Characteristics for the Occurrence of a High-Current  $Z$-Pinch Aurora as Recorded in Antiquity Part II: Directionality and Source

The discovery that objects from the Neolithic or Early Bronze Age carry patterns associated with high-current Z-pinches provides a possible insight into the origin and meaning of these ancient symbols produced by humans. Part I deals with the comparison of graphical and radiation data from high-current -pinches to petroglyphs, geoglyphs, and megaliths. Part I focused primarily, but not exclusively, on petroglyphs of some 84 different morphologies: pictures found in laboratory experiments and carved on rock. These corresponded to mankind's visual observations of ancient aurora as might be produced if the solar wind had increased (T. Gold) at times between one and two orders of magnitude, millennia ago. Part II focuses on the source of light and its temporal change from a current-increasing Z-pinch or dense-plasma-focus aurora. Orientation and field-of-view data are given as surveyed and contributed from 139 countries, from sites and fields containing several millions of these objects. This information allows a reconstruction of the auroral form presumably associated with extreme geomagnetic storms and shows, based on existent geophysical evidence, plasma flow inward at Earth's south polar axis.

Z-pinches to the images of petroglyphs, geoglyphs, and megaliths.
Part I focused primarily, but not exclusively, on petroglyphs of some 84 different morphologies: those found in laboratory experiments which are similar to those carved on rock. As the same morphological types are found worldwide, the comparisons suggest a type of single visible source. The striking similarity of petroglyphs to plasma experiments would indicate that they are reproductions or parts of reproductions of intense electrical phenomena, an obvious high-energy visible source that would be external to the Earth, such as the solar-wind aurora we observe today. However, laboratory experiments, when compared to ancient recordings, suggest the occurrence of an intense aurora, as might be produced if the solar wind had increased between one and two orders of magnitude, millennia ago.
A past intense solar outburst and its effect on Earth was proposed by Gold [5] who, along with others, based his hypotheses on strong astronomical and geophysical evidence.
According to Gold: "The question I would like to tackle is whether solar outbursts of the present day are representative of all that has happened in geologic times or whether much greater outbursts have occurred from time to time. Our evidence that nothing very violent has taken place in historic times is concerned with such a short span of time only that it cannot answer the question.
For one big outburst every ten thousand years, for example, it would be permissible to have 2 × 10 −5 of the present atmosphere removed every time. That means the outburst could be intense enough to drive down to the 20 µ bar level and blast away everything above that level. The change in atmospheric pressure resulting would only have minor climatic consequences.
It is of interest to consider the magnetic storm effects such an outburst. The simple rule about the magnetic field strength generated at a large obstacle in the interplanetary stream is that the magnetic pressure will rise until it equals the stagnation pressure of the flow: H 2 /8π = ρν 2 . The solar gas driving at the Earth will thus augment its field on compression, and for the intensity of the stream we were discussing where the stagnation pressure amounts to 20 dynes/cm 2 the field strength would be about 20 gauss. 0093-3813/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE A magnetic storm of that kind of severity would be a totally different kind of phenomenon from the usual one. The Earth's magnetic field could clearly not hold up the incoming gas, and it would indeed drive down to the atmospheric level where the gas pressure can resist the further flow. At that level the atmosphere is dense and the ionization that could be maintained would not result in a good conductivity. The incoming gas bringing its strong fie1d into the virtually insulating atmosphere would then result in very large electric fields so directed that the resulting currents would maintain those fields. But in the atmosphere they can be done only by electrical breakdown. . . . This breakdown would be in the form of a series of sparks, burning for extended periods of time and carrying currents of hundreds of millions of amperes. One might search whether there is any geological record of surface fusing and vitrification of rock or sand which cannot be accounted for by volcanic or meteoritec events. Large quantities of glass, far too much to be made by ordinary lightning discharges, are indeed found on the surface in a few places, notably in the Libyan Desert. Perhaps it might be worthwhile to pursue this clue further.
. . . One cannot at the present time make a case for occasional giant outbursts on the sun; but on the other hand, one must not ignore the possibility in the discussion of many lines of evidence in astronomy, geophysics and geology." The answer to Gold's question seems to come from an unlikely source: Magnetized plasma from intense solar discharges striking the Earth's space environment as recorded by mankind in antiquity.
In Part I, direct comparison was made of some 40% of data carved on rock to that recorded in laboratories and in highexplosive high-energy tests with current magnitudes similar to that found in auroras today. The sources of these patterns were magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities from intense Birkeland currents, a Z-pinch, flowing to the Earth [6].
Other patterns could be attributed to and found to replicate Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities, as found experimentally and in computer simulations, when a relativistic-electron beam (REB) impacts the upper atmosphere [6]. The last category of petroglyphs depicting instability could be attributed to the diocotron or slip-stream instability associated with hollow REBs, which may produce some curtain patterns in contemporary auroras [7].
In Part II, Directionality and Source, we focus both on field data of logged petroglyphs and on sources of light and their temporal change from current-increasing Z-pinch aurora. Orientation and field-of-view (FOV) data from sites containing many millions of these objects in 139 countries are given as surveyed. This information allows a reconstruction of the auroral form and shows, for existent geophysical evidence, that relativistic electrons generated in such extreme geomagnetic storms primarily flow inward at Earth's south polar axis [8]- [16].

II. METHODOLOGY
This paper is the second of three parts. Part I dealt with the correspondence of petroglyph images worldwide to MHD instabilities. Some 84 different instability configurations were compared, petroglyph to plasma, providing temporal information for petroglyph symbols from laboratory recordings. The high-energy-density experiments and tests are close to what is expected when a giga-ampere current impinges on the Earth, allowing direct petroglyph-laboratory comparisons including computer-generated time-motion studies of evolution. Some 40% of known symbols were accounted for. The similarities and differences of petroglyphs and pictographs were also discussed in Part I.
Part III fills in the remainder of known symbols and relies heavily on what is present in Part II, this paper. Here, we analyze the orientation and distribution of petroglyphs around the Earth: where they are, where they are not, their directionality, FOV of the current column, and the inclination angle at which the artist was observing.
As such, this paper (Part II) goes into some detail about the recorded data, briefly summarizing satellite, aerial, and 3-D topographic data. The importance of this data cannot be over emphasized: Petroglyphs are treated as pixels; the FOVs and symbol orientations of any unmoved petroglyph allow the construction of a virtual image of the original aurora as if it were a hologram.

A. Data Acquisition
With the petroglyph-intense-aurora connection, it became important to GPS log as many individual petroglyphs as possible. Teams of interested archaeologists, students, retired university professors, and others were organized. Initially, a large team consisting of petroglyph-site stewards based in Tucson, Arizona, along with participants from New Mexico, started logging the Southwest.
A smaller team of some eight people began logging the Pacific Northwest, particularly the Columbia River Basin.
GPS receivers of all makes, surveyors' transits, inclination gauges, and digital CD-recording cameras, later replaced with high-density memory-card cameras, were used. Rapid access and portability were the basic requirements, in addition to all data being digital for rapid turn-around of information output.
It has been the general belief in the American Southwest that petroglyphs and pictographs (painted versions of the carved petroglyphs) were the creation of the Anasasi, who inhabited the region some 800 years earlier. Only after methodologies matured for dating leached pigments in pictograph rock that scientists discovered that these objects stretched back some 7000 years in time [17]- [21].
Once data was being acquired, it became clear that, upon plotting the coordinate locations, a consistent element of directionality was present. This is impossible to discern in the field because of a constant sweep of light across the sky from Earth's rotation and the general loss of exact direction while climbing arduous and dangerous terrain. Many times, we thought our transits, compasses, and GPS receivers faulty. Not once in the field did we think that we had not found data that invalidated previous directionality trends.
But the primary reason that directionality cannot be discerned in the field has to do with the nature of radiation flow.
Radiation flows like water in a channel, and Earth-to-space channels on a global scale cannot be seen at eye-level. Kilometers of elevation are needed, particularly when the terrain elevation increases kilometers to the south. The first indication that a preferred channel toward polar south is evident in petroglyphsite locations came from aerial and satellite photography.
In this paper, we shall make reference to angles of inclination and "blinders." The angle of inclination is that angle offhorizontal (0 • ), where the observer can first see the skyline. If looking downhill, the inclination angle will be negative, while looking uphill gives a positive angle of inclination (cf. Section XIII).
A "blinder" is an object in front of the observer that blocks a portion of the sky in the FOV. A blinder can be higher terrain, either close by as looking uphill, a mountain or mountain range either close by or tens of kilometers away, a boulder in front of the viewer, or the east or west sides of a canyon or escarpment wall.
In the northern hemisphere at mid-latitudes, blinders block the intense synchrotron light from the center of plasma columns located near polar south. This is always outside a blocking cone of about ±4 • -8 • of polar south (measured with allowance for the local magnetic declination on the compass). A petroglyph on, for example, an east-facing panel will usually have a north-south offset of 176 • -356 • , while on a west-facing panel, the north-south offset is 4 • -184 • .
At mid-latitude in the northern hemisphere, the angle of inclination for polar south at petroglyph locations will range from about +24 • to +31 • . The angle of inclination and the plane of the blinder are latitude dependent.
The southern hemisphere has the same inclination-blinder dependence as the northern hemisphere to about 25 • S. At more southerly latitudes, the angle of inclination changes, as does the plane of the blinder, showing an eastward bend of the plasma column away from Antarctica.
Once the preferred directionality and inclination-anglehorizon dependence was known, approximately 500 petroglyphs could be found and logged in a week. But equally important in finding where the petroglyphs are is where they are not. Some 75% of our time in the field was spent searching "where they are not." The logging expanded worldwide with team members traveling to all continents (except Antarctica) and the GPS loggings of numerous contributors from around the globe.
Our most useful guide books turned out to be some of the oldest: Mallery, 1888 [22] and the 1960 work of Loring and Loring, 1982 [23].

B. Data Plotting
The plotting of some 500 weekly petroglyph coordinates and the recording of images involved many computers, ranging from the Los Alamos National Laboratory "Q" machine [2001; 30 teraOPS (trillion operations per second) and two trillion bytes of memory] to simple laptops suitable for use in the field.
Some dozen different software programs, both laboratory and commercial, were used to put recorded locations on topographical maps, aerial, and satellite photos, preferably with 3-D mapping capabilities. The Los Alamos National Laboratory, Information, Records, and Media Services provided a helicopter for 400-ft (122 m) altitude photo/video recordings of petroglyph areas on the 46-mi 2 (121 km 2 ) laboratory facility, invaluable for future siteequipment calibration.

A. Antarctic Regions
Antarctica ( Fig. 1) is among the most important regions of study, as it will be shown that the intense REBs from major solar outbursts enter Earth's ionosphere from space preferentially above this 14 × 10 6 -km 2 land mass.
As a continent, it is also the most isolated: An "island" immediately surrounded by a single ocean and also by the other continents that lie beyond the horizon. In comparison, the Arctic (Fig. 2)     Almost all of the markings in this region are rock engravings, i.e., petroglyphs; pictographs are rare.
Following the classifications of our logging data, we shall group petroglyphs from New Zealand, in Polynesia, with those of Australia and Tasmania.

A. Pitcairn Island
Pitcairn Island (25.1 • S, 130.2 • W; 4.5 km 2 ) lies on the Tropic of Capricorn, 7200 km from Earth's southern axis. The one site that has been surveyed, "Downrope," is in a cove on vertical rock above a sandy beach; Pitcairn's only beach. At this location, the petroglyphs have a distinct south FOV (SFOV), as shown in Fig. 7 (cf. Section XIII).
For film-photography illustration, the petroglyphs have been "chalked in" for visibility; a practice no longer used today. It is meaningful that one of each major petroglyph type is found at Downrope.   4300 petroglyphs have been documented on Easter Island, clustered at the sites marked in Fig. 8.

B. Hawaiian Islands
Typically, the Hawaiian Islands, a chain stretching 2400 km, are delineated in two parts, small islands that make up the northwestern (Leeward) group and the larger or southeastern

A. Thailand
Because of terrain and foliage, petroglyphs sites in Thailand were difficult to survey. Our survey sites included Tham Nak (Naga Cave), Ao Phang-Nga Marine National Park, Tha Dan (pier), James Bond Island, Ko Panyi, Tham Lod, and Khao Khian (Fig. 11).

C. Hong Kong, Hong Kong
The logged coordinates of Shek Pik, Cheung Chau, Wong Chuk Hang, Big Wave Bay, Po Toi, Tung Lung, Lung Ha Wan, and Kau Sai Chau are shown in Fig. 13.

D. China
Chinese petroglyphs are little known internationally [24]. Our database of logged Chinese sites is minimal even with our own surveys in Thailand, South Korea, and the regions of Central Asia surrounding China. However, petroglyph sites in China are numerous with most concentrated along the Yellow River and Yangtze River Valleys with adjacent north-south running mountain ranges suitable for carving petroglyphs. Known petroglyphs are concentrated along these ranges: the Yinshan (Yin Mountains) of Inner Mongolia and the Helanshan (Helan Mountains) of Ningxia (Fig. 14).
Six sites have been documented along 75 km of the Zhuozi Mountains, running north to south. The petroglyphs of Zhaoshaogou are located on the southern slopes, 15-km southeast of Wuhai. The petroglyphs at Kucaigou are primarily along the southern escarpment. Some are located on northern cliffs, but their inclinations have not been measured, as is also the case for the Subaiyingou petroglyphs. Petroglyphs at Mao'ergou are located along the southern escarpment.
Petroglyphs in the central and northern parts of the Helan Mountains predominantly face south or east. Petroglyphs on the escarpments of the Weiningbei Hills, south of the Helan, all face south.   The available petroglyphs in Huashan are located in Ningming County (Zuojiang). Some 1800 petroglyphs have been photographed on the cliffs along the Guangxi River.
The GPS locations of a few of these sites are known but are absent of FOV and inclination. With this exception and allowing for the lack of inclination data for some sites, all logged Chinese petroglyphs are SFOV. The "operations center" was the town of Olgii, allowing ready access to the rough "steppe land" strewn with boulders, sun-dried bones, and free roaming herds of horses and yaks.
The usual array of spiral, concentric, "ladder," and "stickmen" petroglyphs [6] were noticeably absent as separate entities but instead incorporated into the cusps and antlers of deer, sheep, and other animals depicted in hunting scenes. This is not an uncommon occurrence and can be found at numerous sites throughout the American Southwest.
All petroglyphs had an SFOV (Fig. 16) and often traced the profiles of 3200-m mountains 17 km to the south. No petroglyphs were found when the altitude of these mountains reached 3600 m directly south of a recording site.  2) Chuluut River Basin, Mongolia: Based upon earlier published logs and 3-D satellite and aerial data, we mapped out the most probable locations of petroglyph sites along the Chuluut River Basin in Central Mongolia, 1620-km northwest of Beijing.
To our great fortune, while logging the Altai site, we found that the Chuluut had already been GPS logged by a team from the University of Newcastle, the University of Edinburgh, and the National University of Mongolia from July 11 to September 15, 2004. The purpose of this expedition was to locate and record petroglyph sites in the Huremt district, Arkhangai province, through which the Chuluut flows.
The survey area started where the Chuluut/Ider river meets the Selenge River (49.26 • N, 100.67 • E; 1175 m) and ended near a lake at 49.10 • N, 100.71 • E; 1210 m, with a linear distance of 17.8 km.
The entire river plain lies within a channel defined by a north-south-oriented 1800-m mountain range to the east and a series of 1900-1400-m west-east ridges tapering to the east and ending at the Chuluut.
The northern sites (49.26 • N-49.20 • N) are primarily on the west side of the river and located on a mild east-facing slope near the Selenge.
The southern sites (49.16 • N-49.13 • N) run along an escarpment on the east side of the river.
All Chuluut River petroglyphs have an SFOV (Fig. 17). Individual boulder locations and a 1300-m mountain to the south determine the northern site inclinations. The inclinations for the southern sites are determined by a 1500-m mountain range to the south, 49.05 • N.
These findings validated our initial site-location analyses, although we found out that our predictions were often tens of meters off the in situ GPS readings.
3) Nepal: Because of its abundance of suitable rock material, 3000-m valleys, and high mountain elevations of 6000 m, Nepal offers well-defined FOVs, as shown in Fig. 18. 4) Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kashmir: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kashmir also offer an abundance of petroglyphrock palettes and a large number of petroglyphs (Fig. 19).

VI. INDIA
While Pakistan and Afghanistan, rich in petroglyphs, have been heavily surveyed, our own data have not yet covered these countries. Instead, we have concentrated on the Great Himalayan Range in neighboring India.

A. Zanskar River, India
To date, our loggings have been taken on the Zanskar River, running between the Zanskar and Great Himalayan Ranges (Fig. 20). The headwaters of the Zanskar are at 4300 m, flowing through steep gorges until its confluence with the Indus River at 3100 m. Precise FOV and orientation have been taken in the very limited gorges or "channels" in the Himalayan Mountains. All have an SFOV.
Note the very narrow beam of sunlight from a southerly direction illuminating the steep mountain slopes (Fig. 21).

VII. MIDDLE EAST
The Middle East and surrounding regions are locations rich in petroglyphs. In spite of our large collection of photographs from Pakistan and Afghanistan and less so for Turkmenistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, sites in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Qatar, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman have been well cataloged and plotted (logged data from Har Karkom, Negev, Israel, have not yet been plotted on our maps).
In Saudi Arabia, the sites located at Tabuk in the north and the Yemen sites are located primarily in the volcanic  Asír-Yemen highlands. These also border and lie within the Rub' Al Khali and Nafuo Dahi regions. Two more sites in Yemen are along the Kaur Mountains coastal range (Fig. 22). All sites have an SFOV.
The sites in the UAE and the Musandam Peninsula are located to the far north in a geographically complex mountain range at the Strait of Hormuz, providing excellent FOV information.
The petroglyph sites of Oman are principally in a narrow mountain range defining the UAE and Oman border in the north and also in the well-defined Jebel, Akhdar Mountains (Fig. 4).

B. Central Africa
Logged sites in Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are shown in Fig. 5.

C. Southern Africa
Logged sites in Angola, Zambia, Namibia, and South Africa are shown in Fig. 5. Limpopo, South Africa, is a site of ongoing survey.

D. Canary Islands
Logged petroglyphs sites on the islands of La Palma and El Hierro are shown in Fig. 26 (the gray area in front of La Palma is the ocean, the color change resulting from a highdetail aerial photo overlaying the satellite image). All sites have an SFOV.

IX. EUROPE, SCANDINAVIA, AND THE UNITED KINGDOM
Our logged data from Europe included sites in France, Spain, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Italy. Most of our surveys were in the southern Alpine mountains (Fig. 27), particularly in the Camonica Valley, Italy. Note that the white areas are not clouds but rather snow-capped peaks with petroglyphs located to the south side. Bottom: Capo di Ponte, Sellero, Ceto, Cimbergo, Paspardo, and Naquane sites. The black north-south lines are artifacts from piecing aerial photographs onto a satellite photo background.
Coordinates for individual petroglyph boulders and sites farther south are shown for the Darfo-Luine region (Fig. 29).

B. Spain
In Spain, our donated data primarily focused around the Extremadura (Molino Manzanez) and Levantine regions to the  south and southeast, as well as Galicia to the north. Our surveys also included Parque Monfrague.
An abundance of Galicia petroglyph sites exist in the usually northeast-southwest-oriented rows of mountain ridges, as shown in Fig. 30 between the Rio Lerez, Rio Tea, and Rio Miño in the vicinity of Muros, Porto do Son, Rianxo, Bamio, Moraña, Campo Lameiro, Pontecaldelas, Tetón, and Arbo.
Data from Parque Monfrague was exceptionally good for orientation readings because of its multiple placements of hills and valleys along the Rio Tajo (Fig. 31).

C. Scandinavia
Our data for Scandinavia include Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Fig. 32 shows a portion of logged Finland sites, all located on the south sides of the mountain ranges. Finland has an appreciable number density of pictographs often barely visible.
The northernmost petroglyphs are at Soroya, Norway  SFOV with a 400-m mountain blinder 5 km south and slightly west of this rich petroglyph area (not discernable on the globe).
The region in the vicinity of Stjordalshalsen, Norway, illustrates the SFOV characteristic of petroglyphs found in Scandanavia (Fig. 33). When the data is plotted on 1-mresolution aerial photographs, the accuracy of this FOV is greatly enhanced.

D. United Kingdom
While an appreciable amount of data was donated from across the United Kingdom, most of the logged data shown in Figs. 2 and 4 came from Argyll, Lorn, Kintyre, Mull, Islay, Galloway, and the Isle of Man. The accuracy of data taken from these sites was excellent. The Argyll map Fig. 34 is typical of these sites.
All sites surveyed in Europe have an SFOV.

A. Caribbean
The Caribbean Islands have numerous petroglyphs. However, many are in mountainous areas and difficult to find because of foliage. As a result, most have been documented along the coasts (Fig. 3).

B. Northern South America
The northern South American Countries of Columbia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and northern Brazil have high densities of petroglyphs where the terrain has been logged.
On the eastern side of the coastal ranges and Andes, most have been logged along rivers, accessible by motor-powered log boats. The large boulder palettes along the banks are very limited in FOV, having none in north and very narrow channels    look south from riverbank sites through very narrow mountain gaps. Central Peru, the area of our logging, is shown in Fig. 36. Fig. 37 shows our Machuu Picchu sites. The petrogylph locations were predetermined by drawing a north-south line between the exact top of Waynapicchu, the 2634-m peak overlooking the ancient city from the north, and a narrow mountain gap, inclination of 27.3 • , due south.
As shown, the petroglyph line cuts through the center of Machuu Picchu. All petroglyphs are carved on bedrock and not on the rock walls and structures.
2) Chile: Extensive and detailed surveys were made in Chile (Fig. 3) for petroglyphs, pictographs, and geoglyphs. Intermingled with the Tarapaca line geoglyphs are the Chiza geoglyphs, well-defined "giant petroglyphs" and kilometerlong straight paths running east, south, and west. The north-south line is 1.3 km long and runs along a western slope exactly polar south.
The geoglyphs are at the bottom of a canyon at the confluence of three canyons. The north, east, and west FOVs are blocked by steep slopes, while the geoglyphs SFOV are open with a slight hillside rise.
The Lluta Valley geoglyphs are on a 1.5-km-long northfacing hill, positioned approximately 250 m below the hillcrest with an SFOV.
It is the authors' opinion that these geoglyphs are the best crafted that we have seen.

A. Canada
British Columbia, Vancouver Island, and the Milk River, Alberta, were surveyed in Canada.
On Vancouver Island and the Milk River, 34 and 59 sites were logged, respectively. All had well-defined SFOV locations.

B. Western United States
The western United States is the most heavily surveyed region in this paper (two of the authors, A. L. Peratt and A. H. Qöyawayma have a combined total over 120 years of walking, hiking, hunting, climbing, rafting, four-wheel driving, and bivouacking the west, as well as studying its wildlife, archaeology, history, and peoples).
Because of the amount of data taken over years, we shall concentrate of a few selected sites out of all those shown at the upper left of Fig. 3.
1) Columbia River Gorge: From its Canadian ice fields and glaciers to the Pacific, the Columbia River runs entirely through basalt rock, dropping 380 cm/km, on its 2044-km journey. The middle section of the Columbia runs 674 km between the International Boundary and the Snake River. The lower section then runs west 404 km to the Pacific Ocean. However, like the Lorings before us [23], whose petroglyph-logging efforts are not likely to be exceeded, our surveys have been along a 225-km section between 121.14 • W and 120.03 • W (Fig. 40).
While several tens of thousands (or more) petroglyphs are underwater (thereby preserved by the slow-moving river) due to the construction of 14 dams on the Columbia River between 1933 and 1984, old topographical maps, site locations, and petroglyph rubbing recorded symbols on cloth exist in library files.
With privatization of waterfront land in the years after the Lorings survey, we have been forced to look in other places adjacent and above the shore line, finding many petroglyphs that the Lorings could afford to pass by (Fig. 41).
A basalt region devoid of petroglyphs noted by the Lorings and ourselves exists where the Cascade Range, between Mount Hood and Mount Adams, crosses the Columbia river (Fig. 40). Here, the terrain to the south increases in elevation on either side of 3400-m elevation Mount Hood, east and west, and the inclination angle at the river rapidly exceeds 40 • , blocking the SFOV.   The Columbia River is probably the largest single source of petroglyph data in the western United States.
2) California and Oregon: The California coast region is no longer assessable to a systematic study of pictographs and petroglyphs. The data shown come from logs dating back to the late 1800s.
In contrast, the Oregon coast is not privatized and was accessible to our surveys.
Nearly all of our loggings in California were in Kern, Inyo, and Mono counties, with logging also done in the lower Mojave Desert region. Saline and Death Valley were also logged, as  were sites further north in the Lake Tahoe and Donner Pass environs.
The low altitude cluster of markers, which is shown in Fig. 43, is the Coso Range on the Naval Air Weapons Station at Ridgecrest, California, another of the world's premier petroglyph locations.
The areas shown are Petroglyph, Horse, Sheep, and Renegade canyons. All sites are oriented so that they are along panels        representation. On the right of Fig. 49 is a photo at the actual petroglyph site. The center of the photo is oriented polar south. In spite of the narrow radiation channel from the south, the SFOV and inclination is determined locally. For example, the petroglyphs are carved on the northeast side of the boulder where the artist had a peek-view of the sheath instabilities of an intense aurora while blocking the bright light from the center of the plasma inflow.
Another type of channel in the vicinity of the site, which is shown in Fig. 50 While some data were obtained for all sites across Australia, the Flinders Range above Spencer Gulf in South Australia was heavily surveyed over a period of six years. The importance of detailed FOVs, transit orientations, and inclinations for this region is due to its far south location, very close to where Birkeland currents entered the upper atmosphere. For this reason, Tasmania and New Zealand were included in this survey.
The surveyed regions include Arkaroo Rock, Arnhem Land, Brisbane, Burra-Karolta, Jabirringgl, Cleland Hills, Deaf Adder Creek, Iga Warta, Malka, Mount Chambers, Mudlapinha Springs, Olary, Ororoo, Penena Creek, Red Gorge, Sharpey's   This voluminous South Australia data set verifies and validates the data collected from elsewhere around the Earth. Because of the large size of this data set, it will be discussed in detail elsewhere.

XIII. TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Petrogyphs, and pictographs only in association with petroglyphs, can have any "facing" (the direction of a normal vector out from the petroglyph; this can be in any direction: north, south, east, west, up, or down, as in the ceilings of caves). It is the FOV of the eye of the working artist that determines the inclination and directionality recorded at any petroglyph location. This may be considerably different and far more limited than the "facing." Pictographs in caves have no FOV [4].
Petroglyphs carved at the top of a hill or peak may provide a 0 • -360 • FOV, only one direction that the artist was sighting, while the facings (Section II-A) may be in any direction. Welldrawn concentrics are often found in greater numbers at these locations, or high up on an escarpment.
Petroglyphs carved on the north side of a slope occupy an increasingly narrower portion of the compass with a FOV centered on 180 • south as the distance from the peak increases. A null (void of markings) region is reached at an inclination of +24 • -+31 • downward from the peak whose location at which the artist used local blinders. This description is also applicable to petroglyphs carved on the east, west, or south slopes downwards from the peak.
Of the sites surveyed, an estimated four million petroglphs, only one exception has been found. This was on a boulder adjacent a trail to a mountain village in Valcamonica that lay in a small valley with no appreciable FOV. The petroglyph itself was indiscernible but may have been a Christian cross.
In the northern hemisphere, all petroglyphs are oriented with an SFOV, some of which are located far back in caves, crevices, confined mountain passes, or along rivers with canyon-or forest-limited FOVs, having only a polar south view with a variation of a few degrees. In these locations, no FOV in any other direction other than south has been recorded.
In South Australia, a bend in the plasma column far above the Earth was noted. Nearly normal to Antarctica, the column bends eastwards as seen from Australia and presents an increasingly "stretched" columnar profile for New Zealand and more so for South Africa (Fig. 1). This bend allows much of the column and plasmoids [6] in our model to be seen at the equator and both northern and southern latitudes.
The view from Tasmania, The Tasmanian Paradox or "why are the petroglyphs so dominated by circles," is due to a geometry of FOV up into a concentric column.
This topic is discussed in greater detail in Section XVI.

A. Properties of an Aurora
The shapes of contemporary aurora are determined by the supersonic solar wind, Earth's magnetosphere, magnetospheric shields (approximately 100 km above the Earth's surface) at about 10 R E (Earth radii), and Earth's dipolar magnetic field. It is the magnetopause that diverts the impinging solar wind into a tear-dropped-shaped shell and extended magnetoshell.
At the widest, the width of the magnetosphere is approximately 100 000-150 000 km while the tail stretches away from the Earth for 1 000 000 km or more (for comparison, the mean distance between the Earth and the Moon is 384 402 km).
The circular or oval in-flowing and out-flowing electrical currents are shown in Fig. 54. These sheets of electrical currents form the rapid waving curtains of light in an auroral display (Fig. 55), a result of the electrons interacting with and exciting molecules in the upper atmosphere [25]- [27]. The aurora is sporadic, usually lasting for a maximum of several hours, but sometimes for days. The most intense and largest auroral displays occur during a solar storm when the incoming flux increases dramatically [28].
The solar wind deriving from the Sun's 10 6 degree coronal plasma impacts the sunward side of Earth's magnetosphere at a velocity that normally varies from 250 to more than 800 km/s. The density is normally about 10 cm −3 with a field strength of 5 × 10 −5 G. In contrast, the particle density of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level is about 3 × 10 19 cm −3 , and the Earth's magnetic-field strength at the poles is 0.6 G.
Despite the dilute nature of the solar-wind plasma and weakness of the interplanetary magnetic field, the flow of solar plasma determines the overall shape of Earth's magnetosphere. The flow of electrons and ions into the Earth's lower ionosphere region along magnetic fields at the north and south polar openings (polar cusps) are called Birkeland currents [29], [30].
When an intense coronal mass ejection occurs (10 17 g, 400-1000 km/s) near the center of the solar disk and its magnetic field is strong and oriented southward, the power of the solarwind-magnetosphere generator may exceed 10 TW. Simultaneously, the magnetic field produced by the auroral discharge current produces an intense geomagnetic storm ultimately heating Earth's upper atmosphere. When oxygen atoms collide with heated atoms, the atoms emit a dark red light (the "red glow") seen high in the aurora curtain, generally 250-1000 km in altitude (Fig. 55).
Between 100 and 250 km, the auroral curtain is greenishwhite in color at a wavelength of 5577 Å emitted from atomic oxygen (O) subjected to 6-keV electrons.
One of the basic forms of the aurora is a curtainlike structure that is generally referred to as an auroral arc. When they appear in multiples, their typical separation distance is 30-50 km. Each arc consists of several arc elements, which have curtainlike structure; the thickness is a few hundred meters and the typical separation distances are a few kilometers. The curtainlike form of the aurora exhibits deformations known as curls, folds, and spirals. Spirals that occur, when the Birkeland current peaks, are 50 km in size, have a lifetime on the order of 10 min, and have a clockwise rotational sense. These auroral morphologies are a consequence of the diocotron instability [6].
While the aurora borealis and aurora australis are nearly mirror conjugates in appearance, the various mechanisms that control bipolar regional differences and commonalities in electrodynamics of the Earth's magnetosphereionosphere-thermosphere system are not well understood. Thus, the aeronomy of the upper atmosphere over the Arctic and Antarctic is a topic of ongoing study [31].

B. Laboratory and Simulation Studies of Aurora Curtains
One of the outstanding problems in the propagation of electron beams along an axial magnetic field is the breakup of the beam into discrete vortexlike current bundles when a threshold determined by either the beam current or distance of propagation is surpassed [32]- [35]. The phenomena, when observed closely, resemble that associated with the Kelvin-Helmholz fluid dynamical shear instability, in which vortices develop throughout a fluid when a critical velocity in the flow is exceeded, with a large increase in the resistance to flow [4].
While structural changes in the azimuthal direction are observed in solid, annular, or sheet beams, it is with thin-sheath hollow electron beams that the vortexing phenomenon is most pronounced. Thin-plasma hollow beams are easily produced and are capable of conducting currents exceeding those given by the characteristic Alfvén value [36].
For strong-magnetic-field low-density beams, the cross-field electron-beam parameter is given by where ω 2 pe = n e e 2 /m e γε 0 , ω ce = eB/m e γ, γ = (1 − β 2 ) −1/2 , and β = v z /c for a beam of axial velocity ν z . For strong-magnetic-field low-density beams, q < 1, and for a beam of thickness ∆r, the instability occurs at long wavelengths [33] λ ≈ (π/0.4)∆r. ( The e-folding length for instability buildup is where C is the beam circumference, B z is the longitudinal magnetic field, V is the voltage, and I is the current in MKS units. Peratt and Snell [33] have studied the cross-sectional views of hollow beams with conducting currents from 7 µA to 6 MA over 12 orders of magnitude in current. The onset of the diocotron instability satisfying (3) is shown in Fig. 56.

C. Formation of Birkeland Currents in Laboratory Experiments
For distances less than that is given in (3), the filaments are constrained by the generalized Bennett relation [6], or if rotation is ignored, by the Bennett relation Birkeland, using eight cameras and eight screens, was apparently the first to capture the nature of these Bennett-constrained filaments, as shown in Fig. 57. Depicted are currents flowing  from the 8-cm copper anode globe, one of 16 "terrellas" he experimented with, ranging in size from 2-to 70-cm diameter (a terella is a magnetized sphere in a vacuum chamber; electron beams are shot against the sphere; residual gas in the chamber makes the path of the beams visible as they are bent by the magnetic field of the sphere). In his other photographs, the filaments can be seen running along the surface of the globe.
As current was increased to the electromagnet within the globe to simulate the Earth's magnetic dipolar field, the currents were forced toward the poles of the terrella, eventually satisfying (3) to produce "auroral" rings around each pole.
Densitometer scans across the Bennett-constrained currents in his photographs show approximately 56 filaments, many in pairs.
An estimate for the currents in an intense aurora can be obtained from Alfvén and Carlqvist [6, p. 62] who find, for a strong circular aurora of diameter 5000 km, a total current of about 7 MA. If this pertains to 56 filaments (before the ring is formed), each filament conducts 125 kA. Hence, (4) is satisfied, and the currents remain as pinched filaments. Fig. 58 shows the pattern of a 90-kA particle beam from a thin circular cathode as recorded on a steel witness plate. The periodicity of the beam filaments (white dots) is 56. For comparison purposes, a circle of 56 evenly spaced outer dots has been superposed onto the witness plate.

E. Dense Plasma Focus (DPF)
The DPF is among the most interesting of high-energy plasma devices. A capacitor bank, or a highly explosive magnetic-compression generator, is discharged through two coaxial electrodes, called a "plasma gun," forming a plasmacurrent sheath between the inner and outer electrodes. The j × B force accelerates the sheath outward to the ends of the electrodes where the inner sheath radius is forced inwards toward the center electrode forming a columnar pinch or "focus" on axis. The outer sheath, the "penumbra," is a chalice of current filaments [6]. The inner electrode is usually the anode, as was Birkeland's copper terrella.
According to Haines [37]: "Many of the earliest experiments in controlled thermonuclear fusion research were Z-pinches. However, they were found to be highly unstable to the m = 0 (sausage) and the m = 1 (kink) MHD instabilities, and to the m = 0 Rayleigh-Taylor instability. . . . Meanwhile studies of the plasma focus, which after its 3-D compression closely resembles a Z-pinch, have shown that a plasma of density 10 25 m −3 and an electron temperature of 1 keV can be achieved in a narrow filament a few millimeters in diameter and about a centimeter in length. It sometimes can have enhanced stability properties which might be attributable to the effect of the finite ion Larmor radius." With regard to the DPF, the usual number of filaments formed in the penumbra or "chalice" at the pinch is either 56 or 56 paired filaments. Fig. 59 shows the penumbra created at pinch in a 174-kA discharge-current DPF. The periodicity of this chalice structure is 56. Fig. 60 shows the penumbra created at pinch in a 1.8-MA discharge-current DPF. At this higher current, 56 pairs of filaments are discernable in the open-shutter photograph. The figure to the right is an overlay of 56 lines on top of each filament pair. Milanese and Moroso [38], using a low-power 250-kA DPF, report "about 60" filaments recorded by their image converter camera in a series of experiments.

F. Evolution of Plasma Filaments via the Biot-Savart Force
In its simplest, the Biot-Savart Force law states that current filaments or wires running in the same direction attract, while those in opposite directions repulse. For plasmas, instead of wires, there is a neutral force region where the filaments do not merge but rather start a rotational motion around each other to form a vortexlike geometry. In the laboratory, this is most often seen for the closest pairs of filaments but also for three filaments [6].    Fig. 61 is an artist's illustration of a hollow relativistic charged-particle beam forming individual current filaments. Fig. 62 (top) shows a particle-in-cell simulation of two currents merging to form one thicker filament. Fig 62 (bottom) illus- trates the merging of adjacent filaments, starting with 56, to end up with four.
The most common pairing or tripling, as determined from petroglyph surveys, is 56 (by far the most common), 49, 47, 41, 39, 33, 30, followed by a large number of 28-ray petroglyphs and other structures. The converging continues through 20,16,8,7,6, and 4, the latter being the minimum number of Birkeland currents recorded but in great frequency.
As an example, Fig. 63 shows a streak camera recording whereby a group of plasma filaments are open-shutter photographed through a slit aperture focused across the array. In Fig. 63, time increases from top to bottom. At the top, the photograph shows six filaments (one of the six is shielded by a filament in front of it) in Biot-Savart attraction. In addition, seen in the early stages of the filaments are micropinches.
The filaments converge to a strong pinch (center) where they twist into a helix structure before untwisting back into six filaments (bottom).
A framing camera was used to capture the twisting filaments at maximum pinch. The resulting "helix" is shown in Fig. 64. In comparison, a portion of an engraved bone from a site in France, presumably from the Magdalenian culture, is shown in Fig. 64.

XV. PROPERTIES OF AN INTENSE AURORA
The properties of intense aurora described by Gold [5] appear to be similar to the properties of a column of plasma-conducting giga-amperes of current rather than mega-amperes.
Historical reference suggests that intense aurora differs from concurrent aurora in several aspects. One Chinese account (translated from Sung-Shih) is: "Red cloud spreading all over the sky, and among the red bands of white vapor like glossed silk penetrating it. They arose from Tzu-wei, invading the Great Dipper and the Wen-Chang, and then dispersed from the southeast." "Swords," "spears," "white vapor," "like glossed silk penetrating it," "candles in the sky," were terms used to describe the aurora during an intense-corona outburst (Fig. 65). Certainly, these descriptions do not match what is seen during today's auroras, as depicted in Fig. 56. In the following sections, we  investigate the physical effect of increasing the current into the Earth a thousand fold.
A thousand-fold increase of a concurrent aurora is 7 GA, or for 56 filaments, 1.25 MA carried by a filament REB. Estimates will be made for the X-ray fluence and synchrotron luminosity in Part III.

A. Reconstruction of the Plasma Flow During an Intense Aurora
In an intense aurora, the giga-ampere current flow and concomitant strong magnetic field produces a major change in the auroral-height profile. Because of the intense plasma flow and strong longitudinal magnetic field, the plasma forms a thin but dense sheath or plasma column in its propagation toward Earth.
Hence, the in-flowing plasma is a Z-pinch, and as a result, Z-pinch instabilities form as well as intense radiation from the relativistic electrons. The intense radiation consists primarily of X-rays and synchrotron radiation in the visible.
As shown in Part I [6], the synchrotron radiation is that of well-known Z-pinch instabilities in the plasma column. Mankind in antiquity accurately recorded this colorful display of bright lights in many ways. Here, we shall concentrate on the petroglyph and pictograph data recorded worldwide from fields containing about four million markings. Unexpectedly, of those petroglyphs accurately surveyed and GPS logged, it was found that the light was observed totally from the direction of the south axial pole of Earth.
With the utilization of a large computer, several thousands of surveyed data points were used to map the plasma column. Each petroglyph can be viewed as a "fixed" observatory with a local FOV and carved image in perspective (petroglyphs have no meaning if moved). Each of these "pixels" was then processed using plasma holography techniques for recording laboratory Z-pinches to reconstruct a virtual image.  Fig. 66 is a virtual image of the intense auroral plasma column as determined from FOV directivity, angle of inclination, and GPS surveys of several thousands petroglyph "pixels." Two egg-shaped plasmoids are found at 306 000 and 266 000 km, respectively The farthest limit of the reconstruction (top) is located 701 000 km from Earth. The number of Birkeland currents is 56 at the top, converging to 28 at the plasmoids and eventually converging and twisting into four large filaments. If the current oscillates or is sporadic [36, p. 34], the four can separate back to 56 filaments. Whether 56 or 4, or some number in-between, the filaments flow over and past the rotating Earth.

B. Virtual Intense Aurora Image
While Fig. 66 shows the column extending normally to Antarctica, in progress is a higher resolution image showing the easterly curving of the auroral plasma column.

XVII. EARTH WITHIN A FILAMENTARY BIRKELAND
CURRENT SHEATH OR "CAGE" The first indication that 56 filaments would form in Earth's space environment came from Birkeland's original terrella experiments (Fig. 57).
The configuration for an intense aurora is shown in Fig. 67, where 56 current filaments of relativistic electrons coming in toward Earth's south pole surround the planet. A complete closed-circuit description is found in [36].

A. Observations from the Northern Hemisphere
As an example, we start with petroglyph pictures from the Columbia River Basin (Figs. 2 and 40 Figs. 63 and 64, the current bundle above Antarctica twists in counter-clockwise rotation. By convention, the Birkeland currents and ion flow is upwards toward the Arctic. Not yet completely resolved is a bend in the upper filament sheath that allows the upper plasmoids and column to be seen at northern latitudes.
Two are shown in Fig. 68, left. These are typical of uncounted numbers of "ray," "spoke," "feather," "hair," and "whisker" petroglyphs recorded worldwide. These pictures may be compared to an image that would be recorded looking slightly obliquely up the current column shown in Fig. 66.
B. Observations from the Southern Hemisphere 1) South America: Fig. 69 is a photo of a vase uncovered at Nasca (Nazca), latitude 14 • S, with virtually the same image as the petroglyph (Fig. 68, top-left) carved at latitude 46 • N.
In South America, flat terrain and mesas are sometimes marked by kilometer-long, man-made lines. Most of these cross each other at various angles and others start or end with trapezoidal profiles. Construction techniques involve the up-turning of large amounts of patinated pebbles to show the light colored ground beneath or in areas covered by flat heavily   (Fig. 68, left). patinated stones (pavement), flipping the stones to place the whitish under-layer on top-a technique also common to the American southwest.
Markings such as these are found among the Lluta Valley geoglyphs near Arica, Chile, many parts of Brazil, in northern Venezuela, and other regions on Earth. The best known cases are the lines and geoglyphs at Palpa and Nasca, south of Ica, Peru (14.7 • S, 75.1 • W) ("geoglyphs," a word derived from Greek gē = "Earth, ground" and glyphō = "carve, cut out, engrave." Thus, literally, "geoglyph" means "ground carving," although "carving" is not always literally correct where mankind cut through deserts, forests, and mountain ranges to keep the lines as straight as seen from above). What makes the Peruvian lines unique is the sudden flaring of a straight line into a trapezoid geometry.  Within the region containing the lines, the SFOV has a high-ground (blinder) gap with elevations of 700-1000 m, 30-47 km to the south, respectively. The range defining the gap rises abruptly to 1700 m at the westernmost boundary of the lines, while the easternmost lines end where the plains meet east-west hills (and a 1600-m mountain range to the south). Fig. 70 (bottom) shows the lines with the SFOV gap, profiled against the high northern mountains.  Fig. 67 from a "camera" placed at the surface of the digital Earth at latitude/longitude 14.24 • S, 75.58 • W. The historical terms "swords," "spears," "white vapor," "like glossed silk penetrating it," and "candles in the sky," appear appropriate to these pictures. The characteristics of the Nasca-Palpa lines and geoglyphs differ in no way from the parameters determined for petroglyph locations worldwide. Fig. 71 top shows pictures of the lines at Palpa-Nasca. If we place a "camera" on the surface of the globe within Fig. 67 at the latitude of the Peruvian lines, 14.24 • S, the resulting image is that shown in Fig. 71, bottom. The historical terms "swords," "spears," "white vapor," "like glossed silk penetrating it," and "candles in the sky," appear apropos. Highly focused sharpedged synchrotron light from the relativistic mega-ampere electrons would have produced white-light images of the filaments on the ground visible even in daylight [4,.
Vertical striped petroglyphs or vertical white-striped pictographs are found worldwide. For example, white-striped pictographs are common to Australia, from the Northern Territory to the Flinders Range. One example is given in Fig. 72, Iga Warta, at 31 • S latitude. One of the better known pictographs, occurring often in Aborigine mythology, are the striped "Lightning Brothers," latitude 15 • S (Fig. 73), which can be replicated by looking nearly straight into the plasma columns shown in Fig. 68, right, with the Birkeland currents incoming toward Antarctica making up the torsos of the figures. The dark stripe running vertically in the figures, toward the "nose," is the dense central region of the plasma column.
We refer the reader to Section XV on how mankind in antiquity interpreted these figures.

XVIII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
That mankind in antiquity did witness and record the effects and images from an intense solar outburst lasting many years can be deduced by the records that have endured, for the most part very little changed, over the millennia [39]- [42].
With the advent of high-energy-density Z-pinches and associated diagnostics, high-resolution high-fidelity threespatial-dimension electromagnetic particle-in-cell simulations on terahertz computers, and the development of global instrumentation systems, facilities, and instrumentation over the past decade, it has become possible to perform the physics and observations necessary to support suggestions that an intense solar outburst and its effects were observed by mankind in the past.
That the outbursts were extreme is witnessed by the carving on rock of MHD images on rock worldwide, not unlike the eyewitness accounts of "a thousand fantastic figures, as if painted with fire on a black background" from the September 1859 solar storm [43], less energetic than that discussed in this paper.
The so-called "rib-cage" structures most often found in petroglyphs are a distinct signature of self-similar skeletal structures identified in space plasmas [44]. These petroglyphs are often interpreted as actual objects of anthropological significance relating to cultural behaviors worldwide.
The meaning and creation of petroglyphs in standard accounts, i.e., anthropological, trance metaphors, symbolism, histories, and religions, are not expected to have any correlation with a preferred FOV or astrometric factors as proposed here. One of the authors (A. H. Qöyawayma) notes that "Shaman" is a term not used among the Hopi and is unaware if this concept has any relation to petroglyphs in other Native American cultures. Another of the authors (J. McGovern) recalls the words of the anthropologist C. P. Mountford when visiting Red Gorge, South Australia, for the first time in 1937: "To my surprise, the aborigines did not recognize those rock engravings as human handiwork, even though they must have passed through that gorge many times on their hunting journeys." This suggested to him that petroglyphs were a long-forgotten art [45].
Even in our space-plasma account, one might expect plasma columns under very intense geomagnetic-storm conditions to occur near both magnetic poles just as contemporary aurora occur at both poles for comparatively modest storm conditions. However, we find that petroglyph distributions have no north FOV preference (Section XIII). Standard accounts should be independent of such orientation factors except for the sun angle that affects lighting on available rock surfaces. Moreover, lighting from the Sun would have to explain the SFOV in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
Furthermore, "blinders" (Section II-A) should have no correlation with petroglyph distributions nor should an "angle of inclination." Indeed, as shown in Section XVI, preliminary analysis indicates that the worldwide petroglyph distribution and FOV data enable us to reconstruct the intense plasma column that our model predicts for very intense magnetic storms that occur over the millennia. In a later paper, we will carry out more detailed reconstruction and plasma modeling and show how very intense auroral events were recorded by methods other than carving petroglyphs.