Table 2 Summary of insights derived from palaeoecological data for conservation and livelihoods in Monte Gordo Natural Park, São Nicolau.

Conservation challenge based on palaeoevidence	Evidence	Conservation action	Considerations regarding livelihoods and future research
Degradation of scrubland and loss of woody taxa since human settlement	Pollen and NPPs	Reforestation using native species reported in this study, associated with removal of identified invasive species	A study to compare economic benefits provided by introduced taxa and native species is needed. The control of invasive species in areas of restored native vegetation could require prolonged labour (see Burney and Burney, 2016). Future studies might yield insights on past abundance of other important endemic species such as Sideroxylon marginatum.
Potential establishment (100 years ago) of introduced taxa such as Asystasia and Opuntia (?)	Pollen	Monitor the spread of these species and study their economic value for local inhabitants.	These species are not (yet) considered invasive in Cabo Verde (MAA/DGA 2008). However, in the Canary Islands, Opuntia dillenii and O. maxima are considered invasive species.
Ancient fire potentially related to scrubland encroachment	Charcoal particles	Avoiding fuel loading, especially added by spreading invasive species	According to our fire data fire has been present at least for the last millennium in the National Park. Conservation action could focus on the recovery of recently burned land, as our data shows that introduced species spread in cleared areas.
Current erosion levels are higher than Late-Holocene baseline levels and an increasing trend	GSD	Use of abandoned and degraded terrace structures for afforestation initiatives	Monitor the response of vegetation and soils to extreme weather events to assess which taxa would offer better soil-protection. For instance, Hurricane Freddy (2015) severely affected slopes that held planted conifers and Eucalyptus. Reforestation with native species could offer more resilient plant cover on slopes vulnerable to strong winds and heavy rainfall.
Grazing as a main driver of loss of vegetation cover and erosion	NPPs, pollen, GSD	Restrict and control grazing activity in areas of endemic and native vegetation, allocating special areas for this activity	A study of local reliance on free-range grazing and of potential alternatives is needed to protect nursing areas for restored vegetation.