Review of Farm Level Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Africa

Climate change poses social, economic and environmental problems on a global scale. It is a threat to agricultural development, as it has multitude manifestations among which include increased infestation of crops by pest and diseases, increased rural-urban migration, increased biodiversity loss, frequent drought and flood. These evident consequences of climate change however, can be reduced through adaptation. The review revealed that farmers practiced various adaptation strategies peculiar to the impact of climate change in their localities. These include mixed cropping, early planting, use of new crop varieties and soil management techniques among others. Inadequate inputs, lack of information on climate change forecast and poverty were the constraints to climate change adaptation among crop farmers as reviewed by this study. It is recommended that more campaign need to be carried out to sensitize farmers on the dangers and consequences of climate change and need for adaptation. Farmers need to be empowered economically through access to loans for them to procure adaptation inputs.


INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the biggest environmental, social and economic threats that the world is experiencing (Eileen, 2009;Mendelsohn et al., 2006).Atmospheric gases such as water vapour (H 2 O), Methane (CH 4 ), Nitrous oxide (N 2 O), Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)and Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) are radioactive gases capable of absorbing and re-emitting infrared radiation forming an insulating cover to the atmosphere (Udofia et al., 2008).The climate of the earth depends on the global radiation balance, which is determined by the atmospheric composition.An increase in the composition and concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the alteration in the global radiation balance and thus, climate change (WRI, 1992).Climate change therefore, can be described as a long-term significant change in the average weather that a given region experiences.Average weather may include average temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns (Olusola et al., 2008).Projections on climate change show that the global temperature is continuously increasing and rainfall fluctuating (Anuforom, 2010;Odjugo, 2010;Adebayo, 2010;Sawa and Adebayo, 2010;Audu, 2013).IPCC (2001) observed that the world temperature has been increasing by 1.4 0 C to 5.8 0 C between 1990 and 2100 if the current levels of emission are not reduced.This is due mainly to anthropogenic sources such as the use of fossil fuel especially in developed countries.
Climate variability and change is presently a threat to development as it poses potential adverse consequences to natural resources, including the management of water and land, ecosystem and human health (IPCC, 2007).Africa contributes the least to global emissions of greenhouse gases; yet, most African countries are most vulnerable to its effects particularly due to its high dependence on rain fed agriculture, widespread poverty, lack of access to technology and improved cultural practices (Aloa, 2010).It is observed that economies of African countries depend largely on agriculture and tourism.These sectors are particularly vulnerable to environmental challenges, among which climate change emerge as the most devastating to sustainable development in Africa.
Climate change has created a significant loss of food security; increased frequency and severity of natural disasters such as desertification, drought, and flood; a vanishing of coastlines; human displacement and natural resources depletion.Other consequences of climate change include lack of clean and accessible water ; animal migration; pest management issues; diseases and other health issues; a loss of cultural practices and traditional way of life; economic downturns; energy crises and thus, overall development (BNRCC, 2008).
The evident fallout of climate change according to IPCC (2007); Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn (2006) can be reduced through adaptation.Although, African farmers have a low capacity to adapt to changes owing to low technological development, poverty and illiteracy, they have survived and coped in various ways.Better understanding of how they have done that is essential for designing incentives to enhance adaptation.Supporting the adaptation strategies of local farmers through appropriate public policy and investment and collective actions can help increase the adaptation measures that will reduce the negative consequences of predicted changes in future climate with great benefits to vulnerable rural communities in Africa (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008).Therefore, this paper is aimed at reviewing current literature on farm level adaptation strategies to climate change among farmers in Africa.

Concept of Adaptation to Climate Change
Adaptation is the adjustment of practices, processes and structures to reduce the negative effects particularly, the unavoidable ones, and takes advantage of any opportunities associated with climate change (IPCC, 2007cited by FAO, 2008).Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in ecological, social and economic systems in response to the effect of change in climate (Smit et al., 2000;Smit and Pilifosova, 2001).Until the last decade or so, adjustments to changing environments were generally viewed as positive, but we now know that adjustments are a series of trade-offs, that there are costs and benefits to choices that individuals and groups make.Adaptation is identified as one of the options to reduce the negative impact of climate change (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2006).
World Bank (2010) provides a summary of the types of adaptation activities: autonomous (private) and planned (public) adaptation strategies.Autonomous adaptation involves adaptation action by farmers, communities and others in response to the threats to climate change perceived by them, based on a set of available technology and management options.FAO (2007) described autonomous adaptation as the reaction of, for example, a farmer to changing precipitation pattern, in that he/she changes crops or using different harvest and planting (sowing) dates.Autonomous adaptation is implemented by individuals only when considered cost effective (Mendelsohn, 2006).Potential example of this type of adaptation include selecting different technologies, changing crop inputs, crop management practices suited to new environment, shifting crop calendar and changing irrigation schedule among others.
Planned adaptation involve action by local, regional and/or national government to provide needed public goods and incentives to the private sector to fit the new condition.The conscious policy options or response strategies often multicultural in nature, aimed at altering the adaptive capacity of the agricultural system or facilitating specific adaptations (FAO, 2007).For example deliberate crop selection and distribution strategies across different agro-climatic zones, substitution of new crops for olds ones and resources substitution induced by scarcity (Easterling, 1995).Other example of planned adaptation includes; transport and storage infrastructure, modernization or development of new irrigation infrastructure and training for the private and public sector capacity building (Rosenzweig and Tubiello, 2007).
Farm level analysis has shown that short-term adjustments are seen as autonomous in the sense that no other sectors (e.g.policy, research) are needed in their development and implementation.Long-term adaptations are major structural changes to overcome adversity such as changes in land-use to maximize yield under new condition; application of new technologies; new land management techniques; and water use efficiency related techniques (FAO, 2007).

Adaptation Strategies Practiced by Farmers
Farmers developed and practiced many adaptation strategies in the tropics peculiar to the impact of climate change in their localities.For example, Idrisa et al. (2012) studied the analysis of awareness and adaptation strategies to climate change among farmers in the Sahel Savanna zone of Borno State, Nigeria.Result on adaptation strategies practiced by respondents revealed that farmers practiced the use of irrigation to augment shortfall of rains (5.33%), mulching/cover cropping (80.0%), planting deeper than usual (37.78%), and planting ahead of rains (97.78%), intensive manure application (66.67%) and planting crop variety tolerant to climate change (73.33%).Deressa (2010) explored the analysis of perception and adaptation to climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia and reported that 58% of the farmers interviewed adapted in one way or the other to climate change.He further observed that the strategies used by the farmers include the use of irrigation (4%), planting of trees (21%), and early and late planting (21%).Other strategies include the use of different crop varieties (13%) the use of soil conservation techniques such as mulching, zero tillage and organic fertilizer application (15%).The use of different crop varieties as adaptation strategy could be associated with the less expensive and ease of access by farmers to new crop varieties that can withstand the new climatic events.However, the limited use of irrigation could be attributed to the needs for more capital and the low potential for irrigation in the region.Adebayo et al. (2012) examined farmer's awareness, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Adamawa State, Nigeria.The result shows that about 30% of the respondents use seed tolerant variety, while about 26% alter their planting schedule.Also, about 21% of the respondents' plant early maturing seed, about 12% use different tillage system, and about 11% diversify their crops.This study has revealed that farmers adapt different adaptive measures to minimize the effect of climate change in the area.Information from focus group discussion revealed that some farmers have switched over from guinea corn to sweet potatoes due to crop failure arising from early cessation.
In a study of farmer's adaptation strategies and perception to climate change in Ondo State, Nigeria, Oyerinde and Osanyande (2010) reported that majority (68%) of the farmers interviewed change planting and harvesting dates as an adaptation strategy against changes in the climate.Twenty-four percent (24%) reported that they use different crop varieties and two percent (2%) each reported changing from farming to non-farming and planting of trees respectively.They further observed that farmers were using crop management practices that include the use of water and soil conservation techniques and varying planting and harvesting dates to ensure that critical and sensitive growth stages do not coincide with very harsh conditions in the season.It is important to note that these adaptation strategies should not be taken as independent strategies but should be used in complementary way.
Onyekale and Madukwe (2010) explored the adaptation measures by crop farmers in the southeast rainforest zone of Nigeria to climate change and revealed that portfolio diversification was the most commonly used method as reported by 20% of the farmers.This strategy involves the use of improved crop varieties, intercropping and using different crop varieties that survive in adverse conditions.Other strategies used by the farmers include the use of soil conservation techniques (15%), changing planting dates (11.7%) and planting of trees (10%).Adesina et al. (2009) gave some indigenous adaptation strategies to climate variability by farmers, such include; fall back on previous harvest, rainwater harvesting, diversification of livelihood and use of forecasts to prevent responding to a false start of the rains.Other measures adopted by farmers include; planting drought resistant crop varieties, social networking, migration to wetter region and to pray for rain.Anyola et al. (2013) examined socio-economic factors influencing climate change adaptation among crop farmers in Umuahia South Area of Abia State, Nigeria and observed that farmers practiced tree planting (13.3%), cultivation of early maturing crop (73.3%), mixed farming (76.7%) and use of improved crop varieties (21.7%).Other adaptation strategies practiced include increased use of family labour (11.7%), diversification of livelihood (1.7%), cover cropping (90%), change in planting and harvesting dates (45%), irrigation practice (2.5%), crop rotation (15.8%) and river side/bank cultivation (7.5%).
In a study of impact of climate change and local adaptation strategies of various socio-economic groups in Isabella Northern Philippines among 10 farmers, Eileen (2009) reported that local climate change adaptation strategies of farmer respondents in Isabella among others were, planting other crops in between cropping (3%) and use of organic fertilizer (4%).Organic fertilizers are cheaper than inorganic fertilizer, hence more affordable.Adjusting crop calendar was also a good option as reported by farmers (3%).For example, farmers indicated that they usually plant the first crop in May and the second one in October.In recent years, however, typhoons hit the province in October and November every year.Other strategies include: no fertilizer input in order to lessen the amount of money at risk (2%), optimizing rice productivity, optimum use of fertilizer and other inputs (3%), planting of drought resistant varieties of crops were also identified to be used by farmers in the region (1%).These adaptation strategies however, were used in complementary way.
In a study of climate change impact and adaptation in agricultural sector: the case of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe, Mutekwa (2009) observed that the most popular adaptation strategies in Murowa ward included planting short season varieties, crop diversification and varying planting dates.The main thrust of these strategies is increased diversification and escaping sensitive growth stages through crop management practices that ensure that critical growth stages do not coincide with hash climatic condition in the season, such as midseason droughts.Crop diversification improves household food security since different crops are affected differently by the same climatic condition.Also given the high frequency of mid-season dry spells and shortening of the rainy season, farmers used short season and drought resistant crop varieties, for example, instead of planting local variety of maize, farmers have opted for hybrid maize that take a short period to mature and yield more than traditional varieties in good years.Jagtab (1995) identified adaptation options in relation to agricultural sector.Such include crop diversification, mixed cropping, using different crop varieties, changing planting and harvesting dates and mixing less productive, drought varieties and high yield water sensitive crops.Onyekale and Madukwe (2010) explored the adaptation measures by crop farmers in the southeast rainforest zone of Nigeria to climate change and revealed that portfolio diversification was the most commonly used method as reported by 20% of the farmers.This strategy involves the use of improved crop varieties, intercropping and using different crop varieties that survive in adverse conditions.Other strategies used by the farmers include the use of soil conservation techniques (15%), changing planting dates (11.7%) and planting of trees (10%).
In a study of the effects of climate change on Cocoa Production and Vulnerability Assessment in Nigeria, Oyekale et al. (2009) observed that agricultural adaptation involves two types of modifications in production systems.The first is increased diversification that involves engaging production activities that are drought tolerant and/ or resistant to temperature stress as well as activities that make efficient use and take advantage of prevailing water and temperature conditions, among other factors.Crop diversification can serve as insurance against rainfall variability as different crops are affected differently by climate events.The second strategy focuses on crop management practice geared towards ensuring that critical conditions do not coincide with very harsh climatic condition such as mid-season drought.Crop management practices that can be used include modifying the length of growing period and changing planting and harvesting dates.

Constraints to Climate Change Adaptation
If adaptation of various kinds is to be used as effective ways of responding to climate change, measures are needed to increase adaptive capacity.The explanatory variable is national income or wealth (Owolabi, 2010).An important implication of this is that poorer nations and individuals are more vulnerable and that a first line of action against climate change is to increase wealth and hence the capacity to adapt.Oyerinde and Osanyande (2010) observed that barriers to taking up adaptation options in communities around Idanre Forest reserve were lack of credit and information concerning climate change forecasting; rationing inputs and lack of seed resources as important constraints.They however, maintained that addressing these issues can significantly help the farmers to tailor their management practices to warmer and drier conditions.
In a study of farmer's perception and adaptation to climate change in the Nile basin of Ethiopia, five major constraints to adaptation experienced by farmers as reported by Deressa (2010) were lack of information pertaining climate change, lack of money, shortage of labour and land and poor potential for irrigation.These problems were in line with observations of Onyeneke and Madukwe (2010) in a study of Adaptation measures by crop farmers in the southeast rainforest zone of Nigeria to climate change.Most of these constraints were associated with poverty.For example lack of information on adaptation to climate change could be attributed to the fact that research on climate change and adaptation options have not been strengthened in the country and thus, information is lacking in the area.Lack of money hinders farmers from getting the necessary resources and technologies which assist to adapt to climate change, as adaptation to climate change is costly.Limited understanding of the nature and consequences of climate change, farm member's health status (particularly in relation to HIV/AIDS), unemployment that is supposed to both supplement and complement agricultural incomes and poor rural infrastructure were said to be problems militating against adaptation to climate change by smallholder farmers in Murowa ward of Zimbabwe as reported by Mutekwa (2009).Ozor and Cynthia (2010) analysed the difficulties in adaptation to climate change by farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria among 120 randomly selected farmers.Result indicated that the most difficult challenges faced by farmers in adapting to climate change impacts in the state were lack of improved agricultural technologies, low adaptive capacities and unsuitable agricultural practices.A framework for climate change adaptation, however, shows that a mix of agronomic best practices, technology and innovation development and institutional and policy reforms were proposed as capable for improving farmers' adaptation capacity to climate change.Nzeadibe et al. (2011) studied Farmers' perception of climate change governance and adaptation constraints in Niger Delta region of Nigeria and reported inadequate information, low awareness level, poor government attention to environmental issues and lack of access to improved crop varieties as the major constraining factors to climate change adaptation in the region.Other constraints include ineffectiveness of indigenous methods, limited knowledge on adaptation measures, low institutional capacity and absence of government policy on climate change.

CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD
All over the world climate change is regarded as a major challenge confronting mankind.Studies have shown that the least developed countries of which Africa is part have indices of low gross national income, weak human assets and high level of economic vulnerability account for only 3.2% GHG, yet they are the most vulnerable of the effects and impacts of climate change.There is an increasing consensus that addressing climate change is central to the sustainable development, economic growth and poverty reduction agenda.In order to reduce the effects of climate change, adaptation strategies become imperative.From this reviewed it is concluded that farmers adapt to climate change using different methods, of which the major ones are the use of different crop varieties, mixed cropping, use of irrigation and soil conservation techniques.Lack of information concerning climate change and poverty were found to be the major hindrance towards adapting to climate change.The following are therefore recommended: i.
Developed world should bear the cost of adaptation in developing countries, since they contribute the bulk of the greenhouse gas emission through industrialization.ii.
The fact that the majority of smallholder farmers are still ignorant about climate change means that climate change awareness campaigns are needed to sensitize them about the challenge and its implications in order to facilitate the promotion and adoption of adaptation strategies.These farmers already operate in the marginal areas and had already adopted some coping strategies to the harsh climatic conditions that have prevailed over the years .These can serve as useful entry points for intervention.Therefore, the old and new intervention strategies need to be intensified through participatory approaches, such as farmer's field days and trips.iii.
Agricultural Extension Officers (AEOs) also need to explain and train farmers on the importance of seasonal climate forecast information and how they can use such information to make efficient allocation of their limited resources through informed investment decisions.iv.
There is need to increase smallholder farmers' productive capacity so that they can improve their asset base which will place them on a strong footing to adapt to climate change.This will improve national and household food security, incomes, and reduce poverty and environmental degradation.