Examining the Influence of Father’s and Mother’s Characteristics in Positive and Negative Parenting Practices

: The present study aims to examine the influence of father’s and mother’s demographic characteristics in positive and negative parenting practices. Research sample consisted of 480 married parents who had children in the public primary school 6 – 12 years old. 68% of parents resided in urban areas, 75% were mothers, 72% had one or two children, 65% of parents were higher educated and 70% of parents had medium and high family income. Parents completed Alabama Parenting Questionnaire which refers to positive and negative parenting practices that parents adopt to raise their children. Research findings showed that parents’ gender, age, family income, residence, educational level and the number of children in the family and children’ gender are factors that affected parents’ effectiveness. Results indicated that mothers were more involved in their children lives and applied more positive parenting practices than fathers. Also, parent’s educational level, family income and parents’ residence were a significand’s factors in parenting practices. Findings reveal that higher educated parents, parents with higher family income, parents who lived in urban areas, parents who raised a girl and parents who have one or two children were more involved in their parental role, applied more positive parenting disciplines, they provided more mentoring / supervision to their children, used less corporal punishment and applied more other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) to their children. Furthermore, younger mothers seem to used more inconsistent and negative discipline and corporal punishment to their children than older mother. Results from this study can be used to design and implement parenting training programs to support and enchase parental role.


INTRODUCTION
The present research focuses on the factors that affect negative and positive parenting practices. Specifically, research explores on measuring parenting practices and the correlation with variables such as parents' gender, age, educational level, family income, residence, children's gender and number of children in family.
Parents must be able to communicate effectively with their children, teach principles and values, support their social needs, set boundaries, encourage their cognitive development and be consistent. Parenting skills are the tool that helps parents promote and support their children's physical, emotional, social and mental development. Parenting skills help parents raise their children so that they become responsible and socially healthy adults. According to Altafim & Linhares (2019), Sebre, et. al., (2014) stated that there is a strong relationship between parenting practices and child behavior, showing that positive parenting practices are associated with lower rates of child behavior problems.
Positive parenting practices encourage children's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment and promote children's selfregulation with fewer internalizing and externalizing problems. Positive parenting practices express parents' behaviors that reflect affection, love, warmth and expressions of positive regard through praise, rewards, and expressions of physical affection. On the other hand, poor parenting practices are one of the most common risk factors for behavioural problems in children (Hawes & Dadds, 2006). Lack of parental involvement, poor mentoring and supervision, harsh and inconsistent discipline, are considered prognostic factors of antisocial behaviour.
Laskey and Cartwright-Hatton (2009) reported that parents' inconsistent discipline and corporal punishment can contribute to child maladjustment, as it negatively affects children's sense of control and security in their family. Inconsistent discipline and corporal punishment were also associated with child behavioral problems, less social-emotional well-being, children '

CURRENT STUDY
The aim of the present study was to explore and measure the influence of father's and mother's characteristics in positive and negative parenting practices towards their children. To examined research's aim, postulated the following research questions:  Are there any differences between paternal and maternal parenting practices (involvement, mentoring/supervision, positive parenting techniques, corporal punishment, other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) and inconsistent and negative discipline)  Are parents' characteristics (gender, age, educational level, residence, family income) effect parenting practices  Are number of children in the family affect parenting practices  Are children' gender effect parenting practices

METHOD Participants
The sample consisted of 480 married parents, 25% are fathers 75% are mothers. Fathers average age was 38+7 and mothers average age was 36+6. Participants were 480 Greek-speaking parents who had children in the public primary school 6 -12 years old. The majority of the participants' parents resided in urban areas (68%) and 32% of parents lived in rural areas. Most of the parents had one or two children (72%) and 65% of parents were higher educated. 70% of parents had medium and high family income.

Procedure
Parents who participated in research were informed about the purpose and the aims of the research. The research team explained the questionnaire' information, and emphasized that they were to answer all the questions concerning their child, six up to twelve years old. The researcher collected data through face-to-face meetings. Specifically, mothers and fathers completed questionnaire on parenting practices (Alabama Parenting Questionnaire APQ). Parents provided demographic data concerning their annual family household income, number of children in their family, parents' gender, age and educational level, residence and children's gender.

Measures
The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) was used to examined parenting practices (Shelton et. Al., 1996). The APQ was adapted and translated into Greek which used a high-quality translation, blind back-translation, and we also piloted the instrument in the target population. This questionnaire is a self-report scale, consisting of 49 items, to which parents are asked to rate each item on a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). It consisted of 6 subscales: Parental Involvement which referred to parent's participation in the child's life; Positive parenting defined as the use of positive reinforcement (praise and material rewards); poor mentoring/supervision payed insufficient attention to what the child is doing; inconsistent and negative discipline used inconsistent application of disciplinary rules; Corporal Punishment and other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) which included to avoid a negative bias toward corporal punishment items. The internal consistency of the six scales has been moderate (α = 0.63 to 0.80). Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the six subscales of the questionnaire in the whole sample are: α = .73 (Parental Involvement), α = .67 (Positive Parenting), α = .63 (poor mentoring/supervision), α = .69 (inconsistent and negative discipline), α = .66 (Corporal Punishment) and α = .65 (other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) α = 0.80.

Data Analysis
Data analysis included descriptive statistics as mean, standard deviation, frequencies, percentage to describe participants' and their children's characteristics. In order to examine research hypotheses, we applied the statistical method's analysis t-test, oneway ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, and multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) to compare means between parenting practices, parents' demographic characteristics and children's characteristics.

Findings
Gender-based differences were present for Parental Involvement . Also, mothers with higher educational level (22.32 + 3.39) provided more positive parenting than mothers with lower educational level (16.51 + 3.21), and mothers with higher educational level (14.14 + 2.82) used more other discipline techniques in their children besides corporal punishment than fathers with lower educational level (10.03 + 2.77). Οn the contrary, mothers with lower educational level (10.38 + 2.56) provided less guidance and supervision to their children than mothers with higher educational level (8.79 + 2.15), mothers with lower educational level (11.95 + 2.87) provided more inconsistent and negative disciplines towards their children than mothers with higher educational level (8.87 + 2.90), and mothers with lower educational level (5.10 + 0.56) provided more corporal punishment as discipline to their children than mothers with higher educational level (3.79 + 0.89).
Mothers . It was indicated that parents who had 1-2 children (34.69 + 5.68) had more parental involvement than parents who had more than two children (25.34 + 5.12). Parents who had 1-2 children (23.45 + 3.98) provided more positive parenting disciplines than parents who had more than two children (17.11 + 4.43), and parents who had 1-2 children (14.83 + 3.18) applied more other discipline techniques in their children and less corporal punishment in their children than parents who had more than two children (11.26 + 3.52). On the contrary, parents who had more than two children (12.00 + 4.88) provided less supervision and mentoring to their children than parents who had one or two children (6.68 + 4.31). Additionally, parents who had more than two children (5.39 + 0.92) applied more corporal punishment as discipline towards their children than parents who have one or two children (3.43 + 0.78). Based on research's findings parental involvement indicated significant positive correlation with variables Positive parenting (r=0.976 p<0.000). and other parenting techniques and disciplines (except corporal punishment) (r=0.887 p<0.000). On the other hand, parental involvement found significant negative correlation with variables poor mentoring/supervision, inconsistent and negative disciplines and corporal punishment (r=-0.821 p<0.000; r=-0.854 p<0.000 and r=-0.827 p<0.000 respectively).
When examining positive parenting results revealed a significant negative correlation of poor mentoring/supervision (r=-0.810 p<0.000), inconsistent and negative disciplines (r=-0.855 p<0.000) and corporal punishment (r=-0.826 p<0.000). Positive parenting presented significant positive correlation with variable other parenting techniques and disciplines (except corporal punishment) (r=0.897 p<0.000) We detected a significant negative correlation between poor mentoring/supervision and other parenting techniques and disciplines (except corporal punishment) (r=-0.808 p<0.000). Poor mentoring/supervision was found to have a significant positive correlation with variables inconsistent and negative disciplines (r=0.792 p<0.000) and corporal punishment (r=0.774 p<0.000). Inconsistent and negative disciplines was found to have a significant positive correlation with corporal punishment (r=0.849 p<0.000) and negative correlation with variable other parenting techniques and disciplines (except corporal punishment) (r=-0.818 p<0.000). Corporal punishment had a significant negative correlation with variable other parenting techniques and disciplines (except corporal punishment) (r=-0.891 p<0.000). IJSSHR, Volume 4 Issue 01 January 2021 www.ijsshr.in Page 27

DISCUSSION
In the present study regarding parenting practices revealed that mothers had more parental involvement, applied more positive parenting disciplines and provided more mentoring / supervision towards their children than fathers. Similar results were presented in the research of Uji, et , stated that mothers are usually closer to their children than are fathers even when involved in professional careers, their role in home care and childrearing is still greater than that of fathers. According to Hadjicharalambous & Demetriou (2020), reported that mothers showed more affection and were more supportive towards their children than fathers. Mother's and father's roles have undergone a major transformation during the years. Mothers work more outside the home, and fathers are more involved with childcare. However, fathers still do considerably less children tending than mothers (Pleck, 2012).
Research revealed that parents' educational level presented as a significant factor in positive or negative parenting practices that parents adopt. Higher-educated fathers had more parental Involvement, applied more positive parenting disciplines and used more other discipline techniques except corporal punishment towards their children than lower-educated fathers. Also, indicated that mothers with higher educational level had more parental involvement, applied more positive parenting disciplines, provided less inconsistent and negative discipline and less corporal punishment, provided more mentoring / supervision to their children and used other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) than mothers with a lower level of education. Similar results are found by international surveys. The educational level of parents contributes significantly to the parenting practices they adopt and the effectiveness of their parental role. Higher education often allows parents more time, money, energy and connections that ensure more active involvement in their children's lives. According to research by Kainuwa & Yusuf (2013), parents with higher education can not only be more involved in their children's lives but also learn to their children social skills, thus helping in academic their performance. Also, according to research by Booth & Hiau Joo Kee (2009), mothers who have a higher level of education can give their children more opportunities for education, more attention and priority. The high education of the mother improves the cultural level of the child. Research findings showed that educated mothers seem to possess a wider range of knowledge related to child development and more effective parenting practices and strategies, thus achieving better interaction with their children (Coleman & Karraker, 2000). Less educated mothers are less likely to understand their child's capabilities and also the low education of a mother can have a profound impact on her parenting and her children (Ertem et al., 2007) According to findings, parental age affected significantly parent's parenting practices. Younger mothers had less parental involvement, used less positive parenting disciplines and applied less other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) while it was found that younger mothers used more Inconsistent and negative discipline and corporal punishment to their children. On the other hand, research reported that older fathers had less parental involvement, used less other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) and applied more corporal punishment towards their children. The age of parents seems to affect maternal and paternal parenting practices. Research by Booth & Hiau Joo Kee (2009) showed the importance of maternal age. Some mothers may have their first child while they are still at very young age, while others mothers may have first child after 30 years old. This age difference is important for the child development and education. Children of older parents can reach higher levels of education. If parents are very young when they have their first child, they are more likely to be poorer and therefore less able to provide proper childrearing and education to their firstborn child. Similar findings presented by Bezeveggis's research (2012) that older parents were more mature and were likely to satisfy more frequently their children's needs. Additionally, according to Dimitriou (2012) parents that have achieved their personal goals presented more capable to adapt to the responsibilities of the parental role. According to Hadjicharalambous & Demetriou, (2020), indicated that older parents displayed more affection toward their children whereas younger parents appeared to be more hostile and rejecting. Findings seem to comply to Cox et.al., (1999) as well as Florsheim et al. (2003) showed that young parents, feel more stress in their parental role. Furthermore, Gonzalez, Jones, & Parent, (2014), supported that younger mothers are less able to support their children than older mothers.
Based on research results family income affect the positive and negative parenting practices who parents adopt. Parents with higher family income had more parental involvement and applied more positive parenting disciplines, they provided more mentoring / supervision to their children, used less corporal punishment and applied more other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) to their children. Similar results showed by Edin & Lein (1997)  provide their children with stimulating learning experiences, such as reading, play materials (Hart & Risley, 1995;Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002). Parents who lived in urban areas had more parental involvement and they provided more positive parenting disciplines to their children than parents who resided in rural areas. Similar results were found by Galani (2011) and Hadjicharalambous & Dimitriou, (2020) showed that parents who lived in urban areas tended to be more supportive of their children and parents who resided in rural areas presented more hostile and rejecting towards their children.
Research findings indicated that parents who raised a girl had more parental involvement and provided more positive parenting than parents who raised a boy. Parents seem to be more involved, supervising, and using positive discipline techniques for girls than for boys. In the current literature there are different expectations of parents regarding children's gender (Chaplin et al., 2005). According to Brody, (2000), Garside & Klimes-Dougan, (2002), Zahn-Waxler, (2000), showed that parenting practices are different in girls than boys and parents had more involvement in girls' lives than boys. Therefore, mothers and fathers vary in the ways they explicitly socialize children based on their child's gender.
Findings underlined that number of children in the family is significant dimension and effect in parenting practices. It was found that parents who have one or two children had more parental involvement, applied more positive parenting disciplines, had more mentoring / supervision to their children, used less corporal punishment and applied more other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment). Similar results were shown by the research of Hadjicharalambous & Dimitriou, (2020) revealed that parents who had one or two children were more authoritative towards their children, than parents who had three children or more. Furthermore, Wagner, Schubert & Schubert (1985), stated that families with three children or more based their upbringing on rules and used more corporal punishment as discipline. Children who raided in smaller families had better academic performance and better learning opportunities than children who have raised by larger families. Also, children from larger families were more likely to present delinquent behaviours. The same results are obtained by a study by Booth & Hiau Joo Kee (2009), who stated that siblings can hardly receive an equal rearing and education opportunities by their parents. Children in larger families had lower education opportunities and educational potential.

LIMITATIONS
Despite the strengths, the present study also presents some limitations. First, data was collected by parents who resided in Limassol district; therefore, the ability to generalize findings to a nationwide is limited. Second, only reported measures were used and not observational measures. Even though observational measures of parenting practices are considered superior in criterion, they are also more complex, costly and time-consuming for both researchers and participants. Consequently, simply assumed that parents would be honest due to research based on anonymity and confidentiality. Third, about one-fourth of the participants in this study were fathers. It is observed that parents who participate in researches which examine parenting were mothers and only a small group of fathers participated in these researches.

CONCLUSIONS
The present research showed that parenting practices are influenced by the parents' characteristics such as parent's gender, age, residence, educational level and family income affect the effectiveness of parents' role. Other factors which also affect parents' effectiveness are number of children in the family and the children's gender. Results indicated that mothers were more involved in their children lives and applied more positive parenting practices than fathers. Also, both mothers' and fathers' educational level was a significant factor in parenting practices. Findings reveal that higher educated parents were more involved in their parental role, they applied more positive parenting disciplines, they provided more mentoring / supervision to their children, used less corporal punishment and applied more other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) to their children. Furthermore, younger mothers seem to used more inconsistent and negative discipline and corporal punishment to their children than older mother. Parents with higher family income and parents who lived in urban areas had more parental involvement and applied more positive parenting disciplines, they provided more mentoring / supervision to their children, used less corporal punishment and applied more other parenting techniques & disciplines (except corporal punishment) to their children. Parents who raised a girl and parents who have one or two children had more parental involvement and provided more positive parenting than parents who raised a boy.
Research findings can be used to design intervention programs to enhance the parental role. A variety parenting programs are designed to support and educate parents in their parental role. These programs aim to support parents to manage their children's behavior, address children's internalizing and externalizing problems, and build strong and healthy relationships. Furthermore, parents learn to show positive attention to the child, to provide clear instructions and boundaries and to form realistic expectations for the child's behavior. At the same time, parents are trained in resolving personal issues and applied practical skills, so as to maintain their self-care, well-being but also to identify their needs beyond their parental role. Future studies should involve measures of maternal and paternal parenting from the perspectives of young adults and their parents.