The experience of Hope among Italian undergraduate students

Psychological research on hope has mainly focused on its cognitive dimension. This qualitative study explores the relational, affective and behavioural features of hope with a sample of Italian university students, analysing their responses to open-ended survey questions that tap into the whole spectrum of the experience of hope, including fulfilled hopes, present hopes, and lost hopes. The findings suggest that the relational, affective, and behavioural features of hope are just as important as cognitive processes when it comes to people’s experience of hope. Practical implications and future research directions are discussed.


The Cognitive Features of Hope
The predominant psychological theorisation of hope is the one proposed by Snyder et al. (1991). Snyder conceptualises hope as a cognitive construct involving knowledge of the different ways to achieve one's hope (pathway thinking) and having the resolve to actualise it (agency). Although this model was eventually expanded to include emotions, these were viewed as an after-effect (Lopez et al. 2003).
From a philosophical perspective, Pettit (2004) views hope as either superficial or substantial. Superficial hope is desiring something to happen while also having the view that it may or may not actually happen, whereas substantial hope entails pursuing one's hope with the assumption that it actually has a good chance of being realised. For Pettit (2004), this characteristic of substantial hope protects a person from the possible shifts and turns that can occur as one goes about trying to realise a hope. Moreover, possessing a substantial hope necessitates not only having a desire for something to happen but also actively organising one's life to facilitate its fulfilment. Pettit's philosophical analysis of substantial hope supports the current direction of psychological research towards a more holistic conceptualisation of hope that taps into its emotional, behavioural, and interpersonal features (Farran et al. 1995;Scioli et al. 2011). Farran et al. (1995) stresses the role of emotions as an "energizing force" that can sustain hope in challenging situations.

Data deposition information item
The data used in this paper has been deposited to the public data repository Zenodo. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3696625 In other words, how strongly one feels about one's hopes can influence the whole spectrum of the hoping experience, from creation to fulfilment. Hope, being a goal-oriented experience, inevitably involves varying levels of emotions. Baumgartner et al. (2008) found that future-oriented emotions can motivate goal-oriented behaviours. They also noted that positive emotions have a strong influence on behaviour towards a desired future outcome.
Moreover, it has been shown that negative emotions can influence memory. Ochsner (2000) studied how affective events influence memory. He observed that people tend to have greater recall of memories of negative affect. Kensinger and Corkin (2004) also arrived at a similar result. It was revealed in their study that emotional information-processing, particularly emotional stimuli with negative valence, can enhance memory. Roseman et al. (1990, as cited in Bruininks andMalle 2005) pointed out that hope tends to flourish in situations that have a more negative valence. This is consistent with Baumgartner et al. (2008), who found that negative emotions can have a powerful influence on behaviour, particularly for future events that are viewed as having a undesired outcome. [Thus, to explore the affective features of hope, the study utilises the situational valence the participants experienced when they were devising their hopes by investigating whether such situations were present during the emergence of hopes in our sample.]

The Relational and Social Features of Hope
According to the philosopher Gabriel Marcel, hope is a communal experience that "involves the acts of sharing and participation within a human collective" (Jacobs 2005, p. 357). For Marcel, hope involves hoping for a shared future. These intersubjective elements of the experience of hope deserve more attention. One specific form of intersubjective hope that has been investigated is that developed in the relationship between therapist and client. For instance, Farran et al. (1995) studied the role of hope in couples' therapy and found that therapeutic relationships have the power to increase a person's level of hope. The therapeutic relationship can serve as a context for hope to develop, with the therapist's hopes shared with the client and also providing a source of motivation (Ward and Wampler 2010). Howell and Buro (2017) made some headway on the broader relational aspect of hope by developing the Other-Oriented Hope Scale, and obtained preliminary support for its construct validity. Other studies have found that people who sought support from others or maintained strong interpersonal connections during challenging situations tended to experience higher levels of hope (Rand and Cheavens 2009;McDermott et al. 2017). Relational features, such as hopes being admired or validated by family, friends, or the wider society, can facilitate the creation and fulfilment of hopes. Social admiration or support for one's hopes can increase motivation and competence while also enhancing the quality of social relations (Onu et al. 2016;Sweetman et al. 2013).

The Behavioural Features of Hope
To achieve a more well-rounded psychological understanding of hope, it is also vital to find out how it is manifested behaviourally. The present study focuses specifically on the participants' perception of how much control they have over realising their hopes. Bernard Weiner's Attribution Theory is a useful framework for studying the role of attribution to internal and external causes in the actualisation of hopes (Weiner 1985). Weiner states that a person's internal or external attribution of success or failure can influence their future behaviour. In particular, a sense of control over the causes of outcomes can help to explain how much effort a person is willing to invest towards achieving the fulfilment of a hope. Howell and Larsen (2015) posited that the determination of how much control a person has over outcomes is particularly significant in relation to hopes that are other-oriented, since the contributions and support of other people might be essential in their fulfilment.
Hope as a psychological construct has been often investigated using undergraduate student samples in relation to its role in affecting academic results and other education-related variables (In 2016;Hurley 2004;Seirup and Rose 2011;Thompson et al. 2014;Tripathi et al. 2015). A different stream of research has looked at students' hopes in wider terms, but not while considering hope as a psychological construct (Levine and Cureton 1998). In particular, academic research concerned with hope as experienced by Italian university students has been driven, in recent years, by the need to understand the effects on young people of the economic crisis that started there in 2008. As such, it has typically focused on the experience of distress and related changes in the sociopolitical attitudes of young people (Nocenzi 2012).
Our study makes a broader examination of the hopes of Italian undergraduate students, while analysing the components of hope as a psychological construct. This study further differentiates itself from the existing literature by taking a more holistic approach to understanding hope from the point of its creation to the point of its fulfilment or loss. In addition, it looks at Italian university students' experiences of three specific types of hopes: achieved hopes, present hopes, and lost hopes. The aim is to extend existing psychological knowledge on hope, and specifically to explore beyond the mainly cognitive conceptualisation proposed by Snyder et al. (1991). Although previous studies have probed hope's affective, behavioural, or relational characteristics (e.g., Lopez et al. 2003;Farran et al. 1995), this research differentiates itself by tapping into the affective, relational, and behavioural features of hope in a single study. This study is oriented by the following research questions regarding the experience of hope: a) What are the affective features of hope? b) What are the social or relational features of hope? c) What are the behavioural features involved in fulfilling a hope?

Design
This study has a qualitative design, and was carried out through thematic analysis of the participants' responses to open-ended questions about three types of hope (achieved, present and lost hopes). The classification scheme for this study was adapted from the model of enquiry proposed by Shin et al. (2013), with the last type of hopes called "lost hopes" instead of the original "failed hopes" to avoid implying any attribution of agency on the part of the participants.

Participants
Forty-six (46) Italian undergraduate psychology students were recruited through opportunity sampling: they were asked to take part in class, through their lecturer, and took part on a voluntary basis. Age of participants ranged from 20 to 27 years (96%). The remaining 4% were aged from 29 to 52 years. The sample comprised 78% females and 22% males. The majority (78%) were in their third year of study, while 11% were in their second year and the remainder were fuoricorso (enrolled in years subsequent to the expected years of course completion). 72% self-defined their socio-economic status as average, 14% as higher than average and 14% as below average. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Melbourne, where one of the authors was based at the time of data collection.

Materials and Procedure
The specific dataset analysed in the present study was part of a wider dataset comprising participants from multiple countries and questions covering different aspects of the hope construct. In Italy, the data was collected in small groups during the academic semester, in a classroom environment at the end of lectures. Questionnaires (containing open-ended questions) were distributed to the participants, who were briefed on the purpose of the study and the structure of the questionnaire by one of the researchers, who remained present to answer any questions and to ensure that the participants did not rush in answering the questionnaire and provided in-depth accounts of their experiences. The questions had been previously developed and tested in a pilot study (Shin et al. 2013) conducted by two of the authors on a sample of a similar age and educational level. The participants in the pilot study generally understood the questions well, and only minor amendments were made to the questionnaire with the aim of obtaining more indepth and clearly classifiable data.
To prime participants to bring to mind specific hopes that they had held (rather than merely generic concepts of hope), the first question asked them to list three important hopes they had achieved in the past. Participants were then asked to choose the one achieved hope that they felt was the most important. Only then were participants asked further openended questions on what was done to fulfil this specific hope. Finally, demographic information was requested. All questions were developed in English first, and then translated and back-translated independently by bilingual speakers.

Analysis and Coding Process
Using the open-ended questions in the hope questionnaire, respondents were asked about their most important hopes in three categories (i.e., past achieved hope, present hope, and lost hope). A thematic analysis was conducted to address the research questions with themes related to the core issues concerning hope. Table 1 shows how the research questions were linked to specific open-ended questions in the survey. It illustrates how the survey questions (in the left column) led to the emergence of a number of main themes (in the right column), which in turn were mapped to the relevant research questions (spanning rows).
To address the first research question on the relational features of hope, the researchers focused specifically on & the orientation of the hopes (towards the self, towards others, or related to a relationship with others); & the goals contained within the hopes (what was being hoped for); and & whether the hopes were shared and/or admired by others and what led to the creation of the hopes themselves.
This last point of focus, in particular, was informed by the open-ended question asking how the respondents started to hope for something. After a preliminary analysis of the data (following the iterative qualitative process suggested by Srivastava and Hopwood 2009), the researchers deemed that answers to this question were more informative in providing features linked with the relational dimension of hope. In line with the goals of the study, the results related to the origins of hopes are reported and discussed within the relational dimension.
To address the second research question, the study focused on the valence (positive, negative, or neutral) of the situation when the hope arose. The coding of valence was based on the respondents' descriptions of the situation that they were in when their hope emerged.
The third research question was addressed by focusing on how the participants explained the fulfilment (or loss) of their hopes. We looked into whether they attributed the outcome to themselves (internal) or to others (external), whether their hopes were superficial or substantial (according to the philosophical explanation of the terms), and into their experience of social support in the fulfilment of the hopes.
On the basis of the three research questions, three of the authors engaged in independent coding, which resulted in largely overlapping themes, that were subsequently finetuned. While reliability of coding warranted for quality of analysis (Boyatzis 1998), we also recognise researchers' subjectivity as a strength rather than a weakness in thematic analysis, as suggested by Gough and Madill (2012), especially thanks to the potential for rich reflexivity intrinsic to the abovementioned Srivastava and Hopwood (2009) iterative process. Two of the authors involved in the analysis are Italian, which could, on the one hand, help inform the understanding of the data, while, on the other hand, open the possibility of bias in data interpretation; however, possible biases were minimised by deep discussions with the other author involved in the analyses, which led to the merging of insider and outsider perspectives.

Relational Dimension of Hope
Orientation As shown in Table 2, most of the participants described their achieved and present hopes as self-oriented. Lost hopes, on the other hand, were more other-oriented (refer to the selected quotes in Tables 3, 4, and 5 for examples of the distinction between the last two). Nevertheless, other-oriented hopes were observed in all three hope categories tapped in this study (achieved, present, and lost). "Others" usually referred to family members, friends, or generalised others.
Goal Because the sample comprised university students, the achieved and present hopes mostly involved educational and professional goals. However, the participants also reported relational goals, especially for lost hopes.
Sharing and Admirability Hopes were perceived by the participants to be shared by family members and others, with some respondents also mentioning hopes being shared by society in general. Hopes that were perceived as positive or important were often also perceived to be admired by family, friends, and significant others.
Origins Hopes tended to arise in the context of career, education, or relationship concerns.

Affective Dimension of Hope
Negative situations were more salient in the formation of hopes, whether these were eventually achieved or lost. Present hopes tended to be more positive or neutral, although situations with negative valence were a feature of all three categories of hope.

Behavioural Dimension of Hope
Participants indicated that they achieved their hopes mainly thanks to internal qualities that allowed them to take the necessary steps. In contrast, the participants made more externally oriented attributions when hopes were lost. Most of the hopes were substantial in nature, even if they were eventually lost. Respondents also expressed having sought or received

Relational Features of Hope
Other-Oriented Hopes The present study supported the findings of previous studies on the existence of other-oriented hopes (Averill et al. 1990;Bruininks and Malle 2005;Howell and Buro 2017;Newton et al. 2014;Shin et al. 2013). Howell and Buro (2017) showed that, in previous research, otheroriented hopes accounted for between 8.7% (Averill et al. 1990) and 67% (Howell and Buro 2017) of all hopes. In the present study, other-oriented hopes comprised 40 out of 123 total declared hopes (as can be seen in Table 2, across achieved, present and lost hopes), which accounts for 33% of the participants' hopes, situating our sample in the middle of the range. Of lost hopes, most were intended for others rather than the self. A similar result was also obtained by Shin et al. (2013), who found that failed hopes were more frequently motivated by relational factors when compared to achieved or present hopes in a sample of Italian, South Korean, and Australian undergraduate students.
Sharing and Admirability of Hopes This study found that hopes were often shared by family members, close relations, or the society at large. This is consistent with Averill et al.'s (1990) assertion that hopes are contingent on their perceived social acceptability. It appears that the social aspects of hope include the perception of the hoper that their hopes are shared by other people in their lives or societies. Furthermore, Averill et al. (1990) pointed out that hopes might need to be perceived as something that other people would also view as desirable. This dimension may have an influence on the ability to pursue a hope or to increase the level of hope. A future predictive model of hope should consider including a measure of the acceptability of the hope. The lost hopes that were admired were also shared hopes, as well as tending to be other-oriented, as reported above. In contrast, achieved and present hopes were admired more for their intrinsic positive value and were more selforiented (for sample quotes, refer to Tables 3, 4 and 5).
Context in the Creation of Hope A similar pattern was observed when it came to the contexts that led to the creation of hope. For both achieved hopes and present hopes, career-or education-related issues were foremost in the minds of the participants. These were closely followed by relationship concerns, which were more prevalent in lost hopes. This finding links the context to the dominant issues or concerns that paved the way to the creation of a hope. Roseman, Spindel, andJose (1990, as cited in Bruininks andMalle 2005) showed that negative contexts can have an impact on the development of hopes. In the present study, the negative issues or concerns that preoccupied the participants (see Tables 3, 4, and 5) appear to have influenced the goals of the participants as their hopes first emerged. The social context in the creation of hope was observed in all categories, but especially in lost hopes. Even though career or educational issues were more salient for both achieved and present hopes, the presence of relational issues highlights the social features of hope. Averill et al. (1990) and Lazarus (1999) emphasised the importance of the emotional dimension of hope. They pointed out that emotions are experienced in the context of uncertainty in fulfilling the hope's goals. Similarly, Farran et al. (1995) observed that hope serves as a motivating force that allows an individual to persist in the pursuit of their hopes even though achieving them might be improbable. However, insufficient research has been carried out to explain the impact that the valence of the situation has on the creation of, and the commitment to fulfil, a hope. Participants in this study described situations with a negative valence to be prevalent when their hopes emerged, and this was particularly salient in the case of lost hopes. This may be related to the perceived attribution of control experienced with the situation and the expectations of the likelihood of achieving the hoped-for outcome, especially for hopes that were relational in nature and required a contribution from others. Bruininks and Malle (2005) noted the impact of the emotions on a person's commitment to their hopes, especially when confronted with the possibility that there was little the person could do to realise the desired outcome. Emotions associated with a hope can play a major role in staying committed to achieving it. This is particularly salient in the context of relational hopes, since these involve action on the part of significant others in realising the goal. Bruininks and Malle further observed that the strength of one's hope may be linked to the perceived importance of the hope itself, despite the challenges faced in fulfilling it. This makes hope different from wishing or being optimistic; hope carries a stronger commitment, as it "is directed at outcomes considered less likely to occur, allowing less personal control, and having greater importance" (p. 349).

Behavioural Features of Hope
It appears that having a substantial hope (Pettit 2004) was not sufficient to influence the outcome. Most of the participants' hopes were substantial, regardless of achievement or loss. This finding seems to contradict Pettit's argument that "substantial hope […] provides the agent with direction and control and makes success in the face of adversity much more probable than it would otherwise have been" (Pettit 2004, p. 165). However, when it came to the participants' attributions regarding the fulfilment of their hopes, there was a notable difference in terms of achievement or loss. For both achieved and present hopes, the participants provided attributions that were interpreted by the researchers as internal, while for lost hopes more external attributions tended to be given. Interestingly, this seems to be consistent with traditional psychological literature on self-serving attributional biases, which indicates that individuals have a tendency to attribute success to themselves and reject accountability in cases of failure (Greenberg et al. 1982), thus suggesting an at least implicit link between hope and agency in the participants' view.
This study found that the role of the family and close relations pervades almost the whole spectrum of the hoping experiencefrom its creation to its eventual fulfilment or loss. This is supported by the study of Ward and Wampler (2010) on hope and couple therapy. They found that the relational features of a hope have an effect on the strength of the hope.
Although hope has been viewed as a cognitive construct involving having (and knowing) the means and having a strong resolve to achieve it, other features of hope have been underemphasised. Hope differs from optimism (Snyder 2002), particularly due to the substantiality of hope. However, based on the findings of this study, there is a need to integrate social and relational, affective, and behavioural features to obtain a clearer understanding of the hoping experience.

Limitations and Implications of the Study
The findings of this study were based on a small sample of Italian university students and may not be representative of the larger population (Hanel and Vione 2016). In future research, it would be interesting to explore the hope experience in samples representative of the population, at the country level. Moreover, although the utmost care was taken to ensure inferences were re-evaluated to reflect the data's intended meaning, the choice of themes was based on the interpretation of the researchers. In addition, the result that most of the achieved (as well as present) hopes were related to educational outcomesin contrast with lost hopes having more often a relational naturemight be biased by the fact that participants were people who had been successful in obtaining entry to a university degree.
here could also be, potentially, a gender bias in the results, given that the sample was predominantly female. According to traditional theories of gender role socialisation (Carter 2014), men's aspirations (and, by extension, hopes) are more likely to be career oriented, while women's aspirations and hopes are more likely to be oriented towards relationships. In line with this perspective, a predominately female sample could have led to an overemphasis of relational hopes. The analysis of gender differences in the experience of hope was not part of the research questions of the current study. However, in order to more deeply understand our results, and investigate whether the relational features of the hoping experience are indeed cardinal regardless of gender, a more gender-balanced sample should be sought in future research.
We decided not to collect data on participants' ethnicity, as this could be considered very sensitive and sometimes even unclear in the Italian cultural context (Ambrosetti and Cela 2015). However, not having this data leads to an impossibility to understand the potential role of the impact of culture in the hoping experience of Italian students. Thus, we recommend to include ethnicity in future research on the experience of hope.
Notwithstanding the limitations listed above, the study was able to point out the importance of the social, affective, and behavioural elements in the experience of hoping. Although the hopes of the participants reflected their selforiented concerns (e.g., career and education), their hopes also involved significant people in their lives. This was true of achieved past hopes and present hopes, and even more apparent in lost hopes. Future studies should consider this as a possible direction to take for reaching a deeper understanding of hope. Some psychotherapeutic approaches have already integrated hope-based therapies that highlight the importance of hope's relational dimension, starting with the relationship between the client and psychotherapist (Cheavens et al. 2006;Ward and Wampler 2010) and the less formal relational support from others (e.g., family and friends) as a means to strengthen hope (McDermott et al. 2017). The latter was found to be common among university students. On this basis, our results, especially if supported by focussed follow-up studies, could be usefully applied to inform policies or pedagogical practices around the importance of students/staff relations in the construction, maintenance and pursuit of students' hopes.
Moreover, the role of affect should be further clarified as a source of motivation and commitment to one's hope. It has been observed in this study that situations with a negative valence experienced during the creation of a hope were as salient as those with positive or neutral valences. It would be also be worth investigating further how one's attribution of control plays a role in the pursuit of a hope.
Given that the study showed the preponderance of a relational orientation in hoping, especially in regard to hopes that have been lost, future studies based on predictive regression models should take into account relational variables relevant to the hoping experience. Previous studies have already highlighted the benefits of hope and the importance of strengthening people's hopes. This study posits that there is a need to expand our notion of hope by giving due attention to the importance of its relational, affective, and behavioural aspects alongside the impact that relationships have on people's hopes.

Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Orientation Self "To do well and graduate" "Be an independent woman" Others/Relational "Family tensions resolved partially" "My grandfather overcame his sickness completely" Goal Professional/Education "Attend studies" "Graduate in order to continue to study and become a psychologist" Relational "To be with my mother" "Find a partner" "To find friends" "Have reached an interpersonal milestone" Personal "To be more serene from the sentimental viewpoint" Health "Recovered from eating disorder when I was an adolescent" Shared with Family/Close Others "My parents also hope for my success" Society "I believed the society is aware that all young people must take this step in order to distance from the family themselves" Peers "Children that are growing are afraid of not succeeding tend to share the same fears." "Shared with many teenagers" Character "My determination was admired" Admirability Positive value "Every child has the right to be with their mother" Relational significance "Because the people who cares about me hope [for] my recovery" Character "Because they saw my determination in confronting it" Commonality/Shared "Shared with friends" "Because it's a hope that many people felt" Origins Relationship "Facing family issues" Career/Education "Seeking career development" "I embark on this study as it has always been my passion to do this work since I was little." Health "Because I have suffered from an illness that prevented me from performing numerous activities" Interest "Curiosity, desire to learn about other cultures" Personal "For my personal happiness" Valence of situation Negative "I lived with my mother and my brother. There were constant arguments and quarrels" Positive/Neutral "Had to start university and I was very happy for the event" Outcome attribution Internal "I studied with more commitment, have overcome the crisis" External "Thanks to people and favorable situations" Substantial/Superficial hope Substantial "I started training separately for many hours a day" Superficial "I started to save more money and change my lifestyle according to my goal"

Support Received from
Family/Others "My parents helped me by believing in me and did not underestimate me" Destiny/Chance "By fate, I met the right person" Sought from Family/Others "My parents" Others "I have always pay attention to capable people: capable professors, people from which I could take example from" Personal "Be happy as much as possible" Societal "Go to Africa to volunteer" Environmental "To go and live abroad" Shared with Society "All hope for a happy future" Relationships "Whole family shares" "My girlfriend shares my preferences" Students "I believe that thousands of students are looking for a certain financial independence" Relational significance "My parents are happy about me not being 'mummy's boy' and leaving me now in total independence" Peers "I think it is a quite common hope for the boys"

Admirability
Positive value "For me and the well-being of others" Character "Because although I failed for the first time and I hope to try again" Commonality/shared "Many of my acquaintances believe this hope was founded because of the shared motivations" Relational significance "Everyone wants to be happy" Origins Career/Education "I have this hope because I want to study and become a child psychologist in the future" Personal "I am in a period of turning point of my life" Interest "I admired cognitive psychology and is association with the neurological component" Relationship "The desire to have your own family derives from the fact that I experienced several shortcomings and I hope to fill them with my future family" Society "Many African friends told me about the situation there and I have always wanted to help" Education "Because I already wasted a year and I wanted to finish it soon" Environment "I would like to give my children the opportunity to live in a different environment" Health/Family "Mother's sickness" Valence of situation Positive/Neutral "The end of high school. Choosing universities at the moment" Negative "My mother's sickness, sadness in the family" Outcome attribution Internal "The fact that I'm committed to this hope" External/Neutral "The support of parents and friends" Substantial/Superficial hope Substantial Superficial "Study, commitment and willpower" "I have yet to realized even though I already visited Africa" Support Received from Family "My parents" Others "Psychotherapist" Sought from Family "My mother" Others "Acquaintances that works in the area" Other/Relational "Health and survival of my grandfather" Goal Family/Relationships "Hope for a job for dad" Professional/Education "Inability to enter the police force" Personal "By having a high self-esteem, without being heartened by others" Health "The life expectancy of a loved one" Societal "The death of Italian politics" Environmental "To go away from here" Shared with Family "My mother would have wanted a new mate, but it did not happen." Others "I supposed others think like me" Society "Every citizen is entitled to have a security or a hope for the future" Admirability Shared "Others were also hoping" Relational significance "Mother and daughter should have a good relationship" Character "We admire those who lost their faith and still hopes" Positive value "My husband was very convinced of the chosen path" Emotional reasons "For emotional reasons" Hard to understand "Was hard to understand my situation" Not made known "Because no one knew" Origins Relationship "Because I wanted a good relationship and continuous quarrels were tiring" Career/Education "I did ballet and modern dance since I was 16 years old" Health/Family "Health decline, hope of improvement" "Because I could lose my father" Personal "Because it was my favorite subject" "I was always sad and lonely" Society "This hope was born from the moment the state has not given and will not give answers for the future of our young people" Travelling "I dream of travelling and to travel far" Valence of situation Negative "I was the scapegoat for the whole family" Positive/Neutral "I had just graduated from high school and wanted to learn about the world" Outcome attribution External "The current situation of indifference of the state to our problems" Internal "Understand that it is actually hard for me to live far away from my family. I tried and I failed" Substantial/ Superficial hope Substantial "Active and personal commitment in the social life" Superficial "Pray" Support Received from Family "I want to be a psychologist with the help of my mother" Others "My friend was in the same situation" Sought from Others "Acquaintances and institutions" Family "My father"