: Philadelphia,

ings of their associations tried to raise the standard of their profession. Since October, 1902, the Board of Education furnishes the teachers the opportunity to carry on such work unaer the direction of instructors at the expense of the board. This &dquo;normal school extension work,&dquo; as it is called, is taken up by many teachers, and has proved exceedingly successful. School principals state that the whole spirit of their schools has been transformed by this work, and note a great change and improvement in the work of individual teachers resulting therefrom. A year ago there were 83 classes, with a maximum enrollment of 2,975 teachers; to-day there are 157 classes, with an enrollment of 4,743. The total number of teachers employed by the city is 5,654. The subjects included in this extension work are: Education, psychology, mathematics, science, geography, history and civics, English literature, German, French, art, music, physical training, manual training, cooking and sewing. A new course of study introduced this year, the result of a year’s study and discussion on the part of the superintendent, the district superintendents, the principals’ association and special teachers, will no doubt also tend to further improve the efhciency of Chicago’s school system.

gration. This attempt was enshrined in the first U.S. passenger laws, created in 1819-a direct result of the 1816/17 crisis. In 2016 and 2017, a number of events took place in both Europe and the United States to commemorate the event. The collected essays here were initially presented in Philadelphia in the summer of 2017, at a conference that was generously sponsored by the Fritz Thyssen Stiftung. 5 They offer new perspective, insight and findings about this transformative moment, and helped form a broad discussion about the context of the 1816/17 migration, its connectivity to the 18th century German-American movement that preceded it, the 19th century era of mass migration that followed it, and how modern scholars approach the issue of historical migration.
The papers collected in this volume shed new light on a number of aspects of the post-Napoleonic event, often named the 'Tambora crisis' in climate research, and are contextualised within the broader frame of German Atlantic movement. Pointing out that climate and weather crisis had a formative influence on the history of German engagement with the New World, Marianne S. Wokeck's essay explores migration as an adaptive strategy, framing the '18th century' of German-Atlantic migration between the extreme weather events of 1709 and 1816/17. In doing so the essay questions how migration as personal and community strategy was shaped by these events, encouraging scholars to use such instances as focal points for understanding migration systems. Andrew Zonderman then goes on to explore the peak age of the 18th century German-Atlantic 'redemptioner' system through the prism of German merchants and agents who, upon arrival in Philadelphia, pursued commercial enterprises through wider engagement-including passenger shipping-with the British Empire.
The story of the ship Hope demonstrates, in distressing detail, what happened in 1817 when the redemptioner system which brought Germans to Philadelphia on credit, collapsed into speculative trading, rather than organised transport. Until now, the standard story of passenger abuse during the 1817 crossing has remained that of the ship April, infamous for the mortality it caused. 6 In bringing forward the story of the Hope, David Barnes not only provides the historiography with a new case study, but brings to light the role of the Philadelphia Lazaretto in alleviating the suffering of many migrants during the 1817 movement-a crisis on American shores as well as those of Europe.
That crisis created the decisive legal changes that would signal the end of the redemptioner trade. In Europe, crisis in the Netherlands and transit territories of Prussia led to state-led impositions on migrants that effectively stopped the flow of speculative migration attempts. James Boyd explores these changes alongside the concomitant legal measures of the US navigation law, in 1819, and changing American economic context after 1818, which made a return to any form of redemptioner system unprofitable and unpractical. In light of these changes, further changes to passenger law in European ports-haunted by the experience of 1816/17-ensured that when German emigration began to re-emerge around 1828, it did so under the fee-paying, competitive passenger system recognisable as the 19th century immigration model.
The volume closes with the paper 'Serial Sources in Excess', a contribution from Konstantin Huber that will be invaluable to historians and scholars investigating German-American history. From the district archive in Baden-Württemberg's Enzkreis, Huber has given tireless support to historical research into the German-American emigration question, as well as German social history. His contribution here, a revelation for many attendees in Philadelphia in 2017, explains and unlocks the value of huge volumes of material available to researchers in the German south west. The sources in discussion will support untold future research into German-Atlantic migration, and clearly harbour enormous potential for future historical discovery.
This volume now appears at the bi-centenary of the first U.S. Passenger Laws, passed in 1819, which were one of many critical social and political responses to the crisis of 1816/17. It is hoped that these essays will provide scholars of German-American history with fresh material insight into the events of 1816/17 (and beyond), and will introduce to the field manifold nuances that both contributed to the 18th century German-Atlantic system, and contributed to its displacement as a result of the Tambora crisis.
3 At least 33,525 departures were recorded in Baden and Württemberg from January 2017 until July 2017. 11,205 from Württemberg headed to Russia, the Habsburg Empire and Prussia, leaving slightly over 22,000 America-bound migrants from the two states-sig-