Energetic Neutral Atoms From Jupiter's Polar Regions

Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) cameras on orbiting spacecraft at Earth and Saturn helped greatly to diagnose these complex magnetospheres. Within this decade, the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer will make ENA imaging a major thrust in understanding Jupiter's complex magnetosphere. The present polar‐orbiting Juno mission at Jupiter carries no ENA camera. But, the Jupiter Energetic‐particle Detector Instrument is sensitive to >50 keV ENAs, provided there are no local charged particles to mask their presence. Juno offers great service to interpreting past serendipitous and future dedicated ENA imaging with its orbit providing unique viewing perspectives. Here we report Juno observations of ENAs from Jupiter's polar regions. These ENAs likely arise from energetic ions that nearly precipitate in the main auroral regions and mirror magnetically within, and charge exchange with, Jupiter's upper atmosphere. Jupiter proves itself different from Saturn, as ENAs generated from precipitating ions were not identified there.

and from ion composition measurements just above the equatorial atmosphere (e.g., Valek et al., 2019).
The Juno spacecraft, now in a polar orbit around Jupiter, does not carry an instrument designed to measure ENAs. However, its energetic particle instrument, the Jupiter Energetic-particle Detector Instrument (JEDI), can measure ENAs with energies > 50 keV provided there are no charged particles around to mask the presence of the ENAs. And recently,  reported on Juno observations of ENAs coming from the orbits of Jupiter's moons Europa and Io, and from the general direction of Jupiter itself.
There has been uncertainty about emissions coming from Jupiter itself. The analysis of the crude Cassini images by Mauk et al. (2003Mauk et al. ( , 2004 suggested that a central structure in the images was a consequence of precipitation of energetic ions into Jupiter's atmosphere. Colleagues informally challenged this conclusion for a couple of reasons. First, in order to see Jupiter, the Cassini imager had to look through the emissions from Europa's orbit and possibly Io's orbit. The gas distributions around these orbits are likely highly structured (e.g., Smith et al., 2019;Smyth & Marconi, 2006). Structure within the images, interpreted as coming from Jupiter, could well just represent the structured emissions from the orbits of these moons. Additionally, while ENAs have been observed at Saturn coming out of the auroral regions in association with upward acceleration of ions (Mitchell, Kurth, et al., 2009), ENAs have not been identified there as resulting from ion precipitation from the magnetosphere (Mitchell, Krimigis, et al., 2009). While ENA conversions of precipitating ions are expected, they apparently do not represent a substantial contribution to the overall ENA emissions coming out of the magnetosphere of Saturn. A possible reason that there might be differences between Saturn and Jupiter is the relative densities of neutral gasses within these respective magnetospheres, as discussed further in the Summary Section 8. At Jupiter, Juno did see ENAs coming from the general direction of Jupiter , but the region of these emissions was highly uncertain.
In the present work, we report on ENA observations from a perspective much closer to Jupiter than previously described. These ENAs are clearly coming from Jupiter's polar regions. Here we use both the ENA emissions and the corresponding in situ measurements to help identify the emission sources and processes. There are several motivations for the present report. We aspire to help interpret previous serendipitous ENA observations of Jupiter, document special features that occur in the Juno data set for the benefit of others now using Juno data for their research, and to help with the interpretation and planning for ENA observations of Jupiter to be made by the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) mission. JUICE imagers may not have the resolution and closeness to understand fully the source regions of emissions coming from Jupiter itself. JUICE is scheduled to arrive at Jupiter in 2029 with several advanced ENA cameras (Brandt et al., 2018;Futaana et al., 2015;Mitchell et al., 2016).
In the sections that follow, we discuss the Juno and the JEDI measurement capabilities, analyze the observed ENA emissions, discuss the relationship between the ENA measurements and in situ measurements within the remotely sensed regions, and conclude with a discussion and summary.

Juno and JEDI Configurations
The Juno mission was launched in 2011 and was inserted into Jupiter orbit in July of 2016 with the following orbit parameters: 1.05 × 112 RJ polar (∼90° inclination), ∼53.5 day period elliptical orbit with the line-of-apsides close to the dawn equatorial meridian (Bolton et al., 2017). Following insertion, the lineof-apsides has been slowly precessing southward (∼1° per orbit) and toward the night-side (∼4° per orbit).
In this study, we focus on measurements from the JEDI . JEDI measures energy, angle, and composition distributions of electrons (∼25 to ∼1,200 keV) and ions (protons: ∼10 keV to ∼4 MeV; oxygen and sulfur from ∼145 keV to >10 MeV). JEDI measures atoms whether or not they are charged. Mauk, Clark, Gladstone, et al. (2020) provide an overview of the findings of the JEDI investigation over Jupiter's polar-regions. JEDI consists of three independent instruments, each of which has six telescopes arranged in a ∼160° fan. JEDI-90 and JEDI-270, sensitive to both ions and ENAs, are oriented to approximate a 360° field of view within a plane roughly perpendicular to the spacecraft spin vector. JEDI-A180 measures only electrons. The full-width at half-maximum angle (FWHM) resolution of JEDI is roughly 17° × 9°, with the 17° dimension oriented along the 160° fan. In high-resolution mode, JEDI accumulates for 0.25 s at a cadence of 0.5 s (ions and electron measurements are subcommutated). Hence, given the 30s spin period of Juno, the field-of-view is rotated by 3° during an accumulation. A 17° resolution for the telescopes is obviously much wider than one would want in an imaging instrument. However, we can determine the locations of narrow features much more accurately by centroiding the sensor response as the spacecraft spins around at a 30-s cadence. The 12 different telescopes oversample the structure by cutting through it with different rotational phasing with respect to the structure as the sensors accumulates over 3° intervals every 6°. Figure 1a shows the particular Juno orbit that is the focus of this study, viewed from the sun. For this particular period, the orbit resided roughly within the dawn-dusk meridian. The observations that we highlight are those made at the positions on Juno's orbit colored red. The spin axis of Juno points roughly toward the sun (toward Earth to be more precise), and the JEDI ion and ENA measurements all take place roughly (although not exactly) within a plane that is perpendicular to the Sun-Jupiter line. In essence, JEDI obtains a 1-dimensional, 360° image in a direction roughly normal to the Sun-Jupiter line. However, because of modest (∼10°) twists and tilts of the fields of view (to avoid looking at solar panels), a modest range of elevation angles away from that plane are also sampled during a spin.

JEDI ENA Measurements
The features of interest are those identified with the labels "ENAs" in Figure 1c for hydrogen and in Figure 2a for heavy ions (oxygen plus sulfur). These panels are pitch angle plots, generated with the help of the magnetic field data obtained by the Juno Magnetometer instrument . Most of the features within these panels represent charged particles associated in some way with Jupiter's auroral processes. We identify the features labeled "ENAs" on these panels as ENAs based on their ordering (or lack thereof) with respect to the magnetic field and because it is highly unlikely to see upgoing heavy ions from the magnetosphere without corresponding downgoing components (see  for additional discussions).  Figure S1 in the Supporting Information shows these electron features explicitly. Gérard et al. (2019) and Allegrini et al. (2020) provide broad studies of the comparison between electron precipitation and auroral emissions.
Multiple panels in Figures 1 and 2 show the energy distributions for ions and ENAs. Each panel uses pitch angle filters to select out certain features. We filtered Figures 1d and 2b specifically to catch the energy distributions of the ENAs. We see hydrogen ENAs with energies extending from 50 keV up to energies high enough to occasionally illuminate the JEDI ∼195-230 keV energy channel with single counts (Figure 1d). Oxygen plus Sulfur (OS) ENAs show energies extending from 140 keV up to energies high enough to occasionally illuminate the JEDI ∼1,000-2,300 keV energy channel, with 1-2 counts (Figure 2b). We assume that the ENAs result from charge exchange between the primary ions (H+, O+, S+) and Jupiter's hydrogen atmosphere (H 2 ). Charge exchange cross sections between our primary ions and hydrogen (H; as shown in McEntire & Mitchell, 1989 and as reproduced in the Supporting Information of  show that for H + on H the cross section is almost two orders of magnitude lower at 200 keV than it is for the 50 keV low end of JEDI and for the 50-80 keV ENA observations obtained by Cassini (Mauk et al., 2003). They also shows that the O + on H cross section at 1,000 keV is not quite one order of magnitude  Gladstone et al., 2017). The colors represent different UV spectral bands with red, green, and blue tending to represent the consequences of high, medium, and low energy electron precipitation (see Gladstone et al., 2017). Jupiter's planetary pole is indicated with a small white circle, and the yellow dot shows the average direction of the sun relative to that polar position during the image accumulation. Overlaying the image is the trajectory of Juno mapped along magnetic field lines to Jupiter's upper atmosphere using the JRM09 internal magnetic field model (Connerney et al., 2018) combined with an explicit model of the external field (Connerney et al., 1981). UVS accumulated the image during the portion of the trajectory shown thicker than the rest of the trajectory. (c) Time versus pitch angle versus intensities for charged and neutral 50-4,000 keV hydrogen atoms. The blue bars just above this panel show where JEDI observed the downward auroral electrons associated with the UV main auroral emissions. The shortest bar on the right is where the electron intensities were most intense. (d) Time versus energy versus intensities for hydrogen atoms or ions with pitch angles between (20° and 67°). (e) Same as (d) but for pitch angles between 165° and 180°. lower than it is for the 140 keV low end of JEDI. Future work will examine whether or not it is reasonable to observe H and OS ENAs with energies as high as those reported here on the basis of our assumed source.
We filtered the other energy spectrograms (Figure 1e for H and Figure 2c for OS) to capture downward precipitating ions (pitch angles between 165° and 180°). In the polar cap regions (defined here as simply the regions poleward of the main aurora; see Mauk, Clark, Gladstone, et al., 2020), the OS energy distributions ( Figure 2c) reveal OS ions that have been accelerated downward electrostatically to megavolt energies for the period extending roughly from 0755 to 0825. Clark et al. (2017) discovered these potentials and Mauk, Clark, Gladstone, et al. (2020) reported on their extent and persistence. The energy width of the feature is broad in part because of the multiple charge states of these heavy ions and in part because of the width of the JEDI channels. This feature is also observed in the protons ( Figure 1e) but is not as well characterized there because JEDI had only one broad proton energy channel that measures energies greater than 1,000 keV for this time period. We show these distributions because it will be tempting to attribute the ENA emissions as resulting from these downward accelerated and precipitating ions. We must exercise care, however in that, over broad regions of the polar cap observed here, the energies of those ions do not include the energies of most of the OS ENAs, in the 140-300 keV range where the OS ENA intensities are greatest.
The final two panels of Figure 2d and 2e show the directionality of the ENAs in a jovicentric Cartesian coordinate system, the Jupiter-Sun-Orbit (JSO) system. Here, JSO-X points toward the sun, JSO-Y points roughly duskward within the plane of Jupiter's orbit, and JSO-Z completes the orthogonal triad. Looking from the sun, the Azimuth angle ( Figure 2d    the counting statistics indicate significant uncertainties. Figure 3c shows the centroids of the OS azimuth angles for each 30-s period. The solid blue circles are judged to be the most reliable, while the open blue circles, derived from very few counts, are much less so. The solid blue line is a polynomial fit to the solid blue circles. The solid red line is a polynomial fit to the corresponding hydrogen azimuth centroids (not shown). The difference between H and OS fits provides some measure of the uncertainties in the centroid azimuth angles (say roughly ±3°). Finally, Figure 3d shows the centroids of the OS elevation angles together with a linear fit to those points. We judge the error in elevation angles to be something like ±5°. The speed of the spacecraft (50-56 km/s for the time period of interest) is not infinitesimal with respect to the speeds of the energetic neutrals (∼4,500 km/s for 100 keV H and ∼1770 km/s for 250 keV O). A consequence is that the azimuth angles are slightly aberrated, requiring adjustments of roughly 1.6° and 0.6° for O and H, respectively.

ENA Viewing Analysis
The viewing analyses provided in Figures 4 and 5 show that these ENA emissions do indeed come from Jupiter's polar-regions. The term "polar regions" as used here includes the polar cap, the main aurora, and, depending on one's definitions, the regions equatorward of the main aurora that still support robust auroral emissions. Figures 4a and 4b show where the JEDI viewing directions (green lines) encounter Jupiter's atmosphere (red dots) in the JSO coordinate system. To carry out these viewing analyses, we started with an expression for Jupiter's flattened shape in the form of: X 2 + Y 2 + a 2 Z 2 = (R eq ) 2 . Here, X and Y are equatorial coordinates, Z is the polar coordinate, R eq is the equatorial radius of Jupiter (71,492 km), and "a" (= 1.069375) is the ratio of equatorial radius and the polar radius (66,854 km). This expression matches the 1-bar radius calculated using measured occultations of Jupiter over a broad range of latitudes to within errors ranging between 1 and 23 km, depending on latitude (Helled, 2011). Given that the average auroral-arc emission altitudes above the 1-bar level is of order 245 km (Vasavada et al., 1999), we have arbitrarily chosen 1,000 km above the 1-bar level as the altitude where the less-penetrating ions interact strongly with the upper atmosphere for the calculations shown in  It may be puzzling why the emissions are confined in elevation, resulting in what might be described as a curved line of emission in Figure 4b. Because we trust only the centroids of the observations averaged over a spin, and because the counts are too low to trust fully any one measurement (hence the use of the polynomial fits), we have essentially reduced the emission profile to a line. The observations shown in Figures 2d and 2e do show clear confinements in both azimuth and elevation. However, before one decides that the emission regions themselves are so confined, one must be aware of an additional constraint on whether JEDI can see the emissions. Specifically, Juno must reside within what we will call here the "cones of emission" as discussed here and in Section 7.2. Figure 5a shows the viewed positions on Jupiter's atmosphere in the Jupiter-fixed latitude and longitude system (a right-handed System III coordinate system) using the azimuth and elevation choices described earlier in this section. Here the zero-degree longitude is along the plus x-axis, and east-longitude (a right-handed longitude) increases in the counter-clockwise direction. Overlaying these plots is a tracing of the auroral MAUK ET AL.   Figure 1b. This tracing does not include the enigmatic, unexplained, and informally named "red aurora" (based on standard false-color presentations) that fills large fractions of the polar cap. We show three different plot symbol types along the emission line to identify potential ENA emissions points. They are as follows.
• Colored dots: The two clusters of colored dots are the ones that correspond to the most reliable ENA emission measurements and those positioned most reliably. Note that the red dot on the left (dot number 6 on the panel) is obscured by the overlaying green dot (number 8) • Crosses: We consider these symbols at the extreme ends of the line dots to be unreliable. They are included only for completeness, as future studies might conclude that they are from different sources (note the discontinuity at the extreme left of Figure 3c). These points are unreliable for two reasons.
(1) They are based on very low count rates (Figures 3a and 3b at the left-most and right-most extremes).
(2) And, the derived viewing directions are close to being tangent to Jupiter's atmospheric surface. Because of (2), the positioning of these dots in Figure 5 are highly sensitive to errors in the viewing directions. By adding appropriate error perturbations to the view directions, we can move those points uncomfortably large distances across Jupiter • Stars: These symbols correspond to the center regions of our measurements where the overlaying high ion intensities block any ENA measurements in Figures 1 and 2. We positioned these dots by interpolation using the polynomial fits. These points may or may not exist. Also, if they do exist, their estimated positions may be wildly inaccurate. We include them here, again, for completeness In the discussions and analyses that follow, our concern will be only with the reliable colored dots. Note that in Figure 4, all of the view directions shown in Figure 5a are included.
Because, as discussed in Section 7.2, the probability of ENA emission from Jupiter's atmosphere depends on the pitch angle of the ions that are being converted, we have added an additional element in Figure 5a; the pitch angles of the ions just as they were converted to ENAs. Those pitch angles are printed at the bottom left of the panel for the four colored dots on the left and at the bottom right for the four colored dots on the right. We use the JEDI viewing directions and the vector magnetic field directions at the 1,000 km altitudes based on the latest magnetic field model of Jupiter's internal field, JRM09 (Connerney et al., 2018). Because our mental picture of these emissions has the ions locally mirroring within a very thin upper atmosphere, we expect that the pitch angles should be very close to 90°. However, because the pitch angles evolve so quickly away from 90° over very short distances, we will show in the discussion Section 7.2 that pitch angles as much as 10°, and perhaps even 15°, away from the 90° values are expected. Figure 4a shows that all of the observed ENAs move upward away from Jupiter's atmosphere following conversion. Because Jupiter's magnetic field points upward away from Jupiter in the northern polar regions, there will be a tendency for the observed ENAs to have arisen from ions with pitch angles that are <90°. However, the field lines can tilt substantially away from the Juno view point so that even ENAs that are moving away from Jupiter's atmosphere can come from ions with pitch angles >90°, as is observed to have occurred for one of the eight colored points in Figure 5a. For a purely dipolar magnetic field configuration, we expect that the field will tilt as much as 12° from the vertical in the main auroral regions. For the highly distorted fields actually observed in the north polar regions (Connerney et al., 2018), larger tilts certainly occur and with varying directionalities. Figure 5a suggests that the cluster of four colored dots on the left come from the main auroral regions, perhaps with a polar cap contribution. The cluster on the right appears to come from a combination of main aurora and polar cap sources. However, before making such a determination, we must examine possible imaging errors. In Figure 5b, we examine as examples the imaging errors for just two of the image points from Figure 5a; points 2 and 6 (see the numbers of the colored dots in Figure 1a; the red dot 6 is mostly hidden by the green dot 8). Here we have added and subtracted all possible combinations of azimuth errors (+3°, 0°, −3°) and of elevation errors (+5°, 0°, −5°), yielding a total of 9 points for each image measurement. In addition, the size of the dots depends on how close to 90° were the emitting ions at the time of their conversions to ENAs. The largest dots are for pitch angles within 10° of the 90° angle. Medium size dots are for pitch angle between 15° and 10° away from the 90° angle. Finally, the smallest dots are for pitch angles more than 15° away from the 90° angle. In Section 7.2, we show that we expect robust emissions associated with the largest dots, perhaps modest emissions for the intermediate sized dots, and likely no observable emissions for the smallest dots. Note that the fact that on Figure 5b, the possible viewing positions for point 2 extends into the subauroral regions does not mean that any ENAs are coming from that region. It means that for that particular measurement there are multiple possibilities as to where the ENAs are coming from.
Figure 5c now adds some complexity by examining the two extreme points from each cluster of four points in Figure 5a. Those points are 1 and 4 on the right, and 5 and 9 on the left. Finally, for completeness, we include all points in Figure 5d, although different points are falling on top of each other here, making it difficult to interpret completely that plot.
It appears from Figure 5 that all of the image points are consistent with a main aurora source. That is, the main aurora is a possible source for each of the eight imaged points. In addition, two of the points (7 and 8) most likely can only have come from the main aurora since the extension into the polar cap appears with only small dots (meaning that emissions from there would be outside of the cones of emission). However, that also means that six (or five, excluding point 1) of the eight points might possibly have come from the polar cap. Finally, only two of the eight imaged points have the subauroral region as a possible source. Putting all of that together, we can probably exclude the subauroral region as the source of the ENAs. Based on Figure 5, the source may come from a combination of the main aurora and the polar cap. In the discussion-section (Section 7.1), we will argue against the polar cap as being a source for the observed ENAs based on the ENA energies. However, if it turns out that the stars in Figure 5a are a reality as roughly positioned, then the polar cap must play role in the ENA emissions. Figure 6 shows all of the examples of near-Jupiter, polar ENA emissions that we have found examining 26 science orbits of Juno. All of them are from the northern hemisphere. How Juno cuts through the system strongly affects the statistics on ENA viewing, specifically affecting the background populations that can mask the ENAs. The statistics also depends strongly on viewing perspective. Figure S2 in the Supporting Information section shows how asymmetric the observed northern and southern environment can be. That asymmetry results in part from north-south asymmetries in the Juno trajectory and possibly from northsouth asymmetries in Jupiter itself. Specifically, the northern hemisphere at atmospheric altitudes has generally higher magnetic field strengths than does the south (Connerney et al., 2018), changing the location of the interfering charged particle populations relative to Juno. In the north, the rotational phase of Jupiter often determines whether charged particle populations will mask any possible ENA emissions, given the tilt in Jupiter's magnetic axis. We have not analyzed in any detail the conditions needed for Juno's trajectory to be clear of contaminating charged particles.

How Common are the Polar ENA Emissions?
The issue of viewing perspective, mentioned above, has to do in part with the plane within which Juno flies. The view planes of JEDI-90 and JEDI-270 are very roughly perpendicular to the direction to the sun. Early in the mission, Juno's trajectory was also roughly normal to the sun line. With that configuration, Juno views an emission point on Jupiter's atmosphere from multiple directions as it flies overhead. However, when Juno's trajectory is rotated to being closer to the noon-midnight meridian, emission points tend to be viewed only from one perspective, a perspective that may not be within the cones of emission (fairly close to 90° pitch angles, see Section 7.2). Therefore, we expect to see more ENA emissions early in the mission rather than later.
We saw near-Jupiter, polar ENA emissions from five of the first 15 science orbits (16 orbits minus orbit number 2 where Juno collected no science data). Out of those 15 orbits, only eight were sufficiently clear of charged particle populations such that we would expect to detect ENA emissions. From that perspective, Juno observed polar ENAs during 62% of the available orbits. If one ignores our arguments about viewing perspective and uses the entire mission (to date), then Juno observed ENAs during 36% of the available orbits.

Auroral Structure and ENAs
Jupiter's aurora is different from Earth's in several important ways .
One key way is that strong auroral emissions occur both in the regions of apparent upward electric currents and downward electric currents. At lower latitudes, there is the region of diffuse aurora like at Earth, sometimes containing structures caused by injections. At higher latitudes, there is what has been termed the "Zone I" region with primarily downward electron acceleration, sometimes accompanied by downward electron inverted-V's, but more often comprising broadband acceleration. At still higher latitudes is what has been termed the "Zone II" region with bidirectional electron acceleration that often favors upward acceleration. However, the downward electron energy fluxes in this region are just as likely to generate the brightest aurora as is Zone I. While it has been demonstrated explicitly for only one auroral crossing, it is assumed that Zone I is the region of upward electric currents and Zone II is a region of downward electric currents. Poleward of Zone II is the polar cap, which might be different from Zone II only quantitatively rather than qualitatively (see discussions in Mauk, Clark, Gladstone, et al., 2020). Figure S1 in the Supporting Information section provides some information about the auroral regions associated with the observations shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The reason this discussion of auroral structure is important is that Zone II, a region of bright auroral emissions, can also be a region of intense downward precipitating ions. That condition is apparent in the righthand portions of Figures 1c and 2a. We view that region as one of the prime candidates for providing the precipitating ions that end up as the observed ENAs. This source would generally come from the poleward portion of the main aurora. However, irrespective of these arguments about auroral structure, and 2a demonstrate that the region of the main aurora, indicated with the light blue bars above these panels, are regions of trapped and participating ions that can serve as the source populations for the observed ENAs.
The polar cap regions, poleward of the main aurora, are also possible sources. Downward accelerated and precipitated ion populations (occupying the downward loss cone) are certainly present. Our reticence in identifying this region as a source is the fact that the energies for the observed precipitating OS populations (Figure 2c) appear to be generally higher than the observed energies of the prime ENA emission energies ( Figure 2b). However, it needs to be investigated the extent to which the upper atmosphere can degrade the energies of the ions with multiple interactions and still retain observable intensities with the ENAs that emerge.
In the main auroral regions in the right-hand-side of Figures 1c and 2a, the size of the loss cone can be seen by the sharp cutoff of the ion populations (overlaying the ENA features) at lower pitch angles, corresponding to the upward direction. For example, at just 0831, the size of the loss cone is about 22°. When you look at the other end of the field line corresponding to downgoing ions (e.g., the top portions of Figures 1c and  2a at just 0831), it is the particles with pitch angles at Juno close to 180°-22° = 158° that will locally mirror within Jupiter's atmosphere (with near 90° pitch angles at that location). At that end of the field line, we also see that the loss cone is completely filled. Therefore, to within JEDI's ability to resolve the angular distributions, all possible precipitating ion pitch angles are available at that time for generating ENAs. As discussed in the next section, the likelihood of an ion with any one pitch angle to generate an observable ENA depends on the amount of time that the ion spends within the upper atmosphere. That likelihood maximizes for those locally mirroring ions. In the polar cap regions, observed at higher altitudes, JEDI does not have the resolution to fully resolve the very narrow downgoing ion beams. All we can say is that there are downgoing ions apparently within the loss cone, but the exact pitch angles that are available within the upper atmosphere are poorly determined.

Ion Pitch Angles at the Time of Conversion to ENAs
One anticipates that the pitch angles of the ions at just the time of conversion to ENAs will be close to 90° as the ions mirror magnetically within the upper atmosphere. But, it is less obvious just how far from 90° the converted ions are expected to be. It turns out that the pitch angles migrate extremely rapidly as the ions rise up from their mirror points and still remain within the relatively dense regions of the upper atmosphere. For these discussions, we will make no distinction between the pitch angles of the ions just prior to their conversions to ENAs, and the "pitch angles" of the ENAs just following their conversions. For the energies involved here, the velocity vectors of the ENAs just an instant following the time of their conversions are essentially the same as the velocity vectors of the ions just prior to their conversions.
The scale height of the nominal atmosphere is roughly 150 km between altitudes of 1,000-2,000 km (above the 1-bar level), derived using the H 2 profile of Gladstone et al. (2004). Within the part of the upper atmosphere heated by auroral processes, the scale height is expected to be higher (Grodent et al., 2001), but for our discussions, we will use the conservative 150 km value. Given a magnetic field strength that varies as 1/R 3 , the pitch angle of an ion that mirrors at one altitude (R mir ) will migrate (in the northern hemisphere) from 90° to 83.6° at the altitude of R mir + 150 km, just one scale height above the mirror point.
Using this kind of information, one may estimate the probabilities of emission for various pitch angle ranges. Let us assume that an ion has a 50% chance of surviving its downward plus upward traversal of just one scale height above its mirror point. We also assume that the upward magnetic force on the particle is roughly constant within these low altitude regions of reflection and that the field lines are vertical within the atmosphere. Both of these assumptions are conservative for the points that we are trying to make. Given these conditions, one may use the classical kinematic equation: distance = acceleration × (time 2 )/2, and the exponential falloff of the atmosphere, to estimate the time that the ion spends within each scale height of the atmosphere, and the probability of emission within each of those regions. The estimates are as follows.
There is a 25% chance that the ions mirroring at the designated position will emit ENAs within the first scale height with pitch angles between 90° and 83.6° (again, for the northern hemisphere). There is a 7.6% chance that ENAs will be emitted within the second scale height with pitch angles between 80.9° and 83.6°. Continuing on, the probability and pitch angle ranges are: 2.2% for the range 78.9° and 80.9°, and 0.67% for the range 77.2° and 78.9°. For ions that mirror at different altitudes, the absolute emission probabilities will be different, but the relative emission probabilities for different pitch angles will stay the same provided the atmospheric scale height is the same at that new altitude. From this analysis, it is certainly reasonable to expect ENA emission pitch angles between 80° and 90°, and perhaps down to the mid-70°'s. Note that if the field lines lean substantially away from the viewing position, the pitch angles greater than 90° are possible (considering only the northern hemisphere). There is symmetry in the corresponding calculations (assuming that the field line is tilted enough so that the ENA always moves toward greater altitudes) such that the emission probability of an ion at a pitch angle of 90° − delta° is the same as that of one at 90° + delta°.
A relaxation of our worst-case assumptions (e.g., scale height within the auroral regions) pushes the pitch angles to even lower values. For scale heights of 150 km (used above), 200 km, and 250 km, the pitch angles at the top of the fourth scale height with still modest emission probabilities, are 77.2°, 75.2°, and 73.5°. Also, if one includes the slight tilt of the magnetic field lines with respect to the vertical, the ions will spend a little more time within each scale height, and the probability of emission will go up slightly according to 1/ Cosine of the tilt angle. Note that only one narrow range of emission pitch angles is visible at any one time for a specific image point, depending on the viewing position of the observation. ENAs may be copiously emitted from a viewed spot on Jupiter's atmosphere, but if the view direction has an angle with respect to the magnetic field within the upper atmosphere that is not within the "cones of emission" (pitch angles between, say 75° and 105°, for the northern hemisphere), then JEDI will see no emissions. We used these numbers to make the choices in Figures 5b-5d for the sizes of the dots.
All of the calculations in this section assume that the ions that result in observable ENAs have single interactions with the upper atmosphere. Multiple interactions (e.g., charge exchange neutralization followed by stripping ionization followed by another charge exchange neutralization, etc.) can certainly happen. It is not obvious whether such multiple interactions will substantially change the calculations performed here. That question will be the subject of future studies.

Summary and Closing Remarks
We have observed ENAs (>50 keV) emanating from Jupiter's polar regions. They are likely emanating from nearly precipitating ions that mirror within Jupiter's upper atmosphere and are converted there to ENAs through the charge exchange process. Spatial imaging shows that they are likely coming from positions in Jupiter's polar region of auroral acceleration and precipitation processes, and specifically from either the main aurora or the polar cap. The main aurora is favored for several reasons. The main aurora is a region where ions precipitate intensely with a configuration not anticipated from studies of Earth's aurora. Ions do precipitate within the polar cap poleward of the main aurora, but the ion energies observed there (for OS) do not match the energies of the observed OS ENAs for the event studied. It is, however, an open question whether the atmospheric interactions (with multiple charge exchanges and re-ionizations) can degrade the energy of the precipitating ions and result in ENA emissions of observable intensities.
Crude estimates of the probability of seeing ENAs suggest that observable polar region ENA emissions are common (36%-62% of the time) but variable. Such emissions will be an important component of ENA imaging from the JUICE mission in diagnosing global dynamics of Jupiter's magnetospheric system. These measurements support the proposal from Mauk et al. (2003Mauk et al. ( , 2004) that ion precipitation into Jupiter's atmosphere caused a central structure in the crude ENA imaging obtained by the Cassini spacecraft flyby of Jupiter.
Finally, Jupiter appears to be different from Saturn in this respect. Ion precipitation-generated ENAs were not an identifiable feature in the quality ENA imaging of the Saturn system (Mitchell, Krimigis, et al., 2009). Saturn's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter's in that it contains much more copious densities of neutral gas (from the plumes of the moon Enceladus), as evaluated by Dialynas et al. (2003), using ENA imaging (and references therein). These neutrals are not ionized to the extent that gases are at Jupiter leading to much larger neutral-to-ion ratios. Also, Vasyliunas (2008) points out that the gas input rate at Saturn, when appropriately normalized to other magnetospheric parameters, loads Saturn substantially greater than the loading that occurs at Jupiter. We presume that while ion precipitation may be a competitive or dominate loss process for energetic ions at Jupiter, ion precipitation may be much less competitive at Saturn where charge exchange losses near the equator likely dominate.

Data Availability Statement
The data presented here are available from the Planetary Plasma Interactions Node of NASA's Planetary Data System (https://pds-ppi.igpp.ucla.edu/). Also, ASCII dumps with header documentation has been performed for each panel of the JEDI data displayed in this study and is accessible at zenodo (doi:https://doi. org/10.5281/zenodo.4244653). The JEDI display software used here is available online and can be accessed by contacting the lead author. A 1-h teleconference tutorial provided by the lead author or his designate is generally sufficient for a user to have sufficient expertise to proceed.