School Effectiveness Policy in the Context of Education Decentralization

This article examines the characteristics of school effectiveness and how the school effectiveness policy works in the context of education decentralization. The research approach is qualitative exploratory and was conducted in 2016 in 10 out of 35 districts/cities in Central Java Province. The results showed that there are eight characteristics of effective schools: effective school leadership, efficient learning processes, active community participation, a conducive school environment, increased professionalism of educators, heightened expectations of students, the commitment of teachers, which together lead to good student achievement. Local government policy has not been mentioned explicitly to build an effective school. The government system should contribute to creating effective schools through human resource development, community participation, provision of facilities and infrastructure, professional development of educators, guiding students' and teachers' achievement, monitoring student progress, education financing to some degree, and the commitment of local governments to give appreciation to education actors.

Triangulation held to validate the data either through source person of policymakers, school principals, and teachers chose purposively. Another triangulation is by a method of interview, observation, and documentation. The kinds of document reviewed in each local government are set out in table 1.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
To answer those two questions mentioned above, the researchers visited schools to meet the school principal and teachers and observe school conditions. The findings of school visits were then checked with the school development plans from the visited schools, mid-term development plans of each district or city, regional regulations on the education of each district or city, and strategic plan of the district or city education office of each district or city.

The Characteristics of School Effectiveness
The results of this research confirmed that there are eight characteristics of the effective school. They are effective principal leadership, effective learning processes, active participation from the community, a conducive school environment, continuing increased professionalism of teacher, high expectations of students, consistent and ethical teacher commitment, all leading to high student achievement. Effective principal leadership was manifested in the school principal's policy of implementing school-based management; applying active, creative, effective, and enjoyable learning; developing a reading culture for everyone in the school and, in some schools, creating elite classes to achieve special academic quality. The leadership of the school principal in building an effective school often faces challenges and the principal's strategy for realizing an effective school depends on his/her ability and understanding of effective schooling [23].
Strong school principal leadership was evident in every school that had a school development plan or school work plan (rencana kerja sekolah-RKS), annual work plan (rencana kerja tahunan-RKT), activity plan and school budget (rencana kegiatan dan anggaran sekolah-RKAS). The leadership was also visible from reports of new student admissions and use of school operational assistance budget (bantuan operasional sekolah-BOS). Strong school principal leadership related to the administration of education was demonstrated in his/her ability to drive teachers to develop syllabi, lesson plans, and tools for evaluation.
Principals who demonstrated strong leadership also provided academic supervision to their teachers; educational supervision provided by the principal to improve teachers' ability in teaching. The use of a learning methodology with PAKEM approach, which is a student-centered learning approach, is recommended by the government. Based on research [24], the visionary leadership of the principal influences effective schools. It is therefore important to improve school principals' understanding of effective schools and to use their influence to mobilize teachers and children in the realization of effective schools.
Based on school observations, all schools had implemented the PAKEM learning model to some degree, although on average only 50% of teachers in schools implemented active learning regularly. Active learning is characterized by the intense participation level of students both physically and mentally. Some teachers had received PAKEM training from the district or city education office or other sources. Those teachers who had received training in PAKEM were expected to disseminate their knowledge to other teachers who had not yet received training.
Effective schools showed active participation from the community. Representatives of community participation include the school committee, public figures, and the business and industrial worlds. Community participation in supporting school activities was in the form of financial support, goods, ideas, and even energy. Based on the results of the study, the school committee's role in supporting the success of school programs and activities was quite high [25]. In some schools, the school committee had implemented its programs and activities well. It confirms the results of other research in Indonesia [26]. People who are financially capable but do not have enough time often provided financial support. Parents and community members who have good ideas and have the time often provided support to school activities through the school committee or class committee (in Indonesia called paguyuban kelas). In primary schools, especially where there are low-income students, some parents who accompanied their children to VFKRRO EHFDPH SHHS WHDFKHUV´ LQ ,QGRQHVLD FDOOHG JXUX LQWLS ZKRVH MRE LV WR DVVLVW WHDFKHUV LQ VXSHUYLVLQJ and supporting students learning in the classroom. There were also parents who volunteered to distribute the "charity box (in Indonesia called kotak amal)" to help disadvantaged students or to help improve educational facilities in schools.
Effective schools had a conducive school environment. When the school managed the facilities and infrastructure well, this it supports student learning activities. Factors that are especially important include that the classroom environment was well laid out, and the walls filled with students' work and the classrooms were well decorated and equipped with air conditioners (AC) so that students were comfortable learning in the classroom. It is an indication of conducive and healthy school culture. Based on the research [27], conducive and healthy school culture or environment has positive effects on students' learning outcomes. The library in the school should also be well laid out with sufficient reading books. Book lending processes in the library should be quick and easy so that students are keen to borrow reading books. In some schools, reading books were not only placed in the library, but also in the classroom or outside the classroom. This concept is to bring books closer to students so they can read at any convenient time such as during school breaks. This enabled school principals to implement a reading culture as mandated by the Ministry of Education and Culture.
Increased professionalism of teachers and other staff was another characteristic of the effective school. Many teachers had continued their education up to postgraduate level (masters level) at their own expense or with assistance from the district or city government. Training for teachers and principals regularly arranged by the district education office. Teachers who had attended the training were required to disseminate materials to other teachers through teacher working groups (KKG) forums at primary school level or subject teachers' working groups (MGMP) at the junior secondary school level. The materials given by district education office were related to the improvement of pedagogic and professional competence. The central government has also facilitated the development of online teacher professional teachers called µWHDFKHUV OHDUQLQJ RQOLQH 7KH UHVXOWV RI ILYH RXW RI VL[ VWXGLHV FRQGXFWHG E\ WKH :RUOG %DQN UHODWHG WR WKH improvement of teacher professionalism show that the in-service training of teachers shows a positive influence [28].
Continuous professional development is not only important for teachers but also for educational personnel or more often called administrative staff. A study by Muhyadi in Yogyakarta Special Region found that much administrative personnel did not have reasonable competence. In Central Java, there is still a need for professional development of administrative personnel, but the continuous professional development of both teachers and other education personnel should be based on the results of needs analysis as shown by research results [29].
Another characteristic of the effective school is high expectations of teachers and students. Schools have high expectations for teachers so that teachers also provide high expectations to students. High expectations by schools to teachers were communicated at academic meetings. Teachers provided high expectations to students in the form of setting minimum criteria of achievement (KKM) that should be achieved by students. Student achievement differed between one school and another school, and differences were evident between subjects in the same school. It was highly dependent on the condition of students, teachers, facilities and infrastructure, and the characteristics of the subject matter. Three research results showed a positive influence of high expectations of teachers on student learning outcomes and achievement of KKM [28].
Effective schools demonstrate high and consistent commitment from principals and teachers. Regular briefings of teachers and school staff were a characteristic of effective school principals. Some principals provided briefings once a week; others gave briefings every day. This activity was to remind the school community to provide its best services to the students and the community. Teacher's consistency and commitment were demonstrated by following school rules and arriving at schools before 7 a.m. and returning home after 14.30. Teachers not only showed discipline in arriving at school and going home but also discipline in teaching in the classroom. If the teacher was unable to teach because he/she was given another task by the principal, then the teacher had to find a substitute teacher for the class, so there was not an empty classroom. The commitment and discipline of teachers were also shown in their completion of administrative task including developing a syllabus, lesson plans (in Indonesia called Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran- 248 RPP), and related evaluation tools. At the beginning of each semester, the teachers had to prepare these and submit them to the principal for approval. Teacher discipline in teaching influences student achievement. In contrast, the teacher's lack of discipline in teaching, shown by frequent teacher absences, negatively affects student learning outcomes [30].
The consistency and commitment of teachers should provide excellent services to the students by paying full attention to them. Based on the results of the research, attention given to students whether by way of talking to them, paying them attention, and giving appreciation improved the welfare of students at school [31]. High student achievement is a characteristic of the effective school. Student achievement is not only academic achievement such as high test scores or winning in various Olympic championships. It could also be non-academic values related to cultural, artistic, and religious skills. Effective schools have a balance between academic and non-academic achievement.
There were no significant influences between school-level variables and student achievement [32]. But school level variables have an indirect effect on student achievement such as principal leadership with various policies. Therefore, all efforts of schools need to directed to supporting the achievements of students both academic and non-academic. Based on the results of studies at the secondary education level in Africa, several school-level factors positively affect school effectiveness such as the effectiveness of management structures, strong school committees, a healthy school environment and climate, and good infrastructure [33].

The Policy of School Effectiveness in the Context of Education Decentralization
At the central government and local government levels, no policy explicitly builds, encourages, and IDFLOLWDWHV µHIIHFWLYH VFKRRO ¶ LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ )URP WKH DQDO\VLV RI UHJLRQDO SROLF\ GRFXPHQWV WKHUH LV QR term "education effectiveness or school effectiveness," but a variety of policies support the effort to build an effective school. The analysis of regional mid-term planning, provincial regulations on education, and strategic plans for education show support for the characteristics of effective schools. All districts and cities have regional mid-term plans, and all KDYH D YLVLRQ PLVVLRQ DQG JRDOV VWDWHPHQWV DLPHG DW ³LPSURYLQJ WKH quality of human resources." The development in this area aims to improve society through higher levels of education and behavior.
An example of targets to improve the quality of educatioQ FDQ EH VHHQ LQ 6HPDUDQJ &LW\ ¶V PLG-term plan as set out in regulation number 12 the year 2011 concerning enhanced access to and quality of education, the improvement of quality and education infrastructure, and the improved relevance and competitiveness of education. To achieve these targets, the strategies implemented by local governments vary and include improving the education budget, providing assistance to underprivileged students, and improving the quality of education services to the broader community.
Among the 10 sample districts or cities, the only one did not have any local regulations on education it was Demak Regency. However, one district had more than one regional regulation on education, namely Banjarnegara Regency. The following are some of the contents of the local regulations on education related to efforts to develop effective schools. Based on the finding that community participation had not been high enough to support the progress of education in Semarang Regency, it was considered necessary to have the policy to strengthen public involvement in education. The regulation states that the participation of community has not sufficiently supported the completion of education in junior secondary school as stipulated in the regulation of Regency of Semarang number 6 of 2009 on the implementation of education. In the Semarang Regency regulation, two chapters govern the participation of the community in education. Chapter 4 deals with the role of the business and industrial communities, article 84, paragraph 1 state that the business and the industrial communities should participate in the provision of funds to improve the quality of education. Section 2 says that such participation can be in the form of real educational contributions, the establishment of instructional units, training, and cooperation in the implementation of education.
Chapter 11 on the education council and the school committee also regulates community participation. Article 72 states that the community can participate in improving the quality, equity, and efficiency of education, and the achievement of educational democracy through education councils. Article 73 states that the community can participate in improving the quality of education services including planning, supervision, and evaluation of education programs. These activities undertook by the school committee or madrasah committee. School policies can be established to improve educational facilities and infrastructure and help to develop an effective school. Education facilities and support are also a concern of local government, as can be seen from the local regulation of City of Semarang number 1 of 2007. Services and infrastructure covered in the regulation include textbooks as well as space and buildings. The textbook is mentioned in article 52, which provides for the procurement of teaching manuals by the regional government; in addition to the government textbook; schools may use textbooks other than government textbooks as support learning materials; and educators, education personnel, and school committees are prohibited from selling textbooks to learners. Policy on space and buildings is set out in article 53 that includes: each 249 educational unit shall have at a minimum a tutorial space, room for administration staff, and supporting area. The specification and size of these should be in accordance with the provisions of applicable laws and regulations; the local government shall provide maintenance of space and building of educational units according to its ability to do so. Facilities and infrastructure regulations also cover educational land as stated in environmental regulation of Banjarnegara District number 22 of the year 2015. For example, article 18 states that the regional government can help with the procurement of land, facilities, and educational infrastructure at basic education units implementing the nine years basic education program. Furthermore, article 20 states that the local government guarantees the availability of land, facilities, and infrastructure other than educational land for each implementation unit (school) in the nine-year compulsory education program for which the regional government is responsible.
Policy to support the professional learning of teachers and education personnel is also regulated by local government. The development of teacher professionalism in all the Districts studied is comprehensively addressed. For example, in Wonosobo Regency, there is a statement in Regional Regulation number 1 the year 2012 article 116 about career coaching. Five paragraphs regulate teacher career development. Paragraph 1 states that regional government shall develop and establish the pattern of career development of teachers and education personnel by the provisions of the legislation. Paragraph 2 states that the regional government is obliged to support the career development of teachers and education personnel by the pattern of career coaching as referred to in paragraph 1. Paragraph 3 states that educational providers established by the community shall undertake instructional career training for educational personnel in the educational units it runs following the pattern of career coaching as referred to in paragraph 1. Paragraph 4 states that teacher career development shall be implemented in the form of enhancement of academic qualifications and competence as an educator in line with national education standards. Paragraph 5 states that career training of education staff shall be carried out in the form of enhancement of academic qualification and managerial and managerial competence as educational staff in line with national education standards.
The development of the teaching profession in Demak, Semarang, Purbalingga and Batang regencies is regulated explicitly in the form of a Regent (District Head) Regulation (Peraturan Bupati-Berpub). Teachers are mainly encouraged to develop their professionalism continuously using various means of funding from local government, foundations, schools, and from the individual teachers themselves. Policy on student achievement to ensure the academic success of learners is also regulated in a local regulation on education in Wonosobo District. Article 145 states that learners should be competent, which means they must have a diploma certificate. A certificate of competence, and awards from an accredited educational unit recognizing their learning achievement and successful completion of each level of education.
Policies on the non-academic curriculum for students are contained in the District Education Regulation of Jepara number 1 of 2011 in articles 25 through 27. Article 25 states that each educational unit (school) shall prepare and develop an education unit level curriculum. The curriculum should include the local content curriculum to be delivered by education units from primary and secondary education (Sekolah Dasar-SD or Madrasah Ibtidaiyah-MI, Sekolah Menengah Pertama-SMP or Madrasah Tsanawiyah-MTs, and Sekolah Menengah Atas-SMA or Madrasah Aliyah-MA). Article 26 paragraph 1 states that the local curriculum for primary schools in the district shall choose one of carving or other typical crafts, a foreign language, good manners, and the environment. Meanwhile, article 27 states that the local curriculum content of districts for junior secondary and senior schools (SMP, MTs, SMA, and MA) should include carving skills.
Similarly, the regional regulations on education in Pekalongan Regency are set out in Article 54 paragraphs 3, 4, and 5. Paragraph 3 states that the preparation of competency-based local curriculum should take into account the following. It should include Islamic religious education, improving faith and obedience, enhancing good character, increasing the potential, intelligence and interests of learners, and cover the diversity of local and environmental potential. The curriculum should also consider regional and national development demands, workplace demands, the development of science, technology, and art, the dynamics of JOREDO JURZWK DQG QDWLRQDO XQLW\ DQG QDWLRQDO YDOXHV´ 3DUDJUDSK VWDWHV that the development of local content subjects is delegated to the educational unit by environmental conditions and the capabilities of learners as well as the resources available to the relevant instructional group. Paragraph 5 states that at the level of primary and secondary education the Javanese language must be taught.
Policies on monitoring of student progress and teacher performance are included in regulations. Measurement of student progress is to be conducted through learning evaluations. The assessment of learning also forms part of a policy set out in the local rules on education. For example, in the Semarang City Regional Regulation on Education, article 55 provides for the evaluation of student learning. Paragraph 1 states that the assessment of learners' knowledge is the responsibility of teachers and the educational unit concerned, and includes learning process and outcomes focusing on learning mastery. Paragraph 2 set the type of evaluation of learning outcomes in educational units which should include: grade assessment, final examination, basic ability tests, and quality assessment. Paragraph 3 states that the evaluation of learners is to be conducted periodically, thoroughly, transparently, and systematically to achieve specific competency standards. Paragraph 4 states that learners are entitled to certification based on an evaluation. Paragraph 5 requires that certification is in the form of a diploma and certification of competence. Paragraph 6 states that accredited educational institutions have the right to award certificates to learners in recognition of their learning achievements and completion of an educational level upon passing the exam. Paragraph 7 states that education and training providers are entitled to provide competence certificates to learners and citizens in recognition of their competence to perform particular work after passing the competency test.
Measurement of teacher success is conducted by teacher performance evaluations. In the City of Semarang, teacher performance evaluation is covered in the regional regulations on education. Article 56 paragraph 1 states that the evaluation of the performance of teachers is the responsibility of the direct supervisor. The evaluation should include planning, lesson implementation, assessment of learning outcomes, analysis of learning outcomes, and improvement and enrichment. The evaluation process outlined in paragraph 2 states that the performance evaluation of teachers should be conducted periodically, thoroughly, transparently, and systematically. Then, paragraph 3 states that the competency test and certification of educators is one form of evaluation of the performance of educators in the context of the improvement and development of educational personnel. Paragraph 4 states that performance evaluation should be conducted by the community on the provision of services received from educational units (schools) based on the minimum service standards.
Establishment of a fair cost of education policy is also found in the regional education regulations. The determination of tuition fees is also covered in local regulations, such as in Jepara Regency. Article 100 covers contributions to educational units. Paragraph 1 states that funds for the development of educational units may come from voluntary contributions based on discussion with stakeholders, school committees, parents of learners and the community and there must be no element of coercion and they must be nonbinding. Paragraph 2 states that voluntary contributions not be imposed for learners from needy families.
The cost of education is also set in regulations, as outlined in the District education regulation of Batang Number 3 of 2013. Article 87 states in paragraph 1 that education funding shall be a joint responsibility of the government, provincial government, local government, and community. Paragraph 2 states that management of education funding should base on the principles of justice, efficiency, transparency and public accountability, and paragraph 3 states that education providers shall utilize the resources available to each educational unit, to ensure the sustainability and improvement of education quality. The financing of equitable education is also clarified in article 92 of education regulation in Batang District. This states in paragraph 1 that the regional government shall allocate scholarships at the level of primary and secondary education for students with good achievement, whose parents have low incomes. Paragraph 2 states that the provincial government shall allocate educational assistance for primary school students, who are in danger of dropping out of school due to economic factors. Paragraph 3 states that the local government shall assign educational aid to learners whose parents are not economically able to pay for them to continue their education in secondary education. Paragraph 4 states that the regional government will allocate operational assistance for remote, marginal and remote schools with fewer students than the required national standards of education.
The government makes policy on the high commitment to educational success. Achieving success is dependent on promotions and awards. One example of local regulations that regulate this issue is the regulation of education in Batang District. Awards are given to the best learners in the form of scholarships and educational support. As stated in article 92 paragraph 1 the regional government is obliged to allocate scholarships for exceptional learners whose parents cannot afford to pay for the levels of primary and secondary education. Paragraph 2 states that the regional government allocates educational assistance for primary education students that are in danger of dropping out of school due to economic factors. Paragraph (3) states that the Regional Government is to allocate educational assistance to independent learners whose parents are not economically able to support them to continue their education in secondary education. Paragraph (4) indicates that the Regional Government allocates operational aid for remote, marginal and remote schools with fewer students than the required by the national education standards. Article 78 paragraph (2) states that the Regional Government will provide promotions and awards to educators and education personnel by legislation. Meanwhile, paragraph (3)

CONCLUSION
Research on education effectiveness or school effectiveness covers four levels namely the level of students and their learning outcomes, the classroom level and the learning processes, the school level of the educational unit including schools management, and at the education system level in the form of local and national policy. Effective schools are schools that can achieve their set goals. There have been many studies on the effectiveness of learning outcomes and learning process. Unfortunately, there has not been much research on the effectiveness of education management and no research has been found on the effectiveness of educational policy or systems of education.
There are eight characteristics of effective schools namely: effective principal leadership, effective learning processes, active participation from the community, a conducive school environment, improvement of teacher professionalism, high expectations of students, consistency and teacher commitment, all of which lead to high student achievement. In the context of local government policies, the school effectiveness policy in the form of regional mid-term planning, regional regulation on education, and local regulations have not explicitly directed towards effective schools. But they have led to efforts to build effective schools by regulating: human resource development, community participation, the school environment through the provision of educational facilities and infrastructure. Also teacher professional development, student achievement and teacher performance, student progress monitoring, equitable education financing, and local government commitment to give appreciation to education personnel. However, these policies were not part of an explicit statement of an aim to build effective schools.
It is urgent for policymakers to develop specific policies or regulations on effective schools or school effectiveness. But the knowledge of policymakers and education actors in Indonesia on effective schools needs to be improved. It is necessary to develop the awareness of education officials, supervisors, teachers, and parents on effective schools. By understanding the concept of school effectiveness, they will be able to make more specific policies on school effectiveness to build quality education in Indonesia. Furthermore, to see the impact of the system on the effectiveness of the school, it will be necessary to do further research with various approaches and types of analysis. Finally, the authors encourage other researchers to conduct new research on effective schools.