ICT Infrastructure Set and Adoption of Filipino and Indonesian SHS Students: Application of UTAUT

ICT infrastructure generates abundant benefits to every country's educational progress. This study aims to explore the acceptance and utilization of ICT among senior high school (SHS) students in the Philippines and Indonesia using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). A survey questionnaire was administered to 529 Senior High School students through convenience sampling. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was conducted to analyse the data using EQS 6.1 software. A confirmatory factor analysis and path analysis was also performed to test the model. The results reveal that among the predictors of behavioral intentions, only social influence positively influences behavioral intention or acceptance to use ICT for learning and research. Facilitating conditions and behavioral intention directly predicts the behavioral use. The findings reveal behavioral similarity and difference between Filipino and Indonesian senior high school students on the adoption of ICT.


I. INTRODUCTION
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is at the centre of the educational process. ICT has been utilized in public and private educational institutions through formal and non-formal settings, in religious and secular groups, in profit and non-profit organizations, and in government programs. If properly utilized, ICTs can extend and provide access to education, strengthen its significance and quality, thus, making learning a more active and engaging, connected to real life situations. ICT integration to education has provided different opportunities for students and serves as a platform and a tool to search, acquire and analyze information that can be used to solve problems. It also works as a communication medium for collaboration. Hence, this prepares and equips students the set of competencies suitable for a competitive 21st century marketplace [1].

A. Philippine Government Initiatives on ICT Programs
In 1996, the Department of Education (DepEd) started a computerization program for secondary schools with the goal of preparing Filipino students to become technology literate graduates and alloted a $7.1M fund for this effort. The Philippine government supported this program through investing in school facilities, infrastructure, computers and other ICT related gadgets and instructional materials. During those times, the private sector has also ventured to infuse schools with ICTs. In fact, 69% of private schools had acquired computers through outright purchase [2]. In 2018, the Department of Education (DepED) intensified their efforts to increase the ICT literacy level in the academic sector. In cooperation and partnership with the Philippine National Police (PNP) and the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG), ICT laboratory packages were provided and distributed to different secondary schools in the Philippines. Moreover, additional electronic classrooms were also constructed in elementary schools [3]. In the same year, the Philippine News Agency reported that DepEd also has allotted $19.1M fund for the Internet Connectivity Program, which will be implemented in five pivot regions in the Philippines [4]. In 2017, the Department of Information and Communication Technology (DICT) presented the National Broadband Plan, which aims to accelerate the deployment of network infrastructure to improve the internet connectivity extending a wider coverage that will reach remote areas in the Philippines [5]. Currently, DICT have deployed fiber optic cables and wireless technologies in several key cities in the Philippines.

B. ICT Initiatives in Indonesian Context
In 1983, University of Indonesia through Dr. Joseph F.P Luhukay developed University Network (UINet).This started the proliferation of ICT in the academic community. The network also covered other universities such as Surabaya Institute of Technology, Gadjah Mada University, Hasanudin University, Bandung Institute of Technology and Bogor Institute of Agriculture [6]. The Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia conveyed that communication platforms and tools are vital in the educational progress specially to teachers and principals [7]. Onno reported that Indonesian people still have limited access with ICT [8]. But through the Medium-Term National Development Plan (RPJMN) 2015-2019 under the National Long-Term Development Plan (RPJPN) 2005-2025, the Ministry of Communication and Informatics reinforces national connectivity by building broadband infrastructure in several regions and intensifies ICT literacy level in Indonesia [9]. Based on the Ministry of Communication and Informatics Annual Report 2017, the ICT literacy training initiatives reached a total 26,530 people including teachers, school-age children, housewives, and people with disability from 2015 -2017 [10]. Specifically, the ICT program consists of 58 different activities in 23 different cities all over Indonesia. The ministry also conducted training and seminars which deliver modules on Microsoft Office applications, graphics design and internet utilization.
However, despite the enthusiasm to harness the advantages of ICT in the learning process and teaching methodologies, specifically in basic education, integrating technology can be a challenging task. It is a multifaceted process that concerns not only technology but various factors such as curriculum and pedagogy, institutional readiness, teacher competencies, and long-term financing [11]. Hence, ICT does not guarantee higher returns even significant investment is substantially provided [12]. In addition to the factors of readiness and ICT sustainability, the issues surrounding the utilization and acceptance of ICT among students are also paramount. This is because for ICTs to improve productivity, there must be acceptance and act of utilization by students [13]. Thus, explaining acceptance of technologies is crucial to ensure that the investment on these ICTs are maximized. Indeed, ICT acceptance and utilization studies is considered as one the most mature research areas in contemporary information systems literature. In this light, this study aims to explain the underlying factors in the acceptance and utilization of ICTs among the senior high school students of Philippines and Indonesia.

C. Literature Review
Research in ICT acceptance and use has led to several theoretical models rooted on Psychology, Sociology and Information Systems. Hence, researchers are confronted with a multitude of models and found themselves having to pick and choose constructs across models or choose from a favored model, consequently ignoring contributions from other alternative models. These theoretical models have been used to various cultural settings and phenomena in several studies which yield varying results [14]. To address this condition, Vankatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis formulated the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) [13] that integrates elements among eight technology acceptance and use theories namely : Technology Acceptance Model, Theory of Reasoned Actions, Motivational Model, Theory of Planned Behavior, Model of Personal Computer Utilization, Innovation Diffusion Theory, and Social Cognitive Theory.
The UTAUT model direct indicators, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions have played a significant role in user acceptance and behavior use.
Performance Expectancy is the extent to which individuals believe that the job performance gains can be supported by and attributed to the use of the system. The five constructs that refer to performance expectancy from the different models are perceived usefulness, extrinsic motivation, job-fit, relative advantage and outcome expectations studied by Vankatesh, et al. [13]. This construct in each individual model is said to be the strongest predictor of intention.
Effort expectancy, on the other hand, is the degree of ease associated with technology use. Three constructs from existing technology acceptance models are associated with effort expectancy: perceived ease of use, complexity and ease of use [13].
Social influence pertains to the degree to which an individual perceived how important others believe that they should use the new technology. This construct is represented as subjective norm, social factors and image in other technology acceptance models. It refers to the implicit and explicit notion that how others will view them as an outcome of using the technology will influence a person's behavior. Simply, it combines items related to a person's perception that others think the new technology should be used, the perception that others support its technology use, and the perception that technology use is associated with a higher societal status [15].
Facilitating conditions are defined as the extent to which an individual believes that the organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support use of the technology [13]. These constructs are operationalized to include technological and organizational environment aspects that are designed to eliminate technology use barriers.
Behavioral intention refers to the student's intention to use digital technologies in the future, whether he or she is not using it. Intention is said to capture the motivational factors that influence behavior. It is also an indicator of the degree of an individual's willingness to try and the degree of effort to exert in order to perform the behavior [16].
Consistent with the fundamental theory of the intention models, UTAUT suggests that social influence, performance expectancy, and effort expectancy directly influence behavioral intention, which subsequently influences ICT use as shown Figure 1. The theory also suggests a direct effect of facilitating conditions on ICT use behavior.

B. Statement of the Problem
In order to explain the acceptance and utilization of ICT among senior high school students in Philippines and Indonesia, this study utilized the UTAUT model which draws on eight technology acceptance models with behavioural intention as its core and predictor of technology use behaviour. The UTAUT model is suited to the nature of the research problem which is to understand the influence of the UTAUT factors on ICT adoption among senior high school students from the said countries. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following research questions: 1) What is the perception of Filipino and Indonesian students on the provision of ICT infrastructure and resources in their respective schools? 2) Is there a significant difference between Filipino and Indonesian students' utilization of ICT infrastructure and resources in learning and research? 3) Do social influence, performance expectancy and effort expectancy influence Filipino and Indonesian senior high school students' behavioral intention to use ICT? 4) Does facilitating condition directly affects the ICT use of Filipino and Indonesian senior high school students?

A. Participants
A total of 529 senior high school students, 293 Filipino students (Male = 74, Female = 219, Mean of age = 17.05) and 236 Indonesian students (Male = 128, Female = 108, Mean of age = 17.14) participated in this study. This sample comprised of 231 Grade 11 students and 298 Grade 12 students from private and public schools. They were selected through convenience sampling to provide practical solution for resources and time constraints, and access restrictions.

B. Procedures
The data for this study were collected using a researchermade survey questionnaire through on-site and online sent via Google docs among senior high school students. Survey technique allows collection and quantitative analysis of data using descriptive and inferential statistics. Specifically, these data were used to understand the ICT adoption of high school students using the UTAUT model. The senior high school teachers endorsed the survey questionnaires to selected senior high school students.

C. Measures
The UTAUT factors composed of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, behavioural intentions and use of technology were measured through an instrument composed of 27 items. A five-point Likert scale was employed with 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree for the level of agreement and 1 = never, 5 = always for the frequency. An independent t-test was conducted to determine the significant difference between Filipino and Indonesian students' perception on ICT use and resources. Cronbach alpha analysis was performed on the instrument to ensure the reliability of the items. A reliability value of .839 was obtained, which is satisfactory since a number greater than .60 is considered acceptable in technology acceptance literature [17].

D. Data Analysis Procedure
To analyse the data, structural equation modelling (SEM) with latent variables was conducted using AMOS software. A combination of confirmatory factor analysis and path analysis were also conducted so that it could be tested against the theory [18]. Hence, CFA and SEM are suited for testing the UTAUT model compared to other forms of analysis.
To test the model fit, results were subjected to the fit indices to assess the data fitness with the UTAUT. Before measuring the full structural model, the measurement of each UTAUT factor was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis. Table 1 shows that there is a significant difference in the internet access in computer laboratory t(529) = -8.504, p = 0.000 and internet access in campus library t(529) = -2.720, p = 0.007 between Filipino (M = 3.67, SD = .97; M = 3.90, .94) and Indonesian (M = 4.29, SD = .71; M = 4.11, .80) students respectively. Provision of internet access in the computer laboratory and in the library is relatively high among Indonesian students.

A. Internet Provision and Connectivity
Correspondingly, there is a significant difference in internet speed t(529) = -8.504, p = 0.000.

C. Utilization of ICT Resources
ICT Resources have played a vital role in the progress of an educational system. Table 3 provides comparison of ICT resources and how senior high school students utilized it. There is a significant difference on the use of a mobile device in class presentation t(529) = 3.240, p = 0.001 between Filipinos and Indonesian students. Filipino students tend to use mobile phones more in their class presentation. In terms of data search and acquisition, data reveals a significant difference in the use of online database and journals to acquire research articles t(529) = 5.055, p = 0.000 and on the use of search engines to look for information t(529) = -6.213, p = 0.000. Indonesian students utilize online database and journals more frequently as compared to Filipino students. Conversely, Filipino students highly utilize search engines to look for information. Results shows that utilization of the Learning Management System by Filipino (M =2.51, SD = 1.07) and Indonesian (M =2.65, SD = .83) students is low. Likewise, SNS and Email are sometimes utilized in communicating with co-students and teachers.

D. Validating and Testing the Measurement Model
A reliability analysis was conducted as shown in Table  4. Cronbach Alpha consistently exceeded the .80 threshold. The average variance extracted, and composite reliability values exceeded the threshold .50 and .70 respectively [19]. The baseline model with loadings of indicators on their respective latent variables was examined as indicated in Table 5. The correlations between factors is below 0.7 which indicates that the items strongly relate to its own factor. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test each measurement model using AMOS Software. Six latent variables were identified in this study: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social behavioral intention, facilitating condition and ICT use behavior. The validations resulted to a model that fits well to the data with respect to CMIN/DF = 1.843, GFI = .959, AGFI = .931, CFI = .976, IFI = .976, TLI = .976, and RMSEA = .028.

Fig. 3 UTAUT Model for Indonesian Students
SEM was utilized to estimate the structural regression paths that were significant in predicting the Filipino and Indonesian students' acceptance and use of ICT as illustrated in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively. The path coefficients for each structural path is shown in Table 6. Data reveals that among the three predictors of behavioral intention, only social influence is significant for both Filipino students (.24, p<.001) and Indonesian students (.40, p<.01). Effort expectancy is significant for Filipino students (.29, p<.05) while performance expectancy is significant for Indonesian students (.28, p<.05).
The indirect effect of social influence and effort expectancy to Filipino students (.46, p<.001) and the indirect effect of social influence and performance expectancy to Indonesian students (.42, p<.001) use of ICT moderated by the behavioral intention is also significant. This association explains 20% of the variance for Filipino students and 24% for Indonesian students in their behavioral intention to use ICT resources.
On the other hand, facilitating condition also has a positive and significant direct effect on the ICT use of Filipino students (.32, p<.001) and Indonesian students (.43, p<.001). In sum, the model explains 39% of the variance in ICT use among Filipino senior high school students and 46% for Indonesian counterparts.

IV. DISCUSSION
Results show that the provision of internet access and internet speed between Philippines and Indonesia are significantly different. Indonesian students agree that the internet in their school computer laboratories and library is accessible. Indonesian students also agree that they have better internet in computer laboratories. However, they are neutral in agreement on internet speed. Generally, the Indonesian students are satisfied with the internet service in their school. Filipino students agree that the internet is accessible in computer laboratories and library. However, they are dissatisfied with the internet speed. This reveals the provision of the internet in schools in Indonesia is better than the Philippines [22]. This can be attributed to the network infrastructure deployed inside the campus. The provision of internet service within the school premise is highly relevant to the student's need to access a wider range of information for educational purposes. Likewise, the internet keeps the social connection among educational peers and external groups.
In terms of ICT infrastructure and resource provision, the software and computers in the laboratories and library are available for the Filipino and Indonesian students to use. There is a significant difference in terms of computer laboratory in campus and the availability of it between Filipino and Indonesian students. Indonesian students strongly agree that the computer laboratories are sufficiently provided for their learning and research. In addition, Indonesian students agree that this computer laboratories are readily available for utilization. Contrary, Filipino students agree that there are computer laboratories, but they are neutral in agreement with its availability for utilization. Filipino and Indonesian students agree that the computers in the library are available, but this may be limited because of the ratio students' population against computers in the library. In terms of software, Filipino and Indonesian students agree that it is available both in the computer laboratories and library. However, there is a significant difference in the software availability in the computer laboratories between Filipino and Indonesian students. This means that some of the software they need for use may not be available due to the adherence to the IT audit trail compliance on the installation of specific software.
In terms of resources or tools for learning and research, Filipino and Indonesian students sometimes use the projector during their class presentation. Filipino and Indonesian students often utilize mobile phones during academic presentation and occasionally utilized SNS and Email to communicate with their classmates and teachers. In terms of using the learning management system (LMS), Filipino students rarely use it and Indonesian students sometimes use it.
In searching and acquiring data, there is a significant difference in using online database and journals between Filipino and Indonesian students. Filipino students sometimes utilize online database and journals while Indonesian students often use it. Filipino students always use search engines while Indonesian students often use it to search for information.
In terms of social influence, students from both countries have more intention to use ICT knowing that persons they deem important support and encourage them to use these technologies for their studies. This implies that social influence is a strong antecedent to the behavioral intention to use ICT resources among the senior high school students. This outcome agrees to the studies of Maldonado, Khan, Moon, Rho [20] and Cheng [21] that social influence has a positive association with behavioral intention. Moreover, the result implies that opinions of family members, close peers, and specially teachers on the ICT use matter to senior high schools and that their support and encouragement could be used as a positive tool for enhancing ICT use among the students. As such, the social influence via behavioral intentions to use ICT adequately explains the use of ICT behaviors among Filipino and Indonesian senior high school students.
Likewise, in terms of facilitating condition, results indicate that students from both countries are willing to use the ICTs provided for learning and research when the needed technical support and ICT infrastructure and resources are readily available. This suggests that facilitating conditions influence the use of ICT of Filipino and Indonesian students.
However, results also reveal differences between the two countries in terms of the impact of performance and effort expectancy on their students' intent to use ICT. Results from Indonesian students indicate influence of performance expectancy via behavioral intention to use on their ICT utilization. This means that Indonesian students perceive that the use of ICT could contribute meaningfully in improving their learning and research skills and performance. This perspective makes them more disposed to use ICTs. Conversely, Filipino students' effort expectancy via behavioral intention significantly influence the ICT use. This result validates the response of Filipino students which indicates their perception of ease in using ICT. It is more likely that the ease of acquiring and retrieving information needed for schoolwork have influenced them when they utilize ICT.

V. CONCLUSION
This study explains the acceptance and utilization of ICT among senior high school students in Philippines and Indonesia using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology with behavioral intention as its core, along with facilitating conditions as predictors of technology use behavior. The study concludes that among the three predictors of behavioral intentions, only social influence positively influences behavioral intention or acceptance to use ICT for learning and research for both Indonesian and Filipino students. However, performance expectancy is the predictor that significantly affects the behavioral intention of Indonesian students while effort expectancy influences the behavioral intention of Filipino students. Both behavioral intention and facilitating conditions also predict ICT use of the students. Results from the UTAUT model reveal that Filipino and Indonesian students have similarities and differences which could be explained by factors which contribute to their intentions to accept and use ICT resources.

A. Implications
In the light of the results, it is apparent that with the presence of readily available ICTs and reliable technical support, senior high school students will use them for their learning and research activities. Hence, improving ICT facilities, infrastructure, and technical support is crucial. Likewise, the social influence of the students' close peers, parents, siblings, and their teachers in using ICT cannot be overlooked. Specifically, teachers must be tech-savvy and supportive of ICT utilization among their students if they intend to encourage them with these technologies for learning. Likewise, future ICT acceptance research should consider studies delving into the social component of ICT use among students and teachers that could enhance further the teaching and learning process.
Considering that performance and effort expectancy could strengthen the intention to utilize ICT in learning and research works, educational institutions need to ensure that ICTs provided are user-friendly and comes with technical support. The schools could also encourage ICT utilization among students by increasing their awareness through interventions such as seminars and information drives that emphasize the benefits of integrating technology, particularly in the learning and research process. For instance, training on the use of database and journal publication sites and the advantages of using these sources could promote the use of ICT in conducting research. Likewise, the need to utilize SNS in communicating with students and teachers can create and maintain social capital among them [23]. This may lead to the virtual internationalization between Filipino and Indonesian students that can be a medium of exchange of learning. Thus, it is also relevant to improve bandwidth and access to the wireless network inside the campus to ensure accessibility of these research sites.
In addition, there is also the need to promote the use of Learning Management Systems in delivering learning contents and resources to students. Teachers should encourage students to utilize the learning management system by explaining to them its benefits in making learning more interesting and interactive.

B. Limitations of the Study
The study involved a survey among a relatively small number of senior high school students from Philippines and Indonesia. Hence, it is recommended for future studies to increase the sample size and involve other high school students from different institutions.
Since the model of the study did not include the effect of moderating variables, it is suggested to include other variables such as age and gender to improve the factors' variance presented in this study.
Moreover, the similarities and differences of the outcome between Filipino and Indonesian participants manifest that there could be underlying cultural factors which could influence ICT adoption. Thus, further research could include culture in understanding ICT acceptance and use.