic optimization framework introduced by Mladenović and Hansen in 1997. It escapes local optima by systematically switching among a predefined set of neighborhood structures — first perturbing the current solution (shaking) to reach a different region of the search space, then applying a local search within that region, and finally accepting the new solution only if it improves the incumbent. The method is flexible enough to handle combinatorial problems (routing, scheduling, graph problems) as well as continuous optimization, making it one of the most widely used neighborhood-based metaheuristics in operations research.

Basic VNS (BVNS), Variable Neighborhood Descent (VND), General VNS (GVNS)

Combinatorial and continuous optimization

Mladenović, N. & Hansen, P. (1997). Variable Neighborhood Search. Computers & Operations Research, 24(11), 1097–1100.

Hansen, P., Mladenović, N., Brimberg, J. & Pérez, J.A.M. (2019). Variable Neighborhood Search: Basics and Variants. EURO Journal on Computational Optimization, 7(1), 3–56.

simulated-annealing tabu-search genetic-algorithm harmony-search iterated-local-search