Education Quarterly Reviews

Correctional education aims at challenging the illiteracy, which often leads to delinquency and recidivism. In Greece, little interest had been shown regarding the education of adult inmates, but with the establishment of Second Chance Schools (SCS) inside prisons, a more systematic and integrated effort was made for the overall development of trainees. Many studies have been conducted regarding the work that SCS provides. For this reason, a systematic review of the relevant bibliography and a compilation of the findings of the studies realized between 2006-2018, regarding the benefits of inmates participating in the educational programs, was considered appropriate. The results demonstrate that there are benefits at the personal, educational, and social levels during confinement. After release, the expected benefits are analogous, with the addition of the expectations of the trainees' expectations for social reintegration and professional rehabilitation.


The characteristics and educational background of inmates
Inmates have particular characteristics associated with pre-confinement situations and their current state, resulting in them "playing" roles that are necessary to meet their needs and adopt specific behaviors and attitudes such as violence, isolation, inactivity (Gassuka, n.d.).
Due to the problems they faced prior to their imprisonment (unemployment, poverty, low educational level, etc.) and those faced during imprisonment (institutionalization, de-socialization, lack of human contact, sexual relations, work, communication failure, as Gassouka [n.d.] reports), detainees adopt a bad image about themselves and about their potential to cope with their problems and set goals, resulting in their lack of selfconfidence and self-esteem. At the same time, due to the traumatic experience of confinement, inmates have difficulty creating a meaningful relationship with the trainer, whom they may doubt as to their methods and effectiveness. All the above elements affect their decision to take part in an educational program.
The low educational level creates a vicious circle of deficiencies, professional and personal development, and is partly related to delinquency. It is a reality independent of time and place, which is confirmed by all the surveys that have dealt with this subject and by the official statistics of each country. Most inmates are found not to have completed basic education and do not have professional qualifications (Vacca, 2004;Theophilou, 2004).
In a research in 136 prisons in England and Wales, it was found that 80% of detainees had writing skills equivalent to those of an 11-year-old or even younger, and 50% had reading skills similar to 11-year-old or younger (Spinelli, 2009).
In Greece, the official statistics of the Hellenic Statistical Authority confirm that: For 2007, 31% of the detainees had finished Primary School, 5% knew reading and writing, while 14% were illiterate, meaning that 50% had not even received basic education. For 2006, 15% of the detainees were illiterate, and 60% were elementary education graduates. The corresponding percentages for previous years of convicts with non-existent or elementary education in relation to the total are 72. 6% (2005), 78% (2001), 78% (2000), 73% (1999) and 75.4% (1998) (Varvatakos, 2010).

Educational programs in prisons
A variety of training programs implemented within prisons serve their targeting since whatever training the inmates choose, the benefits are many both for the period of his imprisonment and for the subsequent course of their lives away from prison. Throughout the world, whether developed or developing, opportunities are offered to educate inmates hoping for a reversal of their pathogenic situation.

SCS in Greek prisons
In November 1995, the White Paper of the European Commission referred to the proposal for the implementation of the "Second Chance School" program (SCS). Altogether, 11 SCS are currently operating in Greek prisons. The choice of the Greek State to establish SCS in prisons, in line with the corresponding European Action Plan, clearly shows the need to provide holistic education to inmates, aiming at the overall development of trainees and their fullest participation in the economic, social and cultural world, and their more effective participation in the workplace. They are an institution of social justice and offer a second opportunity to the inmates to make a fresh start, change their way of thinking and action, and make a new course in their lives by adopting the right choices.
The training provided in the SCS is systematic and continuous and leads to the acquisition of a degree equivalent to the Gymnasium certificate. The total duration of the course is 18 months, namely two training years. The curriculum is designed to follow "... pedagogical approaches that focus on learners' individual needs, interests and abilities" (ΜR 1861/2014, article 3.3.b).
The value attributed to education in a free society, as in prison, is strong. For example, Welch (1996) argues that prison education programs continue to draw citizens' support because, in essence, education itself is positively valued in our society. These educational and professional programs do not only focus on developing practical skills, but also respond to the idea that every person has the right to be educated. Many detainees believe that taking part in prison education has a second chance in education and life. Lejins (1971) writes: Since education is a good indication of the likelihood of a person's success in modern society, it seems necessary to improve prison training programs in order for inmates to acquire the academic skills necessary to have a realistic second chance to become creative members of life of the community. (p.26) In addition, education helps to instill the feeling among trainee inmates that they remain part of the wider community and reminds them, as reported by Eikeland, Manger and Asbjørnsen (2009, p. 11), that they will be members of society after their release and, since alienation from society is a crime factor, the democratic and inclusive nature of education is vital. Because by acquiring skills and re-thinking their place in society, these people can become active in their local economies and communities, from which former detainees can be found blocked, and overcome the stigma of their criminal engagement.
According to Putnam (2000), education and vocational training help to develop social capital. Also, through the participation in educational programs, the inmates strengthen their self-esteem, improve their social skills (Parker, 1990) and feel content because they are given the opportunity to highlight the positive aspects of their personality (Kett, 1995).
Although we cannot claim that education in prison can cure all the suffering of crime and criminals, it is very important for both the individual and the community. Inmates who participate in an educational program during their imprisonment set the foundations for a normal life after their release and at the same time have many benefits during their imprisonment as their participation in a training program removes many of the "suffering of the imprisonment."

Benefits during confinement
The benefits accruing to inmates by virtue of the training provided to them in prison are indeed many. The feeling of boredom and loneliness is diminishing, and inmates are a strong learning community, resulting in them feeling less marginalized as they realize that they fully retain the right of education, like any free citizen. Also, as reported by Grizou, Mpanos, Rogdaki, Tsolakopoulou (2008), the ample time available to inmates, a time of inactivity, is an anxiety factor for the inmates, which in turn creates emotional tensions that make it hard for human interaction. By participating in an educational program, "dead time" turns into a pleasant break from the recurring prison routine, reduces the unbearable boredom that the inmates feel every day and prevents intellectual degeneration as well as the (self) destructive moments that the boredom implies (Varvatakos, 2010). The detainees themselves, according to a survey conducted in prisons in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, and Norway, saw that by participating in educational programs they could "spend time doing something sensible and useful" (Eikeland et al., 2009). On the other hand, day-to-day schooling works as a simulation of the transition to a free life. Detainees experience this positively and negatively. Positively because school within the prison, even for a few hours, is a small oasis of freedom and negatively because it strengthens the feeling of imprisonment (Grizou et al., 2008). But that's how they perceive more strongly the value of freedom. At the same time, the sense of diversity experienced by inmates, as they are treated as inferior beings, is transformed, thanks to education, into a difference that separates them from the rest of inmates and unleashes them from the prison subculture.

Benefits after confinement
According to the bibliography, the debate about whether or not the prison education is beneficial divides the scholars. Numerous surveys have been conducted, particularly in America, on the usefulness of prison education. The majority of these demonstrate the strong link between education and reduction of recidivism while increasing the possibility of social and professional reintegration. Of course, there are also skeptics who argue that in many cases, prison education produces nothing more than "better educated criminals" (Gaes, 2008).

Education and recidivism
The relationship of education in prison and the reduction of recidivism has been studied by many scholars. Some consider that education achieves its purpose (Anderson, 1981(Anderson, , 1991Matisoff, 1974;Porporino andRobinson 1992, as cited in Ubah, 2005), while others believe it does not work (Kettering, 1965 ;Martinson, 1974;Sullivan , 1990Sullivan , , 1992Schumacker et al., 1990as cited in Ubah, 2005. The key question is how education can cope with recidivism. Responses can be several: The person builds a more moral character, acquires self-esteem, feel that they are opening up a new perspective in life by redirecting their actions, acquires new interests and know-how that can act as a credential in society and the labor market. Surveys in the United States have shown that recidivism rates are significantly higher for those who have not completed high school studies (Harrer, 1994) and an analysis of 60 different studies concluded that those inmates who did not have a degree of the High School and participated in a training program in prisons had lower rates of relapse (Flanagan, 1994). Esperian (2010) reports statistics from the "Congressional Leaders" 1; Education Newsletter (2010), such as study by Steurer, Smith, and Tracy (1997) in Maryland, Minnesota and Ohio showing recidivism rates of 3.4%, a study in Colorado (2007) that show recidivism rates of 5% and the results of a survey conducted in Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Texas, Utah and Virginia in 2002 where it was found that educational programs helped reduce recidivism from 49% to 20%. In a recent meta-analysis of the effectiveness of prisons training to reduce recidivism carried out by Rand Corporation (2013), the main finding was that prison training reduces recidivism after release and is cost-effective. In addition, the study found that prison training can increase the chances of employment after liberation.
Of course, there are other empirical criminological researches (Baumann, 1984, pp. 31-36, as cited in Papathanasiou, 2010 investigating the impact of school and vocational education on recidivism, which state that only vocational education reduces recidivism (12-15%), while the impact of school education is negligible in reducing recidivism. The interpretation of this differentiation consists in the fact that vocational training can more easily secure a job, which in turn ensures a decent standard of living, freedom from the prisoner's position and a smoother social reintegration.

Education and professional rehabilitation
Access to education and employment has been reported by many studies as two of the most important aspects contributing to the successful reintegration of ex-offenders into society. Through education, they acquire knowledge and skills, necessary to claim a job in the labor market. It is proved that ex offenders have a high risk of unemployment and there is a correlation between unemployment and recidivism (Farrington, Gallagher, Morley, St. Ledger and West, 1986;Finn, 1998;May 1999;Motiuk, 1996).
The Rand Corporation (2013) survey also shows a positive correlation between prison education and postrelease employment. In particular, post-release employment was found to be 13% higher among detainees participating in academic or vocational training programs than among those who had not participated. The findings of this study are in line with those of the Wilson, Gallagher, and MacKenzie (2000), which also found improved chances of employment after release for those who had participated in correctional education. The Rand Corporation (2013) study also investigated the relationship between vocational training versus academic education in prison and post-release employment, and the results show that VET programs have a greater impact than academic programs on a person's probability of obtaining employment after release.

Education and personal development
Participating in educational programs can be a source of optimism for detainees, awaken them and release creativity, which, as Piche points out (2008, p. 10), is therapeutic and capable of helping to rehabilitate. Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), approaching adult education holistically, identify as its essential function the help it provides adult learners to increase their skills and successfully negotiate transitions into their social roles (worker, parent, prisoner, etc.).
Therefore, education offers inmates opportunities for personal development, and the ability to change their perceptions of themselves and others, perceptions that determine their attitudes and behavior. In addition, "it may be the first ray of hope that they can escape the cycles of poverty and violence that dominated their lives" (Erisman and Contardo, 2005, p. 316). Strengthening self-confidence and self-esteem are counted towards the positive assessment of education in personal development. It is established on the basis of the literature that the release of prison education from serving the purposes of sentencing is in the right direction and it is up to the judgment and the needs of each prisoner to choose a training program for vocational training or general education.

Methodology oh the research
The present work is a systematic review in the field of prison education. Initially, a search for sources of the material collection was conducted. Since this systematic review concerns the training of adult inmates in Greece, we searched in national databases and search engines, article references, abstracts of papers in conference proceedings, databases of doctoral and postgraduate dissertations. More specifically, Google Scholar, online libraries of Greek universities -including the Hellenic Open University -and the National Documentation Center were used. In cases where the material was not available electronically with open access, the file was searched for in the libraries' premises, or the full text order service was used wherever possible. Also, articles published in scientific journals, such as "Adult Education," the "Aretha" Scientific Yearbook, or on scientific websites such as the Adult Education Network of Crete have been searched for. Finally, there was a personal communication with a researcher to locate research that could not be retrieved in any other way.
The systematic review was conducted between 10th January 2018 and 20th December 2018. The search resulted in 50 titles in Greek (4 doctoral theses, 42 postgraduate dissertations, and 4 articles). At the initial screening, 47 of them were identified as potentially relevant, requiring a full text review in order to select the review studies. After being studied systematically, the researches which converged on the research question were selected. Thus, we resulted in 24 studies, in which students' perceptions of the value of education addressed to inmates were investigated. 22 of these are postgraduate diploma theses, and 2 are articles.
Key elements of the identity of the analyzed researches are illustrated in the following As shown in Table 1 On the basis of the above methodological approaches, as listed in Table 1, they were grouped together. The surveys in which the research tool used was a questionnaire with closed-ended questions were classified as quantitative. If a questionnaire with open questions was used, they were classified as qualitative. Specifically, the analysis of the data for quantitative approach surveys was as follows: Responses were entered as a whole on a spreadsheet of the Microsoft Office Excel 2007 software.
For qualitative surveys, content analysis was selected as a data processing method. We chose to make the following distinction in qualitative surveys: a) purely qualitative, b) quantified qualitative.

Benefits of attendance of educational programs during confinement
The following procedure was followed in the recording of the results: Initially, the individual results of the quantitative surveys are presented, then the results of the quantified qualitative and, finally, of the purely qualitative ones.

Results of quantitative surveys
The total of quantitative surveys in which the benefits were investigated are 7: (Vergidis, Αsimaki, Tzintzidis, 2007;Gravalou, 2010;Papathanasiou Ν., 2010;Petsas, 2010;Papathanasiou I., 2014;Hrysikopoulou, 2015;Drillia, 2018) and the total sample of trainees in these surveys is 291 inmates. Following are the results (Table 2 and Graph 1). At the family level mention that they have been psychologically supported, have obtained useful experiences, have acquired the ability to solve the rising problems more easily, have become more selective in companionship, have been ethically empowered, have opened new horizons in their life and have improved its quality, escaping at the same time the suffering of imprisonment. The benefit in the field of education is recorded at 21%, with a predominant focus on the acquisition of the High School degree and the acquired basic and new knowledge of Greek, Maths, IT and English. The improvement in both the social and the family field (19% and 9%, respectively) is obvious. The inmates report that they solve their problems more easily, have improved their interpersonal relationships, and have come into contact with the outside world due to daily contact with their educators. A rate of 13% positively assesses the education without specific references.

Results of quantified quantitative surveys
The total of quantified quantitative surveys in which the benefits were investigated are 9 (Kouimtzi, 2011;Orlis, 2013;Panteleri, 2014;Papathanasiou I., 2014;Papaioannou, 2015;Mparmpakos, 2016;Vergopoulou, 2017;Mplioumi, 2017;Papadonysiou, 2018) and the total sample in these surveys is 162 trainees. Following are the results (Table 3 and Graph 2). From the composition of the answers result in the following: in the majority, the inmate's trainees (47%) state that they have benefited mainly on a personal level. The answers concerning the personal improvement vary: plenty of references for the satisfaction of deeper inner needs, different perspectives towards life, selfconfidence, self-awareness, moral empowerment, behavioral improvement, change of thinking, expression of their creative nature. Personal benefits also include escape from the suffering of imprisonment: the trainees report the use of "dead" time, employing the mind in a positive way, curbing of sick feelings and the sense that the school within the suffocating prison environment is an oasis of freedom. There are also many references for the psychological support that they receive from participating in educational programs, resulting in feeling more calmer and more peaceful, more optimistic while developing positive expectations for their future. The benefits gained in the cognitive field are reported by 34% of inmate trainees. The learning the Greek, Maths, foreign language (English) and IT fills them with confidence, and this knowledge extends and becomes emancipation as they see their spiritual horizons broaden. They also realize that they have more active participation in the lessons, they can express their opinions more comfortably and finally gain respect from everyone, which strengthens their self-image. In addition, they consider the acquisition of the High School degree as a benefit, as they hope it will be useful in the future. In the social field, 15% of the inmates realize that behavior improves due to self-improvement, and this has a positive effect on their relationships with the other inmates, they become more social, more cooperative, they adopt the rules of social life, preparing for adaptation in society after their release. Finally, a small percentage of 4% of the trainees reports that there is an improvement in their relationships with their families, which works supportively at the psychological level in the difficult phase of imprisonment.
In these surveys dominate the personal benefit of correctional education, as well. In seven of the eight studies, the positive opinions of the inmate trainees are recorded, focusing mainly on escaping from the suffering of imprisonment, while there are important references to psychological support, to their ability to choose the right people to socialize, positive thinking and acquisition of critical judgment. Taking on initiatives, feeling of freedom, personal change, self-awareness, confidence/self-esteem, positive expectations for the future are also some of the benefits of training in prison from the trainees' angle. In addition, the trainees consider the benefit at the educational level is most important, due to the acquired knowledge, the degree acquisition, and the possibility to get in touch with culture. The social sector also shows improvement, as the majority of trainees in these surveys report that education is a vehicle for their social reintegration.

Expected benefits of attending educational programs after release
The inmate trainees believe that the benefits of the training will accompany them outside of prison, as well. In this way, they develop positive expectations for their future, which they perceive as a normal life where they will seek the best for themselves, either at the personal, professional, or social level.

Results of quantitative surveys
The total of quantitative surveys in which the benefits were investigated are 7: (Vergidis et al. 2007;Gravalou, 2010;Papathanasiou Ν., 2010;Petsas, 2010;Papathanasiou I., 2014;Hrysikopoulou, 2015;Drillia, 2018) and the total sample of trainees in these surveys is 281 inmates. Following are the results (Table 5 and Graph 3). Inmate trainees in a very large percentage (38%) tranmute the benefits they consider to have acquired from their participation in educational programs to expectations of professional rehabilitation after their release. Also, there are many (28%) that believe that the personal improvement they perceive in prison not recidivism will be the basis upon which they will rely after their release in order to avoid delinquent acts and. At the same time, they hope to improve their personal life in an attempt to eliminate the prisoner's stigma. A figure of 15%, which is indeed an interesting element, wishes to continue their studies. Also, 8 out of 100 inmates believe that social reintegration will be easier, while foreigners (whose proportion is quite large in Greek prisons) believe that their adaptation to the country will be easier. Finally, 4% believe that they will transmute the benefits of their education to the family environment, either as support for children with the homework as an attempt of correct parenting or as support for the family in general. However, 2% of trainees feel they will not benefit from their release. The negative answer was given by trainees aged over 40.

Results of quantitative, qualitative surveys
The total of quantified quantitative surveys in which the expected benefits were investigated are 10 (Kouimtzi, 2011;Orlis, 2013;Panteleri, 2014;Papathanasiou, 2014;Papaioannou, 2015;Sakka, 2015;Mparmpakos, 2016;Vergopoulou, 2017;Mplioumi,2017;Papadionysiou, 2018) and the total sample of trainees in these surveys is 169 trainees. Following are the results (Table 6 and Graph 4). Expectations at the level of education compete on an equal footing with those at the professional level. It is an extremely interesting finding that trainee prisoners spontaneously report in their interviews their desire to continue their studies at 33%. The professional sector also employs trainees, who, 30%, believe that the knowledge and skills they have acquired from attending the training programs will be transformed into improvement or employment after their release. Personal improvement is not only a benefit for their present but also for the future, as personal change and a positive attitude towards life are believing that they will keep them away from delinquency and empower them at every step of their free life (19%). In addition, 10% of trainees believe that their social reintegration will be easier. And the expected benefits continue as trainees also report on practical issues (4%), such as driving license and residence permit (for foreigners). The same percentage of trainees (4%) thinks there will be a benefit in family relationships (family support, proper education, and support for children).
These surveys confirm the findings of other surveys: the majority of the trainee inmates report their ability and desire to continue their studies as a main benefit and professional rehabilitation is thought to be achieved through the attendance of the training program. Correction that will remove them from delinquency, social reintegration, and improved family relationships with particular emphasis on their children are included in the reports of trainee inmates.

Discussion -Conclusions
The results obtained from all surveys (whether quantitative or qualitative) are in full harmony with each other. At the same time, they are also supported by the relevant references. Regarding the benefits during the confinement, the following main conclusions were reached: Personal Improvement: Trainee inmates find that they are changing due to the attendance of the training program. A multipurpose matrix weaved with, psychological support, moral empowerment, escape from the embarrassment of suffering, has been built in the prison school and opens up new horizons. The positive and constructive experiences of trainees and the knowledge that choices determine life are transformed into adopting a healthy attitude towards life. Developing the ability to come in contact with themselves, to understand and to evaluate positively or negatively their different aspects and to adapt them leads to a deeper knowledge of themselves and is indissolubly linked to the appreciation of themselves. Thus, as stated by Dimitrouli (2016), the transformational dimension of the education provided in prison is highlighted, which "involves the exploration, understanding, and alternative view of previous dysfunctional assumptions." Knowledge and skills: The knowledge and skills gained from their participation in educational programs run through all the reports of trainee inmates. The literacy taught corresponds to the development of basic skills or functional skills. The trainee inmates know that as they attempt to change, the knowledge and new skills they acquire are suitable for their new way of life. All their knowledge, skills, and experience are now defined as "human capital" (Fokiali, n.d. as cited in Dimitrouli, 2016).

Social benefit:
Social interaction with the right people is seen as a benefit by many trainees, as they obviously perceive that bad relationships have been a cause of their delinquency, so seeking contact with healthy standards is important to them for the additional reason that it acts as an antidote to contact with the prison subculture. In addition, the improvement of relations with their retainers, the fact that they can manage and resolve the problems that arise within the interpersonal relationships, working together in a social interaction (Makryniotis, 2001, p.45) active self, able to intervene by changing the social conditions and the structure of interaction (Dimitrouli, 2016) to their advantage.
Regarding the expected benefits after the imprisonment, the following main conclusions were reached: New perspectives in the professional field: Trainee inmates directly associate the knowledge and skills they acquire from their training with their professional rehabilitation. They know that even after release, they will be accompanied by the prisoner's mark. They also know that this is a hindrance to finding a job. Who wants a former prisoner in his job? However, trainees hope to have a second chance to improve their working life conditions by completing their studies at the prison school. They appear to be empowered mainly by the power given by the knowledge of knowledge. The findings of the present surveys on the expected benefits in the professional field are in line with those of many real-life investigations after release. An example is the study by Wilson, Gallagher, and MacKenzie (2000), which found improved post-prison employment probability of inmates participating in correctional education.
Continuing studies: It is indeed a surprising finding that the "difficult" task of joining real life involves the decision to continue and complete studies and is linked to the vision of vocational rehabilitation. We do not know how many will realize their dream. However, they see their studies as the key to success, to unleash from the "vicious circle" of life. It is their chance to prove they are capable, and they can achieve a great goal, feel equal to others, negotiate fear and insecurity for the future. They have structured the perspective of their lives based on their studies (Dimitrouli, 2016).

Social reintegration:
According to the 2009 Epanodos (Legal Representative for the trainning and rehabilitation of inmates and the released) Report, the released inmates face family, social, reintegration and prejudice problems from the community. Education is directly linked to social reintegration. Trainee inmates advocate this view. Removing from delinquent behavior is the foundation of social reintegration. This is what the trainees know, and after seeing their personal change and the adoption of a new attitude of life and behaviors acceptable to the community, they expect their social reintegration to be easier. Education gives them opportunities to use and acquire social capital (Farrall, 2004, as reported in Farrall et al., 2010.