ASSESSMENT OF DIFFERENT ACARICIDES RESISTANCE AND USES OF ETHANOBOTANICAL AGENTS FOR CONTROLLING TICKS ACTIVITY: A REVIEW

Ticks are obligate blood feeding ectoparasites of vertebrates incurring huge production loss in livestock industry & creating serious public health problems in the world. This review explores the acaricides resistance & ethnoveterinary practices to control ticks infestation. Long-term use of acaricides has generated resistance in many tick species. The use of phyto extract might play an important role in addressing the ticksmanifestation as ethnoveterinary plant has demonstrated repellent & toxic effects on ticks. They are of course less expensive, but they are often regarded as being more effective& therefore can be developed further for tick control & management. In regard to our literature survey the biological & parasitic activities of the plant species & status of acaricides resistance are given herein. It is hoped that our review would help to facilitate selection for further investigation of Plants & Acaracides with relatively high levels of potency & a wide range of biological activities.


INTRODUCTION
All over the world, almost all the cattle population are suffering from tick infestation which results in tremendous losses of production either through establishment of anemic state, general stress & irritation, depression of immune functions and/or by transmission of various pathogenic organisms. Besides its effect on growth & production, tick infestation also poses significant threat to the availability of good quality hides & skin for leather industry estimated a 20-30 % reduction in the cost of leather due to tick bite marks (Biswas, 2003). Ghosh et al. (2007) found that among the species of ticks infesting cattle in India, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplusis the most widely distributed tick & serves as the major vector of economically important pathogens like Babesia bigemina & Anaplasmamarginale. As per the predictions, the epidemiology of tick infestations & their vectorial potential are likely to change with the changing environmental conditions due to global warming, thus in this scenario the control of tick infestation is considered a major factor for sustainable livestock production worldwide & especially in tropical countries like Mexico, Columbia, Brazil & India etc. Use of acaricides is one of the important methods that reduce the tick-borne diseases. A wide range of acaricides, including arsenicals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates, amitraz & synthetic pyrethroids are being used for control of ticks. It has researchers studied various application methods of conventional acaricides & found that conventional acaricides may be applied as dips or sprays & pour -on, at various frequencies (Dautel, 2004). Studies carried out by workers (Maunder, 1949;Whitnall et al. 1951) use DDT &benzenehexachloride (BHC) making them first of this group of chemicals to be used as acaricides.

Status of Acaricides Resistance
The first report about development of resistance in B. decoloratus against arsenicin South Africa (Whitehead, 1958), &later reports development of resistance in B. microplus against arsenic in Australia (Newton, 1967). Chlorinated hydrocarbon acaricides are very persistent & have been used quite extensively throughout the world for controlling ticks since then, of particular interest are benzene hexachloride toxaophene. But as the case with other acaricides, resistance against chlorinated hydrocarbon acaricides has also been observed. Some studies reported the use of organophosphates which were introduced around 1950, as a replacement for the chlorinated hydrocarbons to which significant resistance had occurred (Shanahan & Hart, 1966). Solomon (1983) studied another class of acaricides i.e. pyrethroids, whose mode of action is by interfering with nerve conduction of ticks. Fernandes (2001) worked on toxicological effects & resistance to pyrethroids in Boophilus microplus from Brazil & found that ticks were resistant to deltamethrin & cypermethrin. Rodriguez-Vivaset al.(2006) revealed development of resistance in tick population to almost all major families of acaricides. Increasing level of resistance creates problems for the scientific community as well as cattle producers to manage ticks & tick-borne diseases affecting their animals (Davey & George, 1998). Foil et al.(2004) reported that ticks developed resistance to several classes of acaricides due to abandoned use of acaricides such as pyrethroid, deltamethrin, diazinon, amitraz, & cypermethrin.
Resistance to acaricides in R. (B.) micropluswas reported in almost every region of the world. Nolan et al. (1989) (Ortiz et al.,1995), triple-resistant to organophosphates, synthetic pyrethroids & amidines (Benavides et al.,2000;Soberanes et al.,2002;Rodriguez-Vivas et al.,2007) & multi-resistant from the different acaricides(Fernández-Salaset al.,2012 a). Petermann et al.(2016) Ziapour et al. (2016) reported that susceptibility status of the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus showed resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in north of Iran. Wharton (1983) reviewed resistance detection, identification & characterization of resistance. Resistance is characterized by when cattle continue to be infested with large numbers of engorged ticks even after frequent treatments. Baker & Shaw (1965) recognized the importance of field-spraying tests & stated that field-spraying tests must be conducted under standardized conditions where resistance is suspected because nonstandard conditions may result in faulty or ambiguous observations. Wharton & Roulston (1970) examined that larval packet test is the traditional test for diagnosing resistance to acaricides in single host ticks, in which larvae are placed in envelopes & impregnated with acaricide. The stages most commonly used to study resistance are the engorged females & the unfed larvae. The engorged females usually provide the most useful information on potential acaricides, but unfed larvae are generally accepted as the logical stage to document resistance. Kumar et al. (2011) reported use of so many acaricides in India eg-organophosphates (op), synthetic pyrethroids (sp), amidines & macrocyclic lactones. Continuous use of OP compound resulted in an increase in the environmental load of diazinon nevertheless it is found that it has increased resistance factor in the tick that is collected from tropical middle-gangetic plains.    Puerta et al. (2015) examined that Rhipicephalus microplusshowed a high degree of resistance towardsthe cypermethrin, amitraz & also the combination of chlorpyrifos + cypermethrin but did not find any resistance against fluazuron.
Several studies documented that ticks developed resistance against various acaricides i.e.,amitraz and chlorfenvinphos (Chitombo et al.,2021), cypermethrin (Klafke et al., 2017, ivermectin (Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2017;Rodríguez-Vivas R et al., 2014;Cruz et al., 2015), fluazuron (Recket al., 2014;Maciel et al., 2016), amitraz (Murigu et al.,2016;Stone et al., 2014;Muyobela et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2015), deltamethrin (Gupta et al., 2016;Jyothimolet al., 2014), pyrethroid (Ziapouret al., 2016Wyket al., 2016) (Li et al., 2007;deltamethrin and cypermethrin (Godara et al., 2019). Feyereisen (1995) reviewed effective insecticides & concluded that the list is rapidly shrinking; meanwhile introduction of new insecticides in the market became almost negligible, largely because of the high costs associated with research, development & registration of the new products. It has been reported that 80% of world-wide cattle are at risk for ticks & tick-borne diseases causing a global annual loss of US$ 7000 million. Minjauw & McLeod (2003) suggested that cost of management of ticks is as high in India as US$ 498.7 million per annum. Thus, in this present scenario there is an urgent need of an alternative safe method for tick control. Habeeb (2010); Rates (2016) Masood et al.(2013) reported that ethnoveterinary bioactive products & essential oils of plants has efficacy of acaricidal activity. Habeeb(2010) studied the various modes of action of these plant extracts & found that there are several ways by which they exert acaricidal property, some of them are preventing blood feeding, molting, fecundity, & hatching of eggs. Chabra & Saxena,(1998) studied this trend of using plant extracts as acaricides in Indian subcontinent & found that plants are being used effectively for controlling the acaricides. Babar et al. (2012) noticed that there is a renewed interest of scientific community in the use of botanicals for safe, effective & cheap control of cattle ticks. Zaman et al. (2012) also noticed that the application of botanicals to livestock in order to control the ectoparasites of veterinary importance is widespread particularly in the developing countries.

Importance of Ethno-veterinary medicine
Ethno veterinary science deals with the practices & skills Ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM) that is used for curing diseases & maintaining health of animals (Mathias-mundy& McCorkle, 1989;Tabuti et al., 2003). Forest areas are basically depending upon the forest resources for the completion of their requirements such as fibre, food, medicine, hunting & fishing, agriculture equipments& household etc. Although they mainly depend upon forest resources for their livelihood but they also raise domestic animals such as cows, buffaloes, oxen, goats, sheep, hen, dogs, pigs etc for milk, agriculture & commercial purposes. Poor tribal people cannot afford the modern medicine & unable to use complicated technology for the preparation of EVM, therefore, they use traditional veterinary practices to prevent & treat common animal ailments & diseases with the help of locally available plants. Although the use of chemical compounds as acaricides is quite common through the world but is associated with certain practical demerits such as these are expensive thus not readily available to the resources-limited farmers. In addition, nondegradable residues contained in conventional acaricides may pollute the products (milk & meat) & harmful to the environment, or too expensive for resourcelimited farmers & ticks have developed resistance to them. The tribal people have been using this traditional system for a very long time. They have acquired this valuable knowledge from experience & trial & error methods. They diagnose & cure their animal for different tick's diseases through their own ethno veterinary practices. In this way they have a rich store of indigenous technology on medicinal plant use which is found effective over the years. The traditional medicine plays an important role for their life because access to modern health services is very limited, tribal people also have good knowledge about the uses of various plants & other products (Yadav & Gupta, 2014). This knowledge has passed down from one generation to next generation orally. According to World Health Organization currently, at least 80% of people in developing countries depend largely on these practices for the control & treatment of various diseases (Mahima et al., 2012).Ethno veterinary medicine is cost effective, dynamic, easily accessible, easily administered, mostly given orally or topically, less toxic, herbal, ecofriendly& biodegradable (Rastogi et al., 2015;Parthiban et al., 2016). EVM complements modern veterinary medicines so effectively that it can be used as alternative medicines for livestock treatments & cures, but before that their proper validation is required. However, some of the knowledge have scientific reasons & proven to be beneficial for low inputs & sustainable agriculture (Phondani et al., 2010).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express sincere thanks to the head of the Chronobiology and Animal Behavior Laboratory, School of Studies in Life Science, Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur for the facilities provided to carry out this research work.