Integral Projection Model

IPM
continuous size structure
kernel model
size-structured population

Integral projection models (IPMs) are a class of structured population models that use continuous traits (size, age, height) to describe population dynamics. Introduced by Easterling and colleagues (2000) and developed extensively by Ellner, Rees, and collaborators, IPMs overcome limitations of age- or stage-structured models by treating individual traits as continuous. They use integration to project populations forward in time, making them particularly suitable for organisms with continuous size distributions or flexible developmental pathways. IPMs enable estimation of population growth rate (λ), sensitivity analysis, and projection under changing environmental conditions.

Easterling, M. R., Ellner, S. P., & Dixon, P. M. (2000). Size-specific sensitivity: applying a new structured population model. Ecology, 81(3), 694-708.

Ellner, S. P., Guckenheimer, J., & Johnson, A. R. (2016). Dynamical Systems in Population Ecology. Oxford University Press.

Merow, C., Dahlgren, J. P., Metcalf, C. J. E., Childs, D. Z., Evans, M. E., Jongejans, E., Record, S., Rees, M., Salguero-Gomez, R., & McMahon, S. M. (2014). Advancing population ecology with integral projection models: a practical guide. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 5(2), 99-110.

leslie-matrix population-viability-analysis life-table-response-experiment species-accumulation


Integrate-and-Fire Model

Integrate-and-Fire Model of Neuronal Dynamics

Leaky integrate-and-fire
LIF model
Spike threshold model

The integrate-and-fire (IF) model is a simplified neuronal model that captures spike generation by integrating synaptic inputs until membrane potential reaches a threshold, at which point a spike is emitted. First proposed by Louis Lapicque in 1907 and refined with leak (leaky integrate-and-fire, LIF), it remains a standard tool for modeling neural populations and network dynamics due to its computational efficiency.

Lapicque, L. (1907). Recherches quantitatives sur l'excitation electrique des nerfs traitee comme une polarisation. Journal de Physiologie et de Pathologie Générale, 9, 620-635.

Gerstner, W., Kistler, W. M., Naud, R., & Paninski, L. (2014). Neuronal Dynamics: From Single Neurons to Networks and Models of Cognition. Cambridge University Press.


Integrative Medicine Attitude Questionnaire

Attitudes toward integrative medicine integration

Bikker, A. P.; Merelle, S. B.; Reinders, M. E.

The IMAQ is a 26-item self-report instrument assessing healthcare professionals' attitudes toward integrative medicine—the combined use of conventional and complementary therapies based on evidence and patient-centered values. Developed by Bikker and colleagues, it measures five dimensions of attitudes: cognitive, practical, affective, and social aspects of integrative practice.

Bikker, A. P., Merelle, S. B., & Reinders, M. E. (2005). Attitudes towards integrative medicine among healthcare professionals: A cross-sectional survey. Patient Education and Counseling, 56(3), 327–335.

Mercer, S. W., Watt, G. C. M., & Gauden-Mackintosh, N. K. (2002). General practitioner activity, consultation length, chronic disease management and co-morbidity are associated with health service use in populations. British Journal of General Practice, 52(478), 308–313.

attitudes-cam-scale cam-use-questionnaire holistic-caring-inventory patient-satisfaction-cam


Integrative Review

integrative literature review
integrative research review
ILR
integrative synthesis

2005 (updated methodology); roots in Cooper (1982)

An integrative review is a systematic method for synthesising literature that allows the simultaneous inclusion of diverse study designs — experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental — as well as theoretical papers. Unlike the conventional systematic review, which is restricted to controlled trials or a single methodology, the integrative review builds a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon by drawing on the full breadth of the relevant evidence base. The method follows a rigorous, structured pipeline to ensure transparency and minimise bias.

Published empirical and theoretical literature (quantitative, qualitative, mixed)

Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: Updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546–553.

Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples. Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356–367.

systematic-literature-review scoping-review narrative-review qualitative-meta-synthesis umbrella-review bibliometric-analysis


Intent Detection

Intent Detection (Intent Classification)

intent classification
intent recognition
Niyet Tespiti (Intent Detection)

Intent detection is a natural-language-understanding task that classifies the purpose behind a user utterance — such as making a reservation, asking for information, or filing a complaint — into one of a set of predefined intent classes. It is a core NLU component of conversational interfaces and customer-service automation systems, drawing on the benchmarks of Larson et al. (2019) and Casanueva et al. (2020).

Core natural-language-understanding component of conversational interfaces

Input: User utterance (free-form text)

Output: Predicted intent label from a defined taxonomy

Larson, S. et al. (2019). An Evaluation Dataset for Intent Classification and Out-of-Scope Prediction. EMNLP.

Casanueva, I. et al. (2020). Efficient Intent Detection with Dual Sentence Encoders. ACL Workshop on NLP for Conversational AI.

slot-filling text-classification bert-embeddings sentiment-analysis


Interaction Equivalency

Equivalent Interaction Design
Alternative Input Validation

Interaction Equivalency is an evaluation method for validating that alternative input and output modalities (voice, gesture, eye tracking, switch control) provide functionally equivalent access to system capabilities compared to standard input (keyboard, mouse). Developed by Shari Trewin, this method ensures that assistive and alternative interaction methods do not create barriers or diminish user capability. Rather than retrofitting accessibility as an afterthought, Interaction Equivalency assesses multi-modal design at design time, ensuring users with disabilities can access all functionality with comparable efficiency.

Evaluation method validating functional equivalency across alternative interaction modalities

Trewin, S. (2013). The Interaction Equivalency Principle in assistive technology and universal design. In Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 535–544). Springer.

Washington, P., et al. (2015). Gesture and voice based customizable interface for individuals with upper limb motor impairments. In Proceedings of the 41st Graphics Interface Conference (pp. 15–22).

think-aloud-protocol accessibility cognitive-walkthrough heuristic-evaluation


Interactive Fixed Effects

Factor models with individual heterogeneity

Interactive Fixed Effects (IFE) extends standard fixed-effects panel models by allowing unit-specific intercepts to vary not just at the individual level but also with unobserved common time-varying factors. Introduced by Bai (2009), it models heterogeneity as the interaction of individual characteristics and common shocks, ideal for studying cross-sectional variation in how units respond to macro conditions. This framework dominates when common factors drive substantial heterogeneity.

Bai, J. (2009). Panel data models with interactive fixed effects. Econometric Reviews, 28(4), 289-312.

Moon, H. R., & Weidner, M. (2015). Linear regression for panel with unknown number of factors as interactive fixed effects. Econometric Theory, 31(5), 1046-1087.


Interest Rate Models

Interest Rate Term-Structure Models (Vasicek, CIR, Nelson-Siegel)

Faiz Oranı Modelleri (Vasicek, CIR, Nelson-Siegel)

Interest rate models are structural models that describe how interest rates evolve over time within a stochastic differential equation framework. The family covers Vasicek's normal short-rate process (1977), the CIR square-root process, the adjustable Hull-White extension, and the Nelson-Siegel approach to fitting the yield curve (1987).

Calibration to historical or market prices (MLE / least squares)

Vasicek, O. (1977). An Equilibrium Characterization of the Term Structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 5(2), 177–188.

Nelson, C. R. & Siegel, A. F. (1987). Parsimonious Modeling of Yield Curves. Journal of Business, 60(4), 473–489.

jump-diffusion-model black-litterman-model backtesting-var pairs-trading ols-regression


Interface Usability Measure

IUM
Usability Assessment
System Usability Scale

Interface Usability Measure (IUM), exemplified by the System Usability Scale (SUS) developed by John Brooke in 1986 and extended by Lewis and others, is a rapid, single-scale or multi-item assessment of perceived interface usability. IUM captures how easy, intuitive, and satisfying users find an interactive system, ranging from 10-item SUS questionnaires to custom domain-specific usability measures. IUM is widely used in software development, web design, and human-factors research to quantify user perception of system ease-of-use and guide iterative interface improvement.

Brooke, J. (1986). System Usability Scale (SUS): A quick and dirty usability scale. In B. Weerdmeester & M. Evaluating the Usability of Human-Computer Interfaces (pp. 5-7). IOS Press.

Lewis, J. R. (1995). IBM Computer Usability Satisfaction Questionnaires: Psychometric evaluation and recommendations. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 7(1), 57–78.

user-experience-questionnaire nasa-task-load-index cognitive-load-scale operator-performance-scale


Interferogram Fringe Analysis

fringe pattern analysis
interferometry
phase extraction

Interferogram fringe analysis is a computational methodology for extracting quantitative information from interference fringe patterns recorded in optical systems. Rooted in Thomas Young's 1801 double-slit experiment and formalized in 20th-century metrology, this approach interprets the spatial patterns of constructive and destructive interference to measure surface topography, optical aberrations, refractive-index distributions, and other optical properties with high precision.

Malacara, D. (Ed.). (2007). Optical Shop Testing (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

Huntley, J. M. (1989). Automatic fringe pattern analysis: a review. Optics & Lasers in Engineering, 11(2-3), 243-266.

Wyant, J. C. (1996). White light interferometry. Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering, 2873, 98-107.


Intergroup Contact Scale

Intergroup Contact and Quality Assessment

Gordon Allport, Thomas Pettigrew, Linda Tropp

The Intergroup Contact Scale measures the quantity and quality of face-to-face interaction between members of different social groups (racial, ethnic, religious, national, or other categories). Rooted in Gordon Allport's contact hypothesis (1954), which proposed that prejudice decreases when groups interact under favorable conditions, the scale is fundamental in research on prejudice reduction, integration, and intergroup relations.

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.

Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? A meta-analytic test of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(6), 922-934.

Binder, J., Zagefka, H., Brown, R., Funke, F., Imamoglu, E. O., Krewer, B., ... & Uskul, A. K. (2009). Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 843.

generalized-trust-scale xenophobia-scale social-cohesion-scale democratic-values-scale community-belonging-scale


Internal Control Evaluation

Integrated Internal Control Framework and Evaluation Methodology

COSO Framework
Control Design Testing
Internal Control Assessment

Internal Control Evaluation is a systematic methodology for assessing the design and effectiveness of an entity's internal control system using the COSO Integrated Framework. Developed by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, this approach evaluates five interrelated components—control environment, risk assessment, control activities, information and communication, and monitoring—to determine whether controls are adequate to prevent and detect errors and fraud.

Comprehensive control evaluation framework

The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO). (2013). Internal Control – Integrated Framework. COSO Publications.

American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). (2015). Assessing and Reporting on Control Deficiencies. AU-C Section 265. AICPA Professional Standards.

audit-risk-model analytical-procedures-auditing fraud-risk-assessment going-concern-evaluation


Internal Reconstruction

Interlingual Reconstruction
Diachronic Morphology

Internal Reconstruction is a historical linguistic method that reconstructs earlier stages of a single language by identifying internal inconsistencies, morphological irregularities, and distributional patterns within the language itself. Unlike the Comparative Method, which relies on comparing related languages, Internal Reconstruction uses evidence from within one language—such as suppletive forms, analogy-induced irregularities, and phonological asymmetries—to infer its historical structure and sound changes. This method is particularly valuable when only one written form of a language survives or when related languages are unavailable.

Hock, H. H. (1991). Principles of Historical Linguistics (2nd ed.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Hoenigswald, H. M. (1960). Language Change and Linguistic Reconstruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Anttila, R. (1972). An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics. New York: Macmillan.


The Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (ISMI) is a 29-item self-report measure assessing the extent to which individuals with serious mental illness have internalized societal stigma—that is, adopted negative beliefs and stereotypes about themselves and their condition. Developed by Ritsher, Otilingam, and Grajales in 2003, the ISMI captures five dimensions of internalized stigma: alienation, stereotype endorsement, perceived discrimination, social withdrawal, and stigma resistance. The ISMI is widely used in mental health research and clinical practice to assess stigma burden and inform stigma-reduction interventions.

Ritsher, J. B., Otilingam, P. G., & Grajales, M. (2003). Internalized stigma of mental illness: Psychometric properties of a new measure. Psychiatry Research, 121(1), 31-49.

recovery-assessment-scale link-stigma-scale self-stigma-seeking-help mental-health-continuum


The IIEF is a 15-item, multidimensional self-report instrument developed by Rosen and colleagues in 1997 to assess erectile function and sexual satisfaction in men. It remains the most widely used psychometric tool for evaluating erectile dysfunction in clinical and research settings, with validation across 29 countries and translations into 40+ languages.

Rosen, R. C., Riley, A., Wagner, G., Osterloh, I. H., Kirkpatrick, J., & Mishra, A. (1997). The International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF): a multidimensional scale for assessment of erectile dysfunction. Urology, 49(6), 822–830.

Cappelleri, J. C., Rosen, R. C., Smith, M. D., Mishira, A., & Osterloh, I. H. (1999). Diagnostic validation of the Sexual Health Inventory for Men. International Journal of Impotence Research, 11(4), 319–326.

female-sexual-function-index sexual-satisfaction-scale arizona-sexual-experiences-scale male-sexual-health-questionnaire


International Prostate Symptom Score

International Prostate Symptom Score - Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms

American Urological Association (AUA) and International Prostate Symptom Score Committee

The International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) is a validated seven-item self-report instrument adopted by the World Health Organization and American Urological Association to measure the severity of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in men with suspected benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The IPSS comprises items assessing frequency of nocturia, urgency, weak stream, hesitancy, intermittency, and incomplete emptying over the past month. It is the gold standard measure for BPH symptom severity assessment in clinical practice and research.

Eight-item symptom severity questionnaire

Barry, M. J., Fowler, F. J., O'Leary, M. P., Bruskewitz, R. C., Holtgrewe, H. L., & Mebust, W. K. (1992). The American Urological Association symptom index for benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology, 148(5), 1549-1557.

Madsen, P. O., & Iversen, P. (1983). A point system for subjective assessment of symptoms of urinary obstruction. Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica, 149(2), 210-215.

Pocock, R. D., Vaya, P. R., & Rodrigues, P. (2003). Development and validation of the International Prostate Symptom Score Questionnaire. World Journal of Urology, 20(2), 102-108.


IAT

Internet Addiction Test Young
IAT-20
IAT screening

The IAT is a 20-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure problematic internet use and internet addiction. Developed by Kimberly Young in 1998, it was one of the first validated screening tools for internet-related compulsive use. The IAT assesses loss of control, salience (preoccupation with internet), withdrawal symptoms, and negative consequences. It remains widely used in research on internet addiction, particularly in adolescents and young adults.

Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237–244.

Young, K. S. (2010). Internet addiction: A handbook and guide to evaluation and treatment. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Pontes, H. M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Portuguese validation of the Internet Addiction Test: An expanding international perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 164.


Body Vigilance Scale

Norman B. Schmidt, J. Anthony Richey, and colleagues

The Body Vigilance Scale (BVS) is a 4-item self-report measure assessing the degree to which individuals monitor and attend to bodily sensations. Developed by Schmidt and colleagues in 2006, the BVS captures a core feature of panic disorder and anxiety: heightened interoceptive attention and body scanning. This excessive monitoring maintains anxiety by amplifying the perception of normal bodily variations, creating a feedback loop of arousal and fear.

Schmidt, N. B., Richey, J. A., & Fitzpatrick, K. K. (2006). Attention to bodily vigilance in panic disorder: Mechanisms and management. Behavior Modification, 30(1), 76–90.


Interpersonal Reactivity Index

The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is a 28-item self-report measure developed by Mark H. Davis in 1980 to assess individual differences in empathy as a multidimensional construct. Rather than treating empathy as a single trait, the IRI measures four distinct empathic dimensions: perspective-taking, fantasy, empathic concern, and personal distress. It has become the most widely used multidimensional empathy measure in psychological and social science research.

Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126.

social-capital-scale collectivism-individualism-scale cultural-values-scale modern-racism-scale


Interpersonal Therapy Assessment

Interpersonal Therapy Assessment Protocol

Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) assessment is a structured evaluation of the client's current symptoms and their interpersonal context to identify one or more core interpersonal problems (grief, disputes, role transitions, or interpersonal deficits) maintaining the client's psychological distress. Developed by Gerald Klerman and Myrna Weissman in the 1980s, IPT assessment forms the foundation for this evidence-based time-limited psychotherapy.

Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy. Oxford University Press.

Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19(2), 99–105.


Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is a qualitative research methodology that explores how people make sense of significant personal experiences. Developed by Jonathan Smith (1999) and grounded in phenomenology and hermeneutics, IPA examines individual experience in detail before identifying shared patterns; it emphasizes the idiographic (particular) and operates on the principle of double hermeneutics: the researcher interprets participants' interpretations of their lived experience.

Smith, J. A. (1999). Towards a relational self: Social engagement during pregnancy and first-time motherhood. British Journal of Social Psychology, 38(4), 409–426.

Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research. Sage Publications.

Smith, J. A. (Ed.). (2015). Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

phenomenological-research thematic-analysis hermeneutic-analysis double-hermeneutic idiographic-analysis


Interpretive autoethnography

interpretive autoethnography
evocative autoethnography
analytic autoethnography
IAE

Carolyn Ellis, Arthur Bochner (evocative strand); Leon Anderson (analytic/interpretive strand)

Interpretive autoethnography is a qualitative research design in which the researcher uses systematic analysis of their own lived experience as the primary data source, moving beyond evocative personal narrative to connect personal meaning with broader cultural, social, or theoretical frameworks. Drawing on Leon Anderson's analytic strand and building on Ellis and Bochner's foundational work, it treats the researcher's self-account as both evidence and interpretive lens, subjecting personal stories to disciplined ethnographic and theoretical scrutiny to generate insights that extend beyond the individual case.

Personal experience narratives, field notes, journals, reflexive memos

Ellis, C., Adams, T. E., & Bochner, A. P. (2011). Autoethnography: An overview. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 12(1), Art. 10.

Anderson, L. (2006). Analytic autoethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 35(4), 373–395.

autoethnography narrative-inquiry ethnography phenomenology reflexive-thematic-analysis interpretive-phenomenology


Interpretive biographical research

biographical-interpretive method
hermeneutic biography
interpretive life-story research
IBR

Norman K. Denzin (interpretive turn); Brian Roberts (biographical research synthesis)

Interpretive biographical research is a qualitative design that collects and hermeneutically analyses the life stories of individuals to illuminate how personal biography intersects with social structure and historical context. Drawing on the interpretive tradition of Wilhelm Dilthey and systematised by Norman Denzin and Brian Roberts, it treats a life account not as a factual record but as a constructed, meaning-laden narrative that reveals how people make sense of their own trajectories.

Qualitative biographical research design

Life-story interviews, personal documents, letters, diaries, memoirs

Roberts, B. (2002). Biographical Research. Open University Press.

Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive Biography. Sage.

narrative-inquiry interpretive-life-history-research interpretive-narrative-inquiry interpretive-oral-history phenomenology grounded-theory


Interpretive case study

intrinsic case study
constructivist case study
qualitative case study
naturalistic case study

Robert E. Stake; extended by Bent Flyvbjerg

Interpretive case study is a qualitative research design in which the researcher selects a bounded real-world case — a person, program, event, organization, or community — and seeks to understand it from the inside, through the meanings participants themselves construct. Unlike explanatory or descriptive case study, the interpretive variant foregrounds the researcher's active role in making sense of complex, context-laden data rather than testing hypotheses or cataloguing facts.

Interviews, observations, documents, artefacts (text and field data)

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Sage.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge University Press.

phenomenology ethnography narrative-inquiry grounded-theory thematic-analysis hermeneutic-phenomenology


Interpretive classic grounded theory

interpretivist CGT
interpretivist classic GT
interpretive Glaserian grounded theory
interpretive emergent grounded theory

1967 (classic GT); interpretivist epistemological framing: mid-1990s onward

Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (classic GT); interpretivist framing elaborated by Merilyn Annells and others

Interpretive classic grounded theory applies Glaser and Strauss's original discovery-oriented grounded theory procedures under an explicitly interpretivist epistemology. It retains classic GT's commitment to theory emergence — avoiding forced conceptual frameworks — while acknowledging that the researcher's interpretive lens shapes what is noticed and how meaning is constructed from data. This stance distinguishes it from purely objectivist readings of Glaser's later solo work and from constructivist grounded theory in its degree of inductive openness.

Interviews, observations, documents, field notes

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine.

Annells, M. (1996). Grounded theory method: Philosophical perspectives, paradigm of inquiry, and postmodernism. Qualitative Health Research, 6(3), 379–393.


Interpretive Constructivist Grounded Theory

constructivist GT
interpretive CGT
Charmaz grounded theory
constructivist grounded theory

Interpretive constructivist grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the researcher and participants are understood as jointly constructing meaning, and theory is built inductively from data through systematic comparative analysis. Developed by Kathy Charmaz as a departure from the positivist assumptions of classic grounded theory, this approach situates both the researcher and participants as active interpreters whose social positions, values, and interactions shape the categories and theory that emerge from the study.

Qualitative research design and analytic approach

Interviews, observations, documents (textual data)

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing Grounded Theory (2nd ed.). Sage.

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Sage.

constructivist-grounded-theory interpretive-grounded-theory classic-grounded-theory interpretive-straussian-grounded-theory grounded-theory thematic-analysis


Interpretive content analysis

Interpretive Qualitative Content Analysis

ICA
interpretive CA
qualitative content analysis
meaning-oriented content analysis

1983 (Mayring's German original); 2000 (English publication)

Philipp Mayring (systematic qualitative variant); Klaus Krippendorff (foundational framework)

Interpretive content analysis is a systematic qualitative approach for analyzing the latent meanings and interpretive frameworks embedded in textual, visual, or documentary data. Unlike frequency-based content analysis, it foregrounds the researcher's interpretive engagement with texts to uncover how meaning is constructed, contested, or reproduced. Philipp Mayring's qualitative content analysis and broader interpretive traditions provide the methodological backbone for this approach.

Texts, documents, interview transcripts, media content

Mayring, P. (2000). Qualitative content analysis. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1(2), Art. 20.

Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (4th ed.). Sage.

thematic-analysis critical-content-analysis discourse-analysis narrative-inquiry grounded-theory document-analysis


Interpretive conversation analysis

ICA
interpretive CA
hermeneutic conversation analysis
qualitative conversation analysis

1960s–1970s (CA); interpretive strand formalised 1990s–2000s

Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff, Gail Jefferson (CA foundations); interpretive extension by discourse scholars including Margaret Wetherell

Interpretive conversation analysis (ICA) examines how meaning is co-constructed turn by turn in talk, combining the micro-sequential rigour of classic conversation analysis with an explicitly interpretive stance. Rather than treating sequential organisation as the sole analytic object, ICA asks what participants are doing socially and discursively through their turns — what identities, institutional agendas, and power relations are built and contested in interaction. It draws on naturally occurring or recorded talk from social, institutional, or interview settings.

Transcribed naturally occurring talk, interview excerpts, institutional interaction recordings

ten Have, P. (2007). Doing Conversation Analysis: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Sage.

Wetherell, M., Taylor, S., & Yates, S. J. (Eds.) (2001). Discourse Theory and Practice: A Reader. Sage.

conversation-analysis discourse-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis critical-discourse-analysis thematic-analysis narrative-inquiry


Interpretive Critical Discourse Analysis

constructivist critical discourse analysis

Norman Fairclough; Ruth Wodak; Teun A. van Dijk (interpretive framing developed through constructivist qualitative traditions)

Interpretive critical discourse analysis (interpretive CDA) combines the power-and-ideology lens of critical discourse analysis with an interpretivist epistemology that foregrounds meaning-making, context, and the researcher's own positionality. It examines how language constructs social reality, legitimises or challenges power relations, and circulates ideological assumptions — while acknowledging that both the texts under study and the analyst's reading of them are socially situated and context-dependent.

Texts, transcripts, documents, media, policy documents

Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and Social Change. Polity Press.

Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (Eds.). (2001). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. Sage.

critical-discourse-analysis discourse-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis thematic-analysis interpretive-content-analysis critical-hermeneutic-phenomenology


Interpretive digital ethnography

virtual ethnography (interpretivist)
online ethnography
internet ethnography
digital fieldwork

Christine Hine; Sarah Pink and colleagues

Interpretive digital ethnography is a qualitative research design that studies human cultures, communities, and practices as they emerge and unfold in digital spaces. Drawing on the interpretivist tradition, it treats online environments as genuine cultural sites and uses sustained, participant-oriented fieldwork to produce rich, context-sensitive accounts of how people create meaning through digital interaction.

Online interactions, digital artifacts, screen captures, chat logs, social media posts, video

Hine, C. (2000). Virtual Ethnography. Sage.

Pink, S., Horst, H., Postill, J., Hjorth, L., Lewis, T., & Tacchi, J. (2016). Digital Ethnography: Principles and Practice. Sage.

ethnography netnography digital-ethnography interpretive-ethnography virtual-ethnography discourse-analysis


Interpretive Discourse Analysis

IDA
interpretivist discourse analysis
discourse analysis (interpretive)
meaning-focused discourse analysis

Rooted in interpretivist social science; systematised by Norman Fairclough, Margaret Wetherell, and others

Interpretive discourse analysis is a qualitative approach that examines how language constructs social realities, identities, and meanings within specific contexts. Operating from an interpretivist epistemology, it treats texts and talk not as transparent windows onto the world but as active sites where meaning is negotiated, and it seeks to understand those meanings from the perspective of participants situated within their social and cultural worlds.

Qualitative interpretive research approach

Texts, transcripts, documents, media, institutional discourse

Phillips, N., & Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse Analysis: Investigating Processes of Social Construction. Sage Publications.

Wetherell, M., Taylor, S., & Yates, S. J. (Eds.). (2001). Discourse Theory and Practice: A Reader. Sage Publications.

discourse-analysis critical-discourse-analysis interpretive-content-analysis thematic-analysis narrative-inquiry interpretive-thematic-analysis


Interpretive document analysis

interpretive documentary analysis
hermeneutic document analysis
qualitative document analysis
interpretive textual analysis

2000s (building on hermeneutic traditions from the 20th century)

Glenn Bowen (systematic method); Lindsay Prior (social use of documents)

Interpretive document analysis is a qualitative method that systematically examines written, visual, or digital documents to construct meaning from them within their social, historical, and institutional contexts. Rather than simply counting content categories, it reads documents as social artefacts — asking not only what a document says, but what it does, who produced it, for what purpose, and what assumptions it encodes. The approach draws on hermeneutic and interpretive traditions to move between individual passages and the broader context in which they were created.

Qualitative document-based research method

Documents: policy texts, reports, letters, meeting minutes, archival records, online texts

Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40.

Prior, L. (2003). Using Documents in Social Research. Sage.


Interpretive grounded theory

interpretivist grounded theory
constructivist grounded theory
IGT
grounded theory — interpretivist strand

1967 (foundational); interpretivist articulation ~2000–2006

Kathy Charmaz (interpretivist/constructivist strand); foundational grounded theory by Glaser & Strauss

Interpretive grounded theory is a qualitative methodology that builds substantive theory inductively from data while working from an interpretivist epistemological stance. Developed most fully by Kathy Charmaz, it holds that researcher and participant co-construct meaning, that categories are created rather than discovered, and that the resulting theory is one plausible account among others rather than an objective rendering of social reality.

Interviews, observations, documents, field notes (text data)

grounded-theory constructivist-grounded-theory straussian-grounded-theory thematic-analysis narrative-inquiry phenomenology


Interpretive Hermeneutic Phenomenology

Interpretive Hermeneutic Phenomenological Research

hermeneutic phenomenology
IHP
van Manen phenomenology
lived-experience hermeneutics

Philosophical roots 1927; methodological form 1990

Martin Heidegger (philosophical basis); Max van Manen (research methodology)

Interpretive hermeneutic phenomenology is a qualitative research approach that investigates the meaning of lived experience through an explicit interpretive lens grounded in the hermeneutic tradition. Originating in Heidegger's hermeneutic ontology and developed as a research methodology by Max van Manen, it holds that human experience is always already interpreted and that understanding emerges through a circular movement between parts and wholes — the hermeneutic circle. The approach foregrounds the researcher's engaged, interpretive presence rather than bracketing it away.

In-depth interviews, field texts, written reflections, diaries (text data)

van Manen, M. (1990). Researching Lived Experience: Human Science for an Action Sensitive Pedagogy. State University of New York Press.

Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans.). Harper & Row. (Original work published 1927)

phenomenology interpretive-phenomenology hermeneutics thematic-analysis narrative-inquiry grounded-theory


Interpretive Institutional Ethnography

1987 (IE); interpretive variant consolidated 1990s–2000s

Dorothy E. Smith (institutional ethnography); interpretive elaboration by Campbell, Gregor, and others

Interpretive institutional ethnography (IIE) is a qualitative research design that combines Dorothy Smith's institutional ethnography — which maps how institutional texts and social relations coordinate everyday life — with an explicitly interpretive, meaning-centered stance. Rather than stopping at describing ruling relations, the researcher asks what those relations mean to people embedded in them and how participants actively interpret institutional demands and texts in their lived experience.

Interviews, texts/documents, field observations

Smith, D. E. (1987). The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology. Northeastern University Press.

Campbell, M., & Gregor, F. (2002). Mapping Social Relations: A Primer in Doing Institutional Ethnography. Garamond Press.

institutional-ethnography ethnography interpretive-ethnography critical-institutional-ethnography grounded-theory discourse-analysis


Interpretive life history research

life history method
interpretive biographical method
life history inquiry
lived-life narrative research

1920s–1980s (Chicago School origins; interpretive turn 1980s–1990s)

Daniel Bertaux; Allison Cole & J. Gary Knowles (interpretive tradition)

Interpretive life history research is a qualitative design in which the researcher and participant collaboratively construct a detailed account of the participant's entire life course — or a significant portion of it — and then interpret that account to understand how identity, context, and meaning-making unfold over time. Grounded in an interpretive epistemology, it treats the narrator's life story not as a neutral record of facts but as a meaning-laden construction shaped by culture, social position, and lived experience.

Qualitative interpretive research design

In-depth life history interviews, personal documents, diaries, autobiographical accounts

Cole, A. L., & Knowles, J. G. (2001). Lives in Context: The Art of Life History Research. AltaMira Press.

Bertaux, D. (Ed.). (1981). Biography and Society: The Life History Approach in the Social Sciences. Sage.

narrative-inquiry biographical-research oral-history interpretive-narrative-inquiry phenomenology interpretive-biographical-research


Interpretive Metaphor Analysis

interpretive conceptual metaphor analysis

1980 (conceptual foundations); 2000s (systematic qualitative procedure)

Rudolf Schmitt (systematic procedure); grounded in Lakoff & Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory

Interpretive metaphor analysis is a qualitative method that systematically identifies and interprets the conceptual metaphors embedded in participants' language to understand how they make meaning of their experiences. Rooted in Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory and adapted for empirical social research by Rudolf Schmitt, it applies a hermeneutic lens to treat metaphors not as stylistic ornaments but as windows into underlying cognitive and cultural frames.

Verbal or written text (interviews, documents, media, narratives)

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.

Schmitt, R. (2005). Systematic metaphor analysis as a method of qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 10(2), 358–394.

metaphor-analysis discourse-analysis critical-discourse-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis thematic-analysis interpretive-content-analysis


Interpretive multiple case study

multi-site interpretive case study
collective case study
interpretive multi-case design
constructivist multiple case study

Robert K. Yin (multiple case study design); Robert E. Stake (collective/interpretive case study)

Interpretive multiple case study is a qualitative research design in which the researcher studies two or more bounded cases in depth, using an interpretivist stance to understand how participants construct meaning within each setting. Rather than seeking law-like generalizations, it aims to generate rich, context-sensitive understanding that is then compared across cases to reveal patterns, contrasts, and theoretical insights.

Interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts across multiple bounded cases

Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). Sage.

Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple Case Study Analysis. Guilford Press.

interpretive-single-case-study interpretive-case-study comparative-case-study interpretive-ethnography interpretive-grounded-theory interpretive-thematic-analysis


Interpretive Narrative Inquiry

interpretive narrative research
INI
hermeneutic narrative inquiry
narrative interpretation

Interpretive narrative inquiry is a qualitative approach that treats human stories as the primary site of meaning-making and knowledge production. Drawing on Connelly and Clandinin's foundational framework and grounded in hermeneutic philosophy, it uses in-depth narrative interviews, field texts, and relational engagement to understand how individuals construct identity, experience, and sense of the world through the stories they tell and live.

Narratives, stories, field texts (interviews, journals, documents)

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2–14.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in Qualitative Research. Jossey-Bass.

narrative-inquiry interpretive-phenomenology hermeneutic-phenomenology interpretive-biographical-research interpretive-life-history-research interpretive-case-study


Interpretive netnography

interpretivist netnography
constructivist netnography
online ethnography (interpretivist)
virtual ethnography (interpretive)

Interpretive netnography applies Kozinets' netnographic method within an explicitly interpretivist epistemological framework. The researcher immerses in online communities — social media, forums, blogs, or brand communities — to understand how members co-construct meaning, identity, and culture through digital interaction. Unlike positivist content analysis, interpretive netnography foregrounds the researcher's situated reading of online texts and privileges thick, contextualised meaning-making over frequency counts or variable measurement.

Online text, user-generated content, social media posts, forum threads, blogs

Kozinets, R. V. (2010). Netnography: Doing Ethnographic Research Online. Sage.

Kozinets, R. V. (2002). The field behind the screen: Using netnography for marketing research in online communities. Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), 61–72.

netnography digital-ethnography interpretive-ethnography interpretive-digital-ethnography virtual-ethnography discourse-analysis


Interpretive oral history

interpretive oral history method
hermeneutic oral history
oral history interpretation
IOH

1970s–1990s (interpretive turn in oral history)

Interpretive oral history is a qualitative research design that collects and analyzes first-person spoken accounts of the past through an explicitly interpretive lens. Rather than treating recorded testimony as a transparent factual record, it foregrounds the meaning-making process — examining how narrators construct, remember, and frame their experiences — drawing on hermeneutic and interpretive traditions to illuminate subjectivity, memory, and historical consciousness.

Recorded interviews, transcripts, personal testimonies

Portelli, A. (1991). The Death of Luigi Trastulli and Other Stories: Form and Meaning in Oral History. State University of New York Press.

Ritchie, D. A. (2003). Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

narrative-inquiry interpretive-biographical-research interpretive-life-history-research interpretive-narrative-inquiry hermeneutic-phenomenology interpretive-case-study


Interpretive phenomenology

hermeneutic phenomenology
van Manen phenomenology
Heideggerian phenomenology
interpretive phenomenological inquiry

1927 (Heidegger); systematised for human sciences by van Manen in 1990

Martin Heidegger (philosophical foundation); Max van Manen (methodological systematisation)

Interpretive phenomenology is a qualitative research design that investigates the meaning people attribute to their lived experiences by combining phenomenological description with hermeneutic interpretation. Rooted in Heidegger's ontology and systematised for social and human sciences by Max van Manen, it moves beyond description to ask what an experience means within a person's broader lifeworld, cultural context, and situated understanding. The researcher's own interpretive horizon is treated as an analytical resource rather than a bias to eliminate.

In-depth interviews, field observations, written descriptions, diaries, artefacts

Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans.). Harper & Row. (Original work published 1927).

phenomenology interpretive-phenomenological-analysis hermeneutic-phenomenology narrative-inquiry ethnography grounded-theory


conventional content analysis
inductive qualitative content analysis
interpretive QCA
IQCA

2005 (interpretive strand formalised); qualitative content analysis roots in the 1980s–1990s

Hsiu-Fang Hsieh & Sarah E. Shannon (conventional/interpretive strand); Phillip Mayring (qualitative content analysis generally)

Interpretive qualitative content analysis (also called conventional content analysis) is a qualitative approach to systematically analysing text in which coding categories emerge directly from the data rather than from a pre-defined coding scheme. The researcher immerses themselves in the material, derives codes inductively through close reading, groups those codes into interpretive categories, and constructs a conceptual account of the content's meaning. It is especially suited to domains where existing theory is sparse and the aim is to understand how participants describe or make sense of a phenomenon.

Text — interview transcripts, documents, open-ended survey responses, field notes

Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288.

Schreier, M. (2012). Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice. Sage.

qualitative-content-analysis thematic-analysis interpretive-thematic-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis interpretive-document-analysis grounded-theory


constructivist reflexive thematic analysis

2006 (foundational); interpretivist framing consolidated 2019–2021

Interpretive Reflexive Thematic Analysis applies Braun and Clarke's reflexive thematic analysis framework explicitly within an interpretivist epistemological stance. The analyst treats meaning as co-constructed between researcher and data, foregrounds their own subjective positionality throughout the coding and theming process, and produces theoretically rich accounts of participant perspectives rather than surface-level content summaries. It is among the most widely used analytical approaches in contemporary qualitative research.

Interview transcripts, focus group transcripts, documents, open-ended survey responses

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.

reflexive-thematic-analysis thematic-analysis interpretive-phenomenology interpretive-content-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis grounded-theory


Interpretive Semiotic Analysis

semiotic discourse analysis
interpretive semiotics
social semiotics analysis
ISA

Ferdinand de Saussure (foundational semiology); Roland Barthes (cultural/media application); Gunther Kress & Theo van Leeuwen (social semiotics)

Interpretive semiotic analysis is a qualitative method that examines how signs — words, images, symbols, gestures, and sounds — produce meaning within specific social and cultural contexts. Drawing on Saussurean semiology and Barthesian cultural analysis, the approach moves beyond surface-level description to uncover the layered, context-bound meanings that sign systems generate. It is widely used in media studies, communication, education, marketing, and cultural research to reveal how representations shape social reality.

Texts, images, symbols, media artefacts, multimodal documents

Barthes, R. (1967). Elements of Semiology. Hill and Wang.

van Leeuwen, T., & Jewitt, C. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of Visual Analysis. Sage.


Interpretive single case study

single-site case study
intrinsic case study
interpretive case research
bounded single-case inquiry

Robert E. Stake (intrinsic/interpretive framing); Robert K. Yin (design typology)

An interpretive single case study is a qualitative research design that examines one bounded instance — a person, organisation, event, programme, or community — in depth, with the explicit goal of understanding what that case means to the people within it. Drawing on Stake's notion of the intrinsic case and an interpretivist epistemological stance, the approach treats meaning as socially constructed and context-dependent, making rich, contextual understanding its primary output.

Interviews, observations, documents, artefacts (text and field data)

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Sage.

interpretive-multiple-case-study interpretive-case-study interpretive-ethnography phenomenology narrative-inquiry interpretive-narrative-inquiry


Interpretive Straussian grounded theory

Straussian GT (interpretivist)
interpretivist grounded theory
Strauss-Corbin grounded theory
systematic grounded theory

1990 (Strauss & Corbin seminal text); interpretivist grounded theory consolidation 1990s–2000s

Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin (Straussian procedures); interpretivist framing draws on Dilthey, Weber, and Blumer

Interpretive Straussian grounded theory combines the systematic coding procedures developed by Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin with an interpretivist epistemological stance. It uses open, axial, and selective coding — structured around a paradigm model of conditions, actions, and consequences — to inductively build a substantive theory from qualitative data, while acknowledging that the researcher actively constructs meaning rather than discovering pre-existing facts.

Interviews, observations, documents, field notes

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Sage.

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (3rd ed.). Sage.


Interpretive Thematic Analysis

ITA
interpretive TA
interpretivist thematic analysis
constructivist thematic analysis

2006 (systematic formulation); interpretivist application developed through 2010s

Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke (systematic method); interpretivist orientation traced to constructivist qualitative traditions

Interpretive thematic analysis is a form of thematic analysis conducted from an interpretivist or constructivist epistemological standpoint. Rather than treating themes as residing in the data waiting to be discovered, the researcher actively constructs meaning through their engagement with the data. Built on Braun and Clarke's systematic framework, the interpretive variant foregrounds the researcher's theoretical lens and reflexivity, producing analysis that goes beyond description to explain how social, cultural, or contextual forces shape participants' accounts.

Interview transcripts, focus group data, documents, open-ended survey responses

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners. Sage.

thematic-analysis reflexive-thematic-analysis interpretive-phenomenology discourse-analysis grounded-theory narrative-inquiry


Interpretive Visual Analysis

visual hermeneutics
interpretive image analysis
IVA
hermeneutic visual analysis

Late 20th century; Rose's visual methodologies framework developed 2001 onward

Gillian Rose (systematic framework); Roland Barthes (semiotic foundations)

Interpretive visual analysis is a qualitative approach that applies an interpretivist epistemological stance to the systematic examination of visual materials — photographs, film, artwork, diagrams, and other images. Rather than coding surface features, it treats images as socially situated texts whose meanings are constructed through cultural context, viewer positionality, and the conditions of production and circulation. The approach draws on hermeneutics, semiotics, and critical social theory to surface layered meanings that visual data carry.

Images, photographs, film, video, artwork, diagrams, visual documents

Rose, G. (2016). Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials (4th ed.). Sage.

Barthes, R. (1977). Image Music Text (S. Heath, Trans.). Fontana Press.

visual-analysis discourse-analysis interpretive-discourse-analysis semiotic-analysis interpretive-semiotic-analysis phenomenology


IPCS

Collaboration Scale
Team Collaboration Index
Interprofessional Teamwork Scale

The IPCS is a self-report questionnaire measuring healthcare professionals' and students' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors regarding interprofessional collaboration and teamwork. Developed through research by Hind and colleagues in 2003 and refined in subsequent interprofessional education studies, the IPCS evaluates perceived teamwork quality, interdependence, communication effectiveness, and shared decision-making across professional boundaries. It is used in clinical and educational settings to assess collaboration climate, evaluate the impact of team interventions, and identify professional groups' differing perspectives on teamwork.

Hind, M., Norman, I., Compton, S. E., Worral-Davies, A., Coad, S., Marples, R., ... Drey, N. (2003). Interprofessional perceptions of health care students. J Interprof Care 17(1): 21–34.

Barr, H., Koppel, I., Reeves, S., Hammick, M., & Freeth, D. (2005). Effective interprofessional education: Argument, assumption and evidence. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

ripls clinical-learning-environment-scale professional-identity-scale patient-safety-competence-scale


Interrater Reliability

Interrater Reliability (Cohen's κ and ICC)

Değerlendiriciler Arası Güvenilirlik (Cohen's κ, ICC)

Cohen (kappa, 1960); Shrout & Fleiss (ICC, 1979)

Interrater reliability quantifies the degree to which two or more independent raters produce consistent scores when evaluating the same individuals or products. The family encompasses Cohen's kappa, introduced in 1960 for categorical judgments, and the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) for continuous ratings, together spanning most measurement scenarios encountered in behavioral, health, and educational research.

Kappa coefficient (categorical) or ICC (continuous)

Categorical or continuous ratings from two or more raters

Cohen, J. (1960). A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46.

Koo, T.K. & Li, M.Y. (2016). A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155–163.

cohens-kappa icc-intraclass-correlation fleiss-kappa cronbach-alpha bland-altman g-theory


Interrupted Time Series in Education Research

Interrupted Time Series Analysis in Education Research

ITS in education
educational ITS
segmented regression in education
policy interrupted time series

Shadish, Cook & Campbell (quasi-experimental design); Wagner et al. (segmented regression formalization)

Interrupted time series (ITS) analysis is a quasi-experimental design that estimates the causal effect of an education policy or intervention by examining whether an outcome trend changes abruptly at the point of implementation. Applied to education, it is used to evaluate reforms, curriculum changes, testing policies, and school interventions using routinely collected longitudinal data without a randomised control group.

Longitudinal/time-series (repeated measures over time)

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Houghton Mifflin.

Wagner, A. K., Soumerai, S. B., Zhang, F., & Ross-Degnan, D. (2002). Segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series studies in medication use research. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 27(4), 299-309.

difference-in-differences regression-discontinuity-design propensity-score-matching panel-fixed-effects synthetic-control-method segmented-regression


Interrupted Time Series

ITS analysis
segmented regression of time series
Kesintili Zaman Serisi (ITS) Analizi

Wagner, Soumerai, Zhang & Ross-Degnan (segmented regression); Bernal, Cummins & Gasparrini (tutorial)

Interrupted Time Series analysis is a quasi-experimental design that estimates the effect of a single, well-dated intervention by comparing the trajectory of an outcome before and after it occurs. Formalised as segmented regression by Wagner and colleagues (2002) and popularised as a public-health evaluation tutorial by Bernal, Cummins and Gasparrini (2017), it separates the intervention's impact into a change in level and a change in slope.

OLS with autocorrelation-robust (HAC) standard errors

Bernal, J. L., Cummins, S., & Gasparrini, A. (2017). Interrupted time series regression for the evaluation of public health interventions: a tutorial. International Journal of Epidemiology, 46(1), 348-355.

difference-in-differences regression-discontinuity ols-regression propensity-score-matching bayesian-structural-time-series


INTERVAL-GRA

INTERVAL-GRA (Interval-Number Grey-Related Analysis) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Olson, D. L., Wu, D. in 2008. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Olson, D. L., Wu, D. (2008). Simulation Support to Grey-Related Analysis: Data Mining Simulation. Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision Making (Kahraman, C., ed.), Springer Optimization and Its Applications, vol. 16, Ch. 11


Intervention Mixed Methods Design

intervention MMR design
mixed methods intervention study
intervention-embedded mixed design
trial-embedded mixed methods

2000s–2010s (systematised in Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011–2018)

Intervention mixed methods design embeds qualitative data collection within an experimental or quasi-experimental study so that process, mechanism, and participant experience are captured alongside outcome measurement. The quantitative strand tests whether the intervention works; the qualitative strand explains how and why it works — or does not. The two strands may be sequenced before, during, or after the intervention phase, or run concurrently, depending on the research questions.

Quantitative outcome data combined with qualitative process or experience data

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3rd ed.). Sage.

O'Dwyer, S. T., & Dwyer, M. (2021). Mixed methods in intervention research: A practical guide. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 15(3), 279–298.


Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale

Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS-12)

Richard N. Carleton, M. Alexandra Norton, Gordon J. G. Asmundson

The IUS-12 is a 12-item self-report measure of intolerance of uncertainty, a cognitive vulnerability factor underlying anxiety across multiple disorders. Developed by Carleton, Norton, and Asmundson in 2007 as short form of the original IUS-27, it measures difficulty accepting or managing uncertainty and associated anxiety. Intolerance of uncertainty is recognized as transdiagnostic cognitive characteristic linked to generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety, panic, and obsessive-compulsive pathology.

Carleton, R. N., Norton, M. A., & Asmundson, G. J. (2007). Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(1), 105–117.


Intrinsic Case Study

intrinsic case research
bounded case study
particularistic case inquiry
single intrinsic case

Intrinsic case study is a qualitative research method developed by Robert E. Stake in which a single, bounded case is studied in depth for its own inherent interest — not to illustrate a theory or to generalize, but because the case itself is unusual, revealing, or otherwise worthy of close attention. The researcher seeks a thick, holistic understanding of the particular: its context, its actors, its processes, and what makes it distinctively what it is.

Interviews, observations, documents, artefacts (multiple qualitative sources)

1 case (single, bounded unit); multiple informants within the case

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Sage Publications.

Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple Case Study Analysis. Guilford Press.

case-study phenomenology ethnography narrative-analysis action-research thematic-analysis


I/E Religiosity Scale

The I/E Scale, originally developed by Allport and Ross in 1967, is a foundational measure in the psychology of religion that distinguishes between two motivational orientations toward religion: intrinsic (religion as end in itself, source of meaning) versus extrinsic (religion as means to social, personal, or practical ends). This conceptual distinction has profoundly influenced decades of research on religious prejudice, moral behavior, and health outcomes. The original 20-item version has been refined to a 14-item form (I/E-Revised) that improves psychometric properties while maintaining theoretical clarity.

Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5(4), 432–443.

Gorsuch, R. L., & McPherson, S. E. (1989). Intrinsic/extrinsic measurement: I/E-Revised and single-item scales. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 28(3), 348–354.

duke-religion-index brief-religious-coping-scale quest-scale-religion systems-belief-inventory


Intrusion Detection System

Network and Host-Based Intrusion Detection and Response Framework

IDS
Network Intrusion Detection
Anomaly Detection System

An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a security tool that monitors network traffic and system activity to identify unauthorized access attempts, malware infections, and policy violations. Introduced by Dorothy Denning in 1987, IDS employs two main detection paradigms: signature-based (matching known attack patterns) and anomaly-based (identifying deviations from normal behavior).

Security monitoring and anomaly detection

Denning, D. E. (1987). An intrusion-detection model. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 13(2), 222–232.

Lippmann, R. P., Kunkel, J. W., Base, D. J., Haines, J. W., Fried, D. J., Webster, S. E., & Wyschogrod, D. B. (2000). 1999 DARPA intrusion detection evaluation: Datasets. Technical Report, MIT Lincoln Laboratory.

Garcia-Teodoro, P., Diaz-Verdejo, J., Maciá-Fernández, G., & García-Alonso, J. (2009). Anomaly-based network intrusion detection: Techniques, systems and challenges. Computers & Security, 28(1–2), 18–28.


The Intuitive Eating Scale-2 is a 23-item self-report instrument designed to measure intuitive eating, a non-restrictive, non-prescriptive eating approach that emphasizes internal hunger and satiety cues, unconditional permission to eat, and body attunement. Developed by Tylka and Kroon Van Diest in 2013, the IES-2 builds on the original Intuitive Eating Scale and has become a standard measure in research examining health-at-every-size, eating disorder recovery, and alternatives to restrictive dieting. It is widely used in clinical research and eating behavior studies.

Tylka, T. L., & Kroon Van Diest, A. M. (2013). The Intuitive Eating Scale-2: Item refinement and psychometric evaluation with college women and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 137-153.

Tribole, E., & Resch, E. (2020). Intuitive Eating: A Revolutionary Program that Works (4th ed.). St. Martin's Essentials.

dutch-eating-behavior-questionnaire nutrition-self-efficacy-scale body-weight-image-satisfaction food-neophobia-scale weight-bias-internalization-scale


ICG

The Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG) is a 19-item self-report measure developed by Prigerson and colleagues in 1995 to assess complicated grief—a persistent, impairing form of grief that goes beyond typical bereavement. Designed to distinguish complicated grief from bereavement-related depression, the ICG has become the gold-standard screening and diagnostic instrument in bereavement research and clinical practice.

Prigerson, H. G., Frank, E., Kasl, S. V., et al. (1995). Complicated grief and bereavement-related depression as distinct disorders: Preliminary empirical validation in elderly bereaved spouses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(1), 22–30.


Inventory Routing

The Inventory Routing Problem (IRP) is an optimization problem that jointly determines inventory levels at customer locations, delivery routes, and shipment quantities to minimize total logistics and inventory holding costs. Rather than treating inventory management and vehicle routing as separate decisions, IRP recognizes that they are interdependent: larger shipments reduce routing costs but increase inventory holding costs, and vice versa. IRP is solved using mixed-integer programming, heuristics, and metaheuristics, and is a cornerstone of vendor-managed inventory (VMI) programs.

Coelho, L. C., Cordeau, J. F., & Laporte, G. (2014). Thirty years of inventory routing. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 55, 28-67.

Campbell, A. M., & Savelsbergh, M. W. (2011). Vehicle routing with time windows for inventory routing problems. Operations Research, 59(2), 500-515.

vendor-managed-inventory aggregate-planning bullwhip-effect scor-model cross-docking


Inverse Distance Weighting

Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) Interpolation

IDW
inverse distance interpolation
Shepard's method
ters mesafe ağırlıklı enterpolasyon

Inverse distance weighting is a simple, deterministic method for estimating values at unsampled locations by taking a weighted average of nearby measured points, where closer points carry more weight. Introduced by Donald Shepard in 1968, it embodies the first law of geography — near things are more related than distant things — and is one of the most widely used interpolation methods in GIS for mapping continuous fields such as rainfall, elevation, or pollution from scattered samples.

Shepard, D. (1968). A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly-spaced data. Proceedings of the 23rd ACM National Conference, 517–524.

Li, J., & Heap, A. D. (2008). A review of spatial interpolation methods for environmental scientists. Geoscience Australia Record 2008/23.

kriging universal-kriging cokriging geographically-weighted-regression


Inverse Dynamics

Inverse problem
Biomechanical inverse dynamics

Inverse dynamics is a biomechanical analysis technique that estimates the forces and moments acting on joints during movement by working backward from observed motion and ground reaction forces. Introduced by David Winter in the early 1990s, it is fundamental to understanding how muscles and joints generate and control human motion.

Winter, D. A. (1990). Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement. Wiley-Interscience.

Neumann, D. A. (2002). Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System. Mosby.


Inverse Kinematics

Inverse Kinematics Problem Solving for Articulated Mechanisms

IK problem
Joint angle calculation
Pose-to-angles

Inverse kinematics is the computational problem of determining the joint angles required to position and orient the end-effector (tool) of an articulated mechanism at a desired pose (position and orientation). In contrast to forward kinematics, which computes end-effector position from joint angles, inverse kinematics solves the reverse mapping. This is essential for robot control: given a desired target location, IK finds the joint commands that achieve it.

Problem-solving method for robot control

Craig, J. J. (2005). Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.

Spong, M. W., Hutchinson, S., & Vidyasagar, M. (2006). Robot Modeling and Control. John Wiley & Sons.

Pieper, D. L. (1968). The kinematics of manipulators under computer control. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University.

denavit-hartenberg-parameters cnc-tool-path-generation modal-analysis design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly


Inverse Probability Weighting in Education Research

Inverse Probability Weighting for Causal Inference in Education Research

IPW in education
propensity-weighted analysis
IPTW education
inverse probability treatment weighting

Rosenbaum & Rubin (propensity score, 1983); Hirano, Imbens & Ridder (efficient IPW, 2003)

Inverse Probability Weighting (IPW) is a causal inference technique that reweights observational education data to mimic a randomised experiment. Each student or school is assigned a weight equal to the inverse of the probability they received the treatment — thereby creating a pseudo-population in which programme participation is independent of measured background characteristics. The method is widely used in education research to evaluate school programmes, interventions, and policies from administrative or survey data.

Observational cross-sectional or panel data; binary or multi-valued treatment

Hirano, K., Imbens, G. W., & Ridder, G. (2003). Efficient Estimation of Average Treatment Effects Using the Estimated Propensity Score. Econometrica, 71(4), 1161-1189.

Stuart, E. A. (2010). Matching Methods for Causal Inference: A Review and a Look Forward. Statistical Science, 25(1), 1-21.

propensity-score-matching difference-in-differences doubly-robust-estimation regression-discontinuity instrumental-variables coarsened-exact-matching


Inverse Probability Weighting

Inverse Probability of Treatment Weighting (IPW / IPTW)

inverse probability of treatment weighting

Ters Olasılık Ağırlıklandırma (IPW / IPTW)

Inverse Probability Weighting is a causal-inference method that assigns each observation a weight equal to the inverse of its probability of receiving the treatment it actually received. Introduced by Robins, Hernán and Brumback (2000) for marginal structural models, it builds a pseudo-population in which treatment is independent of measured confounders, balancing selection bias.

Weighted (pseudo-population) outcome model with inverse propensity weights

binary, continuous (generalized IPW), or time-varying

Robins, J. M., Hernán, M. A., & Brumback, B. (2000). Marginal Structural Models and Causal Inference in Epidemiology. Epidemiology, 11(5), 550-560.

Cole, S. R., & Hernán, M. A. (2008). Constructing Inverse Probability Weights for Marginal Structural Models. American Journal of Epidemiology, 168(6), 656-664.

doubly-robust-estimation propensity-score-matching logistic-regression causal-mediation dag-identification


Inverse Sampling

Inverse Sampling is a sequential sampling strategy where sampling continues until a fixed number of occurrences of a rare event or item of interest is observed. Introduced by J. B. S. Haldane in 1945, it is particularly efficient for estimating rare event probabilities or proportions when the target is sparse and costly to detect.

Haldane, J. B. S. (1945). On a method of estimating frequencies. Biometrika, 33(3), 222–224.

Serfling, R. J. (1968). Contributions to central limit theory for dependent variables. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 39(4), 1158–1175.

Lahiri, D. B. (1951). On the question of bias of some estimators and a suggestion for unbiased estimation. Journal of the Indian Statistical Association, 1(1), 25–42.

ranked-set-sampling double-sampling acceptance-sampling sequential-analysis


Ion Chromatography

Ion chromatography is a liquid chromatography method that separates ions and polar molecules based on their relative affinity for the ion exchange resin in the column. Developed by Hamish Small in 1975, it combines ion-exchange separation with conductivity detection, enabling rapid, sensitive, and simultaneous determination of multiple ions in a single analysis. Ion chromatography has become an indispensable tool for monitoring environmental pollutants, analyzing food and pharmaceutical products, and studying complex ionic mixtures.

Small, H., Stevens, T. S., & Bauman, W. C. (1989). Novel ion exchange chromatographic method using conductometric detection. Analytical Chemistry, 47(11), 1801–1809.

Weiss, J. (2004). Handbook of Ion Chromatography (3rd ed.). Wiley-VCH.

Jackson, P. E., Haddad, P. R., & Alexander, P. W. (1997). Advances in ion chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 789(1-2), 17–33.

potentiometric-titration uv-vis-spectrophotometry coulometry atomic-absorption-spectroscopy inductively-coupled-plasma


Iowa Gambling Task

Antoine Bechara, Hanna Damasio, and Damasio team

The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is a laboratory analog of real-world decision-making that measures how individuals make risky choices when outcomes are uncertain. Participants select cards from four decks, each offering different patterns of rewards and losses. The task reveals whether participants learn from experience to prefer advantageous decks (smaller immediate gains, fewer losses) over disadvantageous ones (larger gains, greater long-term losses). The IGT has been instrumental in understanding decision-making deficits in brain injury, addiction, and psychiatric conditions.

Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50(1-3), 7-15.

Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275(5304), 1293-1295.

Worthy, D. A., Hawkins, G. E., & Swinburne Romine, R. (2013). Older adults show a bias towards choosing familiar decks in the Iowa Gambling Task. Experimental Aging Research, 39(4), 466-480.

decision-making risk-taking somatic-marker-hypothesis ventromedial-prefrontal-cortex


IPAQ
IPAQ Short Form
IPAQ-SF
Physical Activity Assessment

Physical activity and lifestyle assessment

International Society for Physical Activity and Health (ISPAH) research consortium

The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) is a standardized self-report measure of physical activity developed by the International Society for Physical Activity and Health in 2003. Available in short (7 items) and long (31 items) forms, it assesses moderate-to-vigorous and light physical activity across work, transportation, household, and leisure domains. It has become the standard global physical activity assessment tool.

International standardized physical activity measurement

Craig, C. L., Marshall, A. L., Sjöström, M., et al. (2003). International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ): a global physical activity questionnaire. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(8), 1381–1395.

Lee, I. M., Buchner, D. M., & World Health Organization. (2008). The estimated global burden of inactive lifestyle-related diseases. WHO Technical Report Series 916.

Armstrong, T., & Bull, F. (2006). Development of the World Health Organization Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ). Journal of Public Health, 14(2), 66–77.

sf-36 whoqol-bref promis audit-alcohol haq-disability-index


IR-CODAS

IR-CODAS (Interval Rough CODAS (Combinative Distance-based Assessment with Interval Rough Numbers for MCGDM)) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Cherif, M. R. Frikha, H. M. in 2021. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

IRN ranking — Euclidean+Taxicab relative evaluation H_i = Σ_k h_ik with ψ-threshold

Cherif, M. R., Frikha, H. M. (2021). An extension of the CODAS method based on interval rough numbers for multi-criteria group decision making. Multiple Criteria Decision Making

codas fuzzy-codas if-codas-sort ivif-codas-sort


Irrigation Scheduling with ETo

Irrigation Scheduling Based on Reference Evapotranspiration

ETo-based irrigation
Water balance scheduling
Evapotranspiration scheduling

Irrigation Scheduling with ETo is a water balance pipeline for determining when and how much to irrigate based on reference evapotranspiration (ETo), soil properties, and crop water demand. Standardized by the FAO in the Penman-Monteith equation and widely adopted globally, this method enables efficient water use in irrigated agriculture.

Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., Smith, M., & Higgins, R. B. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56, Rome.

Hargreaves, G. H., & Samani, Z. A. (1985). Reference crop evapotranspiration from temperature. Applied engineering in agriculture, 1(2), 96-99.

crop-growth-simulation nitrogen-use-efficiency soil-fertility-management precision-agriculture-ndvi crop-yield-estimation


DeLone and McLean IS Success Model

DeLone and McLean Information Systems Success Model

The DeLone and McLean (D&M) Information Systems Success Model, introduced in 1992 and refined in 2003, provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating information system effectiveness across six dimensions: system quality, information quality, service quality, use, user satisfaction, and net benefits. Unlike acceptance models that focus on adoption intention, the D&M model measures actual realized benefits and organizational impact.

DeLone, W. H., & McLean, E. R. (1992). Information systems success: The quest for the dependent variable. Information Systems Research, 3(1), 60-95.

DeLone, W. H., & McLean, E. R. (2003). The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success: A ten-year update. Journal of Management Information Systems, 19(4), 9-30.

tam-questionnaire utaut-questionnaire technology-readiness-index tam2-questionnaire


BI

Stroke disability and functional independence assessment

Florence I. Mahoney and Dorothea Barthel

The Barthel Index (BI) is the most widely used functional assessment tool for measuring disability and dependency in activities of daily living, particularly in stroke and neurological rehabilitation. Developed by Florence Mahoney and Dorothea Barthel in 1965, the 10-item index quantifies independence in basic self-care and mobility tasks. The Barthel Index is the standard functional outcome measure in stroke trials, rehabilitation settings, and long-term follow-up cohorts, predicting discharge disposition and functional prognosis.

Barthel, D. W., Gottwald, B. (1965). Functional Evaluation: The Barthel Index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14(5), 61-65.

Mahoney, F. I., Barthel, D. W. (1965). Functional evaluation: The Barthel Index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14(5), 61-65.

nihss rivermead-mobility-index edss-multiple-sclerosis msfc


Ising Model Monte Carlo

Ising simulation
spin-system simulation
Metropolis algorithm

Ising Model Monte Carlo simulation is a computational method for studying phase transitions and magnetic ordering in materials by stochastically sampling configurations of binary spins on a lattice. Originating from Ernst Ising's 1925 theoretical model and combined with Metropolis algorithm in 1953, Ising Monte Carlo enables exploration of thermodynamic properties at scales impossible to access analytically. Though a simplification, the Ising model captures essential physics of ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and critical phenomena, and its mathematical structure extends to disorder, adsorption, and other binary-state systems.

Ising, E. (1925). Beitrag zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus. Zeitschrift für Physik, 31(1), 253-258.

Metropolis, N., Rosenbluth, A. W., Rosenbluth, M. N., Teller, A. H., & Teller, E. (1953). Equation of state calculations by fast computing machines. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 21(6), 1087-1092.

Swendsen, R. H., & Wang, J. S. (1987). Nonuniversal critical dynamics in Monte Carlo simulations. Physical Review Letters, 58(2), 86-88.


Isobologram Analysis

Isobologram Analysis for Drug Interactions

isobol
combination index
synergy testing

Isobologram analysis is a graphical and quantitative method for detecting and classifying drug interactions, developed by Salvatore Loewe in 1926. It uses dose-response data from two drugs applied individually and in combination to determine whether their interaction is additive, synergistic, or antagonistic.

Loewe, S. (1926). Die Mischtoxizität. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Pathologie und Therapie, 24, 315-334.

Bliss, C. I. (1939). The toxicity of poisons applied jointly. Annals of Applied Biology, 26(3), 585-615.


Isokinetic Dynamometry

Isokinetic Strength and Power Assessment

isokinetic testing
constant velocity testing
dynamometric testing

Isokinetic dynamometry measures muscular strength and power production during movement at a constant, preset velocity. Pioneered by Hislop and Perrine (1967), isokinetic testing constrains limb velocity to a fixed speed (e.g., 60°/s or 120°/s), while the dynamometer adjusts resistance to match the subject's force production at each instant, accommodating all variations in force throughout the range of motion. This approach provides comprehensive strength profiling across a full joint range and allows comparison of concentric and eccentric contractions. Isokinetic testing is widely used in clinical rehabilitation, sports medicine, and research due to its objectivity and standardization.

Hislop, H. J., & Perrine, J. J. (1967). The isokinetic concept of exercise. Physical Therapy, 47(2), 114-117.

Perrin, D. H. (1993). Isokinetic Exercise and Assessment. Human Kinetics Publishers.

Keating, J. L., & Matyas, T. A. (2001). Unreliability of knee strength measures and the influence of factors that may affect assessment. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 31(10), 546-556.

1rm-estimation force-velocity-profile rate-of-force-development counter-movement-jump reactive-strength-index


Isolation Forest

Isolation Forest (Anomaly Detection via Random Partitioning)

Isolation Forest (Aykırı Değer Tespiti)
iForest
isolation forest anomaly detection

Isolation Forest is an unsupervised machine-learning method for anomaly and outlier detection, introduced by Liu, Ting and Zhou in 2008, that isolates anomalies through random partitioning of the data. It works without any labelled anomaly data and scales to high-dimensional datasets.

Unsupervised ensemble (random partitioning trees)

Unsupervised (no labelled anomalies needed)

Liu, F.T., Ting, K.M. & Zhou, Z.-H. (2008). Isolation Forest. IEEE ICDM, 413–422.

random-forest pca t-sne decision-tree gaussian-mixture


Isomap

Isomap
isometric feature mapping
geodesic Isomap
nonlinear MDS

Tenenbaum, J. B.; de Silva, V.; Langford, J. C.

Isomap (Isometric Feature Mapping) is a manifold learning algorithm introduced by Tenenbaum, de Silva, and Langford in 2000 that discovers the intrinsic low-dimensional geometry of high-dimensional data by preserving geodesic — rather than straight-line Euclidean — distances between all pairs of points. It was one of the earliest, and most influential, nonlinear dimensionality reduction methods to demonstrate that genuinely curved data manifolds could be unfolded into a faithful low-dimensional coordinate system.

Manifold learning / nonlinear dimensionality reduction

Tenenbaum, J. B., de Silva, V. & Langford, J. C. (2000). A global geometric framework for nonlinear dimensionality reduction. Science, 290(5500), 2319–2323.

Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R. & Friedman, J. (2009). The Elements of Statistical Learning (2nd ed., Ch. 14). Springer.

van der Maaten, L., Postma, E. & van den Herik, J. (2009). Dimensionality reduction: A comparative review. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 10, 66–71.


Isothermal Titration Calorimetry

ITC
isothermal calorimetry
microcalorimetry

Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) is a thermodynamic technique that measures heat released or absorbed during biomolecular binding events at constant temperature. Developed by Wiseman and colleagues in 1989, ITC directly determines binding affinity (Kd), enthalpy (ΔH), and entropy (ΔS) in a single experiment, making it one of the most comprehensive methods for characterizing molecular interactions without requiring labels or immobilization.

Wiseman, T., Williston, S., Brandts, J. F., & Lin, L. N. (1989). Rapid measurement of binding constants and heats of binding using a new titration calorimeter. Analytical Biochemistry, 179(1), 131-137.

Garbett, N. C., & Chaires, J. B. (2012). Binding: A statistical thermodynamic model. Biophysical Journal, 86(6), 3493-3494.


Isotope Diet Reconstruction

stable isotope analysis
carbon-nitrogen isotope analysis
diet isotope analysis

Isotope diet reconstruction uses the stable isotope ratios of carbon (C13/C12) and nitrogen (N15/N14) in human bone collagen to infer the composition of past diets. Pioneered by Margaret Schoeninger and Michael DeNiro in the 1980s, this method reveals long-term dietary patterns by analyzing the chemical signature of food absorbed into skeletal tissues. Stable isotopes provide quantitative information about the relative contributions of terrestrial versus marine foods, and between plant and animal sources, making it a powerful tool for understanding past subsistence practices.

Schoeninger, M. J., & DeNiro, M. J. (1983). Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 47(4), 625-639.

Ambrose, S. H. (1990). Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science, 17(4), 431-451.

Katzenberg, M. A. (2008). Stable isotope analysis: a tool for studying past diet, demography, and life history. In M. A. Katzenberg & S. R. Saunders (Eds.), Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton (pp. 413-441). Wiley-Liss.

strontium-provenance dental-microwear-texture-analysis use-wear-analysis minimum-number-of-individuals


Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry

Isotopic analysis and paleoclimate reconstruction

Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) is an analytical technique that measures the relative abundance of stable isotopes (H, C, N, O, S) and some radiogenic isotopes (e.g., ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) in samples with high precision. Standardized by Coplen and colleagues, IRMS enables paleoclimate reconstruction, source tracing (diet, water origin), geochemical fingerprinting, and age dating through radiogenic isotopes.

Measurement of stable and radiogenic isotope ratios

Coplen, T. B. (1994). Reporting of stable hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen isotopic abundances. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 66(2), 273-276.

Brand, W. A., Assonov, S. S., & Brenninkmeijer, C. A. (2010). Convergence of gaseous and elemental isotope ratio mass spectrometry data. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 24(12), 1629-1636.


Item Analysis

Madde Analizi (Klasik Test Kuramı)
CTT item analysis
classical item analysis

Classical Test Theory tradition; foundational texts by Allen & Yen (1979) and Crocker & Algina (1986)

Item analysis is the foundational psychometric procedure for evaluating the quality of individual test or scale items within the Classical Test Theory (CTT) framework, as systematised by Allen and Yen (1979) and Crocker and Algina (1986). It produces an item difficulty index, an item discrimination index, and a distractor analysis for each item, enabling test developers to identify items that are too easy, too hard, or failing to separate high- and low-ability respondents.

Item difficulty index (p), item discrimination index (r_pb or D), distractor analysis

Allen, M. J. & Yen, W. M. (1979). Introduction to Measurement Theory. Brooks/Cole.

Crocker, L. & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

cronbach-alpha exploratory-factor-analysis confirmatory-factor-analysis item-response-theory test-equating


Item Response Theory

IRT
latent trait theory
item characteristic curve theory
modern test theory

Frederic M. Lord (and Allan Birnbaum for the 2PL/3PL models)

Item response theory models the probability that a respondent answers an item correctly (or endorses it) as a function of the respondent's latent trait level and the item's own statistical properties — difficulty, discrimination, and guessing. Unlike classical test theory, IRT places persons and items on the same scale, yielding measurement that is sample-independent for items and test-independent for persons.

Lord, F. M. & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Addison-Wesley.

Embretson, S. E. & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

confirmatory-factor-analysis exploratory-factor-analysis differential-item-functioning rasch-model cronbachs-alpha scale-development


Iterative Learning Control

Iterative Learning Control (ILC) is a control method for systems that perform the same task repeatedly (trajectory tracking over a fixed time interval). The key idea is to use error information from previous trials to update the input for the next trial, progressively improving tracking accuracy. Pioneered by Arimoto et al. in 1984, ILC is ideal for robotic manufacturing, semiconductor processing, and any application where the same motion must be repeated many times with high precision.

Arimoto, S., Kawamura, S., & Miyazaki, F. (1984). Bettering operation of robots by learning. Journal of Robotic Systems, 1(2), 123-140.

Moore, K. L. (1993). Iterative learning control for trajectory tracking. Advances in Industrial Control, Springer-Verlag.

Bien, Z., & Xu, J. X. (2007). Iterative Learning Control: Analysis, Design, Integration and Applications. Kluwer Academic Publishers.

adaptive-control feedback-linearization model-predictive-control sliding-mode-control


iTransformer

iTransformer (Inverted Transformer for Forecasting)

Inverted Transformer
iTransformer for Time Series
Inverted Attention Transformer
Ters Transformer

iTransformer is a deep-learning architecture for multivariate time-series forecasting introduced by Liu et al. at ICLR 2024. Its defining idea is to invert the conventional Transformer tokenisation strategy: instead of treating each time step as a token, iTransformer treats each variate (sensor channel or feature series) as a single token whose embedding encodes the full observed look-back window. Self-attention is then applied across variates to capture inter-series dependencies, while a feed-forward network within each token learns temporal patterns.

Input: Multivariate time series

Liu, Y., Hu, T., Zhang, H., Wu, H., Wang, S., Ma, L., & Long, M. (2024). iTransformer: Inverted transformers are effective for time series forecasting. ICLR.


Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS)

Instrumental Variables Estimation via Two-Stage Least Squares (IV/2SLS)

Araç Değişken — İki Aşamalı EKK (IV/2SLS)

Angrist & Pischke (textbook treatment); Stock & Yogo (weak-instrument theory)

IV/2SLS is a two-stage estimation method that recovers the causal effect of an endogenous regressor by isolating the part of its variation driven by an external instrument. It is the workhorse identification strategy in modern applied econometrics, developed at length in Angrist and Pischke's Mostly Harmless Econometrics (2009).

Two-stage least squares (consistent under instrument validity)

Angrist, J. D. & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton University Press.

Stock, J. H. & Yogo, M. (2005). Testing for Weak Instruments in Linear IV Regression. In Identification and Inference for Econometric Models. Cambridge University Press.

ols-regression local-average-treatment-effect propensity-score-matching panel-fixed-effects doubly-robust-estimation


IV-ARAS

IV-ARAS (Interval extension of ARAS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Interval outranking/ranking — Interval Number (IN: [a, b])

Moore, R. E. (1966). Interval Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

ahp anp bwm bwm-bayesian ccsd cilos cimas critic


IV-CODAS

IV-CODAS (IVAIF-CODAS — Interval-Valued Atanassov Intuitionistic Fuzzy CODAS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Yeni, F. B., Özçelik, G. in 2018. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy outranking — IVAIFS

Yeni, F. B., Özçelik, G. (2018). Interval-Valued Atanassov Intuitionistic Fuzzy CODAS Method for Multi Criteria Group Decision Making Problems. Group Decision and Negotiation


IV-COPRAS

IV-COPRAS (Interval extension of COPRAS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-EDAS

IV-EDAS (Interval extension of EDAS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-MARCOS

IV-MARCOS (Interval extension of MARCOS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-MOORA

IV-MOORA (Interval extension of MOORA) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-PROJECTION

IV-PROJECTION (Interval-Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy Projection-based MCDM) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Yue, Z. (2019) — primary normalized IVIFS projection Tsao, C. Y.; Chen, T. Y. (2016) — compromise variant Atanassov, K. T.; Gargov, G. (1989) — IVIFS foundation in 2019; IVIFS algebraic foundation Atanassov–Gargov 1989; earlier projection variants 2012. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Yue, Z. (2019). An interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy projection-based approach and application to evaluating knowledge transfer effectiveness. Neural Computing and Applications


IV-SAW

IV-SAW (Interval extension of SAW) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-TODIM

IV-TODIM (Interval extension of TODIM) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Mishra, A. R., Rani, P., Pardasani, K. R., Mardani, A., Stević, Ž., Pamučar, D. in 2020. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Mishra, A. R., Rani, P., Pardasani, K. R., Mardani, A., Stević, Ž., Pamučar, D. (2020). A novel entropy and divergence measures with multi-criteria service quality assessment using interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy TODIM method. Soft Computing


IV-TOPSIS

IV-TOPSIS (Interval extension of TOPSIS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Jahanshahloo, G. R., Lotfi, F. H., Izadikhah, M. in 2006. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Jahanshahloo, G. R., Lotfi, F. H., Izadikhah, M. (2006). An algorithmic method to extend TOPSIS for decision-making problems with interval data. Applied Mathematics and Computation


IV-VIKOR

IV-VIKOR (Interval extension of VIKOR) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IV-WASPAS

IV-WASPAS (Interval extension of WASPAS) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Moore, R. E. in 1966. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.


IVF Embryo Grading

In Vitro Fertilization Embryo Grading System

embryo morphology assessment
embryo viability grading

IVF Embryo Grading is a standardized morphological assessment system for evaluating the quality and viability of embryos in assisted reproductive technology. First formalized by Gardner and colleagues in 1999, it uses microscopic examination to score embryos across multiple criteria, enabling clinicians to select the most viable embryos for transfer and improve pregnancy outcomes.

Gardner, D. K., Lane, M., Stevens, J., & Schoolcraft, W. B. (1999). Blastocyst score affects implantation and pregnancy outcome: towards a single blastocyst transfer. Fertility and Sterility, 73(6), 1155-1158.

Alpha Scientists in Reproductive Medicine and ESHRE Special Interest Group of Embryology (2011). The Istanbul consensus workshop on embryo assessment. Human Reproduction Update, 17(6), 572-583.

Veeck, L. L. (1986). Atlas of the Human Oocyte and Early Conceptus. William & Wilkins.


IVIF-ARAS

IVIF-ARAS (Interval-Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy ARAS (Büyüközkan & Göçer 2018)) is a ranking multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Atanassov, K. T., Gargov, G. in 1989. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

Utility-degree ranking MCDM under Interval-Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy uncertainty (IVIFN: ⟨[μ⁻,μ⁺],[ν⁻,ν⁺]⟩; μ⁺+ν⁺ ≤ 1) — additive sum of weighted-normalized IVIF performance ratings benchmarked against an optimal reference row

Atanassov, K. T., Gargov, G. (1989). Interval valued intuitionistic fuzzy sets. Fuzzy Sets and Systems

ahp anp bwm critic entropy if-entropy merec swara


IVIF-CODAS-SORT

IVIF-CODAS-SORT (Interval-Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy CODAS-SORT (sorting via Euclidean+Hamming relative assessment)) is a sorting multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method introduced by Ouhibi, A. Frikha, H. in 2020. It turns a decision matrix of alternatives scored on multiple criteria into a structured, reproducible result.

IVIFN sorting with limiting profiles — relative assessment R(a,b) = (E_a−E_b) + ψ(E_a−E_b)·(H_a−H_b)

Ouhibi, A., Frikha, H. (2020). An interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy CODAS-SORT method for sorting problems. 6th International Conference on Control, Decision and Information Technologies (CoDIT'20)