anarch polit philosophi advoc self-govern societi base voluntari institut . often describ stateless societi although sever author defin specif institut base non-hierarch free associ . anarch hold state undesir unnecessari harm .	anti-stat central anarch specif entail oppos author hierarch organis conduct human relat includ limit state system . anarch usual consid extrem left-w ideolog much anarchist econom anarchist legal philosophi reflect anti-authoritarian interpret commun collectiv syndic mutual participatori econom .	anarch offer fix bodi doctrin singl particular world view instead flux flow philosophi . mani type tradit anarch exist mutual exclus . anarchist school thought differ fundament support anyth extrem individu complet collectiv .	term anarch compound word compos word anarchi suffix ism deriv respect greek . . anarchi anarcho mean one without ruler priv prefix    . . without archo . . leader ruler cf . archon arkh  . . author sovereignti realm magistraci suffix ismo isma verbal infinit suffix       izein . first known use word . variou faction within french revolut label oppon anarchist robespierr hébertist although share mani view later anarchist . would mani revolutionari earli nineteenth centuri contribut anarchist doctrin next gener william godwin wilhelm weitl use word anarchist anarch describ belief .	first polit philosoph call anarchist pierre-joseph proudhon mark formal birth anarch mid-nineteenth centuri . sinc begin franc term libertarian often use synonym anarch use almost exclus sens unit state use synonym still common outsid unit state . hand use libertarian refer individualist free-market philosophi refer free-market anarch libertarian anarch .	earliest anarchist theme found 6th centuri bc among work taoist philosoph laozi later centuri zhuangzi bao jingyan . zhuangzi philosophi describ variou sourc anarchist . zhuangzi wrote petti thief put jail . great brigand becom ruler nation . diogen sinop cynic contemporari zeno citium founder stoicism also introduc similar topic . jesu sometim consid first anarchist christian anarchist tradit . georg lecharti wrote true founder anarchi jesu christ ... first anarchist societi apostl . earli islam histori manifest anarch thought found islam civil war caliph kharijit insist imam right individu within islam societi .	french renaiss polit philosoph étienn de la boéti wrote famou work discours voluntari servitud historian consid import anarchist preced . radic protest christian gerrard winstanley group digger cite variou author propos anarchist social measur 17th centuri england . term anarchist first enter english languag english civil war term abus use royalist roundhead oppon . time french revolut enragé began use term posit opposit jacobin centralis power see revolutionari govern oxymoron .	part polit turmoil wake french revolut william godwin develop first express modern anarchist thought .	godwin gener regard founder school thought known philosoph anarch . argu polit justic govern inher malevol influenc societi perpetu depend ignor . thought spread use reason mass would eventu caus govern wither away unnecessari forc . although accord state moral legitimaci use revolutionari tactic remov govern power . rather advoc replac process peac evolut .	avers imposit rules-bas societi led denounc manifest peopl mental enslav foundat law properti right even institut marriag . consid basic foundat societi constrain natur develop individu use power reason arriv mutual benefici method social organis . case govern institut shown constrain develop capac live wholli accord full free exercis privat judgement .	french pierre-joseph proudhon regard first self-proclaim anarchist label adopt groundbreak work properti . publish . reason claim proudhon founder modern anarchist theori . develop theori spontan order societi organis emerg without central coordin impos idea order individu act interest famou quot matter liberti mother daughter order . properti . proudhon answer famou accus properti theft . work oppos institut decre properti propriété owner complet right use abus properti wish . contrast call possess limit ownership resourc good less continu use . later howev proudhon ad properti liberti argu bulwark state power . opposit state organis religion certain capitalist practic inspir subsequ anarchist made one lead social thinker time .	anarcho-communist joseph déjacqu first person describ libertarian . unlik pierre-joseph proudhon argu product labour worker right satisfact need whatev may natur . germani post-hegelian philosoph max stirner publish book ego would later consid influenti earli text individualist anarch . pierr joseph proudhon .	europ harsh reaction follow revolut ten countri experienc brief long-term social upheav group carri nationalist upris . attempt systemat chang end failur conserv element took advantag divid group socialist anarchist liber nationalist prevent revolt . spain ramón de la sagra establish anarchist journal el porvenir la coruña inspir proudhon idea . catalan politician francesc pi margal becam princip translat proudhon work spanish later briefli becam presid spain leader democrat republican feder parti . accord georg woodcock translat profound last effect develop spanish anarch time proudhonian idea interpret pi alreadi provid much inspir federalist movement sprang earli . accord encyclopædia britannica spanish revolut pi margal attempt establish decentralis cantonalist polit system proudhonian line . blanquist philadelph english trade unionist socialist social democrat . due link activ worker movement intern becam signific organis . karl marx becam lead figur intern member gener council . proudhon follow mutualist oppos marx state social advoc polit abstention small properti hold . woodcock also report american individualist anarchist lysand spooner william . green member first intern . follow unsuccess particip leagu peac freedom lpf russian revolutionari mikhail bakunin collectivist anarchist associ join first intern decid get involv lpf . alli federalist socialist section intern advoc revolutionari overthrow state collectivis properti .	first collectivist work marxist push first intern revolutionari socialist direct . subsequ intern becam polaris two camp marx bakunin respect figurehead . mikhail bakunin characteris marx idea centralist predict marxist parti came power leader would simpli take place rule class fought . anarchist historian georg woodcock report annual congress intern taken place owe outbreak pari commun gener council call special confer london . one deleg abl attend spain none itali technic excus split away fédération romand use avoid invit bakunin swiss support . thu tini minor anarchist present gener council resolut pass almost unanim . clearli direct bakunin follow . conflict climax final split two group hagu congress bakunin jame guillaum expel intern headquart transfer new york . respons federalist section form intern st . imier congress adopt revolutionari anarchist programm .	pari commun govern briefli rule pari march formal march may . commun result upris pari franc defeat franco-prussian war . anarchist particip activ establish pari commun . includ louis michel reclu brother eugen varlin latter murder repress afterward . reform initi commun re-open workplac co-op anarchist see idea associ labour begin realis ... moreov commun idea feder obvious reflect influenc proudhon french radic idea . inde commun vision commun franc base feder deleg bound imper mandat issu elector subject recal moment echo bakunin proudhon idea proudhon like bakunin argu favour implement bind mandat ... feder commun . thu econom polit pari commun heavili influenc anarchist idea . georg woodcock state	anti-authoritarian section first intern precursor anarcho-syndicalist seek replac privileg author state free spontan organ labour . feder organ trade labor union fotlu unit state canada unanim set may date eight-hour work day would becom standard . next day may anarchist stage ralli chicago haymarket squar . bomb thrown unknown parti near conclus ralli kill offic . ensu panic polic open fire crowd . seven polic offic least four worker kill . eight anarchist directli indirectli relat organis ralli arrest charg murder deceas offic . men becam intern polit celebr among labour movement . four men execut fifth commit suicid prior execut . incid becam known haymarket affair setback labour movement struggl eight-hour day . second attempt time intern scope organis eight-hour day made . event also secondari purpos memorialis worker kill result haymarket affair . although initi conceiv once-off event follow year celebr intern worker day may day becom firmli establish intern worker holiday .	intern anarchist congress amsterdam gather deleg differ countri among import figur anarchist movement includ errico malatesta pierr monatt luigi fabbri benoît broutchoux emma goldman rudolf rocker christiaan cornelissen . variou theme treat congress particular concern organis anarchist movement popular educ issu gener strike antimilitar . central debat concern relat anarch syndic trade union . malatesta monatt particular disagr issu latter thought syndic revolutionari would creat condit social revolut malatesta consid syndic suffici . thought trade-union movement reformist even conserv cite essenti bourgeoi anti-work phenomenon profession union offici . malatesta warn syndicalist aim perpetu syndic wherea anarchist must alway anarchi end consequ refrain commit particular method achiev .	spanish worker feder first major anarcho-syndicalist movement anarchist trade union feder special import spain . success confederación nacion del trabajo nation confeder labour cnt found . cnt major forc spanish work class polit attract million member one point play major role spanish civil war . cnt affili intern worker associ feder anarcho-syndicalist trade union found deleg repres two million worker countri europ latin america . latin america particular anarchist quickli becam activ organis craft industri worker throughout south central america earli trade union mexico brazil peru chile argentina anarcho-syndicalist gener outlook prestig spanish . . . revolutionari organis undoubtedli great extent respons situat . largest milit organis federación obrera region argentina ... grew quickli membership nearli quarter million dwarf rival socialdemocrat union . scholar beverli gage contend advocaci mass murder target kill member rule class time action might garner sympathi popul period heighten govern repress labor conflict worker kill . howev boast exist system quickest radic overthrown annihil expon . therefor massacr enemi peopl must set motion . best known pamphlet publish scienc revolutionari warfar how-to manual subject make explos base knowledg acquir work explos plant new jersey .	peopl insid outsid anarchist movement began use slogan propaganda deed refer individu bomb regicid tyrannicid . onward russian counterpart anti-syndicalist anarchist-communist becom partisan econom terror illeg expropri . illeg practic emerg within act anarchist bomber assassin propaganda deed anarchist burglar individu reappropri express desper person violent reject intoler societi . moreov clearli meant exemplari invit revolt . . franc bonnot gang famou group embrac illeg .	howev soon import figur anarchist movement distanc individu act . peter kropotkin thu wrote year le révolté structur base centuri histori cannot destroy kilo dynamit . varieti anarchist advoc abandon sort tactic favour collect revolutionari action exampl trade union movement . anarcho-syndicalist fernand pellouti argu renew anarchist involv labour movement basi anarch could well without individu dynamit .	state repress includ infam french loi scélérate anarchist labour movement follow success bomb assassin may contribut abandon kind tactic although reciproc state repress first place may play role isol act . dismember french socialist movement mani group follow suppress pari commun execut exil mani communard penal coloni favour individualist polit express act .	numer head state assassin member anarchist movement includ tsar alexand ii russia presid sadi carnot franc empress elisabeth austria king umberto itali presid william mckinley unit state king carlo portug king georg greec . mckinley assassin leon czolgosz claim influenc anarchist feminist emma goldman .	anarchist particip alongsid bolshevik februari octob revolut initi enthusiast bolshevik revolut . howev follow polit fall bolshevik anarchist left-w opposit conflict culmin kronstadt rebellion new govern repress . anarchist central russia either imprison driven underground join victori bolshevik anarchist petrograd moscow fled ukrain . free territori fought civil war white group monarchist oppon octob revolut bolshevik part revolutionari insurrectionari armi ukrain led nestor makhno establish anarchist societi region number month .	expel american anarchist emma goldman alexand berkman among agit respons bolshevik polici suppress kronstadt upris left russia . wrote account experi russia criticis amount control bolshevik exercis . bakunin predict consequ marxist rule ruler new socialist marxist state would becom new elit prove true .	victori bolshevik octob revolut result russian civil war seriou damag anarchist movement intern . mani worker activist saw bolshevik success set exampl communist parti grew expens anarch socialist movement . franc unit state exampl member major syndicalist movement cgt iww left organis join communist intern .	revolutionari wave saw activ particip anarchist vari degre protagon . german upris known german revolut establish bavarian soviet republ anarchist gustav landauer silvio gesel erich mühsam import leadership posit within revolutionari councilist structur . italian event known biennio rosso anarcho-syndicalist trade union union sindacal italiana grew member influenc italian anarchist union member plu umanita nova daili paper grew accordingli ... anarchist first suggest occupi workplac . mexican revolut mexican liber parti establish earli led seri militari offens lead conquest occup certain town district baja california leadership anarcho-communist ricardo flore magón .	pari dielo truda group russian anarchist exil includ nestor makhno conclud anarchist need develop new form organis respons structur bolshev . manifesto call organis platform gener union anarchist draft support . platformist group activ today includ worker solidar movement ireland north eastern feder anarchist communist north america . synthesi anarch emerg organis altern platform tri join anarchist differ tendenc principl anarch without adject . form found main propon volin sebastien faur . veteran italian anarchist luigi fabbri one first critic theorist fascism describ prevent counter-revolut .	anarchist franc itali activ resist world war ii . germani anarchist erich mühsam arrest charg unknown earli morn hour februari within hour reichstag fire berlin . joseph goebbel nazi propaganda minist label one jewish subvers . next seventeen month would imprison concentr camp sonnenburg brandenburg final oranienburg . februari mühsam transfer concentr camp oranienburg final night juli mühsam tortur murder guard batter corps found hang latrin next morn .	spain nation anarcho-syndicalist trade union confederación nacion del trabajo initi refus join popular front elector allianc abstent cnt support led right wing elect victori . cnt chang polici anarchist vote help bring popular front back power . month later conserv member militari support minor extreme-right parti respond attempt coup caus spanish civil war . respons armi rebellion anarchist-inspir movement peasant worker support arm militia took control barcelona larg area rural spain collectivis land . even fascist victori anarchist lose ground bitter struggl stalinist control much distribut militari aid republican caus soviet union . accord noam chomski communist mainli respons destruct spanish anarchist . catalonia communist armi mainli destroy collect elsewher . communist basic act polic forc secur system republ much oppos anarchist partial stalin still hope time kind pact western countri hitler . cours fail stalin withdrew support republ . even withdrew spanish gold reserv . event known spanish revolut worker social revolut began outbreak spanish civil war result widespread implement anarchist broadli libertarian socialist organis principl throughout variou portion countri two three year primarili catalonia aragon andalusia part levant . much spain economi put worker control anarchist stronghold like catalonia figur high lower area heavi communist parti spain influenc soviet- parti activ resist attempt collectivis enact . factori run worker committe agrarian area becam collectivis run libertarian commun . anarchist historian sam dolgoff estim eight million peopl particip directli least indirectli spanish revolut claim came closer realis ideal free stateless societi vast scale revolut histori . spanish communist party-l troop suppress collect persecut dissid marxist anarchist . promin italian anarchist camillo berneri volunt fight franco kill instead spain gunmen associ spanish communist parti . citi madrid turn francoist forc last non-francoist mayor citi anarchist melchor rodríguez garcía .	anarch sought reorganis war context organis debat synthesi anarch platform took import especi anarchist movement itali franc . mexican anarchist feder establish anarchist feder centr unit anarchist feder feder district . earli antifascist intern solidar feder anarchist group cuba merg larg nation organis asociación libertaria de cuba cuban libertarian associ . bulgarian anarchist communist feder reemerg part factori workplac committe movement repress new communist regim . franc fédération anarchist anarchosyndicalist trade union confédérat national du travail establish next year also synthesist federazion anarchica italiana found itali . korean anarchist form leagu free social constructor septemb intern anarchist congress deleg across europ held pari may . uruguayan anarchist feder found . anarcho-communist feder argentina renam argentin libertarian feder . syndicalist worker feder syndicalist group activ post-war britain one solidar feder earliest predecessor . form member dissolv anarchist feder britain . julian beck john cage french surrealist group led andré breton openli embrac anarch collabor fédération anarchist .	anarcho-pacif becam influenti anti-nuclear movement anti war movement time seen activ write english anarchist member campaign nuclear disarma alex comfort similar activ american cathol anarcho-pacifist ammon hennaci dorothi day . anarcho-pacif becam basi critiqu militar side cold war . resurg anarchist idea period well document robert graham anarch documentari histori libertarian idea volum two emerg new anarch . anarch influenti countercultur anarchist activ particip late sixti student worker revolt . carrara itali intern anarchist feder found intern anarchist confer held three exist european feder franc fédération anarchist federazion anarchica italiana itali iberian anarchist feder well bulgarian feder french exil .	unit kingdom associ punk rock movement exemplifi band crass sex pistol . hous employ crisi western europ led format commun squatter movement like barcelona spain . denmark squatter occupi disus militari base declar freetown christiania autonom central copenhagen . sinc reviv anarch mid 20th centuri number new movement school thought emerg . although feminist tendenc alway part anarchist movement form anarcha-femin return vigour second wave femin . anarchist anthropologist david graeber anarchist historian andrej grubac posit ruptur gener anarch often still shaken sectarian habit 19th centuri contrast younger activist much inform among element indigen feminist ecolog cultural-crit idea turn 21st centuri form far major anarchist .	around turn 21st centuri anarch grew popular influenc part anti-war anti-capitalist anti-globalis movement . anarchist becam known involv protest meet world trade organ wto group eight world econom forum . anarchist faction protest engag riot properti destruct violent confront polic . action precipit ad hoc leaderless anonym cadr known black bloc organis tactic pioneer time includ secur cultur affin group use decentralis technolog internet .	intern anarchist feder exist includ intern anarchist feder intern worker associ intern libertarian solidar .	largest organis anarchist movement today spain form confederación gener del trabajo cgt cnt . cgt membership estim around .	anarchist school thought gener group two main histor tradit individualist anarch social anarch differ origin valu evolut . individualist wing anarch emphasis neg liberti . . opposit state social control individu social wing emphasis posit liberti achiev one potenti argu human need societi ought fulfil recognis equal entitl . chronolog theoret sens classic creat throughout 19th centuri post-class anarchist school creat sinc mid 20th centuri .	beyond specif faction anarchist thought philosoph anarch embodi theoret stanc state lack moral legitimaci without accept imper revolut elimin . compon especi individualist anarch philosoph anarch may accept exist minim state unfortun usual temporari necessari evil argu citizen moral oblig obey state law conflict individu autonomi . one reaction sectarian within anarchist milieu anarch without adject call toler first adopt fernando tarrida del mármol respons bitter debat anarchist theori time . abandon hyphen anarch . . collectivist communist mutualist individualist-anarch sought emphasis anti-authoritarian belief common anarchist school thought .	mutual began 18th centuri english french labour movement take anarchist form associ pierre-joseph proudhon franc unit state . proudhon propos spontan order wherebi organis emerg without central author posit anarchi order aris everybodi wish wish busi transact alon produc social order . proudhon distinguish ideal polit possibl practic govern . reason much contrast theoret statement concern ultim spontan self-govern proudhon heavili involv french parliamentari polit alli anarchist socialist faction worker movement addit advoc state-protect charter worker-own cooper promot certain nationalis scheme life public servic .	mutualist anarch concern reciproc free associ voluntari contract feder credit currenc reform . accord american mutualist william batcheld green worker mutualist system would receiv exact pay work servic equival cost exchang servic equival cost without profit discount . mutual retrospect characteris ideolog situat individualist collectivist form anarch . proudhon first characteris goal third form societi synthesi commun properti .	individualist anarch refer sever tradit thought within anarchist movement emphasis individu kind extern determin group societi tradit ideolog system . individualist anarch singl philosophi refer group individualist philosophi sometim conflict .	william godwin often godwin advoc individu propos cooper labour elimin premis would conduc gener good .	influenti form individualist anarch call egoism egoist anarch expound one earliest best-known propon individualist anarch german max stirner . stirner ego publish found text philosophi . without regard god state moral . stirner right spook mind held societi exist individu realiti . stirner advoc self-assert foresaw union egoist non-systemat associ continu renew parti support act stirner propos form organis place state . egoist anarchist argu egoism foster genuin spontan union individu . egoism inspir mani interpret stirner philosophi . re-discov promot german philosoph anarchist homosexu activist john henri mackay .	josiah warren wide regard first american anarchist four-pag weekli paper edit peac revolutionist first anarchist period publish . american anarchist historian eunic minett schuster appar ... proudhonian anarch found unit state least earli consciou affin individualist anarch josiah warren stephen pearl andrew ... william . green present proudhonian mutual purest systemat form . . henri david thoreau import earli influenc individualist anarchist thought unit state europ . thoreau american author poet naturalist tax resist develop critic surveyor historian philosoph lead transcendentalist . best known book walden reflect upon simpl live natur surround essay civil disobedi argument individu resist civil govern moral opposit unjust state . later benjamin tucker fuse stirner egoism econom warren proudhon eclect influenti public liberti .	earli influenc individualist anarch differ countri attract small divers follow bohemian artist intellectu free love birth control advoc see anarch issu relat love sex freethought anti-cler activist well young anarchist outlaw becam known illeg individu reclam see european individualist anarch individualist anarch franc . author activist includ oscar wild emil armand han ryner henri zisli renzo novator miguel gimenez igualada adolf brand lev chernyi among .	social anarch call system common ownership mean product democrat control organis without govern author coercion . largest school thought anarch . social anarch reject privat properti see sourc social inequ retain respect person properti emphasis cooper mutual aid .	collectivist anarch also refer revolutionari social form revolutionari form anarch commonli associ mikhail bakunin johann . collectivist anarchist oppos privat ownership mean product instead advoc ownership collectivis . achiev violent revolut first start small cohes group act violenc propaganda deed would inspir worker whole revolt forcibl collectivis mean product . collectivist anarch aros contemporan marxism oppos marxist dictatorship proletariat despit state marxist goal collectivist stateless societi . anarchist communist collectivist idea mutual exclus although collectivist anarchist advoc compens labour held possibl post-revolutionari transit communist system distribut accord need .	anarchist commun also known anarcho-commun libertarian commun occasion free commun theori anarch advoc abolit state market money privat properti retain respect person properti direct democraci horizont network voluntari associ worker council product consumpt base guid principl accord abil accord need .	form anarchist commun insurrectionari anarch strongli influenc egoism radic individu believ anarcho-commun best social system realis individu freedom . anarcho-communist view anarcho-commun way reconcil opposit individu societi .	anarcho-commun develop radic socialist current french revolut first formul italian section first intern . theoret work peter kropotkin took import later expand develop pro-organisationalist insurrectionari anti-organisationalist section . date best known exampl anarchist communist societi . . establish around idea exist today achiev worldwid attent knowledg histor canon anarchist territori spanish revolut free territori russian revolut . effort influenc spanish anarchist spanish revolut within spanish civil war start anarchist commun exist aragon part levant andalusia well stronghold anarchist catalonia crush combin forc regim war hitler mussolini spanish communist parti repress back ussr well econom armament blockad capitalist countri spanish republ . russian revolut anarchist nestor makhno work creat defend revolutionari insurrectionari armi ukrain anarchist commun free territori ukrain conquer bolshevik .	anarcho-synd branch anarch focus labour movement . anarcho-syndicalist view labour union potenti forc revolutionari social chang replac capit state new societi democrat self-manag worker . basic principl anarcho-synd worker solidar direct action worker self-manag	anarcho-syndicalist believ direct action action concentr directli attain goal oppos indirect action elect repres govern posit allow worker liber . moreov anarcho-syndicalist believ worker organis organis struggl wage system anarcho-syndicalist theori eventu form basi new societi self-manag . boss busi agent rather worker abl make decis affect . rudolf rocker one popular voic anarcho-syndicalist movement . outlin view origin movement sought import futur labour pamphlet anarcho-synd . intern worker associ intern anarcho-syndicalist feder variou labour union differ countri . spanish confederación nacion del trabajo play still play major role spanish labour movement . also import forc spanish civil war .	anarch continu gener mani philosophi movement time eclect draw upon variou sourc syncret combin dispar concept creat new philosoph approach .	green anarch eco-anarch school thought within anarch emphasis environment issu import preced anarcho-natur whose main contemporari current anarcho-primitiv social ecolog . write green anarchist perspect john zerzan attribut ill today social degrad technolog birth agricultur civil . layla abdelrahim argu shift human conscious also shift human subsist strategi wherebi human anim reinvent narr center murder predat therebi institution violenc . thu accord civil result human develop technolog grammar predatori econom . languag literaci claim technolog .	anarcha-femin also call anarchist femin anarcho-femin combin anarch femin . gener view patriarchi manifest involuntari coerciv hierarchi replac decentralis free associ . anarcha-feminist believ struggl patriarchi essenti part class struggl anarchist struggl state . essenc philosophi see anarchist struggl necessari compon feminist struggl vice versa . . susan brown claim anarch polit philosophi oppos relationship power inher feminist . anarcha-femin began late 19th centuri write earli feminist anarchist emma goldman voltairin de cleyr .	anarcho-pacif tendenc reject violenc struggl social chang see non-viol . develop mostli netherland britain unit state second world war . main propon includ leo tolstoy dorothi day ammon hennaci jacqu ellul .	platform tendenc within wider anarchist movement base organis theori tradit dielo truda organis platform gener union anarchist draft . document base experi russian anarchist octob revolut led eventu victori bolshevik anarchist group . platform attempt address explain anarchist movement failur russian revolut .	synthesi anarch form anarch tri join anarchist differ tendenc principl anarch without adject . form found main propon anarcho-communist volin sébastien faur . main principl behind anarchist feder group around contemporari global intern anarchist feder . influenc work max stirner	insurrectionari anarch revolutionari theori practic tendenc within anarchist movement emphasis insurrect within anarchist practic . critic formal organis labour union feder base polit programm period congress .	anarcho-capit advoc elimin state favour self-ownership free market . anarcho-capit develop radic anti-st libertarian individualist anarch draw austrian school econom studi law econom public choic theori . strong current within anarch believ anarcho-capit cannot consid part anarchist movement due fact anarch histor anti-capitalist movement definit reason see anarch incompat capitalist form .	anarch philosophi embodi mani divers attitud tendenc school thought disagr question valu ideolog tactic common . compat capit nation religion anarch wide disput . similarli anarch enjoy complex relationship ideolog marxism commun collectiv syndic trade union capit . anarchist may motiv human divin author enlighten self-interest vegan number altern ethic doctrin .	phenomena civilis technolog . . within anarcho-primitiv democrat process may sharpli criticis within anarchist tendenc simultan laud .	tactic level propaganda deed tactic use anarchist 19th centuri . . nihilist movement contemporari anarchist espous altern direct action method nonviol counter-econom anti-st cryptographi bring anarchist societi . scope anarchist societi anarchist advoc global one local one . divers anarch led wide differ use ident term among differ anarchist tradit led mani definit concern anarchist theori .	intersect overlap variou school thought certain topic interest intern disput proven perenni within anarchist theori .	import current within anarch free love . free love advoc sometim trace root back josiah warren experiment commun view sexual freedom clear direct express individu sovereignti . free love particularli stress women right sinc sexual law discrimin women exampl marriag law anti-birth control measur . also exist ezra heywood angela heywood word . public advoc free love women right critiqu comstockeri censorship sexual inform . also . . lazaru import american individualist anarchist promot free love . openli bisexu radic edna st . vincent millay lesbian anarchist margaret anderson promin among . discuss group organis villag frequent emma goldman among . magnu hirschfeld note goldman campaign boldli steadfastli individu right especi depriv right . thu came first woman inde first american take defenc homosexu love gener public . fact goldman heterosexu anarchist robert reitzel spoke posit homosexu begin detroit-bas german languag journal der arm teufel english poor devil . argentina anarcha-feminist virginia bolten publish newspap call english woman voic publish nine time rosario januari januari reviv briefli .	europ main propagandist free love within individualist anarch emil armand . propos concept la camaraderi amoureus speak free love possibl voluntari sexual encount consent adult . also consist propon polyamori . lucía sánchez saornil main founder spanish anarcha-feminist feder mujer libr open lesbian . publish varieti literari journal work male pen name abl explor lesbian theme time homosexu criminalis subject censorship punish .	recent british anarcho-pacifist alex comfort gain notorieti sexual revolut write bestsel sex manual joy sex . issu free love dedic treatment work french anarcho-hedonist philosoph michel onfray work théori du corp amoureux pour une érotiqu solair l'invent du plaisir fragment cyréaniqu .	english anarchist william godwin educ main mean chang would achiev . godwin saw main goal educ promot happi . earli american anarchist josiah warren advanc altern educ experi libertarian commun establish . max stirner wrote long essay educ call fals principl educ . stirner name educ principl personalist explain self-understand consist hourli self-creat . educ creat free men sovereign charact mean etern charact ... therefor etern form moment .	unit state freethought basic anti-christian anti-cler movement whose purpos make individu polit spiritu free decid religi matter . number contributor liberti anarchist public promin figur freethought anarch . individualist anarchist georg macdonald co-editor freethought time truth seeker . . . walker co-editor excel free-thought free love journal lucif light-bear . school state goal educ work class ration secular non-coerc set . fierc anti-cler ferrer believ freedom educ educ free author church state . murray bookchin wrote period heyday libertarian school pedagog project area countri anarchist exercis degre influenc . perhap best-known effort field francisco ferrer modern school escuela moderna project exercis consider influenc catalan educ experiment techniqu teach gener . la escuela moderna ferrer idea gener form inspir seri modern school unit state tolstoy educ experi short-liv due harass tsarist secret polic . tolstoy establish conceptu differ educ cultur . summerhil often cite exampl anarch practic . howev although summerhil free school radic libertarian differ principl ferrer advoc overtli polit class struggle-approach .	addit organis school accord libertarian principl anarchist also question concept school per se . term deschool popularis ivan illich argu school institut dysfunct self-determin learn serv creation consum societi instead .	critic anarch includ moral critic pragmat critic . anarch often evalu unfeas utopian critic .	anarch countri	barclay harold peopl without govern anthropolog anarchi 2nd ed . left bank book	blumenfeld jacob bottici chiara critchley simon ed . anarchist turn pluto press . march .	carter april polit theori anarch harper row . .	federici silvia autonomedia . .	gordon uri anarchi aliv . london pluto press .	graeber david . fragment anarchist anthropolog chicago prickli paradigm press	graham robert ed . anarch documentari histori libertarian idea .	volum one anarchi anarch 300ce black rose book montréal london . .	volum two anarchist current black rose book montréal . .	guérin daniel monthli review press . .	harper clifford anarchi graphic guid camden press overview updat woodcock classic illustr throughout harper woodcut-styl artwork .	le guin ursula dispossess new york harper row . first edit hardcov	mckay iain ed . anarchist faq .	volum ak press oakland edinburgh page .	volum ii ak press oakland edinburgh page	mclaughlin paul anarch author philosoph introduct classic anarch ashgat . .	marshal peter demand imposs histori anarch pm press . .	nettlau max anarchi time gordon press . .	scott jame . two cheer anarch six easi piec autonomi digniti meaning work play princeton nj princeton univers press . .	woodcock georg anarch histori libertarian idea movement penguin book . . .	woodcock georg ed . anarchist reader fontana collin antholog write anarchist thinker activist includ proudhon kropotkin bakunin malatesta bookchin goldman mani .
autism neurodevelopment disord character impair social interact impair verbal non-verb commun restrict repetit behavior . parent usual notic sign first two year child life .	autism caus combin genet environment factor . case strongli associ certain infect pregnanc includ rubella use alcohol cocain . controversi surround propos environment caus	earli speech behavior intervent help children autism gain self-car social commun skill . autist cultur develop individu seek cure believ autism accept differ treat disord . rate autism among adult age year unit kingdom . overt symptom gradual begin age six month becom establish age two three year tend continu adulthood although often mute form .	unusu social develop becom appar earli childhood . autist infant show less attent social stimuli smile look less often respond less name . autist toddler differ strikingli social norm exampl less eye contact turn-tak abil use simpl movement express point thing . children autism display moder less attach secur neurotyp children although differ disappear children higher mental develop less sever asd . older children adult asd perform wors test face emot recognit although may partli due lower abil defin person emot .	children high-funct autism suffer intens frequent loneli compar non-autist peer despit common belief children autism prefer alon . make maintain friendship often prove difficult autism . qualiti friendship number friend predict lone feel . function friendship result invit parti may affect qualiti life deepli .	third half individu autism develop enough natur speech meet daili commun need . differ commun may present first year life may includ delay onset babbl unusu gestur diminish respons vocal pattern synchron caregiv . second third year children autism less frequent less divers babbl conson word word combin gestur less often integr word . children autism less like make request share experi like simpli repeat word echolalia	pair studi high-funct children autism age perform equal well adult better individu match control basic languag task involv vocabulari spell . autist group perform wors control complex languag task figur languag comprehens infer . peopl often size initi basic languag skill studi suggest peopl speak autist individu like overestim audienc comprehend .	restrict interest interest fixat abnorm theme intens focu preoccup singl televis program toy game .	self-injuri behavior eye-pok skin-pick hand-bit head-bang .	autist individu may symptom independ diagnosi affect individu famili .	estim individu asd show unusu abil rang splinter skill memor trivia extraordinarili rare talent prodigi autist savant . mani individu asd show superior skill percept attent rel gener popul . sensori abnorm found autism consid core featur although good evid sensori symptom differenti autism development disord . differ greater under-respons exampl walk thing over-respons exampl distress loud nois sensat seek exampl rhythmic movement . estim autist peopl motor sign includ poor muscl tone poor motor plan toe walk	unusu eat behavior occur three-quart children asd extent formerli diagnost indic . select common problem although eat ritual food refus also occur appear result malnutrit . although children autism also gastrointestin symptom lack publish rigor data support theori children autism differ gastrointestin symptom usual studi report conflict result relationship gastrointestin problem asd unclear .	parent children asd higher level stress . sibl children asd report greater admir less conflict affect sibl sibl unaffect children similar sibl children syndrom aspect sibl relationship . howev report lower level close intimaci sibl children syndrom sibl individu asd greater risk neg well-b poorer sibl relationship adult .	long presum common caus genet cognit neural level autism characterist triad symptom . complex aris due interact among multipl gene environ epigenet factor chang dna sequenc herit influenc gene express . mani gene associ autism sequenc genom affect individu parent .	studi twin suggest herit autism high asd sibl autism time like autist gener popul . larg number autist individu unaffect famili member may result spontan structur variat delet duplic invers genet materi meiosi . henc substanti fraction autism case may traceabl genet caus highli herit inherit mutat caus autism present parent genom .	sever line evid point synapt dysfunct caus autism . gene replac studi mice suggest autist symptom close relat later development step depend activ synaps activity-depend chang . known teratogen agent caus birth defect relat risk autism appear act first eight week concept though exclud possibl autism initi affect later strong evid autism aris earli develop .	exposur air pollut pregnanc especi heavi metal particul may increas risk autism . environment factor claim without evid contribut exacerb autism includ certain food infecti diseas solvent diesel exhaust pcb phthalat phenol use plastic product pesticid bromin flame retard alcohol smoke illicit drug vaccin	parent may first becom awar autist symptom child around time routin vaccin . led unsupport theori blame vaccin overload vaccin preserv mmr vaccin caus autism . latter theori support litigation-fund studi sinc shown elabor fraud . although theori lack convinc scientif evid biolog implaus	autism symptom result maturation-rel chang variou system brain . autism occur well understood . mechan divid two area pathophysiolog brain structur process associ autism neuropsycholog linkag brain structur behavior . behavior appear multipl pathophysiolog . autism appear result development factor affect mani function brain system disturb time brain develop final product . neuroanatom studi associ teratogen strongli suggest autism mechan includ alter brain develop soon concept . birth brain children autism tend grow faster usual follow normal rel slower growth childhood . known whether earli overgrowth occur children autism . seem promin brain area underli develop higher cognit special .	disturb neuron migrat earli gestat .	unbalanc excitatori inhibitori network . poorli regul synthesi synapt protein . disrupt synapt develop may also contribut epilepsi may explain two condit associ .	immun system thought play import role autism . children autism found research inflamm peripher central immun system indic increas level pro-inflammatori cytokin signific activ microglia . biomark abnorm immun function also associ increas impair behavior characterist core featur autism deficit social interact commun . support recent studi found infect pregnanc associ increas risk autism .	relationship neurochem autism well understood sever investig evid role serotonin genet differ transport . role group metabotrop glutam receptor mglur pathogenesi fragil syndrom common identifi genet caus autism led interest possibl implic futur autism research pathway . data suggest neuron overgrowth potenti relat increas sever growth hormon impair regul growth factor receptor . also inborn error metabol associ autism probabl account less case . sever studi test hypothesi demonstr structur abnorm mn region individu asd delay activ core circuit imit individu asperg syndrom correl reduc mn activ sever syndrom children asd . howev individu autism also abnorm brain activ mani circuit outsid mn mn theori explain normal perform children autism imit task involv goal object .	asd-rel pattern low function aberr activ brain differ depend whether brain social nonsoci task .	autism evid reduc function connect default network large-scal brain network involv social emot process intact connect task-posit network use sustain attent goal-direct think . peopl autism two network neg correl time suggest imbal toggl two network possibl reflect disturb self-referenti thought .	underconnect theori autism hypothes autism mark underfunct high-level neural connect synchron along excess low-level process . evid theori found function neuroimag studi autist individu brainwav studi suggest adult asd local overconnect cortex weak function connect frontal lobe rest cortex . evid suggest underconnect mainli within hemispher cortex autism disord associ cortex .	studi base event-rel potenti transient chang brain electr activ respons stimuli consider evid differ autist individu respect attent orient auditori visual stimuli novelti detect languag face process inform storag sever studi found prefer nonsoci stimuli . exampl magnetoencephalographi studi found evid children autism delay respons brain process auditori signal .	genet area relat found autism schizophrenia base duplic delet chromosom research show schizophrenia autism significantli common combin 1q21 . delet syndrom . research autism schizophrenia relat chromosom 15q13 . chromosom 16p13 . chromosom 17p12 inconclus .	function connect studi found hypo hyper-connect brain peopl autism . hypo-connect seem domin especi interhemispher cortico-cort function connect .	two major categori cognit theori propos link autist brain behavior .	first categori focus deficit social cognit . simon baron-cohen empath system theori postul autist individu system develop intern rule oper handl event insid brain less effect empath handl event gener agent . extens extrem male brain theori hypothes autism extrem case male brain defin psychometr individu system better empath . mirror neuron system theori autism describ pathophysiolog map well hypothesi .	second categori focus nonsoci gener process execut function work memori plan inhibit . review kenworthi state claim execut dysfunct causal factor autism controversi howev clear execut dysfunct play role social cognit deficit observ individu autism . strength theori predict stereotyp behavior narrow interest two weak execut function hard measur execut function deficit found young children autism . relat theori enhanc perceptu function focus superior local orient perceptu oper autist individu . theori map well underconnect theori autism .	neither categori satisfactori social cognit theori poorli address autism rigid repetit behavior nonsoci theori difficulti explain social impair commun difficulti . combin theori base multipl deficit may prove use .	diagnosi base behavior caus mechan . dsm autism character persist deficit social commun interact across multipl context well restrict repetit pattern behavior interest activ . deficit present earli childhood typic age three lead clinic signific function impair . sampl symptom includ lack social emot reciproc stereotyp repetit use languag idiosyncrat languag persist preoccup unusu object . disturb must better account rett syndrom intellectu disabl global development delay .	sever diagnost instrument avail . two commonli use autism research autism diagnost interview-revis adi-r semistructur parent interview autism diagnost observ schedul ado use observ interact child . childhood autism rate scale car use wide clinic environ assess sever autism base observ children .	pediatrician commonli perform preliminari investig take development histori physic examin child . warrant diagnosi evalu conduct help asd specialist observ assess cognit commun famili factor use standard tool take account associ medic condit . differenti diagnosi asd stage might also consid intellectu disabl hear impair specif languag impair presenc autism make harder diagnos coexist psychiatr disord depress .	clinic genet evalu often done asd diagnos particularli symptom alreadi suggest genet caus . consensu guidelin us uk limit high-resolut chromosom fragil test . new genet test develop sever ethic legal social issu emerg . commerci avail test may preced adequ understand use test result given complex autism genet . metabol neuroimag test sometim help routin . uk nation autism plan children recommend week first concern complet diagnosi assess though case handl quickli practic . although symptom autism asd begin earli childhood sometim miss year later adult may seek diagnos help friend famili understand help employ make adjust locat claim disabl live allow benefit .	underdiagnosi overdiagnosi problem margin case much recent increas number report asd case like due chang diagnost practic . increas popular drug treatment option expans benefit given provid incent diagnos asd result overdiagnosi children uncertain symptom . convers cost screen diagnosi challeng obtain payment inhibit delay diagnosi . particularli hard diagnos autism among visual impair partli diagnost criteria depend vision partli autist symptom overlap common blind syndrom blindism .	autism one five pervas development disord pdd character widespread abnorm social interact commun sever restrict interest highli repetit behavior . unlik autism peopl asperg syndrom substanti delay languag develop . terminolog autism bewild autism asperg syndrom pdd-no often call autism spectrum disord asd wherea autism often call autist disord childhood autism infantil autism . articl autism refer classic autist disord clinic practic though autism asd pdd often use interchang . asd turn subset broader autism phenotyp describ individu may asd autistic-lik trait avoid eye contact .	manifest autism cover wide spectrum rang individu sever impair may silent development disabl lock hand flap rock high function individu may activ distinctli odd social approach narrowli focus interest verbos pedant commun . behavior spectrum continu boundari diagnost categori necessarili somewhat arbitrari . much support individu requir daili life subdivis standard controversi . autism also divid syndrom non-syndrom autism syndrom autism associ sever profound intellectu disabl congenit syndrom physic symptom tuber sclerosi . although individu asperg syndrom tend perform better cognit autism extent overlap asperg syndrom hfa non-syndrom autism unclear .	studi report diagnos autism children due loss languag social skill oppos failur make progress typic month age . valid distinct remain controversi possibl regress autism specif subtyp continuum behavior autism without regress .	research caus hamper inabl identifi biolog meaning subgroup within autist popul tradit boundari disciplin psychiatri psycholog neurolog pediatr . newer technolog fmri diffus tensor imag help identifi biolog relev phenotyp observ trait view brain scan help neurogenet studi autism one exampl lower activ fusiform face area brain associ impair percept peopl versu object .	half parent children asd notic child unusu behavior age month four-fifth notic age month . japanes practic screen children asd month use autism-specif formal screen test . contrast uk children whose famili doctor recogn possibl sign autism screen . known approach effect . screen tool design one cultur norm behavior like eye contact may inappropri differ cultur . although genet screen autism gener still impract consid case children neurolog symptom dysmorph featur .	infect rubella pregnanc caus fewer case autism	main goal treat children autism lessen associ deficit famili distress increas qualiti life function independ . gener higher iq correl greater respons treatment improv treatment outcom . singl treatment best treatment typic tailor child need . howev develop evidence-bas intervent advanc recent year . although mani psychosoci intervent posit evid suggest form treatment prefer treatment methodolog qualiti systemat review studi gener poor clinic result mostli tent littl evid rel effect treatment option . intens sustain special educ program behavior therapi earli life help children acquir self-car social job skill often improv function decreas symptom sever maladapt behavior claim intervent around age three year crucial substanti . avail approach includ appli behavior analysi aba development model structur teach speech languag therapi social skill therapi occup therapi . two theoret framework outlin earli childhood intervent includ appli behavior analysi aba development social pragmat model dsp . well-establish improv intellectu perform young children . appropri includ children vari sever autism spectrum disord gener educ popul subject current debat among educ research .	mani medic use treat asd symptom interfer integr child home school behavior treatment fail . half us children diagnos asd prescrib psychoact drug anticonvuls common drug class antidepress stimul antipsychot . antipsychot risperidon aripiprazol found use treat irrit repetit behavior sleepless often occur autism howev side effect must weigh potenti benefit peopl autism may respond atyp . scant reliabl research effect safeti drug treatment adolesc adult asd . known medic reliev autism core symptom social commun impair . experi mice revers reduc symptom relat autism replac modul gene function	although mani altern therapi intervent avail support scientif studi . treatment approach littl empir support quality-of-lif context mani program focu success measur lack predict valid real-world relev . altern treatment may place child risk . studi found compar peer autist boy significantli thinner bone casein-fre diet botch chelat therapi kill five-year-old child autism . earli research look hyperbar treatment children autism .	although popularli use altern treatment peopl autism good evid gluten-fre diet benefit . subset peopl gluten sensit limit evid suggest gluten free diet may improv autist behavior .	treatment expens indirect cost . someon born us studi estim averag lifetim cost net present valu dollar inflation-adjust estim medic care extra educ care lost econom product . publicli support program often inadequ inappropri given child unreimburs out-of-pocket medic therapi expens associ likelihood famili financi problem one us studi found averag loss annual incom famili children asd relat studi found asd associ higher probabl child care problem greatli affect parent employ . us state increasingli requir privat health insur cover autism servic shift cost publicli fund educ program privat fund health insur . childhood key treatment issu includ residenti care job train placement sexual social skill estat plan .	emerg autism right movement serv attempt encourag peopl toler autism . movement peopl hope caus think autism differ instead diseas . propon movement wish seek accept cure . also mani worldwid event promot autism awar world autism awar day light blue autism sunday autist pride day autreat . also mani organ dedic increas awar autism effect autism someon life . organ includ autism speak autism nation committe autism societi america mani . social-sci scholar increas focus studi autism hope learn autism cultur transcultur comparison ... research social movement . media influenc public perceiv autism . rain man film oscar includ best pictur depict charact autism incred talent abil . mani autist special abil autist individu success field .	known cure . children autism acquir languag age five younger though develop commun skill later year . children autism lack social support meaning relationship futur employ opportun self-determin . although core difficulti tend persist symptom often becom less sever age . acquir languag age six iq market skill predict better outcom independ live unlik sever autism . peopl autism face signific obstacl transit adulthood .	recent review tend estim preval per autism close per asd per children unit state asd inadequ data number may underestim asd true rate . rate pdd-no estim per asperg syndrom roughli per childhood disintegr disord per . cdc recent estim everi children per asd .	number report case autism increas dramat earli . increas larg attribut chang diagnost practic referr pattern avail servic age diagnosi public awar though unidentifi environment risk factor cannot rule . avail evid rule possibl autism true preval increas	boy higher risk asd girl . sex ratio averag greatli modifi cognit impair may close intellectu disabl without .	although evid implic singl pregnancy-rel risk factor caus autism risk autism associ advanc age either parent diabet bleed use psychiatr drug mother pregnanc . risk greater older father older mother two potenti explan known increas mutat burden older sperm hypothesi men marri later carri genet liabil show sign autism .	sever condit common children autism . asd associ sever genet disord .	intellectu disabl . percentag autist individu also meet criteria intellectu disabl report anywher wide variat illustr difficulti assess autist intellig . comparison pdd-no associ intellectu disabl much weaker definit diagnosi asperg exclud intellectu disabl .	anxieti disord common among children asd firm data studi report preval rang . mani anxieti disord symptom better explain asd hard distinguish asd symptom .	epilepsi variat risk epilepsi due age cognit level type languag disord .	sever metabol defect phenylketonuria associ autist symptom .	minor physic anomali significantli increas autist popul .	preempt diagnos . although dsm-iv rule concurr diagnosi mani condit along autism full criteria attent deficit hyperact disord adhd tourett syndrom condit often present comorbid diagnos increasingli accept .	sleep problem affect two-third individu asd point childhood . commonli includ symptom insomnia difficulti fall asleep frequent nocturn awaken earli morn awaken . sleep problem associ difficult behavior famili stress often focu clinic attent primari asd diagnosi .	exampl autist symptom treatment describ long autism name . tabl talk martin luther compil notetak mathesiu contain stori year-old boy may sever autist . luther reportedli thought boy soulless mass flesh possess devil suggest suffoc although later critic cast doubt verac report . earliest well-docu case autism hugh blair borgu detail court case brother success petit annul blair marriag gain blair inherit . wild boy aveyron feral child caught show sever sign autism medic student jean itard treat behavior program design help form social attach induc speech via imit .	new latin word autismu english translat autism coin swiss psychiatrist eugen bleuler defin symptom schizophrenia . deriv greek word autó       mean self use mean morbid self-admir refer autist withdraw patient fantasi influenc outsid becom intoler disturb .	word autism first took modern sens han asperg vienna univers hospit adopt bleuler terminolog autist psychopath lectur german child psycholog . asperg investig asd known asperg syndrom though variou reason wide recogn separ diagnosi . almost characterist describ kanner first paper subject notabl autist alon insist still regard typic autist spectrum disord .	donald triplett first person diagnos autism . triplett note savant abil particularli abl name music note play piano mental multipli number . father oliv describ social withdrawn interest number pattern music note letter alphabet . . presid pictur . age abil recit 23rd psalm memor question answer presbyterian catech . also interest creat music chord .	kanner reus autism led decad confus terminolog like infantil schizophrenia child psychiatri focu matern depriv led misconcept autism infant respons refriger mother . start late autism establish separ syndrom . late mid littl evid genet role autism believ one herit psychiatr condit . although rise parent organ destigmat childhood asd affect asd view mani primari care physician medic specialist express belief consist outdat autism research .	took dsm-iii differenti autism childhood schizophrenia . dsm-iii-r provid checklist diagnos autism . may dsm releas updat classif pervas development disord . group disord includ pdd-no autism asperg syndrom rett syndrom cdd remov replac gener term autism spectrum disord . two categori exist impair social commun interact restrict repetit behavior .	internet help autist individu bypass nonverb cue emot share find hard deal given way form onlin commun work remot . sociolog cultur aspect autism develop commun seek cure believ autism simpli anoth way .
albedo measur reflect optic bright latin albedo white surfac . dimensionless measur scale zero correspond black bodi absorb incid radiat one correspond white bodi reflect incid radiat .	surfac albedo defin ratio irradi reflect irradi receiv surfac . proport reflect determin properti surfac also spectral angular distribut solar radiat reach earth surfac . factor vari atmospher composit geograph locat time see posit sun . bi-hemispher reflect calcul singl angl incid . . given posit sun albedo direct integr reflect solar angl given period . tempor resolut may rang second obtain flux measur daili monthli annual averag .	unless given specif wavelength spectral albedo albedo refer entir spectrum solar radiat . due measur constraint often given spectrum solar energi reach surfac approxim  m . spectrum includ visibl light 0.39-  m explain surfac low albedo appear dark . . tree absorb radiat wherea surfac high albedo appear bright . . snow reflect radiat .	albedo import concept climatolog astronomi environment manag . . part leadership energi environment design leed program sustain rate build . averag albedo earth top atmospher planetari albedo cloud cover wide vari local across surfac differ geolog environment featur .	term albedo introduc optic johann heinrich lambert work photometria .	class wikit style float right margin 10px	sampl albedo		. surfac	. typicalalbedo		fresh asphalt		open ocean			worn asphalt		green grass		new concret averag albedo earth . mani small object outer solar system asteroid belt low albedo . typic comet nucleu albedo . dark surfac thought indic primit heavili space weather surfac contain organ compound .	overal albedo moon measur around strongli direct non-lambertian display also strong opposit effect .		astronom albedo diamet kilomet absolut magnitud .	although albedo temperatur effect best known colder whiter region earth maximum albedo actual found tropic year-round illumin greater . maximum addit northern hemispher vari three twelv degre north . minima found subtrop region northern southern hemispher beyond albedo increas without respect illumin .	albedo affect climat determin much radiat planet absorb . uneven heat earth albedo variat land ice ocean surfac drive weather .	area albedo chang due snowfal snow temperatur feedback result . layer snowfal increas local albedo reflect away sunlight lead local cool . principl outsid temperatur chang affect area . . warm air mass rais albedo lower temperatur would maintain current snow invit snowfal deepen snow temperatur feedback . howev local weather dynam due chang season eventu warm air mass direct angl sunlight higher insol caus melt . melt area reveal surfac lower albedo grass soil effect revers darken surfac lower albedo increas local temperatur induc melt thu reduc albedo result still heat .	snow albedo highli variabl rang high freshli fallen snow melt snow low dirti snow . antarctica averag littl . margin snow-cov area warm snow tend melt lower albedo henc lead snowmelt radiat absorb snowpack ice albedo posit feedback . cryoconit powderi windblown dust contain soot sometim reduc albedo glacier ice sheet .	henc small error albedo lead larg error energi estim import measur albedo snow-cov area remot sens techniqu rather appli singl valu broad region .	albedo work smaller scale . sunlight dark cloth absorb heat light-colour cloth reflect better thu allow control bodi temperatur exploit albedo effect colour extern cloth .	albedo affect electr energi output solar photovolta devic . exampl effect spectral respons albedo illustr differ spectral weight albedo solar photovolta technolog base hydrogen amorph silicon a-si crystallin silicon c-si base compar tradit spectral-integr albedo predict . research show impact . recent analysi extend effect spectral bia due specular reflect commonli occur surfac materi human-mad natur analyz albedo effect perform seven photovolta materi cover three common photovolta system topolog industri solar farm commerci flat rooftop residenti pitched-roof applic .	forest gener low albedo major ultraviolet visibl spectrum absorb photosynthesi scientist suggest greater heat absorpt tree could offset carbon benefit afforest offset neg climat impact deforest . case evergreen forest season snow cover albedo reduct may great enough deforest caus net cool effect . tree also impact climat extrem complic way evapotranspir . water vapor caus cool land surfac caus heat condens act strong greenhous ga increas albedo condens cloud scientist gener treat evapotranspir net cool impact net climat impact albedo evapotranspir chang deforest depend greatli local climat	season snow-cov zone winter albedo treeless area higher nearbi forest area snow cover tree readili . decidu tree albedo valu wherea conifer tree valu .	albedo climat area affect artifici cloud creat contrail heavi commerci airlin traffic . studi follow burn kuwaiti oil field iraqi occup show temperatur burn oil fire much colder temperatur sever mile away clear sky .	aerosol fine particl droplet atmospher direct indirect effect earth radi balanc . direct albedo effect gener cool planet indirect effect particl act cloud condens nuclei therebi chang cloud properti less certain . per black carbon bigger caus melt polar ice cap arctic carbon dioxid due effect albedo .	human activ . . deforest farm urban chang albedo variou area around globe . howev quantif effect global scale difficult .	single-scatt albedo use defin scatter electromagnet wave small particl . depend properti materi refract index size particl particl wavelength incom radiat .	cool roof	daisyworld	emiss	global dim	irradi	kirchhoff law thermal radiat	opposit surg	polar see-saw	solar radiat manag
name plural ae first letter first vowel iso basic latin alphabet . upper-cas version consist two slant side triangl cross middl horizont bar . lower-cas version written two form double-storey single-storey . latter commonli use handwrit font base especi font intend read children also found ital type .	earliest certain ancestor aleph also written aleph first letter phoenician alphabet consist entir conson reason also call abjad distinguish true alphabet . turn ancestor aleph may pictogram ox head proto-sinait script influenc egyptian hieroglyph style triangular head two horn extend .	. . . phoenician alphabet letter linear form serv base later form . name thought correspond close hebrew arab aleph .	ancient greek adopt alphabet use letter repres glottal stop conson sound letter denot phoenician semit languag first phonem phoenician pronunci letter use version sign repres vowel call similar name alpha . earliest greek inscript greek dark age date 8th centuri bc letter rest upon side greek alphabet later time gener resembl modern capit letter although mani local varieti distinguish shorten one leg angl cross line set .	etruscan brought greek alphabet civil italian peninsula left letter unchang . roman later adopt etruscan alphabet write latin languag result letter preserv latin alphabet would come use write mani languag includ english .	roman time mani variant form letter . first monument lapidari style use inscrib stone perman medium . also cursiv style use everyday utilitarian write done perish surfac . due perish natur surfac mani exampl style monument still mani surviv exampl differ type cursiv majuscul cursiv minuscul cursiv semicurs minuscul . variant also exist intermedi monument cursiv style . known variant includ earli semi-unci uncial later semi-unci .	end roman empir 5th centuri ad sever variant cursiv minuscul develop western europ . among semicurs minuscul itali merovingian script franc visigoth script spain insular anglo-irish semi-unci anglo-saxon majuscul great britain . 9th centuri carolin script similar present-day form princip form use book-mak advent print press . form deriv combin prior form . howev occur mani common digraph sound sound particularli .	third-most-commonli use letter english second common spanish french . one studi averag letter use english text tend number spanish french .	languag use latin alphabet denot open unround vowel . except saanich glyph stand close-mid front unround vowel .	phonet phonem notat	intern phonet alphabet use open front unround vowel use open central unround vowel use open back unround vowel .	x-sampa use open front unround vowel use open back unround vowel .	algebra letter along letter begin alphabet use repres known quantiti wherea letter end alphabet use denot unknown quantiti .	geometri capit etc . use denot segment line ray etc .	final letter use denot size narrow size shoe	phonet alphabet symbol relat intern phonet alphabet use lowercas uppercas form use write system	latin letter alpha script repres open back unround vowel ipa	latin small letter alpha retroflex hook	subscript small use indo-european studi	small letter reversed-schwa use teuthonista phonet transcript system	ordin indic	ångström sign	turn capit letter use predic logic specifi univers quantif	sign	argentin austral	semit letter aleph follow symbol origin deriv	greek letter alpha follow letter deriv	cyril letter	coptic letter alpha	old ital ancestor modern latin	runic letter ansuz probabl deriv old ital	gothic letter aza ask	
alabama state southeastern region unit state . border tennesse north georgia east florida gulf mexico south mississippi west . alabama 30th extens 24th popul . . state . nearli alabama one nation longest navig inland waterway .	alabama nicknam yellowhamm state state bird . alabama also known heart dixi cotton state . state tree longleaf pine state flower camellia . alabama capit montgomeri . largest citi popul birmingham long industri citi largest citi land area huntsvil . oldest citi mobil found french colonist capit french louisiana .	american civil war world war ii alabama like mani state southern . . suffer econom hardship part continu depend agricultur . like southern state alabama legisl disenfranchis african american mani poor white turn centuri . despit growth major industri urban center white rural interest domin state legislatur urban interest african american markedli under-repres . follow world war ii alabama grew state economi chang one primarili base agricultur one diversifi interest . state economi 21st centuri base manag automot financ manufactur aerospac miner extract healthcar educ retail technolog .	european-american name alabama river state deriv alabama peopl muskogean-speak tribe whose member live confluenc coosa tallapoosa river upper reach river . alabama languag word person alabama lineag albaamo various albaama albàamo differ dialect plural form albaamaha .	word alabama believ come alabama languag suggest name borrow choctaw languag unlik . word spell vari significantli among histor sourc .	sourc disagre word mean . scholar suggest word come choctaw alba mean plant weed amo mean cut trim gather . mean may clearer thicket refer clear land cultiv howev correspondingli similar word alabama languag .	articl jacksonvil republican propos meant rest .	agrarian mississippian cultur cover state ad one major center built moundvil archaeolog site moundvil alabama . second-largest complex classic middl mississippian era cahokia present-day illinoi center cultur . analysi artifact archaeolog excav moundvil basi scholar formul characterist southeastern ceremoni complex secc . contrari popular belief secc appear direct link mesoamerican cultur develop independ . ceremoni complex repres major compon religion mississippian peopl one primari mean religion understood .	among histor tribe nativ american peopl live present-day alabama time european contact cheroke iroquoian languag peopl muskogean-speak alabama alibamu chickasaw choctaw creek koasati . part larg languag famili muskoge tribe develop distinct cultur languag .	explor 16th centuri spanish first european reach alabama . expedit hernando de soto pass mabila part state . year later french found region first european settlement old mobil . citi move current site mobil . area claim french part la louisian .	thoma bassett loyalist british monarchi revolutionari era one earliest white settler state outsid mobil . settl tombigbe district earli . district boundari roughli limit area within mile tombigbe river includ portion today southern clark counti northernmost mobil counti washington counti .	counti baldwin mobil becam part spanish west florida part independ republ west florida final ad mississippi territori . northern two-third alabama known yazoo land begin british coloni period . claim provinc georgia onward . follow revolutionari war remain part georgia although heavili disput .	except area around mobil yazoo land lower one-third alabama made part mississippi territori organ . yazoo land ad territori follow yazoo land scandal . spain kept claim former spanish west florida territori would becom coastal counti adam oní treati offici cede unit state .	alabama admit 22nd state decemb congress select huntsvil site first constitut convent . juli august deleg met prepar new state constitut . huntsvil serv temporari capit seat govern move cahaba dalla counti .	cahaba ghost town first perman state capit . alabama fever underway state admit union settler land specul pour state take advantag fertil land suitabl cotton cultiv . part frontier constitut provid univers suffrag white men .	tuscaloosa serv alabama capit . januari alabama legislatur announc vote move capit citi tuscaloosa montgomeri . first legisl session new capit met decemb . new capitol build erect direct stephen decatur button philadelphia . first structur burn rebuilt site . second capitol build montgomeri remain present day . design barachia holt exet main .	popul increas peopl nearli half enslav african american free peopl color . januari alabama declar secess union . remain independ republ day join confeder state america . confederaci capit initi montgomeri . alabama heavili involv american civil war . although compar battl fought state alabama contribut soldier war effort .	compani cavalri soldier huntsvil alabama join nathan bedford forrest battalion hopkinsvil kentucki . compani wore new uniform yellow trim sleev collar coat tail . led greet yellowhamm name later appli alabama troop confeder armi .	alabama slave freed 13th amend . alabama militari rule end war may offici restor union . white citizen bar temporarili vote freedmen enfranchis mani african american emerg polit leader state . alabama repres congress period three african-american congressmen jeremiah haralson benjamin . turner jame . rapier .	follow war state remain chiefli agricultur economi tie cotton . reconstruct state legisl ratifi new state constitut creat state first public school system expand women right . legisl fund numer public road railroad project although plagu alleg fraud misappropri . year legisl approv call racial segreg school . railroad passeng car segreg . constitut requir racial segreg public school . african american regist alabama although least liter . compar african american elig vote . number drop even later decad . nearli african american lost abil vote . despit numer legal challeng succeed overturn certain provis state legislatur would creat new one maintain disenfranchis . exclus black polit system persist passag feder civil right legisl enforc constitut right citizen .	rural-domin alabama legislatur consist underfund school servic disenfranchis african american reliev pay tax . partial respons chronic underfund educ african american south rosenwald fund began fund construct came known rosenwald school . alabama school design construct partial financ rosenwald fund paid one-third construct cost . fund requir local commun state rais match fund pay rest . black resid effect tax twice rais addit moni suppli match fund school built mani rural area . often donat land labor well .	begin first rosenwald school built alabama african-american children . total school seven teacher hous sever vocat build complet state . sever surviv school build state list nation regist histor place .	industri develop relat demand world war ii brought level prosper state seen sinc civil war . cotton cash crop fade import state develop manufactur servic base .	despit massiv popul chang state rural-domin legislatur refus reapport hous senat seat base popul requir state constitut follow result decenni census . held old represent maintain polit econom power agricultur area . addit state legislatur gerrymand birmingham legisl seat ensur elect person live outsid birmingham .	one result jefferson counti contain birmingham industri econom powerhous contribut one-third tax revenu state receiv proport amount servic . urban interest consist underrepres legislatur . studi note rural domin minor per cent total state popul major control alabama legislatur .	class action suit initi behalf plaintiff lownd counti alabama challeng state legislatur lack redistrict congression seat . white . crook judg frank . johnson order state redistrict . unit state suprem court case baker . carr reynold . sim rule principl one man one vote need basi hous state legislatur well district base popul rather geograph counti alabama use senat .	first time sinc legislatur complet first congression redistrict base decenni censu . benefit urban area develop well popul underrepres year . vote right act . . congress .	legal segreg end state jim crow custom often continu specif challeng court .	despit recommend alabama constitut commiss state legislatur approv amend establish home rule counti . limit home rule legislatur deepli involv pass legisl appli county-level function polici . depriv local resid abil govern distract legislatur statewid issu .	alabama made chang sinc late 20th centuri use new type vote increas represent . omnibu redistrict case dillard . crenshaw counti challeng at-larg vote repres seat alabama jurisdict includ counti school board . at-larg vote dilut vote minor counti major tend take seat . despit african american make signific minor state unabl elect repres at-larg jurisdict .	part settlement case five alabama cite counti includ chilton counti adopt system cumul vote elect repres multi-seat jurisdict . result proport represent voter . anoth form proport represent jurisdict use limit vote conecuh counti . limit vote first test conecuh counti . togeth use system increas number african american women elect local offic result govern repres citizen .	alabama thirtieth-largest state unit state total area area water make alabama 23rd amount surfac water also give second-largest inland waterway system unit state . three-fifth land area gentl plain gener descent toward mississippi river gulf mexico . north alabama region mostli mountain tennesse river cut larg valley creat numer creek stream river mountain lake .	alabama border state tennesse north georgia east florida south mississippi west . alabama coastlin gulf mexico extrem southern edg state . mobil bay feet appalachian mountain northeast .	highest point mount cheaha alabama land consist forest total land area . suburban baldwin counti along gulf coast largest counti state land area water area .	area alabama administ nation park servic includ horsesho bend nation militari park near alexand citi littl river canyon nation preserv near fort payn russel cave nation monument bridgeport tuskege airmen nation histor site tuskege tuskege institut nation histor site near tuskege .	addit alabama four nation forest conecuh talladega tuskege william . bankhead . alabama also contain natchez trace parkway selma montgomeri nation histor trail trail tear nation histor trail . notabl natur wonder alabama natur bridg rock longest natur bridg east rocki locat south haleyvil .	wide meteorit impact crater locat elmor counti north montgomeri . wetumpka crater site alabama greatest natur disast . wide meteorit hit area million year ago . hill east downtown wetumpka showcas erod remain impact crater blast bedrock area label wetumpka crater astroblem star-wound concentr ring fractur zone shatter rock found beneath surfac . christian koeberl institut geochemistri univers vienna publish evid establish site 157th recogn impact crater earth .	state classifi humid subtrop cfa koppen climat classif . averag annual temperatur . temperatur tend warmer southern part state proxim gulf mexico northern part state especi appalachian mountain northeast tend slightli cooler . gener alabama hot summer mild winter copiou precipit throughout year . alabama receiv averag rainfal annual enjoy lengthi grow season day southern part state .	alabama along oklahoma report ef5 tornado state accord statist nation climat data center period januari june . sever long-track f5 ef5 tornado contribut alabama report tornado fatal state . state affect super outbreak devast tremend super outbreak . super outbreak produc record amount tornado state . talli reach .	peak season tornado vari northern southern part state . alabama one place world secondari tornado season novemb decemb along spring sever weather season . northern part state along tennesse valley one area . . vulner violent tornado . area alabama mississippi affect tornado sometim refer dixi alley distinct tornado alley southern plain .	winter gener mild alabama throughout southeastern unit state averag januari low temperatur around mobil around birmingham . although snow rare event much alabama area state north montgomeri may receiv dust snow time everi winter occasion moder heavi snowfal everi year . histor snowfal event includ new year eve snowstorm storm centuri . annual averag snowfal birmingham area per year . southern gulf coast snowfal less frequent sometim go sever year without snowfal .	alabama highest temperatur record septemb unincorpor commun centervil . record low occur januari new market .	alabama home divers array flora fauna due larg varieti habitat rang tennesse valley appalachian plateau ridge-and-valley appalachian north piedmont canebrak black belt central region gulf coastal plain beach along gulf mexico south . state usual rank among top nation rang overal biodivers .	alabama subtrop conifer forest biom boast huge expans pine forest still form largest proport forest state .	indigen anim speci state includ mammal speci reptil speci amphibian speci roughli nativ freshwat fish speci invertebr includ crayfish speci mollusk speci . mollusk speci never collect outsid state .	unit state censu bureau estim popul alabama juli repres increas sinc censu . includ natur increas sinc last censu peopl birth minu death increas due net migrat peopl state .	immigr outsid . . result net increas peopl migrat within countri produc net gain peopl .	accord censu alabama popul . racial composit state white non-hispan white hispan white black african american hispan latino race asian american indian alaska nativ nativ hawaiian pacif island race two race . alabama popul younger age minor .	largest report ancestri group alabama african english irish german scots-irish . cite american ancestri alabama gener english british ancestri mani anglo-american identifi american ancestri root north america long case sinc . demograph estim minimum peopl alabama predominantli english ancestri figur like higher . censu peopl alabama identifi english ancestri make largest ethnic group time .	base histor migrat settlement pattern southern coloni state demograph estim peopl alabama scots-irish origin self-report . mani peopl alabama claim irish ancestri term scots-irish base histor immigr settlement ancestor like protest scots-irish come northern ireland gener part english colon . scots-irish largest non-english immigr group british isl american revolut mani settl south later move deep south develop .	davi strong act state legislatur establish alabama indian affair commiss . nativ american group within state increasingli demand recognit ethnic group seek end discrimin . given long histori slaveri associ racial segreg nativ american peopl sometim mix race insist cultur identif respect . past self-identif often overlook state tri impos binari breakdown societi white black .	state offici recogn nine american indian tribe state descend mostli five civil tribe american southeast .	poarch band creek indian also feder recognit	mowa band choctaw indian	star clan muscoge creek	echota cheroke tribe alabama	cheroke tribe northeast alabama	cher-o-creek intra tribal indian	ma-chi lower creek indian tribe	piqua shawne tribe	ani-yun-wiya nation .	state govern promot recognit nativ american contribut state includ design columbu day jointli celebr american indian heritag day .	sourc census.gov	sourc census.gov	alabama resid five year old older spoke english home minor decreas . alabama english predominantli southern relat south midland speech taken across border tennesse . major southern speech region decreas loss final exampl boyd pronunci bird . northern third state south midland arm barb rhyme form orb . uniqu word alabama english includ redworm earthworm peckerwood woodpeck snake doctor snake feeder dragonfli tow sack burlap bag plum peach clingston french harp harmonica dog iron andiron .		spanish		german		french incl . patoi cajun		chines vietnames korean arab african languag japanes italian tie		american religi identif survey alabama respond report religion christian includ cathol religion . composit tradit mormon jewish muslim buddhist hindu .	alabama locat middl bibl belt region numer protest christian . alabama identifi one religi state unit state popul attend church regularli . major peopl state identifi evangel protest . three largest denomin group alabama southern baptist convent unit methodist church non-denomin evangel protest .	alabama southern baptist convent highest number adher follow unit methodist church adher non-denomin evangel protest adher cathol church adher . mani baptist methodist congreg becam establish great awaken earli 19th centuri preacher proselyt across south . assembl god almost member church christ nearli member . presbyterian church strongli associ scots-irish immigr 18th centuri descend combin membership around pca member congreg pc usa member congreg cumberland presbyterian church member congreg cumberland presbyterian church america member congreg plu epc associ reform presbyterian member congreg .	survey nearli respond could name four christian gospel . indic religi prefer said possess full understand faith need learn . poll alabamian report least confid church state .	although much smaller number mani religi faith repres state well includ judaism islam hinduism buddhism sikhism bahá'í faith unitarian univers . oldest jewish congreg state congreg sha'arai shomayim mobil . formal recogn state legislatur januari .	muslim increas alabama mosqu built mani african-american convert .	sever hindu templ cultur center state found indian immigr descend best-known shri swaminarayan mandir birmingham hindu templ cultur center birmingham pelham hindu cultur center north alabama capshaw hindu mandir cultur center tuscaloosa .	six dharma center organ theravada buddhist . monast buddhist templ concentr southern mobil counti near bayou la batr . area attract influx refuge cambodia lao vietnam thereaft . four templ within ten-mil radiu bayou la batr includ chua chanh giac wat buddharaksa wat lao phoutthavihan .	first commun adher baha'i faith alabama found paul . deali move chicago fairhop . baha'i center alabama exist birmingham alabama huntsvil alabama florenc alabama .	center diseas control prevent studi show obes alabama problem counti adult obes except ten rate . resid state along five state least like nation physic activ leisur time . alabama southeastern . . gener one highest incid adult onset diabet countri exceed adult .	state invest aerospac educ health care bank variou heavi industri includ automobil manufactur miner extract steel product fabric . crop anim product alabama valu billion . contrast primarili agricultur economi previou centuri state gross domest product . number privat farm declin steadi rate sinc land sold develop timber compani larg farm conglomer .	non-agricultur employ manag occup busi financi oper computer-rel mathemat occup architectur engin life physic social scienc commun social servic legal occup educ train librari servic art design media occup healthcar fire fight law enforc secur food prepar serv build ground clean mainten person care servic sale offic administr support farm fish forestri construct mine ga oil extract instal mainten repair product transport materi move . per capita incom state .	state season adjust unemploy rate april . compar nationwid season adjust rate .	alabama state minimum wage use feder minimum wage . februari state pass legisl prevent alabama municip rais minimum wage local . legisl void birmingham citi ordin rais citi minimum wage .	five employ employ employe alabama april	next twenti largest employ includ	alabama agricultur output includ poultri egg cattl fish plant nurseri item peanut cotton grain corn sorghum veget milk soybean peach . although known cotton state alabama rank eighth tenth nation cotton product accord variou report texa georgia mississippi compris top three .	alabama industri output includ iron steel product includ cast-iron steel pipe paper lumber wood product mine mostli coal plastic product car truck apparel . addit alabama produc aerospac electron product mostli huntsvil area locat nasa georg . marshal space flight center . . armi materiel command headquart redston arsen .	great deal alabama econom growth sinc due state expand automot manufactur industri . locat state honda manufactur alabama hyundai motor manufactur alabama mercedes-benz . . intern toyota motor manufactur alabama well variou supplier . sinc automobil industri gener new job state . alabama current rank 4th nation vehicl export .	automak account approxim third industri expans state . eight model produc state auto factori total combin sale vehicl . strongest model sale period hyundai elantra compact car mercedes-benz gl-class sport util vehicl honda ridgelin sport util truck .	steel produc outokumpu nucor ssab thyssenkrupp . . steel facil alabama employ peopl . may german steelmak thyssenkrupp select calvert mobil counti billion combin stainless carbon steel process facil . thyssenkrupp stainless steel divis inoxum includ stainless portion calvert plant sold finnish stainless steel compani outokumpu . remain portion thyssenkrupp plant final bid submit arcelormitt nippon steel billion march . companhia siderúrgica nacion submit combin bid mill calvert plu major stake thyssenkrupp mill brazil billion . juli plant sold arcelormitt nippon steel .	hunt refin compani subsidiari hunt consolid inc . base tuscaloosa oper refineri . compani also oper termin mobil melvin moundvil . jvc america inc . oper optic disc replic packag plant tuscaloosa .	goodyear tire rubber compani oper larg plant gadsden employ peopl . oper sinc .	construct airbu a320 famili aircraft assembl plant mobil formal announc airbu ceo fabric brégier mobil convent center juli . plan includ million factori brookley aeroplex assembl a319 a320 a321 aircraft . construct began plan becom oper produc aircraft per year . assembl plant compani first factori built within unit state . announc februari airbu hire alabama-bas hoar construct overse construct facil .	estim million tourist visit state year . countri includ canada unit kingdom germani japan . million tourist spent billion provid estim job state . popular area includ rocket citi huntsvil beach along gulf state capitol montgomeri .	uab hospit level trauma center alabama . uab largest state govern employ alabama workforc .	alabama headquart region financi corpor bbva compass superior bancorp former coloni bancgroup . birmingham-bas compass banchshar acquir spanish-bas bbva septemb although headquart bbva compass remain birmingham . novemb region financi complet merger amsouth bancorpor also headquart birmingham . southtrust corpor anoth larg bank headquart birmingham acquir wachovia billion .	citi still major oper wachovia post-oper bank well fargo includ region headquart oper center campu million data center . nearli dozen smaller bank also headquart birmingham superior bancorp servisfirst new south feder save bank . birmingham also serv headquart sever larg invest manag compani includ harbert manag corpor .	telecommun provid formerli bellsouth major presenc alabama sever larg offic birmingham . compani employe contract employe .	mani commerci technolog compani headquart huntsvil network access compani adtran comput graphic compani intergraph design manufactur infrastructur avoc telecommun provid deltacom . cinram manufactur distribut 20th centuri fox dvd blu-ray disc huntsvil plant .	rust intern grown includ brasfield gorri hoar construct . . harbert intern routin includ engin news-record list top design intern construct engin firm . rust intern acquir washington group intern turn acquir san-francisco base ur corpor .	foundat document alabama govern alabama constitut ratifi . almost amend word account world longest constitut roughli forti time length unit state constitut .	signific movement rewrit modern alabama constitut . critic argu alabama constitut maintain highli central power state legislatur leav practic power local hand . counti home rule . polici chang propos differ area state must approv entir alabama legislatur frequent state referendum . one critic current constitut claim complex length intent codifi segreg racism .	alabama govern divid three coequal branch . legisl branch alabama legislatur bicamer assembl compos alabama hous repres member alabama senat member . legislatur respons write debat pass defeat state legisl . republican parti current hold major hous legislatur . legislatur power overrid gubernatori veto simpl major state legislatur requir two-third major overrid veto .	state elect state senat geograph basi counti one per counti . redistrict congression district sinc passag constitut result urban area grossli underrepres . chang legisl district reflect decenni census either . reynold . sim us suprem court implement principl one man one vote rule congression district reapport base census state alreadi includ constitut implement . court rule hous bicamer state legislatur apport popul constitut basi state geograph base system .	time alabama mani state chang legisl district mani across countri system underrepres urban area district . caus decad underinvest area . instanc birmingham jefferson counti tax suppli one-third state budget jefferson counti receiv th state servic fund . legisl deleg alabama legislatur kept control counti govern .	execut branch respons execut oversight law . head governor alabama . member execut branch includ cabinet attorney gener alabama alabama secretari state alabama state treasur state auditor alabama . current governor state republican kay ivey . offic lieuten governor current vacant .	member legislatur take offic immedi novemb elect . statewid offici governor lieuten governor attorney gener constitut offic take offic follow januari .	judici branch respons interpret constitut appli law state crimin civil case . state highest court suprem court alabama . alabama use partisan elect select judg . sinc judici campaign becom increasingli politic . current chief justic alabama suprem court republican roy moor . sit justic alabama suprem court member republican parti . two intermedi appel court court civil appeal court crimin appeal four trial court circuit court trial court gener jurisdict district probat municip court . alabama highest per capita death penalti rate countri . year impos death sentenc texa state popul five time larger . convict death penalti case . state still allow judg overrid juri decis whether use death sentenc case judg overturn sentenc life imprison without parol lwop vote unanim juri .	alabama levi percent person incom tax depend upon amount earn file statu . taxpay allow deduct feder incom tax alabama state tax even take standard deduct . taxpay file item deduct also allow deduct feder insur contribut act tax social secur medicar tax .	state gener sale tax rate . sale tax rate citi counti also ad purchas . exampl total sale tax rate mobil addit restaur tax mean diner mobil would pay tax meal . sale excis tax alabama account state local revenu compar averag nationwid .	alabama incom tax poor work famili among highest unit state .	corpor incom tax rate current . overal feder state local tax burden alabama rank state second least tax-burden state countri . properti tax lowest . . current state constitut requir voter referendum rais properti tax .	sinc alabama tax structur larg depend consum spend subject high variabl budget structur . exampl alabama annual budget deficit high million .	alabama counti . counti elect legisl branch usual call counti commiss . also limit execut author counti . constraint alabama constitut central power state legislatur seven counti jefferson lee mobil madison montgomeri shelbi tuscaloosa state limit home rule . instead counti state must lobbi local legisl committe state legislatur get simpl local polici approv rang wast dispos land use zone . cumbersom process result local jurisdict unabl manag problem state legisl buri local counti issu .	state legislatur retain power local govern refus pass constitut amend establish home rule counti recommend alabama constitut commiss .	alabama alcohol beverag control state mean state govern hold monopoli sale alcohol . alabama alcohol beverag control board control sale distribut alcohol beverag state . twenty-f counti dri counti ban sale alcohol mani dri municip even counti permit alcohol sale .	reconstruct follow american civil war alabama occupi feder troop third militari district gener john pope . polit coalit white democrat known redeem took control state govern republican part suppress african-american vote violenc fraud intimid .	coalit white democrat politician pass law segreg disenfranchis african american resid process complet provis constitut . provis disenfranchis african american result exclud mani poor white . white african american disenfranchis . total effect greater african-american commun almost citizen disfranchis releg separ unequ treatment law .	state redraw elect district popul grew shift within state urban industri certain area . counti basi elect district result rural minor domin state polit nearli three-quart centuri seri feder court case requir redistrict meet equal represent .	alabama state polit gain nationwid intern attent civil right movement white bureaucrat time violent resist protest elector social reform . governor georg wallac state four-term governor controversi figur vow maintain segreg . passag feder civil right act	republican control hous legislatur first time year nearli complet realign polit parti repres differ vision 21st centuri .	disfranchis african american state becam part solid south system democrat parti oper effect viabl polit parti everi southern state . nearli year local state elect alabama decid democrat parti primari gener token republican challeng run gener elect . sinc mid late 20th centuri howev realign among two major polit parti white conserv start shift republican parti . alabama majority-whit district expect regularli elect republican candid feder state local offic .	member nine seat alabama suprem court ten seat state appel court elect offic . republican held court seat . gener elect then-incumb chief justic alabama ernest . hornsbi refus leav offic lose elect approxim vote republican perri . hooper sr .. hornsbi su alabama defiantli remain offic nearli year final give seat lose court . ultim led collaps support democrat ballot box next three four elect cycl . democrat lost last nineteen court seat august resign last democrat bench .	earli 21st centuri republican hold seven statewid elect execut branch offic . republican hold six eight elect seat alabama state board educ . republican took larg major chamber state legislatur give control bodi first time year . last remain statewid democrat serv alabama public servic commiss defeat .	two republican lieuten governor elect sinc end reconstruct republican gener repres reconstruct govern includ newli emancip freedmen gain franchis . two gop lt . governor steve windom current lt . governor kay ivey elect re-elect .	mani local offic counti commission board educ tax assessor tax collector etc . state still held democrat . mani rural counti voter major democrat result local elect decid democrat primari . similarli mani metropolitan suburban counti majority-republican elect effect decid republican primari although except .	alabama counti sheriff elect partisan at-larg race democrat still retain narrow major post . current split democrat republican one independ fayett . howev democrat sheriff presid rural less popul counti . major republican sheriff elect urban suburban heavili popul counti . state alabama one femal sheriff morgan counti alabama ten african-american sheriff .	public school fund appropri alabama legislatur educ trust fund . fy alabama appropri primari secondari educ . repres increas previou fiscal year . percent school made adequ yearli progress ayp toward student profici nation child left behind law use measur determin state alabama .	alabama public educ system improv recent decad lag behind achiev compar state . accord . . censu data alabama high school graduat rate fourth lowest . . kentucki louisiana mississippi . largest educ gain among peopl colleg educ without degre .	although unusu west school corpor punish uncommon alabama public school student paddl least one time accord govern data school year .	alabama program higher educ includ four-year public univers two-year commun colleg privat undergradu graduat univers . state four medic school fall univers alabama school medicin univers south alabama alabama colleg osteopath medicin edward via colleg osteopath medicin auburn campu two veterinari colleg auburn univers tuskege univers dental school univers alabama school dentistri optometri colleg univers alabama birmingham two pharmaci school auburn univers samford univers five law school univers alabama school law birmingham school law cumberland school law mile law school thoma good jone school law . public post-secondari educ alabama overseen alabama commiss higher educ alabama depart postsecondari educ . colleg univers alabama offer degre program two-year associ degre multitud doctor level program .	largest singl campu univers alabama locat tuscaloosa enrol fall . troy univers largest institut state enrol student across four alabama campus troy dothan montgomeri phenix citi well sixti learn site seventeen state eleven countri . oldest institut public univers north alabama florenc cathol church-affili spring hill colleg mobil found .	accredit academ program southern associ colleg school sac well subject-focus nation intern accredit agenc associ biblic higher educ abh council occup educ coe accredit council independ colleg school acic .	accord . . news world report alabama three univers rank top public school america univers alabama auburn univers univers alabama birmingham .	accord . . news world report alabama four tier univers univers alabama auburn univers univers alabama birmingham univers alabama huntsvil .	major newspap includ birmingham news birmingham post-herald mobil press-regist montgomeri advertis .	televis news channel alabama includ	abc	wjsu abc anniston al	wbma abc birmingham al	wdhn abc dothan al	waay abc huntsvil al	wncf abc montgomeri al	wcft abc tuscaloosa al	cb	wiat cb birmingham al	wtvi cb dothan al	whnt cb huntsvil al	wkrg cb mobil al	waka cb selma al	fox	wbrc fox birmingham al	wzdx fox huntsvil al	wala fox mobil al	wcov fox montgomeri al	wdfx fox ozark al	nbc	wvtm nbc birmingham al	waff nbc huntsvil al	wpmi nbc mobil al	wsfa nbc montgomeri al	pb alabama public televis	wbiq pb birmingham al	wiiq pb demopoli al	wdiq pb dozier al	wfiq pb florenc al	whiq pb huntsvil al	wgiq pb louisvil al	weiq pb mobil al	waiq pb montgomeri al	wciq pb mount cheaha al	colleg footbal popular alabama particularli univers alabama crimson tide auburn univers tiger rival southeastern confer . season alabama averag fan per game auburn averag fan number among top nation averag attend . bryant denni stadium home alabama footbal team seat capac fifth largest stadium america . jordan-har stadium home field auburn footbal team seat .	legion field home uab blazer footbal program birmingham bowl . seat . ladd peebl stadium mobil home univers south alabama footbal team serv home ncaa senior bowl dollar gener bowl formerli godaddy.com bowl alabama-mississippi star classic stadium seat . bryant denni stadium jordan-har stadium becam home alabama high school athlet associ state footbal championship game previous held legion field birmingham .	alabama sever profession semi-profession sport team includ three minor leagu basebal team .	talladega superspeedway motorsport complex host seri nascar event . seat capac thirteenth largest stadium world sixth largest stadium america . also barber motorsport park host indycar seri rolex sport car seri race .	atp birmingham world championship tenni tournament held .	alabama host sever profession golf tournament pga championship shoal creek barbasol championship pga tour mobil lpga tournament champion airbu lpga classic yokohama tire lpga classic lpga tour tradit champion tour .	major airport sustain commerci oper alabama includ birmingham-shuttlesworth intern airport bhm huntsvil intern airport hsv dothan region airport dhn mobil region airport mob montgomeri region airport mgm muscl shoal northwest alabama region airport msl .	rail transport amtrak schedul crescent daili passeng train run new york new orlean station stop anniston birmingham tuscaloosa .	alabama six major interst road cross state interst travel north south roughli middl state travel central west mississippi state line birmingham continu north-east corner state continu east toward atlanta origin montgomeri travel east-northeast georgia state line provid main thoroughfar atlanta travers southernmost portion state travel west east mobil . enter state mississippi connect birmingham memphi tennesse . addit current five auxiliari interst rout state mobil tuscaloosa around birmingham decatur huntsvil gadsden . sixth rout form rerout along new southern bypass montgomeri . propos northern bypass birmingham design . sinc direct connect possibl propos well .	sever . . highway also pass state . . rout us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us .	four toll road state montgomeri expressway montgomeri tuscaloosa bypass tuscaloosa emerald mountain expressway wetumpka beach express orang beach .	port mobil alabama saltwat port larg seaport gulf mexico inland waterway access midwest way tennessee-tombigbe waterway . port mobil rank 12th ton traffic unit state . newli expand contain termin port mobil rank 25th busiest contain traffic nation . state port river access gulf mexico .	water port alabama list north south	outlin alabama organ list topic alabama	index alabama-rel articl	gun right alabama	right work alabama	adventur tourism experienti travel guid . access march .	detail bibliographi see histori alabama .	atkin leah rawl wayn flynt william warren roger david ward . alabama histori deep south state	flynt wayn . alabama twentieth centuri	owen thoma . histori alabama dictionari alabama biographi vol . .	jackson harvey . insid alabama person histori state	mohl raymond . latin heart dixi hispan late-twentieth-centuri alabama alabama review .	peirc neal . deep south state america peopl polit power seven deep south state . inform polit econom .	william benjamin buford . literari histori alabama nineteenth centuri .	wpa . guid alabama	alabama depart archiv histori	alabama legislatur site	. . censu bureau	. . depart agricultur
greek mytholog achil greek hero trojan war central charact greatest warrior homer iliad . mother immort nymph theti father mortal peleu king myrmidon .	achil notabl feat trojan war slay trojan hero hector outsid gate troy . although death achil present iliad sourc concur kill near end trojan war pari shot heel arrow . later legend begin poem statiu 1st centuri ad state achil invulner bodi except heel . allud legend term achil heel come mean point weak especi someon someth otherwis strong constitut .	linear tablet attest person name achilleu form a-ki-re-u a-ki-re-w latter dativ former . also turn femal form          achilleía attest attica fourth centuri bc ig ii² form achillia stele halicarnassu name femal gladiat fight amazon .	achil name analyz combin distress pain sorrow grief peopl soldier nation result proto-form akhí-l u os peopl distress whose peopl distress . grief distress peopl theme rais numer time iliad frequent achil . achil role hero grief distress form iron juxtaposit convent view hero glori usual war . furthermor laó constru gregori nagi follow leonard palmer mean corp soldier muster . topic epitheta achil iliad point swift-footed name                        podárk  d o achilleú swift-foot divin achil even frequent                     póda  kú achilleú quick-foot achil .	research deem name loan word possibl pre-greek languag . robert . . beek suggest pre-greek origin name base among thing coexist    epic languag may account palat phonem ly origin languag .	achil son nereid theti peleu king myrmidon . zeu poseidon rival hand theti prometheu fore-think warn zeu propheci origin utter themi goddess divin law theti would bear son greater father . reason two god withdrew pursuit wed peleu .	tale offer altern version event argonautica zeu sister wife hera allud theti chast resist advanc zeu point theti loyal hera marriag bond coolli reject father god . theti although daughter sea-god nereu also brought hera explain resist advanc zeu . zeu furiou decre would never marri immort .	accord achilleid written statiu 1st centuri ad non-surviv previou sourc achil born theti tri make immort dip river styx . howev left vulner part bodi held left heel see achil heel achil tendon . clear version event known earlier . anoth version stori theti anoint boy ambrosia put top fire burn away mortal part bodi . interrupt peleu abandon father son rage .	howev none sourc statiu make refer gener invulner . contrari iliad homer mention achil wound book paeonian hero asteropaeu son pelagon challeng achil river scamand . cast two spear one graze achil elbow draw spurt blood .	also fragmentari poem epic cycl find descript hero death . . cypria littl iliad lesch pyrrha aithiopi iliou persi arctinu miletu trace refer gener invulner famou weak heel later vase paint present achil death arrow mani case arrow hit bodi . peleu entrust achil chiron centaur mount pelion rear . theti foretold son fate either gain glori die young live long unev life obscur . achil chose former decid take part trojan war . accord homer achil grew phthia togeth companion patroclu . claim order keep achil safe war theti version peleu hid young man court lycomed king skyro . achil disguis girl live among lycomed daughter perhap name pyrrha red-hair girl . lycomed daughter deidamia account statiu rape achil father son neoptolemu also call pyrrhu father possibl alia . accord stori odysseu learn prophet calcha achaean would unabl captur troy without achil aid . odysseu goe skyro guis peddler sell women cloth jewelri place shield spear among good . achil instantli take spear odysseu see disguis convinc join greek campaign . anoth version stori odysseu arrang trumpet alarm sound lycomed women women flee panic achil prepar defend court thu give ident away .	accord iliad achil arriv troy ship carri myrmidon . appoint five leader leader command myrmidon menesthiu eudoru peisand phoenix alcimedon .	greek left trojan war accident stop mysia rule king telephu . result battl achil gave telephu wound would heal telephu consult oracl state wound shall heal . guid oracl arriv argo achil heal order might becom guid voyag troy .	accord report euripid lost play telephu went auli pretend beggar ask achil heal wound . achil refus claim medic knowledg . altern telephu held orest ransom ransom achil aid heal wound . odysseu reason spear inflict wound therefor spear must abl heal . piec spear scrape onto wound telephu heal . howev romanc troilu chrysei describ geoffrey chaucer troilu criseyd william shakespear troilu cressida mediev invent . latin summari stori achil transmit mediev europ well older account troilu young trojan princ youngest king priam hecuba five legitim son accord sourc anoth son apollo . despit youth one main trojan war leader hors fighter chariot fighter accord homer . propheci link troilu fate troy ambush attempt captur . yet achil struck beauti troilu sister polyxena overcom lust direct sexual attent youth refus yield instead found decapit upon altar-omphalo apollo thymbraio . later version stori suggest troilu accident kill achil over-ard lover embrac . version myth achil death therefor came retribut sacrileg . ancient writer treat troilu epitom dead child mourn parent . troilu live adulthood first vatican mythograph claim troy would invinc .	homer iliad famou narr achil deed trojan war . achil wrath                mêni achillé  central theme poem . first two line iliad read	homer epic cover week decade-long war narrat achil death . begin achil withdraw battl dishonour agamemnon command achaean forc . agamemnon taken woman name chrysei slave . father chryse priest apollo beg agamemnon return . agamemnon refus apollo send plagu amongst greek . prophet calcha correctli determin sourc troubl speak unless achil vow protect . achil calcha declar chrysei must return father . agamemnon consent command achil battl prize brisei daughter briseu brought replac chrysei . angri dishonour plunder glori taken away say later love brisei urg mother theti achil refus fight lead troop alongsid greek forc . time burn rage agamemnon theft achil pray theti convinc zeu help trojan gain ground war may regain honour .	battl turn greek thank influenc zeu nestor declar trojan win agamemnon anger achil urg king appeas warrior . agamemnon agre send odysseu two chieftain ajax phoenix achil offer return brisei gift . achil reject agamemnon offer simpli urg greek sail home plan .	trojan led hector subsequ push greek armi back toward beach assault greek ship . greek forc verg absolut destruct patroclu lead myrmidon battl wear achil armour though achil remain camp . patroclu succe push trojan back beach kill hector lead proper assault citi troy .	receiv news death patroclu antilochu son nestor achil griev belov companion death . mother theti come comfort distraught achil . persuad hephaestu make new armour place armour patroclu wear taken hector . new armour includ shield achil describ great detail poem .	enrag death patroclu achil end refus fight take field kill mani men rage alway seek hector . achil even engag battl river god scamand becom angri achil choke water men kill . god tri drown achil stop hera hephaestu . zeu take note achil rage send god restrain go sack troy time allot destruct seem show unhind rage achil defi fate . final achil find prey . achil chase hector around wall troy three time athena form hector favorit dearest brother deiphobu persuad hector stop run fight achil face face . hector realiz trick know battl inevit . want go fight charg achil weapon sword miss . accept fate hector beg achil spare life treat bodi respect kill . achil tell hector hopeless expect declar rage furi would drive hack flesh away eat raw agoni caus . achil kill hector drag corps heel behind chariot . dream patroclu beg achil hold funer achil host seri funer game honour .	assist god herm hector father priam goe achil tent plead achil return hector bodi buri . achil relent promis truce durat funer . poem end descript hector funer doom troy achil still come .	aethiopi 7th centuri bc work name posthomerica compos quintu smyrna fourth centuri ad relat event trojan war . penthesilea queen amazon daughter arriv troy priam hope defeat achil . temporari truce priam achil fight kill warrior queen griev death later . first distract beauti fight intens usual . realiz distract endang life refocus kill .	follow death patroclu nestor son antilochu becom achil closest companion . memnon son dawn goddess eo king ethiopia slay antilochu achil obtain reveng battlefield kill memnon . consequ eo let sun rise zeu persuad . fight achil memnon antilochu echo achil hector patroclu except memnon unlik hector also son goddess .	mani homer scholar argu episod inspir mani detail iliad descript death patroclu achil reaction . episod form basi cyclic epic aethiopi compos iliad possibl 7th centuri bc . aethiopi lost except scatter fragment quot later author .	death achil predict hector die breath brought pari arrow heel accord statiu . version god apollo guid pari arrow . retel also state achil scale gate troy hit poison arrow . version deni pari sort valour owe common concept pari coward man brother hector achil remain undef battlefield . bone mingl patroclu funer game held . repres aethiopi live death island leuk mouth river danub .	anoth version achil death fell deepli love one trojan princess polyxena . achil ask priam polyxena hand marriag . priam would mean end war allianc world greatest warrior . priam overse privat marriag polyxena achil pari would give helen achil marri sister hide bush shoot achil divin arrow kill .	odyssey agamemnon inform achil pompou burial erect mound hellespont receiv dead suitor hade . claim built massiv burial mound beach ilion could seen anyon approach ocean . achil cremat ash buri urn patroclu . pari later kill philoctet use enorm bow heracl .	book homer odyssey odysseu sail underworld convers shade . one achil greet bless life bless death respond would rather slave worst master king dead . achil ask odysseu son exploit trojan war odysseu tell neoptolemu heroic action achil fill satisfact . leav reader ambigu understand achil felt heroic life .	accord account marri medea life death unit elysian field hade hera promis theti apolloniu argonautica 3rd centuri bc .	exact natur achil relationship patroclu subject disput classic period modern time . iliad appear model deep loyal friendship . homer suggest achil close friend patroclu lover . despit direct evid text iliad achil patroclu lover theori express later author . ancient greek word distinguish heterosexu homosexu assum man could desir handsom young men sex women .	achil armour object feud odysseu telamonian ajax ajax greater . compet give speech bravest achil trojan prison consid men came consensu favor odysseu . furiou ajax curs odysseu earn ire athena . athena temporarili made ajax mad grief anguish began kill sheep think comrad . athena lift mad ajax realiz actual kill sheep ajax left asham commit suicid . odysseu eventu gave armour neoptolemu son achil .	relic claim achil bronze-head spear centuri preserv templ athena acropoli phase lycia port pamphylian gulf . citi visit bc alexand great envis new achil carri iliad court biograph mention spear . howev shown time pausania 2nd centuri ad .	numer paint potteri suggest tale mention literari tradit . point war achil ajax play board game petteia . absorb game oblivi surround battl . trojan attack reach hero save intervent athena .	tomb achil extant throughout antiqu troad vener thessalian also persian expeditionari forc well alexand great roman emperor caracalla . achil cult also found place . . island astypalaea sporad sparta sanctuari eli achil homeland thessali well magna graecia citi tarentum locri croton account almost panhellen cult hero .	spread intens hero vener among greek settl northern coast pontu euxinu today black sea appear remark . archaic cult attest milesian coloni olbia well island middl black sea today identifi snake island ukrainian         zmiinyi near kiliya ukrain . earli dedicatori inscript greek coloni black sea graffiti inscrib clay disk possibl votiv offer olbia area berezan island tauric chersones attest exist heroic cult achil sixth centuri bc onward . cult still thrive third centuri ad dedicatori stela olbia refer achil pontárch            roughli lord sea pontu euxinu invok protector citi olbia vener par olympian god local apollo prostat herm agoraeu	plini elder ad natur histori mention port achæi island achil famou tomb man portu achaeorum insula achilli tumulo eiu viri clara situat somewhat nearbi olbia dnieper-bug estuari furthermor roman mile island place peninsula stretch forth shape sword obliqu call dromo achilleo                 achillé  drómo race-cours achil consid place hero exercis game institut . plini contemporari pomponiu mela . ad tell achil buri island name achillea situat borysthen ister ad geograph confus . ruin squar templ measur meter side possibl dedic achil discov captain kritzikli snake island . second explor show construct lighthous destroy trace templ . fifth centuri bc black-glaz lekytho inscript found island read glauko son poseidon dedic achil lord leuk . anoth inscript fifth fourth centuri bc statu dedic achil lord leuk citizen olbia dedic citi olbia confirm continu mainten island cult suggest qualiti place supra-region hero vener . alreadi fifth centuri bc pindar mention cult achil bright island              phaenná nâso black sea anoth work pindar would retel stori immort achil live geograph indefinit island blest togeth hero father peleu cadmu . well known connect mytholog fortun isl               makárôn nêsoi homer elysium stream oceanu accord greek mytholog surround inhabit world account identif northern strand euxin . opposit north south evok achil fight aethiopian princ memnon turn would remov homeland mother eo death .	periplu euxin sea . ad give follow detail	greek geograph dionysiu perieget live probabl first centuri ad wrote island call leuc wild anim live white . said leuc island resid soul achil hero wander uninhabit valley island jove reward men distinguish virtu virtu acquir everlast honour . similarli relat island name white cliff snake bird dwell . leuc also reput place heal . pausania report delphic pythia sent lord croton cure chest wound . ammianu marcellinu attribut heal water aqua island .	number import commerci port citi greek water dedic achil . herodotu plini elder strabo report exist town achílleion           built settler mytilen sixth centuri bc close hero presum burial mound troad . nicola densu ianu recogn connect achil name aquileia northern arm danub delta call chilia presum older achileii though conclus leuc sovereign right black sea evok modern rather archaic sea-law .	king epiru claim descend achil son neoptolemu . alexand great son epirot princess olympia could therefor also claim descent mani way strove like great ancestor . said visit tomb achil achilleion pass troy . ad roman emperor caracalla way war parthia emul alexand hold game around achil tumulu .	greek tragedian aeschylu wrote trilog play achil given titl achillei modern scholar . tragedi relat deed achil trojan war includ defeat hector eventu death arrow shot pari guid apollo punctur heel . extant fragment achillei aeschylean fragment assembl produc workabl modern play . first part achillei trilog myrmidon focus relationship achil choru repres achaean armi tri convinc achil give quarrel agamemnon line surviv today . plato symposium phaedru point aeschylu portray achil lover patroclu belov phaedru argu incorrect achil younger beauti two belov love lover much chose die reveng .	tragedian sophocl also wrote lover achil play achil main charact . fragment surviv .	toward end 5th centuri bc neg view achil emerg greek drama euripid refer achil bitter iron tone hecuba electra iphigenia auli .	philosoph zeno elea center one paradox imaginari footrac swift-foot achil tortois attempt show achil could catch tortois head start therefor motion chang imposs . student monist parmenid member eleat school zeno believ time motion illus .	roman tradit trace lineag troy took highli neg view achil . horac portray achil ruthlessli slay women children . writer catullu propertiu ovid repres second strand disparag emphasi achil erot career . strand continu latin account trojan war writer dicti cretensi dare phrygiu benoît de sainte-maur roman de troie guido dell colonn historia destructioni troiae remain wide read retold version matter troy 17th centuri .	achil describ byzantin chronicl leo deacon hellen scythian accord byzantin author john malala armi made tribe previous known myrmidon later bulgar .	achil appear dant inferno compos . seen hell second circl lust .	achil portray former hero becom lazi devot love patroclu william shakespear troilu cressida .	french dramatist thoma corneil wrote tragedi la mort d'achil .	achil subject poem achillei fragment johann wolfgang von goeth .	achil mention tennyson poem ulyss publish shall touch happi isl meet great achil knew .	polish playwright painter poet stanis aw wyspia ski publish nation drama base polish histori name achil .	edward shank publish island youth poem concern among achil .	novel kassandra christa wolf also treat death achil .	achil akhil kill poison kentaur arrow shot kassandra marion zimmer bradley novel firebrand .	achil one variou narrat colleen mccullough novel song troy .	death achil                 histor detect novel russian writer bori akunin allud variou figur motif iliad .	charact achil ender shadow orson scott card share namesak cun mind ruthless attitud .	achil one main charact dan simmon novel ilium olympo .	achil major support charact david gemmel troy seri book .	achil main charact david malouf novel ransom .	ghost achil appear rick riordan last olympian . warn perci jackson curs achil side effect .	achil main charact terenc hawkin novel rage achil .	achil major charact madelin miller debut novel song achil orang prize fiction . novel explor relationship patroclu achil boyhood fate event iliad .	achil appear light novel seri fate apocrypha rider red .	achil daughter lycomed subject treat paint anthoni van dyck museo del prado madrid nicola poussin . museum fine art boston among .	peter paul ruben author seri work life achil compris titl theti dip infant achil river styx achil educ centaur chiron achil recogn among daughter lycomed wrath achil death hector theti receiv arm achil vulcanu death achil museum boijman van beuningen rotterdam brisei restor achil detroit institut art .	die achil sculptur creat christoph veyrier . victoria albert museum london .	rage achil fresco giovanni battista tiepolo villa valmarana ai nani vicenza .	eugèn delacroix paint version educ achil ceil pari palai bourbon one seat french parliament .	arthur kaan creat statu group achil penthesilea vienna .	achilleu lithographi max slevogt .	achil frequent subject opera ballet relat genr .	opera titl deidamia compos francesco caval georg frider handel .	achil et polyxèn pari opera begun jean-baptist lulli finish pascal collass .	achil deidamia napl opera compos alessandro scarlatti .	achil london ballad opera written john gay parodi thoma arn achil petticoat .	achil sciro libretto metastasio compos domenico sarro inaugur teatro di san carlo napl novemb . even earlier composit antonio caldara vienna . later opera libretto compos leonardo leo turin niccolò jommelli vienna rome giusepp sarti copenhagen florenc johann adolph hass napl giovanni paisiello st . petersburg giusepp gazzaniga palermo mani . also set music il trionfo della gloria .	achil vienna opera ferdinando paër libretto giovanni de gamerra .	achil scyro pari ballet pierr gardel compos luigi cherubini .	achil oder da zerstört troja achil troy destroy bonn oratorio german compos max bruch .	achil auf skyro stuttgart ballet austrian-british compos musicologist egon wellesz .	achil wrath concert piec sean o'loughlin .	elisabeth bavaria empress austria summer palac built corfu . build name achilleion achil . paint statuari depict scene trojan war particular focu achil .	role achil play film	piero lulli italian-american film ulyss	stanley baker helen troy	riley ottenhof someth zeu	arturo dominici la guerra di troia	gordon mitchel furi achil	steve davislim la bell hélène tv	richard trewett miniseri odyssey tv	joe montana helen troy tv	brad pitt troy	david gyasi troy fall citi tv	star trek univers achil class advanc type feder battleship brought servic outbreak dominion war though seen canon star trek tv seri present .	disney hercul film achil mention student philoctet refer heel weak made . later film peopl thebe mock philoctet train achil .	achil appear tv seri hercul episod achil live legend voic dom irrera . shown washed-out has-been ever sinc defeat .	web seri rwbi present charact pyrrha niko allud achil . like skill warrior wield javelin call miló also turn rifl xipho shield call akoúo . name gender refer achil disguis girl name pyrrha skyro . final volum kill villain cinder fall pyrrha crippl arrow right heel turn ash allud achil death cremat .	achil refer bob dylan song temporari like achil .	achil last stand song led zeppelin presenc .	achil agoni ecstasi eight part song manowar includ album triumph steel .	achil reveng song warlord album rise ash .	achil hardcor band found .	cri achil lead track alter bridg fourth album fortress .	achil mention someth like chainsmok coldplay .	video game spartan total warrior featur two campaign mission locat fiction buri citi troy stori arc segment game culmin discoveri tomb achil acquisit spear achil .	achil armour valour includ video game titan quest titan quest immort throne .	achil central playabl charact koei warrior legend troy . later special guest charact warrior orochi .	achil armour appear download content video game god war ascens .	video game halo guardian achil armour helmet challeng cosmet item obtain . descript armour spartan master bound wrath passion within shell hyper-dens steel fuel star-fir grant access achil . lesser warrior lose storm blood .	name achil use least nine royal navi warship sinc hm achil french spell hm achil . gun ship name serv battl belleisl gun ship serv battl trafalgar . battl honour includ walcheren . armor cruiser name serv royal navi first world war .	hmnz achil leander-class cruiser serv royal new zealand navi world war ii . becam famou part battl river plate alongsid . addit earn battl honour river plate hmnz achil also serv guadalcan okinawa . return royal navi ship sold indian navi scrap part ship save preserv new zealand .	speci lizard anoli achil widen heel plate name achil .	homer iliad	homer odyssey xi	pseudo-apollodoru bibliotheca iii xiii	apollodoru epitom iii	ovid metamorphos xi xii xiii	ovid heroid iii	apolloniu rhodiu argonautica iv	dant alighieri divin comedi inferno .	ileana chirassi colombo hero achilleu theo apollon . il mito greco edd . bruno gentili giusepp paion . rome edizion dell'ateneo bizzarri .	anthoni edward 1985a achil underworld iliad odyssey æthiopi . greek roman byzantin studi . pp . .	anthoni edward 1985b achil odyssey ideolog heroism homer epic . beiträg zur klassischen philologi . .	anthoni edward kleo aphthiton oral theori classic quarterli . pp . .	hélène monsacré le larm d'achil . le héro la femm et la souffranc dan la poési d'homèr pari albin michel .	gregori nagi name achil question etymolog folk etymolog illinoi classic studi . .	gregori nagi best achean concept hero archaic greek poetri . john hopkin univers press revis edit .	dale . sino entri achil greek epic ph . . thesi john hopkin univers . ann arbor michigan univers microfilm intern .	jonathan . burgess death afterlif achil . baltimor john hopkin univers press .	poem florenc earl coat
abraham lincoln februari april american politician lawyer serv 16th presid unit state march assassin april . lincoln led unit state civil war bloodiest war perhap greatest moral constitut polit crisi . preserv union pave way abolit slaveri strengthen feder govern modern economi .	born hodgenvil kentucki lincoln grew western frontier kentucki indiana . larg self-educ becam lawyer illinoi whig parti leader elect illinoi hous repres serv eight year . elect unit state hous repres lincoln promot rapid modern economi bank tariff railroad . origin agre run second term congress opposit mexican american war unpopular among illinoi voter lincoln return springfield resum success law practic . reenter polit becam leader build new republican parti statewid major illinoi . take part seri highli public debat oppon rival democrat stephen . dougla lincoln spoke expans slaveri lost . . senat race dougla . lincoln secur republican parti presidenti nomin moder swing state second choic grand major convent deleg whose first choic due faction could garner enough vote win . though gain littl support slavehold state south swept north elect presid .	lincoln victori prompt seven southern slave state form confeder state america move white hous compromis reconcili found regard slaveri secess . subsequ april confeder attack fort sumter inspir north enthusiast ralli behind union . leader moder faction republican parti lincoln confront radic republican demand harsher treatment south war democrat call compromis anti-war democrat call copperhead despis irreconcil secessionist plot assassin .	polit lincoln fought back pit oppon care plan polit patronag appeal american peopl power oratori . gettysburg address becam icon endors principl nation republican equal right liberti democraci . lincoln initi concentr militari polit dimens war . primari goal reunit nation . suspend habea corpu lead controversi ex part merryman decis avert potenti british intervent war defus trent affair late .	lincoln close supervis war effort especi select top gener includ success gener ulyss . grant . also made major decis union war strategi includ naval blockad shut south normal trade move take control kentucki tennesse use gunboat gain control southern river system . lincoln tri repeatedli captur confeder capit richmond time gener fail lincoln substitut anoth final grant succeed . war progress complex move toward end slaveri includ emancip proclam lincoln use . . armi protect escap slave encourag border state outlaw slaveri push congress thirteenth amend unit state constitut perman outlaw slaveri .	except astut politician deepli involv power issu state lincoln reach war democrat manag re-elect campaign presidenti elect . anticip war conclus lincoln push moder view reconstruct seek reunit nation speedili polici gener reconcili face linger bitter divis . april five day surrend confeder command gener robert . lee lincoln assassin confeder sympath john wilk booth die next day . lincoln consist rank scholar public among greatest . . presid .	abraham lincoln born februari second child thoma nanci hank lincoln one-room log cabin sink spring farm near hodgenvil kentucki . descend samuel lincoln englishman migrat hingham norfolk namesak hingham massachusett . samuel grandson great-grandson began famili western migrat pass new jersey pennsylvania virginia . lincoln patern grandfath namesak captain abraham lincoln move famili virginia jefferson counti kentucki . captain lincoln kill indian raid . children includ eight-year-old thoma futur presid father wit attack . father murder thoma left make way frontier work odd job kentucki tennesse settl member famili hardin counti kentucki earli .	lincoln mother nanci wide assum daughter luci hank although record nanci hank birth ever found . accord william ensign lincoln book ancestri abraham lincoln nanci daughter joseph hank howev debat continu whether born wedlock . still anoth research adin baber claim nanci hank daughter abraham hank sarah harper virginia .	thoma lincoln nanci hank marri june washington counti move elizabethtown kentucki follow marriag . becam parent three children sarah born februari abraham februari anoth son thoma die infanc . thoma lincoln bought leas sever farm kentucki includ sink spring farm abraham born howev land titl disput soon forc lincoln move . famili move eight mile km north knob creek farm thoma acquir titl land . claimant anoth land disput sought eject famili farm .	famili move north across ohio river indiana free non-slavehold territori settl unbroken forest hurrican township perri counti . land southern indiana becam part spencer counti indiana counti establish . farm preserv part lincoln boyhood nation memori . lincoln note famili move indiana partli account slaveri mainli due land titl difficulti kentucki . famili year kentucki indiana thoma lincoln work farmer cabinetmak carpent . farm sever town lot livestock paid tax sat juri apprais estat serv countri slave patrol guard prison . thoma nanci lincoln also member separ baptist church restrict moral standard oppos alcohol danc slaveri . within year famili arriv indiana thoma claim titl indiana land . despit financi challeng eventu obtain clear titl land becam known littl pigeon creek commun spencer counti . prior famili move illinoi thoma acquir addit twenti acr land adjac properti .	sever signific famili event took place lincoln youth indiana . octob nanci lincoln die milk sick leav eleven-year-old sarah charg household includ father nine-year-old abraham denni hank nanci nineteen-year-old orphan cousin . decemb lincoln father marri sarah salli bush johnston widow elizabethtown kentucki three children . abraham becam close stepmoth refer mother . knew lincoln teenag later recal distraught sister sarah death januari give birth stillborn son .	youth lincoln dislik hard labor associ frontier life . neighbor famili member thought time lazi read scribbl write cipher write poetri etc . must done avoid manual labor . stepmoth also acknowledg enjoy physic labor love read . lincoln larg self-educ . formal school sever itiner teacher intermitt aggreg may amount less year howev avid reader retain lifelong interest learn . famili neighbor schoolmat lincoln youth recal read reread king jame bibl aesop fabl bunyan pilgrim progress defo robinson cruso weem life washington franklin autobiographi among .	grew teen lincoln took respons chore expect one boy household . also compli customari oblig son give father earn work done outsid home age twenty-on . abraham becam adept use axe . tall age lincoln also strong athlet . attain reput brawn audac competit wrestl match renown leader group ruffian known clari grove boy .	earli march partli fear milk sick outbreak along ohio river sever member extend lincoln famili move west illinoi non-slavehold state settl macon counti west decatur . historian disagre initi move thoma lincoln obviou reason leav indiana one possibl member famili includ denni hank might attain stabil steadi incom thoma lincoln . famili reloc illinoi abraham becam increasingli distant father part father lack educ occasion lent money . thoma member famili prepar move new homestead cole counti illinoi abraham old enough make decis struck . travel sangamon river end villag new salem sangamon counti . later spring denton offutt new salem merchant hire lincoln friend take good flatboat new salem new orlean via sangamon illinoi mississippi river . arriv new orlean wit slaveri firsthand lincoln return new salem remain next six year .	accord sourc lincoln first romant interest ann rutledg met first move new salem sourc indic relationship formal engag . die age august like typhoid fever . earli met mari owen kentucki visit sister .	late lincoln agre match mari return new salem . mari return novemb lincoln court time howev second thought relationship . august lincoln wrote mari letter suggest would blame end relationship . never repli courtship end . met springfield illinoi decemb engag follow decemb .	wed set januari cancel two broke engag lincoln initi . later met parti marri novemb springfield mansion mari marri sister . prepar nuptial feel anxieti lincoln ask go repli hell suppos . coupl bought hous springfield near lincoln law offic . mari todd lincoln kept hous often help rel hire servant girl .	affection though often absent husband father four children . robert todd lincoln born edward baker lincoln eddi . edward die februari springfield probabl tuberculosi . willi lincoln born decemb die fever februari . lincoln fourth son thoma tad lincoln born april die heart failur age juli . robert child live adulthood children . lincoln last descend great-grandson robert todd lincoln beckwith die . lincoln remark fond children lincoln consid strict .	death son profound effect parent . later life mari struggl stress lose husband son robert lincoln commit temporarili mental health asylum . abraham lincoln suffer melancholi condit refer clinic depress .	lincoln father-in-law todd famili either slave owner slave trader . lincoln close todd famili occasion visit todd estat lexington .	term presid unit state america mari known cook lincoln often . sinc rais wealthi famili cook abil simpl satisfi lincoln tast includ particularli import oyster .	age lincoln partner bought small gener store credit new salem illinoi . although economi boom region busi struggl lincoln eventu sold share . march began polit career first campaign illinoi gener assembl . attain local popular could draw crowd natur raconteur new salem though lack educ power friend money may lost . advoc navig improv sangamon river .	elect lincoln serv captain illinoi militia black hawk war . follow return lincoln continu campaign august elect illinoi gener assembl . tall strong enough intimid rival . first speech saw support crowd attack lincoln grab assail neck seat trouser threw . lincoln finish eighth candid top four elect though receiv vote cast new salem precinct .	lincoln serv new salem postmast later counti surveyor read voraci . decid becom lawyer began teach law read blackston commentari law england law book . learn method lincoln state studi nobodi . second campaign success . elect state legislatur though ran whig mani democrat favor power whig oppon .	admit illinoi bar move springfield illinoi began practic law john . stuart mari todd cousin . lincoln becam abl success lawyer reput formid adversari cross-examin close argument . partner stephen . logan . lincoln began practic william herndon lincoln thought studiou young man .	success second run offic lincoln serv four success term illinoi hous repres whig repres sangamon counti . support construct illinoi michigan canal remain involv later canal commission . legisl session vote expand suffrag white male whether landown . known free soil stanc oppos slaveri abolition . first articul say institut slaveri found injustic bad polici promulg abolit doctrin tend rather increas abat evil . stanc close follow henri clay support american colon societi program make abolit slaveri practic advoc help freed slave settl liberia africa .	earli lincoln steadfast whig profess friend old line whig discipl henri clay . parti includ lincoln favor econom modern bank protect tariff fund intern improv includ railroad espous urban well .	lincoln ran whig nomin illinoi 7th district . . hous repres defeat john . hardin . howev lincoln support principl rotat wherebi hardin would retir one term allow nomin anoth candid . lincoln hope arrang would lead nomin . lincoln inde elect hous repres serv one two-year term . whig illinoi deleg show parti loyalti particip almost vote make speech echo parti line . lincoln collabor abolitionist congressman joshua . gid wrote bill abolish slaveri district columbia compens owner enforc captur fugit slave popular vote matter . abandon bill fail garner suffici whig support .	foreign militari polici lincoln spoke mexican american war attribut presid polk desir militari glori attract rainbow rise shower blood . lincoln also support wilmot proviso adopt would ban slaveri . . territori mexico .	lincoln emphas opposit polk draft introduc spot resolut . war begun mexican slaughter american soldier territori disput mexico . . polk insist mexican soldier invad territori shed blood fellow-citizen soil . lincoln demand polk show congress exact spot blood shed prove spot american soil . lincoln later regret statement especi attack presidenti war-mak power .	realiz clay unlik win presid lincoln pledg serv one term hous support gener zachari taylor whig nomin presidenti elect . taylor lincoln hope appoint commission gener land offic lucr patronag job went illinoi rival justin butterfield consid administr highli skill lawyer lincoln view old fossil . administr offer consol prize secretari governor oregon territori . distant territori democrat stronghold accept post would effect end legal polit career illinoi declin resum law practic .	lincoln return practic law springfield handl everi kind busi could come prairi lawyer . twice year year week time appear counti seat midstat region counti court session . lincoln handl mani transport case midst nation western expans particularli conflict aris oper river barg mani new railroad bridg . riverboat man lincoln initi favor interest ultim repres whoever hire . fact later repres bridg compani riverboat compani landmark case involv canal boat sank hit bridg . receiv patent flotat devic movement boat shallow water . idea never commerci lincoln presid hold patent .	repres alton sangamon railroad disput one sharehold jame . barret refus pay balanc pledg buy share railroad ground compani chang origin train rout . lincoln success argu railroad compani bound origin charter extant time barret pledg charter amend public interest provid newer superior less expens rout corpor retain right demand barret payment . decis illinoi suprem court cite numer court nation . anoth lincoln largest client illinoi central railroad . lincoln reput client gave rise nicknam honest abe .	lincoln notabl crimin trial occur defend william duff armstrong trial murder jame preston metzker . case famou lincoln use fact establish judici notic order challeng credibl eyewit . oppos wit testifi see crime moonlight lincoln produc farmer almanac show moon low angl drastic reduc visibl . base evid armstrong acquit .	debat statu slaveri territori exacerb section tension slave-hold south north compromis fail defus issu . earli lincoln support effort section mediat eulog henri clay focus latter support gradual emancip opposit extrem slaveri issu . progress debat slaveri nebraska territori kansa territori becam particularli acrimoni senat stephen . dougla illinoi propos popular sovereignti compromis measur propos would take issu slaveri hand congress allow peopl territori decid statu slaveri . propos alarm mani northern hope stop spread slaveri territori . despit northern opposit dougla kansas-nebraska act narrowli pass congress may .	month passag lincoln publicli comment kansas-nebraska act came strongli oppos . octob peoria speech lincoln declar opposit slaveri repeat en rout presid . speak kentucki accent power voic said kansa act declar indiffer must think covert real zeal spread slaveri . cannot hate . hate monstrou injustic slaveri . hate depriv republican exampl influenc world ... lincoln attack kansas-nebraska act mark return polit life .	nation whig irrepar split kansa nebraska act effort compromis slaveri issu . reflect demis parti lincoln would write think whig say whig abolitionist oppos extens slaveri . draw antislaveri portion whig parti combin free soil liberti antislaveri democrat parti member new republican parti form northern parti dedic antislaveri . lincoln resist earli attempt recruit new parti fear would serv platform extrem abolitionist . lincoln also still hope rejuven ail whig parti though bemoan parti grow close nativist know noth movement .	lincoln elect illinoi legislatur whig . aftermath elect show power popular movement oppos kansas-nebraska act lincoln declin take seat instead sought elect unit state senat . time senat elect state legislatur . lead first six round vote unabl obtain major lincoln instruct backer vote lyman trumbul . trumbul antislaveri democrat receiv vote earlier ballot support also antislaveri democrat vow support whig . lincoln decis withdraw enabl whig support trumbul antislaveri democrat combin defeat mainstream democrat candid joel aldrich matteson .	part due ongo violent polit confront kansa opposit kansas-nebraska act remain strong illinoi throughout north . elect approach lincoln abandon defunct whig parti favor republican . attend may bloomington convent formal establish illinoi republican parti . convent platform assert congress right regul slaveri territori call immedi admiss kansa free state . lincoln gave final speech convent endors parti platform call preserv union . june republican nation convent lincoln receiv signific support vice presidenti ballot though parti nomin ticket john . frémont william dayton . lincoln strongli support republican ticket campaign parti throughout illinoi . democrat nomin former ambassador jame buchanan countri sinc thu avoid debat slaveri territori know noth nomin former whig presid millard fillmor . elect buchanan defeat challeng frémont sever northern state republican william henri bissel elect governor illinoi . though lincoln win offic vigor campaign made lead republican illinoi .	eric foner contrast abolitionist anti-slaveri radic republican northeast saw slaveri sin conserv republican thought bad hurt white peopl block progress . foner argu lincoln moder middl oppos slaveri primarili violat republican principl found father especi equal men democrat self-govern express declar independ .	march suprem court issu decis dred scott . sandford chief justic roger . taney opin black citizen deriv right constitut . mani democrat hope dred scott would end disput slaveri territori decis spark outrag north . lincoln denounc decis alleg product conspiraci democrat support slave power . lincoln argu author declar independ never intend say equal color size intellect moral develop social capac consid men creat equal equal certain inalien right among life liberti pursuit happi .	dougla re-elect lincoln hope defeat power illinoi democrat . former democrat trumbul serv republican senat mani parti felt former whig nomin lincoln campaign willing support trumbul earn favor parti . eastern republican favor reelect dougla senat sinc led opposit lecompton constitut would admit kansa slave state . mani illinoi republican resent eastern interfer . first time illinoi republican held convent agre upon senat candid lincoln parti senat nomin littl opposit .	accept nomin lincoln deliv hous divid speech draw hous divid cannot stand . believ govern cannot endur perman half slave half free . expect union dissolv expect hous fall expect ceas divid . becom one thing . speech creat evoc imag danger disunion caus slaveri debat ralli republican across north . stage set campaign statewid elect illinoi legislatur would turn select lincoln dougla . . senat . inform lincoln nomin dougla state strong man parti ... beat victori hardli .	senat campaign featur seven lincoln dougla debat famou polit debat american histori . princip stood stark contrast physic polit . lincoln warn slave power threaten valu republican accus dougla distort valu found father men creat equal dougla emphas freeport doctrin local settler free choos whether allow slaveri accus lincoln join abolitionist . debat atmospher prize fight drew crowd thousand . lincoln state dougla popular sovereignti theori threat nation moral dougla repres conspiraci extend slaveri free state . dougla said lincoln defi author . . suprem court dred scott decis .	though republican legisl candid popular vote democrat seat legislatur re-elect dougla senat . despit bitter defeat lincoln articul issu gave nation polit reput . may lincoln purchas illinoi staats-anzeig german-languag newspap consist support state german american vote democrat republican support german-languag paper could mobil . aftermath elect newspap frequent mention lincoln potenti republican presidenti candid william . seward salmon . chase edward bate simon cameron loom rival nomin . lincoln popular midwest lack support northeast unsur whether seek presid . januari lincoln told group polit alli would accept presidenti nomin offer follow month sever local paper endors lincoln presid .	februari new york parti leader invit lincoln give speech cooper union group power republican . lincoln argu found father littl use popular sovereignti repeatedli sought restrict slaveri . lincoln insist moral foundat republican requir opposit slaveri reject grope middl ground right wrong . despit ineleg appear mani audienc thought awkward even ugli lincoln demonstr intellectu leadership brought front rank parti content republican presidenti nomin . journalist noah brook report man ever made impress first appeal new york audienc .	historian donald describ speech superb polit move unannounc candid appear one rival seward state event sponsor second rival chase loyalist mention either name deliveri . respons inquiri presidenti intent lincoln said tast mouth littl .	may illinoi republican state convent held decatur . lincoln follow organ campaign team led david davi norman judd leonard swett jess duboi lincoln receiv first endors run presid . exploit embellish legend frontier day father clear land split fenc rail ax lincoln support adopt label rail candid . lincoln describ height six feet four inch nearli lean flesh weigh averag one hundr eighti pound dark complexion coars black hair gray eye . biograph ad	larg head high crown skull thick bushi hair larg deep eye-cavern heavi eyebrow larg nose larg ear larg mouth thin upper somewhat thick lip high promin cheek-bon cheek thin sunken strongli develop jawbon chin slightli upturn thin sinewi neck rather long long arm larg hand chest thin narrow compar great height leg proportion length larg feet .	may republican nation convent chicago lincoln friend promis manipul nomin third ballot beat candid seward chase . former democrat hannib hamlin main nomin vice presid balanc ticket . lincoln success depend reput moder slaveri issu strong support whiggish program intern improv protect tariff .	third ballot pennsylvania put top . pennsylvania iron interest reassur support protect tariff . lincoln manag adroitli focus deleg well follow lincoln strong dictat make contract bind .	republican agre lincoln north aggriev parti slave power tighten grasp nation govern dred scott decis presid jame buchanan . throughout lincoln doubt prospect civil war support reject claim elect would incit secess . meanwhil dougla select candid northern democrat . deleg slave state walk democrat convent disagre dougla posit popular sovereignti ultim select incumb vice presid john . breckinridg candid . group former whig know noth form constitut union parti nomin john bell tennesse . lincoln dougla would compet vote north	bell breckinridg primarili found support south . lincoln idea abolish slaveri grew support . peopl northern state knew southern state would vote lincoln idea anti-slaveri took action ralli support lincoln .	dougla candid went campaign lincoln one gave speech . instead monitor campaign close reli enthusiasm republican parti . parti leg work produc major across north produc abund campaign poster leaflet newspap editori . thousand republican speaker focus first parti platform second lincoln life stori emphas childhood poverti . goal demonstr superior power free labor wherebi common farm boy could work way top effort . republican parti product campaign literatur dwarf combin opposit chicago tribun writer produc pamphlet detail lincoln life sold copi .	novemb lincoln elect 16th presid unit state beat dougla breckinridg bell . first presid republican parti . victori entir due strength support north west ballot cast southern slave state two counti southern state .	lincoln receiv vote dougla vote breckinridg vote bell vote . turnout percent lincoln win free northern state well california oregon . dougla missouri split new jersey lincoln . bell virginia tennesse kentucki breckinridg rest south .	although lincoln plural popular vote victori elector colleg decis lincoln oppon ad togeth . fusion ticket lincoln oppon combin support slate elector new york new jersey rhode island even anti-lincoln vote combin everi state lincoln still would major elector colleg .	lincoln elect becam evid secessionist made clear intent leav union took offic next march . decemb south carolina took lead adopt ordin secess februari florida mississippi alabama georgia louisiana texa follow . six state adopt constitut declar sovereign nation confeder state america . upper south border state delawar maryland virginia north carolina tennesse kentucki missouri arkansa listen initi reject secessionist appeal . presid buchanan president-elect lincoln refus recogn confederaci declar secess illeg . confederaci select jefferson davi provision presid februari .	attempt compromis . crittenden compromis would extend missouri compromis line divid territori slave free contrari republican parti free-soil platform . lincoln reject idea say suffer death consent ... concess compromis look like buy privileg take possess govern constitut right .	lincoln howev tacitli support propos corwin amend constitut pass congress lincoln came offic await ratif state . propos amend would protect slaveri state alreadi exist would guarante congress would interfer slaveri without southern consent . week war lincoln sent letter everi governor inform congress pass joint resolut amend constitut . lincoln open possibl constitut convent make amend constitut .	en rout inaugur train lincoln address crowd legislatur across north . president-elect evad possibl assassin baltimor uncov lincoln head secur allan pinkerton . februari arriv disguis washington . . place substanti militari guard . lincoln direct inaugur address south proclaim intent inclin abolish slaveri southern state	presid end address appeal peopl south enemi friend . must enemi ... mystic chord memori stretch everi battlefield patriot grave everi live heart hearthston broad land yet swell choru union touch sure better angel natur . failur peac confer signal legisl compromis imposs . march leader insurrect propos rejoin union term . meanwhil lincoln republican leadership agre dismantl union could toler . lincoln said war end	parti deprec war one would make war rather let nation surviv would accept war rather let perish war came .	command fort sumter south carolina major robert anderson sent request provis washington execut lincoln order meet request seen secessionist act war . april confeder forc fire union troop fort sumter forc surrend began war . historian allan nevin argu newli inaugur lincoln made three miscalcul underestim graviti crisi exagger strength unionist sentiment south realiz southern unionist insist invas .	william tecumseh sherman talk lincoln inaugur week sadli disappoint failur realiz countri sleep volcano south prepar war . historian donald conclud repeat effort avoid collis month inaugur fire ft . sumter show adher vow first shed fratern blood . also vow surrend fort . resolut contradictori posit confeder fire first shot .	april lincoln call state send detach total troop recaptur fort protect washington preserv union view still exist intact despit action seced state . call forc state choos side . virginia declar secess reward confeder capit despit expos posit richmond close union line . north carolina tennesse arkansa also vote secess next two month . secess sentiment strong missouri maryland prevail kentucki tri neutral . confeder attack fort sumter ralli american north mason-dixon line defens american nation . historian allan nevin say	thunderclap sumter produc startl crystal northern sentiment ... anger swept land . everi side came news mass meet speech resolut tender busi support muster compani regiment determin action governor legislatur .	state sent union regiment south respons lincoln call save capit confront rebellion . april mob baltimor control rail link attack union troop chang train local leader group later burn critic rail bridg capit . armi respond arrest local maryland offici . lincoln suspend writ habea corpu area armi felt need secur troop reach washington . john merryman maryland offici involv hinder . . troop movement petit suprem court chief justic maryland roger . taney author controversi pro-slaveri dred scott opinion issu writ habea corpu june taney act circuit judg speak suprem court issu writ opinion congress could suspend writ . lincoln continu armi polici writ suspend limit area despit ex part merryman rule .	battl fort sumter lincoln realiz import take immedi execut control war make overal strategi put rebellion . lincoln encount unpreced polit militari crisi respond commander-in-chief use unpreced power . expand war power impos blockad confeder ship port disburs fund appropri congress suspend habea corpu arrest imprison thousand suspect confeder sympath . lincoln support congress northern public action . addit lincoln contend reinforc strong union sympathi border slave state keep war becom intern conflict .	war effort sourc continu disparag lincoln domin time attent . start clear bipartisan support would essenti success war effort manner compromis alien faction side aisl appoint republican democrat command posit union armi . copperhead critic lincoln refus compromis slaveri issu . convers radic republican critic move slowli abolish slaveri . august lincoln sign confisc act author judiciari proceed confisc free slave use support confeder war effort . practic law littl effect signal polit support abolish slaveri confederaci .	late august gener john . frémont republican presidenti nomine issu without consult superior washington proclam martial law missouri . declar citizen found bear arm could court-marti shot slave person aid rebellion would freed . frémont alreadi cloud charg neglig command depart west compound alleg fraud corrupt . lincoln overrul frémont proclam . lincoln believ fremont emancip polit neither militarili necessari legal . lincoln act union enlist maryland kentucki missouri increas troop .	lincoln left diplomat matter secretari state william seward . time seward bellicos balanc lincoln stuck close work relationship senat charl sumner chairman senat foreign relat committe . trent affair late threaten war great britain . . . navi illeg intercept british mail ship trent high sea seiz two confeder envoy britain protest vehement . . cheer . lincoln end crisi releas two diplomat . biograph jame . randal dissect lincoln success techniqu	restraint avoid outward express trucul earli soften state depart attitud toward britain defer toward seward sumner withhold paper prepar occas readi arbitr golden silenc address congress shrewd recogn war must avert clear percept point could clinch america true posit time full satisfact given friendli countri .	lincoln painstakingli monitor telegraph report come war depart headquart . kept close tab phase militari effort consult governor select gener base past success well state parti . januari mani complaint ineffici profit war depart lincoln replac simon cameron edwin stanton war secretari . stanton staunchli unionist pro-busi conserv democrat move toward radic republican faction . nevertheless work often close lincoln senior offici . stanton lincoln virtual conduct war togeth say thoma hyman .	term war strategi lincoln articul two prioriti ensur washington well-defend conduct aggress war effort would satisfi demand north prompt decis victori major northern newspap editor expect victori within day . twice week lincoln would meet cabinet afternoon occasion mari lincoln would forc take carriag ride concern work hard . lincoln learn read theoret book chief staff gener henri halleck discipl european strategist jomini began appreci critic need control strateg point mississippi river . lincoln saw import vicksburg understood necess defeat enemi armi rather simpli captur territori .	union defeat first battl bull run retir age winfield scott late lincoln appoint major gener georg . mcclellan general-in-chief union armi . mcclellan young west point graduat railroad execut pennsylvania democrat took sever month plan attempt peninsula campaign longer lincoln want . campaign object captur richmond move armi potomac boat peninsula overland confeder capit . mcclellan repeat delay frustrat lincoln congress posit troop need defend washington . lincoln insist hold mcclellan troop defens capit mcclellan consist overestim strength confeder troop blame decis ultim failur peninsula campaign .	lincoln remov mcclellan general-in-chief march mcclellan harrison land letter offer unsolicit polit advic lincoln urg caution war effort . offic remain empti juli henri halleck select . mcclellan letter incens radic republican success pressur lincoln appoint john pope republican head new armi virginia . pope compli lincoln strateg desir move toward richmond north thu protect capit attack .	howev lack request reinforc mcclellan command armi potomac pope soundli defeat second battl bull run summer forc armi potomac defend washington second time .	despit dissatisfact mcclellan failur reinforc pope lincoln desper restor command forc around washington dismay cabinet seward . two day mcclellan return command gener robert . lee forc cross potomac river maryland lead battl antietam septemb . ensu union victori among bloodiest american histori enabl lincoln announc would issu emancip proclam januari . compos proclam time earlier lincoln wait militari victori publish avoid perceiv product desper .	mcclellan resist presid demand pursu lee retreat expos armi counterpart gener carlo buell likewis refus order move armi ohio rebel forc eastern tennesse . result lincoln replac buell william rosecran midterm elect replac mcclellan republican ambros burnsid . replac polit moder prospect support commander-in-chief .	burnsid advic presid prematur launch offens across rappahannock river stunningli defeat lee fredericksburg decemb . burnsid defeat battlefield soldier disgruntl undisciplin . desert thousand increas fredericksburg . lincoln brought joseph hooker despit record loos talk need militari dictatorship .	mid-term elect brought republican sever loss due sharp disfavor administr failur deliv speedi end war well rise inflat new high tax rumor corrupt suspens habea corpu militari draft law fear freed slave would undermin labor market . emancip proclam announc septemb gain vote republican rural area new england upper midwest lost vote citi lower midwest .	republican discourag democrat energ especi well pennsylvania ohio indiana new york . republican maintain major congress major state except new york . cincinnati gazett contend voter depress intermin natur war far conduct rapid exhaust nation resourc without progress .	hooker rout lee battl chancellorsvil may continu command troop week . ignor lincoln order divid troop possibl forc lee harper ferri tender resign lincoln accept . replac georg mead follow lee pennsylvania gettysburg campaign victori union though lee armi avoid captur . time initi setback grant laid sieg vicksburg union navi attain success charleston harbor .	battl gettysburg lincoln clearli understood militari decis would effect carri convey order war secretari general-in-chief gener resent civilian interfer plan . even often continu give detail direct gener commander-in-chief .	lincoln understood feder govern power end slaveri limit constitut commit issu individu state . argu elect eventu extinct slaveri would result prevent expans new . . territori . begin war also sought persuad state accept compens emancip return prohibit slaveri . lincoln believ curtail slaveri way would econom expung envis found father constitut . presid lincoln reject two geograph limit emancip attempt major gener john . frémont august major gener david hunter may ground within power would upset border state loyal union .	june endors lincoln congress pass act ban slaveri feder territori . juli confisc act pass set court procedur could free slave anyon convict aid rebellion . although lincoln believ within congress power free slave within state approv bill defer legislatur . felt action could taken commander-in-chief use war power grant presid constitut lincoln plan take action . month lincoln discuss draft emancip proclam cabinet . state fit necessari militari measur januari person held slave confeder state thenceforward forev free .	privat lincoln conclud point slave base confederaci elimin . howev copperhead argu emancip stumbl block peac reunif . republican editor horac greeley highli influenti new york tribun fell ploy lincoln refut directli shrewd letter august . although said person wish men could free lincoln state primari goal action . . presid use first person pronoun explicitli refer offici duti preserv union	emancip proclam issu septemb put effect januari declar free slave state union control exempt specifi area alreadi union control two state . lincoln spent next day prepar armi nation emancip democrat ralli voter off-year elect warn threat freed slave pose northern white .	abolit slaveri rebel state becam militari object union armi advanc south slave liber three million confeder territori freed . lincoln comment sign proclam never life felt certain right sign paper . time lincoln continu earlier plan set coloni newli freed slave . comment favor colon emancip proclam attempt massiv undertak fail . day emancip announc republican governor met war governor confer support presid proclam suggest remov gener georg . mcclellan command union armi .	enlist former slave militari offici govern polici issuanc emancip proclam . spring lincoln readi recruit black troop token number . letter andrew johnson militari governor tennesse encourag lead way rais black troop lincoln wrote bare sight arm drill black soldier bank mississippi would end rebellion . end lincoln direct gener lorenzo thoma recruit regiment black mississippi valley . frederick douglass observ lincoln compani never remind humbl origin unpopular color .	great union victori battl gettysburg juli defeat copperhead ohio elect fall lincoln maintain strong base parti support strong posit redefin war effort despit new york citi draft riot . stage set address gettysburg battlefield cemeteri novemb . defi lincoln predict world littl note long rememb say address becam quot speech american histori .	word three minut lincoln assert nation born conceiv liberti dedic proposit men creat equal . defin war effort dedic principl liberti equal . emancip slave part nation war effort . declar death mani brave soldier would vain slaveri would end result loss futur democraci world would assur govern peopl peopl peopl shall perish earth . lincoln conclud civil war profound object new birth freedom nation .	mead failur captur lee armi retreat gettysburg continu passiv armi potomac persuad lincoln chang command need . gener ulyss . grant victori battl shiloh vicksburg campaign impress lincoln made grant strong candid head union armi . respond critic grant shiloh lincoln said ca spare man . fight . grant command lincoln felt union armi could relentlessli pursu seri coordin offens multipl theater top command agre use black troop .	nevertheless lincoln concern grant might consid candidaci presid mcclellan . lincoln arrang intermediari make inquiri grant polit intent assur none submit senat grant promot command union armi . obtain congress consent reinstat grant rank lieuten gener offic held sinc georg washington .	grant wage bloodi overland campaign . often character war attrit given high union loss battl battl wilder cold harbor . even though advantag fight defens confeder forc almost high percentag casualti union forc . high casualti figur union alarm north grant lost third armi lincoln ask grant plan gener repli propos fight line take summer .	confederaci lack reinforc lee armi shrank everi costli battl . grant armi move south cross jame river forc sieg trench warfar outsid petersburg virginia . lincoln made extend visit grant headquart citi point virginia . allow presid confer person grant william tecumseh sherman hostil sherman coincident manag hasti visit grant posit north carolina . lincoln republican parti mobil support draft throughout north replac union loss .	lincoln author grant target confeder infrastructur plantat railroad bridg hope destroy south moral weaken econom abil continu fight . grant move petersburg result obstruct three railroad richmond south . strategi allow gener sherman philip sheridan destroy plantat town virginia shenandoah valley . damag caus sherman march sea georgia limit swath neither lincoln command saw destruct main goal rather defeat confeder armi . mark . neeli jr . argu effort engag total war civilian believ take place world war ii .	confeder gener jubal earli began seri assault north threaten capit . earli raid washington . . lincoln watch combat expos posit captain oliv wendel holm shout get damn fool get shot . repeat call grant defend washington sheridan appoint threat earli dispatch .	grant continu wear lee forc effort discuss peac began . confeder vice presid stephen led group meet lincoln seward hampton road . lincoln refus allow negoti confederaci coequal sole object agreement end fight meet produc result . april grant success outflank lee forc battl five fork nearli encircl petersburg confeder govern evacu richmond . day later citi fell lincoln visit vanquish confeder capit walk citi white southern stone-fac freedmen greet hero . april lee surrend grant appomattox war effect .	war still wage lincoln face reelect . lincoln master politician bring togeth hold togeth main faction republican parti bring war democrat edwin . stanton andrew johnson well . lincoln spent mani hour week talk politician across land use patronag power greatli expand peacetim hold faction parti togeth build support polici fend effort radic drop ticket . convent republican parti select johnson war democrat southern state tennesse run mate . broaden coalit includ war democrat well republican lincoln ran label new union parti .	grant spring campaign turn bloodi stalem union casualti mount lack militari success wore heavili presid re-elect prospect mani republican across countri fear lincoln would defeat . share fear lincoln wrote sign pledg lose elect would still defeat confederaci turn white hous	lincoln show pledg cabinet ask sign seal envelop .	democrat platform follow peac wing parti call war failur candid gener georg . mcclellan support war repudi platform . lincoln provid grant troop mobil parti renew support grant war effort . sherman captur atlanta septemb david farragut captur mobil end defeatist jitter democrat parti deepli split leader soldier openli lincoln . contrast nation union parti unit energ lincoln made emancip central issu state republican parti stress perfidi copperhead . novemb lincoln re-elect landslid carri three state receiv percent union soldier vote .	march lincoln deliv second inaugur address . deem high casualti side god . historian mark noll conclud rank among small hand semi-sacr text american conceiv place world . lincoln said	reconstruct began war lincoln associ anticip question reintegr conquer southern state determin fate confeder leader freed slave . shortli lee surrend gener ask lincoln defeat confeder treat lincoln repli let em easi . keep sentiment lincoln led moder regard reconstruct polici oppos radic republican rep . thaddeu steven sen . charl sumner sen . benjamin wade polit alli presid issu . determin find cours would reunit nation alien south lincoln urg speedi elect gener term held throughout war . amnesti proclam decemb offer pardon held confeder civil offic mistreat union prison would sign oath allegi .	southern state subdu critic decis made leadership administr re-form . special import tennesse arkansa lincoln appoint gener andrew johnson frederick steel militari governor respect . louisiana lincoln order gener nathaniel . bank promot plan would restor statehood percent voter agre . lincoln democrat oppon seiz appoint accus use militari ensur republican polit aspir . hand radic denounc polici lenient pass plan wade-davi bill . lincoln veto bill radic retali refus seat repres elect louisiana arkansa tennesse .	lincoln appoint design keep moder radic faction har . fill chief justic taney seat suprem court name choic radic salmon . chase lincoln believ would uphold emancip paper money polici .	implement emancip proclam appli everi state lincoln increas pressur congress outlaw slaveri throughout entir nation constitut amend . lincoln declar amend would clinch whole matter . decemb propos constitut amend would outlaw slaveri brought congress passag . first attempt amend fail pass fall short requir two-third major june hous repres . passag propos amend becam part republican unionist platform elect . long debat hous second attempt pass congress januari sent state legislatur ratif . upon ratif becam thirteenth amend unit state constitut decemb .	war drew close lincoln presidenti reconstruct south flux believ feder govern limit respons million freedmen . sign law senat charl sumner freedmen bureau bill set temporari feder agenc design meet immedi materi need former slave . law assign land leas three year abil purchas titl freedmen . lincoln state louisiana plan appli state reconstruct . shortli assassin lincoln announc new plan southern reconstruct . discuss cabinet reveal lincoln plan short-term militari control southern state readmiss control southern unionist .	historian agre imposs predict exactli lincoln would done reconstruct live make project base known polici posit polit acumen . lincoln biograph jame . randal richard current accord david lincov argu	like live lincoln would follow polici similar johnson would clash congression radic would produc better result freedmen occur polit skill would help avoid johnson mistak .	eric foner argu	unlik sumner radic lincoln see reconstruct opportun sweep polit social revolut beyond emancip . long made clear opposit confisc redistribut land . believ republican april vote requir determin state . assum polit control south would pass white unionist reluct secessionist forward-look former confeder . time war lincoln initi opposit come embrac posit first advanc abolitionist radic republican . ... lincoln undoubtedli would listen care outcri protect former slave ... entir plausibl imagin lincoln congress agre reconstruct polici encompass feder protect basic civil right plu limit black suffrag along line lincoln propos death .	success reunif state consequ name countri . term unit state histor use sometim plural unit state time singular without particular grammat consist . civil war signific forc eventu domin singular usag end 19th centuri .	recent year historian harri jaffa herman belz john diggin vernon burton eric foner stress lincoln redefinit republican valu . earli time polit rhetor focus sanctiti constitut lincoln redirect emphasi declar independ foundat american polit valu call sheet anchor republican . declar emphasi freedom equal contrast constitut toler slaveri shift debat . diggin conclud regard highli influenti cooper union speech earli lincoln present american theori histori offer profound contribut theori destini republican . posit gain strength highlight moral basi republican rather legal . nevertheless lincoln justifi war term legal constitut contract one parti get contract parti agre term nation duti guarante republican form govern everi state . burton argu lincoln republican taken freedmen emancip .	march lincoln first inaugur address explor natur democraci . denounc secess anarchi explain major rule balanc constitut restraint american system . said major held restraint constitut check limit alway chang easili deliber chang popular opinion sentiment true sovereign free peopl .	lincoln adher whig theori presid gave congress primari respons write law execut enforc . lincoln veto four bill pass congress import one wade-davi bill harsh program reconstruct . sign homestead act make million acr government-held land west avail purchas low cost . morril land-grant colleg act also sign provid govern grant agricultur colleg state . pacif railway act grant feder support construct unit state first transcontinent railroad complet . passag homestead act pacif railway act made possibl absenc southern congressmen senat oppos measur .	import legisl involv two measur rais revenu feder govern tariff polici long preced new feder incom tax . lincoln sign second third morril tariff first becom law jame buchanan . also lincoln sign revenu act creat first . . incom tax . creat flat tax percent incom current dollar term later chang revenu act progress rate structur .	lincoln also presid expans feder govern econom influenc sever area . creation system nation bank nation bank act provid strong financi network countri . also establish nation currenc . congress creat lincoln approv depart agricultur . lincoln sent senior gener john pope put sioux upris minnesota . present execut warrant convict sante dakota accus kill innoc farmer lincoln conduct person review warrant eventu approv execut one later repriev . presid lincoln plan reform feder indian polici .	wake grant casualti campaign lee lincoln consid yet anoth execut call militari draft never issu . respons rumor one howev editor new york world journal commerc publish fals draft proclam creat opportun editor employ public corner gold market . lincoln reaction send strongest messag media behavior order militari seiz two paper . seizur last two day .	lincoln larg respons institut thanksgiv holiday unit state . lincoln presid thanksgiv region holiday new england sinc 17th centuri proclaim feder govern sporad irregular date . last proclam jame madison presid year . lincoln declar final thursday novemb year day thanksgiv .	noah hayn swayn	samuel freeman miller	david davi	stephen johnson field	salmon portland chase chief justic	lincoln declar philosophi court nomin cannot ask man answer us despis . therefor must take man whose opinion known .	lincoln appoint feder judg includ four associ justic one chief justic suprem court unit state judg unit state district court . lincoln appoint judg unit state circuit court time offic .	west virginia admit union june contain former north-westernmost counti virginia seced virginia commonwealth declar secess union . condit admiss west virginia constitut requir provid gradual abolit slaveri . nevada becam third state far-west contin admit free state octob .	abraham lincoln assassin john wilk booth good friday april attend play ford theatr american civil war draw close . assassin occur five day surrend robert . lee confeder armi northern virginia . booth well-known actor confeder spi maryland though never join confeder armi contact confeder secret servic . booth formul plan similar one thoma . conrad previous author confederaci kidnap lincoln exchang releas confeder prison . attend april speech lincoln promot vote right black incens booth chang plan becam determin assassin presid . learn presid grant would attend ford theatr booth formul plan co-conspir assassin lincoln grant theater well vice presid johnson secretari state seward home . without main bodyguard ward hill lamon lincoln left attend play american cousin april . last minut grant decid go new jersey visit children instead attend play .	lincoln bodyguard john parker left ford theater intermiss drink saloon next door . unguard presid sat state box balconi . seiz opportun booth crept behind pm aim back lincoln head fire point-blank rang mortal wound presid . major henri rathbon momentarili grappl booth booth stab escap .	run day booth track found farm virginia south washington . refus surrend union troop booth kill sergeant boston corbett april .	doctor charl leal armi surgeon found presid unrespons bare breath detect puls . determin presid shot head stab shoulder origin thought made attempt clear blood clot presid began breath natur . die presid taken across street petersen hous . remain coma nine hour lincoln die april . secretari war stanton salut said belong age .	lincoln flag-enfold bodi escort rain white hous barehead union offic citi church bell rang . presid johnson sworn less hour lincoln death . late presid lay state east room capitol rotunda april april . final journey son willi casket transport execut coach unit state three week lincoln special funer train decor black bunt bore lincoln remain slow circuit waypoint journey washington . . springfield illinoi stop mani citi across north large-scal memori attend hundr thousand well mani peopl gather inform tracksid tribut band bonfir hymn sing silent rever hat hand railway process slowli pass . poet walt whitman compos lilac last dooryard bloom eulog lincoln one four poem wrote assassin presid . historian emphas widespread shock sorrow also note lincoln hater cheer heard news . african-american especi move lost mose . larger sens outpour grief anguish respons death mani men war end .	young man lincoln religi skeptic word biograph iconoclast . later life lincoln frequent use religi imageri languag might reflect person belief might devic appeal audienc mostli evangel protest . never join church although frequent attend wife . howev deepli familiar bibl quot prais . privat belief respect belief . lincoln never made clear profess christian belief . howev believ all-pow god shape event express belief major speech .	lincoln subscrib doctrin necess belief assert human mind control higher power . lincoln believ provid gener way rare use languag imageri evangel regard republican found father almost religi rever . suffer death son edward lincoln frequent express need depend god . death son willi februari may caus lincoln look toward religion answer solac . willi death lincoln consid divin standpoint sever war necessari . wrote time god could either save destroy union without human contest . yet contest began . begun could give final victori either side day . yet contest proce . day lincoln assassin reportedli told wife desir visit holi land .	sever claim abound lincoln health declin assassin . often base photograph appear show weight loss muscl wast . one claim suffer rare genet disord men 2b manifest medullari thyroid carcinoma mucos neuroma marfanoid appear . simpli claim marfan syndrom base tall appear spindli finger associ possibl aortic regurgit caus bob head demusset sign base blur lincoln head photograph back long exposur time . dna analysi refus grand armi republ museum philadelphia . presidenti rank poll conduct unit state sinc lincoln rate top major poll . gener top three presid rate . lincoln . georg washington . franklin . roosevelt although lincoln washington washington roosevelt occasion revers .	presid lincoln assassin increas statu point make nation martyr . lincoln view abolitionist champion human liberti . republican link lincoln name parti . mani though south consid lincoln man outstand abil . historian said classic liber 19th centuri sens . allen . guelzo state lincoln	classic liber democrat enemi artifici hierarchi friend trade busi ennobl enabl american counterpart mill cobden bright whose portrait lincoln hung white hous offic .	lincoln becam favorit exemplar liber intellectu across europ latin america even asia .	schwartz argu lincoln american reput grew slowli late 19th centuri progress era emerg one vener hero american histori even white southern agreement . high point came dedic lincoln memori nation mall washington . . new deal era liber honor lincoln much self-mad man great war presid advoc common man believ would support welfar state . cold war year lincoln imag shift emphas symbol freedom brought hope oppress communist regim .	lincoln becom hero polit conserv intens nation support busi insist stop spread human bondag act term lockean burkean principl behalf liberti tradit devot principl found father . whig activist lincoln spokesman busi interest favor high tariff bank intern improv railroad opposit agrarian democrat . william . harri found lincoln rever found father constitut law preserv republ institut undergird strengthen conservat . jame . randal emphas toler especi moder prefer orderli progress distrust danger agit reluct toward ill digest scheme reform . randal conclud conserv complet avoid type so-cal radic involv abus south hatr slavehold thirst vengeanc partisan plot ungener demand southern institut transform overnight outsid .	late african american intellectu led leron bennett jr . reject lincoln role great emancip . bennett wide attent call lincoln white supremacist . note lincoln use ethnic slur told joke ridicul black . bennett argu lincoln oppos social equal propos send freed slave anoth countri . defend author dirck cashin retort bad politician day moral visionari deftli advanc abolitionist caus fast polit possibl . emphasi shift away lincoln-the-emancip argument black freed slaveri least respons pressur govern emancip . historian barri schwartz wrote lincoln imag suffer eros fade prestig benign ridicul late 20th centuri . hand donald opin biographi lincoln distinctli endow person trait neg capabl defin poet john keat attribut extraordinari leader content midst uncertainti doubt compel toward fact reason . 21st centuri presid barack obama name lincoln favorit presid insist use lincoln bibl swear offic inaugur .	lincoln often portray hollywood almost alway flatter light .	lincoln portrait appear two denomin unit state currenc penni bill . like also appear mani postag stamp memori mani town citi counti name includ capit nebraska . usual portray beard first grew beard suggest year old grace bedel .	famou visit memori lincoln sculptur mount rushmor lincoln memori ford theatr petersen hous die washington . . abraham lincoln presidenti librari museum springfield illinoi far lincoln home well tomb .	also great moment mr . lincoln exhibit disneyland hall presid walt disney world walt disney admir lincoln ever sinc littl boy .	barri schwartz sociologist examin america cultur memori argu memori abraham lincoln practic sacr provid nation moral symbol inspir guid american life . great depress argu lincoln serv mean see world disappoint make suffer much explic meaning . franklin . roosevelt prepar america war use word civil war presid clarifi threat pose germani japan . american ask would lincoln . howev schwartz also find sinc world war ii lincoln symbol power lost relev fade hero symptomat fade confid nation great . suggest postmodern multicultur dilut great concept .	unit state navi name lincoln second navi ship bear name .	outlin abraham lincoln	sexual abraham lincoln	dakota war	grace bedel	lincoln tower	list photograph abraham lincoln	list civil right leader	mcclintock russel . lincoln decis war northern respons secess . univers north carolina press . . .	also publish vol ordeal union	also publish vol ordeal union	barr john . hold flaw mirror american soul abraham lincoln write leron bennett jr . journal abraham lincoln associ winter .	barr john . loath lincoln american tradit civil war present lsu press .	holzer harold craig . symond ed . explor lincoln great historian reapprais greatest presid essay scholar	man chandra shift terrain attitud toward abraham lincoln emancip journal abraham lincoln associ winter .	smith adam . . cult abraham lincoln strang surviv liber england era world war twentieth centuri british histori decemb pp .	spielberg steven goodwin dori kearn kushner toni . mr . lincoln goe hollywood smithsonian pp . .	green michael . lincoln elect concis lincoln librari	vol . detail biographi	peraino kevin . lincoln world make statesman dawn american power .	white ronald . . lincoln biographi .	c-span american presid life portrait june	c-span american writer journey histori	shapel manuscript foundat	northern illinoi univers librari	nation endow human
aristotl aristotél  bc ancient greek philosoph scientist born citi stagira chalkidic northern peripheri classic greec . father nicomachu die aristotl child whereaft proxenu atarneu becam guardian . seventeen eighteen year age join plato academi athen remain age thirty-seven . bc . write cover mani subject includ physic biolog zoolog metaphys logic ethic aesthet poetri theater music rhetor linguist polit govern constitut first comprehens system western philosophi . shortli plato die aristotl left athen request philip ii macedon tutor alexand great begin bc .	teach alexand great gave aristotl mani opportun abund suppli . establish librari lyceum aid product mani hundr book written papyru scroll . fact aristotl pupil plato contribut former view platon follow plato death aristotl immers empir studi shift platon empiric . believ peopl concept knowledg ultim base percept . aristotl view natur scienc repres groundwork underli mani work .	aristotl view physic scienc profoundli shape mediev scholarship . influenc extend late antiqu earli middl age renaiss replac systemat enlighten theori classic mechan . aristotl zoolog observ hectocotyl reproduct arm octopu confirm refut 19th centuri . work contain earliest known formal studi logic incorpor late 19th centuri modern formal logic .	metaphys aristotelian profoundli influenc jewish islam philosoph theolog thought middl age continu influenc christian theolog especi neoplaton earli church scholast tradit roman cathol church . aristotl well known among mediev muslim scholar rever first teacher .	ethic though alway influenti gain renew interest modern advent virtu ethic . aspect aristotl philosophi continu object activ academ studi today . though aristotl wrote mani eleg treatis dialogu cicero describ literari style river gold thought around third origin output surviv .	aristotl whose name mean best purpos born bc stagira chalcidic km mile east modern-day thessaloniki . father nicomachu person physician king amynta macedon . aristotl orphan young age . although littl inform aristotl childhood probabl spent time within macedonian palac make first connect macedonian monarchi .	age seventeen eighteen aristotl move athen continu educ plato academi . remain nearli twenti year leav athen bc . tradit stori departur record disappoint academi direct control pass plato nephew speusippu although possibl fear anti-macedonian sentiment left plato die .	aristotl accompani xenocr court friend hermia atarneu asia minor . travel theophrastu island lesbo togeth research botani zoolog island . aristotl marri pythia either hermia adopt daughter niec . bore daughter also name pythia . soon hermia death aristotl invit philip ii macedon becom tutor son alexand bc . aristotl encourag alexand toward eastern conquest attitud toward persia unabashedli ethnocentr . one famou exampl counsel alexand leader greek despot barbarian look former friend rel deal latter beast plant .	period athen bc aristotl believ compos mani work .	follow alexand death anti-macedonian sentiment athen rekindl . bc demophilu eurymedon hieroph reportedli denounc aristotl impieti prompt flee mother famili estat chalci occas said state allow athenian sin twice philosophi refer athen prior trial execut socrat . die euboea natur caus later year name student antipat chief executor leav ask buri next wife .	charl walston argu tomb aristotl locat sacr way chalci eretria contain two stylus pen signet-r terra-cotta well suppos earthli remain aristotl form skull fragment .	gener detail life aristotl well-establish . biographi aristotl written ancient time often specul historian agre salient point .	prior analyt aristotl credit earliest studi formal logic concept domin form western logic 19th centuri advanc mathemat logic . kant state critiqu pure reason prefac second edit aristotl logic reach complet .	aristotl say subject reason noth els earlier date speak . howev plato report syntax devis prodicu ceo concern correct use word . logic seem emerg dialect earlier philosoph made frequent use concept like reductio ad absurdum discuss never truli understood logic implic . even plato difficulti logic although reason concept deduct system could never actual construct one thu reli instead dialect .	plato believ deduct would simpli follow premis henc focus maintain solid premis conclus would logic follow . consequ plato realiz method obtain conclus would benefici . never succeed devis method best attempt publish book sophist introduc divis method .	today call aristotelian logic aristotl would label analyt . term logic reserv mean dialect . aristotl work probabl origin form like edit student later lectur . logic work aristotl compil six book earli 1st centuri ce	categori	interpret	prior analyt	posterior analyt	topic	sophist refut	order book teach compos certain list deriv analysi aristotl write . goe basic analysi simpl term categori analysi proposit elementari relat interpret studi complex form name syllog analyt dialect topic sophist refut . first three treatis form core logic theori stricto sensu grammar languag logic correct rule reason . one volum aristotl concern logic found organon name fourth book metaphys .	aristotl terminolog natur philosophi branch philosophi examin phenomena natur world includ field would regard today physic biolog natur scienc . modern time scope philosophi becom limit gener abstract inquiri ethic metaphys logic play major role . today philosophi tend exclud empir studi natur world mean scientif method . contrast aristotl philosoph endeavor encompass virtual facet intellectu inquiri .	larger sens word aristotl make philosophi coextens reason also would describ scienc . note howev use term scienc carri differ mean cover term scientif method . aristotl scienc dianoia either practic poetic theoret metaphys 1025b25 . practic scienc mean ethic polit poetic scienc mean studi poetri fine art theoret scienc mean physic mathemat metaphys . similar vein john philoponu later galileo show simpl experi aristotl theori heavier object fall faster lighter object incorrect . hand aristotl refut democritu claim milki way made star shade earth sun ray point correctli even reason bound dismiss long time given current astronom demonstr size sun greater earth distanc star earth mani time greater sun ... sun shine star earth screen none .	aristotl also scientif blind spot . posit geocentr cosmolog may discern select metaphys wide accept 16th centuri . 3rd centuri 16th centuri domin view held earth rotat center univers .	perhap philosoph respect european thinker renaiss thinker often took aristotl erron posit given held back scienc epoch . howev aristotl scientif shortcom mislead one forget great advanc mani scientif field . instanc found logic formal scienc creat foundat biolog supersed two millennia . moreov introduc fundament notion natur compos thing chang studi chang provid use knowledg underli constant .	quot charl lyell principl geolog	refer mani exampl chang constantli go insist emphat great result must produc laps age . instanc particular case lake dri desert length becom water river fertil . point growth nilot delta sinc time homer shallow palu maeoti within sixti year time ... allud ... upheav one eolian island previou volcan erupt . chang earth say slow comparison durat live overlook migrat peopl great catastroph remov region caus event forgotten .	say distribut land sea particular region endur throughout time becom sea part land becom land sea reason think chang take place accord certain system within certain period . conclud observ follow time never fail univers etern neither tanai nile flow ever . place rise dri limit oper none time . also river spring perish sea also continu desert land invad tract therefor earth alway sea alway contin everi thing chang cours time .	aristotl propos fifth element aether addit four propos earlier empedocl .	earth cold dri correspond modern idea solid .	water cold wet correspond modern idea liquid .	air hot wet correspond modern idea ga .	fire hot dri correspond modern idea plasma heat .	aether divin substanc make heavenli sphere heavenli bodi star planet .	four earthli element natur place . earthli tend toward center univers . . center earth . water tend toward sphere surround center . air tend toward sphere surround water sphere . fire tend toward lunar sphere moon orbit . element move natur place natur move back toward . natur motion motion requir extrins caus . exampl water earthi bodi sink air bubbl rise air rain fall flame rise . outsid sphere heavenli fifth element manifest star planet move perfect circl .	aristotl defin motion actual potenti . aquina suggest passag understood liter motion inde understood activ fulfil potenti transit toward potenti possibl state . actual potenti normal opposit aristotl comment either suggest word come us erron addit definit critic understand .	aristotl suggest reason anyth come attribut four differ type simultan activ factor . name aitia tradit translat caus alway refer tempor sequenc might better translat explan tradit render employ .	materi caus describ materi someth compos . thu materi caus tabl wood materi caus car rubber steel . action . mean one domino knock anoth domino .	formal caus form . . arrang matter . tell us thing thing determin definit form pattern essenc whole synthesi archetyp . embrac account caus term fundament principl gener law whole . . macrostructur caus part relationship known whole-part causat . plainli put formal caus idea exist first place exemplar mind sculptor second place intrins determin caus embodi matter . formal caus could refer essenti qualiti causat . simpl exampl formal caus mental imag idea allow artist architect engin creat draw .	effici caus primari sourc chang consider proce . identifi make made caus chang chang suggest sort agent nonliv live act sourc chang movement rest . repres current understand causal relat caus effect cover modern definit caus either agent agenc particular event state affair . take two domino time equal weight first knock caus second also fall .	final caus telo purpos sake thing exist done includ purpos instrument action activ . final caus purpos function someth suppos serv . cover modern idea motiv caus volit need desir ethic spiritu belief .	addit thing caus one anoth caus reciproc hard work caus fit vice versa although way function one begin chang goal . thu aristotl first suggest reciproc circular causal relat mutual depend influenc caus upon effect . moreov aristotl indic thing caus contrari effect presenc absenc may result differ outcom . simpli goal purpos bring event . two domino requir someon someth intent knock first domino cannot fall accord .	aristotl mark two mode causat proper prior causat accident chanc causat . caus proper incident spoken actual potenti gener particular . languag refer effect caus actual effect assign oper caus gener effect gener caus particular effect particular caus .	aristotl held accur theori optic concept philosoph day . second oldest written evid camera obscura mozi . bc found aristotl document devic bc problemata . aristotl apparatu contain dark chamber singl small hole apertur allow sunlight enter . aristotl use devic make observ sun note matter shape hole sun would still correctli display round object . modern camera analog diaphragm . aristotl also made observ distanc apertur surfac imag increas imag magnifi .	accord aristotl spontan chanc caus thing distinguish type caus . chanc incident caus lie realm accident thing . spontan note spontan come chanc . better understand aristotl concept chanc might better think coincid someth take place chanc person set intent one thing take place result anoth thing intend take place .	exampl person seek donat . person may find anoth person donat substanti sum . howev person seek donat met person donat purpos collect donat purpos aristotl would call collect donat particular donat result chanc . must unusu someth happen chanc . word someth happen time cannot say chanc .	also specif kind chanc aristotl name luck appli human sphere moral action . accord aristotl luck must involv choic thu deliber human capabl deliber choic . capabl action cannot anyth chanc .	aristotl defin metaphys knowledg immateri highest degre abstract . refer metaphys first philosophi well theolog scienc .	aristotl examin concept substanc essenc ousia metaphys book vii conclud particular substanc combin matter form . book viii distinguish matter substanc substratum stuff compos . exampl matter hous brick stone timber etc . whatev constitut potenti hous form substanc actual hous name cover bodi chattel differentia see also predic let us defin someth hous . formula give compon account matter formula give differentia account form .	regard chang kinesi caus defin physic gener corrupt 319b 320a distinguish come	growth diminut chang quantiti	locomot chang space	alter chang qualiti .	come chang noth persist result properti . particular chang introduc concept potenti dynami actual entelecheia associ matter form .	refer potenti thing capabl act upon condit right prevent someth els . exampl seed plant soil potenti dynamei plant prevent someth becom plant . potenti either act poiein act upon paschein either innat learn . exampl eye possess potenti sight innat act upon capabl play flute possess learn exercis act .	actual fulfil end potenti . end telo principl everi chang sake end exist potenti therefor actual end . refer previou exampl could say actual plant one activ plant .	sake thing principl becom sake end actual end sake potenti acquir . anim see order may sight sight may see .	summari matter use make hous potenti hous activ build form final hous actual also final caus end . aristotl proce conclud actual prior potenti formula time substanti .	definit particular substanc . . matter form aristotl tri solv problem uniti exampl make man one . sinc accord plato two idea anim bipe man uniti . howev accord aristotl potenti matter actual one form one thing .	aristotl predecessor plato argu thing univers form could either properti relat thing . look appl exampl see appl also analyz form appl . distinct particular appl univers form appl . moreov place appl next book speak book appl next .	plato argu univers form part particular thing . exampl possibl particular good exist good still proper univers form . bertrand russel 20th centuri philosoph agre plato exist uninstanti univers .	aristotl disagre plato point argu univers instanti . aristotl argu univers unattach exist thing . accord aristotl univers exist either particular relat must must current must futur someth univers predic . consequ accord aristotl case univers predic object exist period time exist .	addit aristotl disagre plato locat univers . plato spoke world form locat univers form subsist aristotl maintain univers exist within thing univers predic . accord aristotl form appl exist within appl rather world form .	aristotelian scienc especi biolog thing saw stood test time better retel report contain error superstit . dissect anim human idea human bodi work almost entir supersed .	aristotl earliest natur historian whose work surviv detail . aristotl certainli research natur histori lesbo surround sea neighbour area . work reflect research histori anim gener anim movement anim part anim contain observ interpret along sundri myth mistak . strike passag sea-lif visibl observ lesbo avail catch fishermen . observ catfish electr fish torpedo angler-fish detail write cephalopod name octopu sepia cuttlefish paper nautilu argonauta argo . descript hectocotyl arm use sexual reproduct wide disbeliev rediscoveri 19th centuri . separ aquat mammal fish knew shark ray part group call selach  selachian .	exampl method includ dissect observ come gener anim describ break open fertil chicken egg interv discov sequenc visibl organ gener .	aristotl gave accur descript four-chamb fore-stomach rumin ovovivipar embryolog develop hound shark mustelu mustelu .	aristotl distinguish speci bird mammal fish . modern zoologist would call vertebr invertebr aristotl call anim blood anim without blood . anim blood divid live-bear mammal egg-bear bird fish . invertebr anim without blood insect crustacea divid non-shel cephalopod shell testacea mollusc .	aristotl believ intellectu purpos . . final caus guid natur process . teleolog view gave aristotl caus justifi observ data express formal design . note anim time tusk horn single-hoov anim two horn never seen aristotl suggest natur give anim horn tusk stave vaniti give creatur faculti degre necessari . note rumin multipl stomach weak teeth suppos first compens latter natur tri preserv type balanc .	state histori anim creatur arrang grade scale perfect rise miner plant anim man form scala natura great chain . system eleven grade arrang accord degre infect potenti express form birth . highest anim laid warm wet creatur aliv lowest bore cold dri thick egg . charl singer noth remark effort relationship live thing scala natura .	aristotl also held level creatur perfect reflect form preordain form . idea like idea soul regard scienc modern time .	place emphasi type soul organ possess assert plant possess veget soul respons reproduct growth anim veget sensit soul respons mobil sensat human veget sensit ration soul capabl thought reflect .	aristotl contrast earlier philosoph accord egyptian place ration soul heart rather brain . notabl aristotl divis sensat thought gener went previou philosoph except alcmaeon .	aristotl successor lyceum theophrastu wrote seri book botani histori plant surviv import contribut antiqu botani even middl age . mani theophrastu name surviv modern time carpo fruit pericarpion seed vessel .	rather focu formal caus aristotl theophrastu suggest mechanist scheme draw analog natur artifici process reli aristotl concept effici caus . theophrastu also recogn role sex reproduct higher plant though last discoveri lost later age .	theophrastu lyceum fail produc origin work . though interest aristotl idea surviv gener taken unquestioningli . age alexandria ptolemi advanc biolog found .	first medic teacher alexandria herophilu chalcedon correct aristotl place intellig brain connect nervou system motion sensat . herophilu also distinguish vein arteri note latter puls former . though ancient atomist lucretiu challeng teleolog viewpoint aristotelian idea life teleolog rise christian natur theolog would remain central biolog thought essenti 18th 19th centuri . ernst mayr claim noth real consequ biolog lucretiu galen renaiss . aristotl idea natur histori medicin surviv gener taken unquestioningli .	accord aristotl memori abil hold perceiv experi mind abil distinguish intern appear occurr past . word memori mental pictur phantasm aristotl defin de anima appear imprint part bodi form memori . aristotl believ imprint becom impress semi-fluid bodili organ undergo sever chang order make memori . memori occur stimuli complex nervou system semi-fluid bodili organ cannot receiv impress . chang involv oper sensat common sens think . mental pictur imprint bodili organ final product entir process sens percept . matter experi seen heard everi experi end mental imag memori	aristotl use word memori two basic abil . first actual retain experi mnemon imprint develop sensat . second intellectu anxieti come imprint due impress particular time process specif content . abil explain memori neither sensat think aris laps time . therefor memori past predict futur sensat present . retriev imprint cannot perform suddenli . transit channel need locat past experi previou experi present experi .	aristotl propos slow-wit peopl good memori fluid brain wash away memori organ use imprint experi imprint easili continu . howev cannot slow harden surfac organ receiv new imprint . believ young old properli develop imprint . young peopl undergo rapid chang develop elderli organ begin decay thu stunt new imprint . likewis peopl quick-wit similar young imag cannot fix rapid chang organ . intellectu function involv memori memori belong anim percept time .	aristotl believ peopl receiv kind sens percept peopl perceiv imag imprint peopl continu weav togeth new imprint thing experi . order search imprint peopl search memori . within memori one experi offer instead specif memori person reject experi find look . recollect occur one experi natur follow anoth . chain imag need one memori stimul . chain imag need expect stimul memori instanc . peopl recal experi stimul certain previou experi stimul one need .	recollect self-direct activ retriev inform store memori imprint time pass . retriev store inform depend scope mnemon capabl human anim abil human anim possess . human rememb imprint intellectu activ number word . anim percept time abl retriev memori past observ . rememb involv percept thing rememb time pass . recollect imprint present experi person rememb similar element correspond charact arrang past sensori experi . imprint recal may bring forth larg group relat imprint .	aristotl believ chain thought end recollect certain imprint connect systemat three sort relationship similar contrast contigu . three law make law associ . aristotl believ past experi hidden within mind . forc oper awaken hidden materi bring actual experi . accord aristotl associ power innat mental state oper upon unexpress remain former experi allow rise recal .	understand aristotl view dream first idea sleep must examin . aristotl give account explan sleep sleep wake . sleep take place result overus sens digest	sleep person alter state mind . claim dream foretel sent divin .	aristotl taught achiev virtuou potenti happi charact requir first stage fortun habitu deliber teacher experi lead later stage one conscious choos best thing . best peopl come live life way practic wisdom phronesi intellect nou develop toward highest possibl human virtu wisdom accomplish theoret specul thinker word philosoph .	addit work ethic address individu aristotl address citi work titl polit . aristotl consid citi natur commun . moreov consid citi prior import famili turn prior individu whole must necess prior part . also famous state man natur polit anim also argu human defin factor among anim kingdom ration . aristotl conceiv polit like organ rather like machin collect part none exist without . aristotl concept citi organ consid one first conceiv citi manner .	common modern understand polit commun modern state quit differ aristotl understand . although awar exist potenti larger empir natur commun accord aristotl citi poli function polit commun partnership koin nia . aim citi avoid injustic econom stabil rather allow least citizen possibl live good life perform beauti act polit partnership must regard therefor sake nobl action sake live togeth . distinguish modern approach begin social contract theori accord individu leav state natur fear violent death inconveni .	excerpt speech charact aristotl book protrepticu hutchinson johnson .	agre excel man rule . . suprem natur law rule alon authorit law kind intellig . . discours base intellig . standard criterion good thing precis intellig man . man choos choic base knowledg good thing contrari bad . sinc everybodi choos conform proper disposit man choos live justli man braveri live brave likewis self-control man live self-control clear intellig man choos intellig function capac . henc evid accord authorit judgment intellig suprem among good .	aristotl consid epic poetri tragedi comedi dithyramb poetri music imit vari imit medium object manner . exampl music imit media rhythm harmoni wherea danc imit rhythm alon poetri languag . form also differ object imit . comedi instanc dramat imit men wors averag wherea tragedi imit men slightli better averag . lastli form differ manner imit narr charact chang chang drama drama . aristotl believ imit natur mankind constitut one mankind advantag anim .	believ aristotl poetic compris two book one comedi one tragedi portion focus tragedi surviv . aristotl taught tragedi compos six element plot-structur charact style thought spectacl lyric poetri . charact tragedi mere mean drive stori plot charact chief focu tragedi . tragedi imit action arous piti fear meant effect catharsi emot . aristotl conclud poetic discuss either superior epic tragic mimesi . suggest tragedi possess attribut epic possibl possess addit attribut spectacl music unifi achiev aim mimesi shorter scope consid superior epic .	aristotl keen systemat collector riddl folklor proverb school special interest riddl delphic oracl studi fabl aesop .	aristotl analysi procreat describ activ ensoul masculin element bring life inert passiv femal element . ground feminist metaphys accus aristotl misogyni sexism . howev aristotl gave equal weight women happi men comment rhetor thing lead happi need women well men .	aristotl wrote work papyru scroll roll common write medium era . surviv aristotelian corpu . wherea lost work appear origin written intent subsequ public surviv work appear . color may produc aristotl successor lyceum . . theophrastu straton . still acquir aristotl name similar doctrin content de planti possibl nicolau damascu . work corpu includ mediev palmistri astrolog magic text whose connect aristotl pure fanci self-promot .	accord distinct origin aristotl write divis two group exoter esoter . scholar understood distinct work aristotl intend public exoter technic work intend use within lyceum cours school esoter . modern scholar commonli assum latter aristotl unpolish lectur note case possibl note student . howev one classic scholar offer altern interpret . 5th centuri neoplatonist ammoniu hermia write aristotl write style deliber obscurantist good peopl may reason stretch mind even wherea empti mind lost careless put flight obscur encount sentenc like .	anoth common assumpt none exoter work extant aristotl extant write esoter kind . current knowledg exactli exoter write like scant dubiou though mani may dialogu form . fragment aristotl dialogu surviv . perhap cicero refer character aristotl write style river gold hard mani modern reader accept one could serious admir style work current avail us . howev modern scholar warn cannot know certain cicero prais reserv specif exoter work modern scholar actual admir concis write style found aristotl extant work .	one major question histori aristotl work exoter write lost one possess come us . stori origin manuscript esoter treatis describ strabo geographi plutarch parallel live . manuscript left aristotl successor theophrastu turn neleu scepsi . neleu supposedli took write athen scepsi heir let languish cellar 1st centuri bc apellicon teo discov purchas manuscript bring back athen . accord stori apellicon tri repair damag done manuscript stay basement introduc number error text . luciu corneliu sulla occupi athen bc carri librari apellicon rome first publish bc grammarian tyrannion amisu philosoph andronicu rhode .	carn lord attribut popular belief stori fact provid plausibl explan rapid eclips peripatet school middl third centuri absenc widespread knowledg special treatis aristotl throughout hellenist period well sudden reappear flourish aristotelian first centuri . . lord voic number reserv concern stori howev . first condit text far good suffer consider damag follow apellicon inexpert attempt repair .	second incontrovert evid lord say treatis circul time strabo plutarch suggest confin within cellar scepsi . third definit edit aristotl text seem made athen fifti year andronicu supposedli compil . fourth ancient librari catalogu predat andronicu intervent list aristotelian corpu quit similar one current possess . lord see number post-aristotelian interpol polit exampl gener confid work come us rel intact .	one hand surviv text aristotl deriv finish literari text rather work draft use within aristotl school oppos hand dialogu exoter text aristotl publish wide lifetim . consensu andronicu rhode collect esoter work aristotl school exist form smaller separ work distinguish theophrastu peripatet edit final compil cohes larger work known today .	year death aristotl remain one influenti peopl ever live . contribut almost everi field human knowledg exist founder mani new field . accord philosoph bryan mage doubt whether human ever known much . among countless achiev aristotl founder formal logic pioneer studi zoolog left everi futur scientist philosoph debt contribut scientif method .	despit achiev influenc aristotl error consid held back scienc consider . bertrand russel note almost everi seriou intellectu advanc begin attack aristotelian doctrin . russel also refer aristotl ethic repuls call logic definit antiqu ptolema astronomi . russel note error make difficult histor justic aristotl one rememb larg advanc made upon predecessor .	greek christian scribe play crucial role preserv aristotl copi extant greek languag manuscript corpu . first greek christian comment extens aristotl john philoponu elia david sixth centuri stephen alexandria earli seventh centuri . john philoponu stand attempt fundament critiqu aristotl view etern world movement element aristotelian thought . hiatu sever centuri formal commentari eustratiu michael ephesu reappear late eleventh earli twelfth centuri appar sponsor anna comnena .	aristotl one rever western thinker earli islam theolog . still extant work aristotl well number origin greek commentari translat arab studi muslim philosoph scientist scholar . averro avicenna alpharabiu wrote aristotl great depth also influenc thoma aquina western christian scholast philosoph . alkindu consid aristotl outstand uniqu repres philosophi averro spoke aristotl exemplar futur philosoph . mediev muslim scholar regularli describ aristotl first teacher . titl teacher first given aristotl muslim scholar later use western philosoph famou poem dant influenc tradit islam philosophi .	accord greek theorist muslim consid aristotl dogmat philosoph author close system believ aristotl share plato essenti tenet thought . went far credit aristotl neo-platon metaphys idea . origin greek jame venic william moerbek .	thoma aquina wrote theolog work moerbek translat demand aristotl write grew greek manuscript return west stimul reviv aristotelian europ continu renaiss . aristotl refer philosoph scholast thinker thoma aquina see summa theologica part question etc . . thinker blend aristotelian philosophi christian bring thought ancient greec middl age . requir repudi aristotelian principl scienc art free discoveri modern scientif law empir method . mediev english poet chaucer describ student happi	bedd heed	twenti book clad blak reed	aristotl philosophi	italian poet dant say aristotl first circl hell	vidi maestro di color che sanno	seder tra filosofica famiglia .	tutti lo miran tutti onor li fanno	quivi vid'ïo socrat platon	che nnanzi li altri più presso li stanno	saw master know	amid philosoph famili	admir reverenc	plato saw socrat	stood besid closer rest .	dant l'inferno hell canto iv . line	german philosoph friedrich nietzsch said taken nearli polit philosophi aristotl . howev debat aristotl rigidli separ action product argu deserv subservi peopl natur slave natur superior virtu aret . martin heidegg nietzsch elabor new interpret aristotl intend warrant deconstruct scholast philosoph tradit . ayn rand accredit aristotl greatest philosoph histori cite major influenc think . recent alasdair macintyr attempt reform call aristotelian tradit way anti-elitist capabl disput claim liber nietzschean .	work aristotl surviv antiqu mediev manuscript transmiss collect corpu aristotelicum . text oppos aristotl lost work technic philosoph treatis within aristotl school . refer made accord organ immanuel bekker royal prussian academi edit aristot opera edidit academia regia borussica berlin turn base ancient classif work .	aristotl mountain along oscar ii coast graham land antarctica name aristotl . first person known conjectur book meteorolog exist landmass southern high-latitud region call antarctica .	aristotel crater moon bear classic form aristotl name .	aristotelian physic	aristotelian societi	aristotelian theolog	conimbricens	list writer influenc aristotl	otium	philia	pseudo-aristotl	secondari literatur aristotl vast . follow refer small select .	ackril . . . essay plato aristotl oxford univers press us .	popular exposit gener reader .	translat avail sever place onlin see extern link .	bakali nikolao . . handbook greek philosophi thale stoic analysi fragment trafford publish	bolotin david . approach aristotl physic particular attent role manner write . albani suni press . contribut understand read aristotl scientif work .	burnyeat . . et al . . note book zeta aristotl metaphys . oxford sub-faculti philosophi .	code alan . . potenti aristotl scienc metaphys pacif philosoph quarterli .	de groot jean . aristotl empiric experi mechan 4th centuri bc parmenid publish	frede michael . . essay ancient philosophi . minneapoli univers minnesota press .	gendlin eugen . . line line commentari aristotl de anima volum book ii volum book iii . spring valley new york focus institut .	gill mari louis . . aristotl substanc paradox uniti . princeton princeton univers press .	halper edward . . one mani aristotl metaphys volum book alpha delta parmenid publish .	halper edward . . one mani aristotl metaphys volum central book parmenid publish .	irwin . . . . oxford clarendon press .	jori alberto . . aristotel milano bruno mondadori editor prize intern academi histori scienc .	knight kelvin . . aristotelian philosophi ethic polit aristotl macintyr politi press .	lewi frank . . substanc predic aristotl . cambridg cambridg univers press .	lloyd . . . . aristotl growth structur thought . cambridg cambridg univ . pr . .	lord carn . . introduct polit aristotl . chicago chicago univers press .	loux michael . . primari ousia essay aristotl metaphys . ithaca ny cornel univers press .	maso stefano ed . natali carlo ed . seel gerhard ed . . read aristotl physic vii . alter . proceed intern esap-hyel confer parmenid publish .	pangl lorrain smith . aristotl philosophi friendship . cambridg cambridg univers press . aristotl concept deepest human relationship view light histori philosoph thought friendship .	reev . . . . substanti knowledg aristotl metaphys . indianapoli hackett .	classic overview one aristotl promin english translat print sinc .	scaltsa . . substanc univers aristotl metaphys . ithaca cornel univers press .	strauss leo . aristotl polit citi man chicago rand mcnalli .	gener reader .	.	.	internet encyclopedia philosophi		stanford encyclopedia philosophi		internet classic archiv mit	collect work	primarili english .	tuft univers .	primarili english .	volum bekker edit aristotl work greek	bekker prussian academi scienc edit complet work aristotl archive.org	translat .
american pari jazz-influenc orchestr piec american compos georg gershwin written . inspir time gershwin spent pari evok sight energi french capit one best-known composit .	gershwin compos american pari commiss conductor walter damrosch . score piec standard instrument symphoni orchestra plu celesta saxophon automobil horn . brought back parisian taxi horn new york premier composit took place decemb carnegi hall damrosch conduct new york philharmon . gershwin complet orchestr novemb less four week work premier .	gershwin collabor origin program note critic compos deem taylor note purpos portray impress american visitor pari stroll citi listen variou street nois absorb french atmospher . tone poem move blue american friend ... succumb spasm homesick . nostalgia fatal diseas . american visitor alert spectat parisian life street nois french atmospher triumphant .	gershwin attract mauric ravel unusu chord . transatlant letter back forth whether ravel took student much charg ravel look gershwin prior year earn sent telegram gershwin jokingli say ravel studi gershwin . ravel accept student gershwin went first trip pari readi studi . initi student audit ravel turn share music theori ravel said teach would send letter refer nadia boulang . studi cut short trip result initi version american pari written thank note gershwin host robert mabel shirmer . gershwin call rhapsod ballet written freeli much modern idiom prior work .	gershwin strongli encourag ravel come unit state tour someth ravel reluct . end upon return new york gershwin join effort ravel friend robert schmitz pianist ravel met war urg ravel tour . . schmitz head pro musica promot franco-american music relat abl offer ravel fee tour entic gershwin knew would import ravel .	gershwin greet ravel new york februari start ravel . . tour join ravel later tour lo angel . lunch togeth chaplin beverli hill ravel persuad perform unschedul hous concert friend music salon perform among kindr spirit .	ravel tour reignit gershwin desir return pari march . ravel high prais gershwin introductori letter boulang caus gershwin serious consid take much time studi abroad pari . yet play told could teach . nadia boulang gave gershwin basic advic gave accomplish master student copi . case tri second rate ravel alreadi first rate gershwin . set gershwin back real intent abroad complet new work base pari perhap second rhapsodi piano orchestra follow rhapsodi blue . pari time host mani expatri writer among ezra pound . . yeat ernest hemingway artist pablo picasso .	gershwin base american pari melod fragment call parisienn written first visit pari gift host robert mabel schirmer . describ piec rhapsod ballet written freeli modern previou work . gershwin explain music america purpos portray impress american visitor pari stroll citi listen variou street nois absorb french atmospher .	piec structur five section culmin loos aba format . gershwin first episod introduc two main walk theme allegretto grazioso develop third theme subito con brio . style section written typic french style compos claud debussi le six . section featur dupl meter singsong rhythm diaton melodi sound obo english horn taxi horn . section andant con ritmo deciso introduc american blue spasm homesick . allegro follow continu express homesick faster twelve-bar blue . section gershwin use common time syncop rhythm bluesi melodi sound trumpet saxophon snare drum . moderato con grazia last section return theme set . recapitul walk theme gershwin overlay slow blue theme section final grandioso .	american pari score flute 3rd doubl piccolo obo english horn clarinet b-flat bass clarinet b-flat bassoon horn trumpet b-flat trombon tuba timpani snare drum bass drum triangl wood block cymbal low high tom-tom xylophon glockenspiel celesta taxi horn label circl around alto saxophon soprano saxophon tenor saxophon soprano saxophon alto saxophon bariton saxophon soprano saxophon alto saxophon string . although modern audienc heard taxi horn use note recent come light gershwin intent use note a4 b4 d5 a4 . like label taxi horn circl may refer use four differ horn note play .	revis edit . campbell-watson call three saxophon alto tenor bariton . arrang soprano alto doubl rewritten avoid chang instrument . gershwin specialist jack gibbon made restor origin orchestr american pari work directli gershwin origin manuscript includ restor gershwin soprano saxophon part remov . campbell-watson revis gibbon restor orchestr american pari perform london queen elizabeth hall juli citi oxford orchestra conduct levon parikian	william dali arrang score piano solo publish new world music .	gershwin particularli like walter damrosch interpret world premier american pari . state damrosch sluggish drag tempo caus walk hall matine perform work . audienc accord edward cush respond demonstr enthusiasm impress genuin contrast convent applaus new music good bad ordinarili arous . critic believ american pari better craft lukewarm concerto . think belong program classic compos césar franck richard wagner guillaum lekeu premier . gershwin respond critic beethoven symphoni know ... humor piec noth solemn . intend draw tear . pleas symphoni audienc light jolli piec seri impress music express succe .	septemb announc musicolog critic edit full orchestr score eventu releas . gershwin famili work conjunct librari congress univers michigan work make score avail public repres gershwin true intent . unknown critic score includ four minut materi gershwin later delet work restat blue theme faster bar blue section score document chang orchestr gershwin composit process .	score american pari current schedul issu first seri score releas . entir project may take year complet american pari earli volum seri .	two urtext edit work publish german publish b-note music . chang made campbell-watson withdrawn edit . extend urtext bar music re-integr . conductor walter damrosch cut shortli first perform .	american pari frequent record . first record made rca victor nathaniel shilkret conduct rca victor symphoni orchestra drawn member philadelphia orchestra . gershwin hand supervis record howev shilkret report charg eventu ask compos leav record studio . littl later shilkret discov one play brief celesta solo slow section hastili ask gershwin might play solo gershwin said could briefli particip actual record . record believ use taxi horn way gershwin intend use note flat flat higher lower . harri jame releas version blue section album one night stand record live aragon ballroom chicago columbia gl cl . conductor steven richman harmoni ensembl new york releas record gershwin origin orchestr harmonia mundi .	metro-goldwyn-may releas music film american pari featur gene kelli lesli caron . win best pictur oscar numer award film direct vincent minnelli featur mani tune gershwin conclud extens elabor danc sequenc built around american pari symphon poem arrang film johnni green cost .	rimler walter . georg gershwin intim portrait . urbana univers illinoi press . .	pollack howard . georg gershwin life work . berkeley univers california press . .	new york philharmon conduct artur rodzi ski	new york philharmon leonard bernstein
academi award best product design recogn achiev art direct film . categori origin name best art direct chang current name 85th academi award . chang result art director branch academi motion pictur art scienc ampa renam design branch . sinc award share set decor . award best interior design film .	film list product year exampl academi award best art direct given film . list winner award year shown first follow nomine .	bafta award best product design	critic choic movi award best art direct
academi award known offici oscar set twenty-four award artist technic merit american film industri given annual academi motion pictur art scienc ampa recogn excel cinemat achiev assess academi vote membership . variou categori winner award copi golden statuett offici call academi award merit becom commonli known nicknam oscar . award first present hollywood roosevelt hotel overseen ampa .	award ceremoni first broadcast radio televis first time . seen live countri stream live onlin . academi award ceremoni oldest worldwid entertain award ceremoni . equival emmi award televis toni award theater grammi award music record model academi award .	89th academi award ceremoni honor best film held februari dolbi theatr lo angel california . ceremoni host jimmi kimmel broadcast abc . total oscar award incept award 89th .	first academi award present held may privat dinner function hollywood roosevelt hotel audienc peopl . post-award parti held mayfair hotel . cost guest ticket night ceremoni dollar . fifteen statuett award honor artist director particip film-mak industri time work period . ceremoni ran minut .	winner announc media three month earlier . chang second ceremoni . sinc rest first decad result given newspap public pm night award . made gold-plat britannium black metal base cm tall award weigh lb kg depict knight render art deco style hold crusad sword stand reel film five spoke . five spoke repres origin branch academi actor writer director produc technician .	model statuett said mexican actor emilio el indio fernández . sculptor georg stanley also muse fountain hollywood bowl sculpt cedric gibbon design . statuett present initi ceremoni gold-plat solid bronz . within year bronz abandon favor britannia metal pewter-lik alloy plate copper nickel silver final karat gold . due metal shortag world war ii oscar made paint plaster three year . follow war academi invit recipi redeem plaster figur gold-plat metal one . addit oscar sinc creat minor streamlin base . origin oscar mold cast . . shumway son foundri batavia illinoi also contribut cast mold vinc lombardi trophi emmi award statuett . approxim oscar made year chicago illinoi manufactur . . owen compani . take three four week manufactur statuett . base digit scan origin oscar new statuett retain modern-era dimens black pedest . cast liquid bronz 3d print ceram mold polish electropl karat gold brooklyn new york base epner technolog . time requir produc statuett roughli month . . . owen expect continu produc award academi servic exist oscar .	origin name oscar disput . one biographi bett davi presid academi claim name oscar first husband band leader harmon oscar nelson . anoth claim origin academi execut secretari margaret herrick first saw award made refer statuett remind uncl oscar nicknam cousin oscar pierc . columnist sidney skolski present herrick name seiz name bylin employe affection dub famou statuett oscar .	one earliest mention term oscar date back time magazin articl 6th academi award . walt disney also quot thank academi oscar earli . trophi offici dub oscar academi motion pictur art scienc .	prevent inform identifi oscar winner leak ahead ceremoni oscar statuett present ceremoni blank basepl . winner expect return statuett academi ceremoni wait sever week inscript appli . sinc winner option engrav namepl appli statuett inscription-process station governor ball parti held immedi oscar ceremoni . . . owen compani made engrav namepl ahead ceremoni bear name everi potenti winner . namepl non-win nomine recycl afterward .	sinc statuett legal encumb requir neither winner heir may sell statuett without first offer sell back academi us . winner refus agre stipul academi keep statuett . academi award protect agreement sold public auction privat deal six-figur sum . decemb orson well oscar citizen kane best origin screenplay put auction heir court decis contend well sign agreement return statu academi . decemb sold onlin auction us .	harold russel need money wife medic expens . controversi decis consign oscar best support actor best year live herman darvick autograph auction august new york citi oscar sold privat collector . sinc award requir offer academi first . russel defend decis say know anybodi would critic . wife health much import sentiment reason . movi even oscar . harold russel academi award-win actor ever sell oscar .	oscar recipi essenti open market . michael todd grandson tri sell todd oscar statuett movi prop collector academi legal battl get perman injunct . although oscar sale transact success buyer subsequ return statuett academi keep treasuri .	sinc academi award nomin result announc public late januari . prior result announc earli februari .	academi motion pictur art scienc ampa profession honorari organ maintain vote membership .	academi membership divid differ branch repres differ disciplin film product . actor constitut largest vote bloc number member percent academi composit . vote certifi audit firm pricewaterhousecoop predecessor price waterhous past annual award ceremoni .	ampa member must invit join board governor behalf academi branch execut committe . membership elig may achiev competit nomin member may submit name base signific contribut field motion pictur .	new membership propos consid annual . academi publicli disclos membership although recent press releas announc name invit join . releas also state vote member . membership grow stricter polici kept size steadi sinc .	result studi conduct lo angel time publish describ demograph breakdown approxim ampa vote membership . activ voter confirm caucasian male found age . vote member former nomine winner .	may academi sent letter advis vote member onlin system oscar vote would implement .	accord rule offici academi award rule film must open previou calendar year midnight start januari midnight end decemb lo angel counti california play seven consecut day qualifi except best foreign languag film best documentari featur best documentari short subject .	best foreign languag film award requir . . releas . best documentari featur award requir week-long releas lo angel counti new york citi previou calendar year .	best documentari short subject award notic differ elig rule competit award . first qualifi period releas coincid calendar year instead cover one-year period start septemb end august calendar year ceremoni . second multipl method qualif . main method week-long theatric releas either lo angel counti new york citi elig period . film also qualifi win specifi award one number competit film festiv design academi . final film select gold silver bronz medal winner documentari categori immedi previou student academi award also elig .	exampl best pictur winner hurt locker actual first releas qualifi award play oscar-qualifi run lo angel mid thu qualifi award . foreign film must includ english subtitl countri submit one film per year .	rule state film must feature-length defin minimum minut except short-subject award must exist either mm mm film print frame frame progress scan digit cinema format minimum projector resolut pixel . effect 90th academi award present multi-part limit seri inelig best documentari featur award . follow win . . made america eight-hour present screen limit releas broadcast five part abc espn categori . academi announc new rule made direct mention film .	produc must submit offici screen credit onlin form deadlin case submit defin deadlin film inelig academi award year . form includ product credit relat categori . form check put remind list elig releas .	late decemb ballot copi remind list elig releas mail around activ member . categori member branch vote determin nomine respect categori . . director vote director writer writer actor actor etc . . special case best pictur vote member elig select nomine . major categori variant singl transfer vote use member cast ballot five nomine ten best pictur rank preferenti . sinc re-weight rang vote use select nomine best visual effect .	film compani spend much sever million dollar market award voter movi run best pictur attempt improv chanc receiv oscar movi award confer oscar season . academi enforc rule limit overt campaign member tri elimin excess prevent process becom undignifi . award czar staff advis member allow practic levi penalti offend . exampl produc best pictur nomine hurt locker disqualifi produc categori contact associ urg vote film anoth seen front-runn hurt locker eventu .	major award present live televis ceremoni commonli late februari earli march follow relev calendar year six week announc nomine . culmin film award season usual begin novemb decemb previou year . elabor extravaganza invit guest walk red carpet creation promin fashion design day . black tie dress common outfit men although fashion may dictat wear bow-ti music perform sometim adher . artist record nomine best origin song quit often perform song live award ceremoni fact perform often use promot televis broadcast .	academi award award show televis live unit state time zone exclud hawaii air live alaska start first time sinc canada unit kingdom gather million viewer elsewher throughout world.th oscar first televis nbc continu broadcast event abc took televis festiv includ first color broadcast event nbc resum broadcast . abc took broadcast duti broadcast oscar ever sinc current contract academi run . academi also produc condens version ceremoni broadcast intern market especi outsid america desir local timeslot . ceremoni broadcast live intern first time via satellit two south american countri chile brazil purchas right air broadcast . time televis right academi award sold countri . decad later right alreadi sold countri tv right award licens countri .	ceremoni move late march earli april late februari earli march start help disrupt shorten intens lobbi ad campaign associ oscar season film industri . anoth reason grow tv rate success ncaa divis men basketbal tournament would cut academi award audienc . earlier date also advantag abc usual occur highli profit import februari sweep period . year ceremoni move earli march defer winter olymp . anoth reason move late februari earli march avoid award ceremoni occur close religi holiday passov easter decad grievanc member gener public . advertis somewhat restrict howev tradit movi studio competitor offici academi award sponsor may advertis telecast . award show hold distinct emmi histori win nomin .	mani year held monday pm eastern . pacif ceremoni move sunday pm eastern pm pacif . reason given move viewer would tune sunday lo angel rush-hour traffic jam could avoid earlier start time would allow viewer east coast go bed earlier . mani year film industri oppos sunday broadcast would cut weekend box offic . academi contempl move ceremoni even back januari cite tv viewer fatigu film industri long award season . howev acceler schedul would dramat decreas vote period member point voter would time view contend film stream comput oppos tradit receiv film ballot mail . also januari early-februari ceremoni held sunday would compet nation footbal leagu playoff game super bowl .	origin schedul april 40th academi award ceremoni postpon two day assassin dr . martin luther king jr .. march 53rd academi award postpon one day shoot presid ronald reagan washington . .	memoriam segment introduc honor made signific contribut cinema die preced month select compil small committe academi member . segment drawn critic year omiss name . critic also levi mani year regard anoth aspect segment popular contest feel audienc vari applaus die subject cultur impact applaus sinc mute telecast audienc discourag clap segment give silent reflect instead .	term broadcast length ceremoni gener averag three half hour . first oscar last minut . end spectrum ceremoni last four hour twenty-thre minut . organ academi award announc winner accept speech must run past second . accord organ bill mechan ensur elimin term singl hate thing show overli long embarrass display emot . effort streamlin speech winner dedic display on-screen ticker .	although still domin rate viewership academi award steadili drop 88th academi award lowest-r past eight year although increas male viewership show also face mix recept . follow show varieti report abc negoti extens contract broadcast oscar seek creativ control broadcast . current nomin ampa respons aspect telecast includ choic product staff host although abc allow input decis . august ampa extend contract abc contract contain notabl chang give abc creativ control telecast .	histor oscarcast pull bigger haul box-offic hit favor win best pictur trophi . million viewer tune telecast 70th academi award year titan gener close us million north american box offic pre-oscar . 76th academi award ceremoni lord ring return king pre-telecast box offic earn us million receiv award includ best pictur drew million viewer . watch ceremoni base nielsen rate date howev 42nd academi award best pictur midnight cowboy drew household rate april .	contrast ceremoni honor film perform well box offic tend show weaker rate . 78th academi award award low-budget independ film crash pre-oscar gross us million gener audienc million household rate . 80th academi award telecast watch million viewer averag household rate lowest rate least watch ceremoni date spite celebr year academi award . best pictur winner particular ceremoni anoth independ financ film countri old men .	first academi award present banquet dinner hollywood roosevelt hotel . ceremoni altern two venu ambassador hotel wilshir boulevard biltmor hotel downtown lo angel .	grauman chines theatr hollywood host award follow shrine auditorium lo angel . 21st academi award held academi award theatr academi headquart melros avenu hollywood .	award present hollywood pantag theatr . advent televis award took place simultan hollywood new york first nbc intern theatr nbc centuri theatr ceremoni took place sole lo angel . oscar move santa monica civic auditorium santa monica california . academi decid move ceremoni back lo angel time dorothi chandler pavilion lo angel counti music center .	dolbi theatr previous known kodak theatr becam present current venu .	first year award best direct award split two categori drama comedi . time best origin score award also split separ categori drama comedi music . art direct product design cinematographi costum design award likewis split two categori black-and-whit film color film . prior product design award call art direct makeup hairstyl award call makeup .	anoth award entitl academi award best origin music still academi rulebook yet discontinu . howev due continu insuffici elig year award sinc purpl rain .	board governor meet year consid new award categori . date follow propos categori reject	best cast reject	best stunt coordin reject everi year	best titl design reject	tim dirk editor amc filmsite.org written academi award	typic critic academi award best pictur among winner nomine over-represent romant histor epic biograph drama romant dramedi famili melodrama releas . . last three month calendar year . oscar infam known select specif genr movi award . led coin term oscar bait describ movi . led time specif critic academi disconnect audienc . . favor oscar bait audienc favorit favor histor melodrama critic acclaim movi depict current life issu .	academ award long receiv critic lack divers among nomine . 88th award ceremoni becam target boycott base critic percept all-whit act nomine list reflect bia . respons academi initi histor chang membership year .	act prize certain year critic recogn superior perform much award person popular present career honor recogn distinguish nomine entir bodi work .	winner critic academi award boycot ceremoni refus accept oscar . first dudley nichol best write inform . nichol boycot 8th academi award ceremoni conflict academi writer guild . georg . scott becam second person refus award best actor patton 43rd academi award ceremoni . scott describ meat parad say want part . third marlon brando refus award best actor godfath cite film industri discrimin mistreat nativ american . 45th academi award ceremoni brando sent sacheen littlefeath read page speech detail critic . valu gift bag reach ten thousand dollar . valu report high us . valu risen point . . intern revenu servic issu statement regard gift taxabl statu .	oscar gift bag includ vacat packag hawaii mexico japan privat dinner parti recipi friend restaur videophon four-night stay hotel watch bracelet vacat packag spa treatment bottl vodka mapl salad dress weight-loss gummi candi . gift even risqu element adult product retail adam eve secret room gift suit . celebr visit gift suit includ judith hoag carolyn hennesi kate linder chri mulkey jim o'heir nba player john salley .	onward result live sd previou year live view	. ad price usd million	. adjust price usd million				avail	avail				avail	avail																															list film award	list actor academi award nomin	brokaw lauren . . lo angel daili truffl .	wright jon . lunaci oscar problem hollywood biggest night . thoma publish inc .	academi motion pictur art scienc	searchabl	.	time magazin .
actress catalan actriu catalan languag spanish drama film produc direct ventura pon base award-win stage play . . josep maria benet jornet . film male actor role play femal . film produc .	order prepar play role commemor life legendari actress empar ribera young actress mercè pon interview three establish actress ribera pupil intern diva glòria marc núria espert televis star assumpta roca rosa maria sardà dub director maria camin anna lizaran .	núria espert glòria marc	rosa maria sardà assumpta roca	anna lizaran maria camin	mercè pon estudi	actriu screen grauman egyptian theatr american cinemathequ retrospect work director . film first screen locat . also shown stockholm intern film festiv . mrqe wrote cinemat adapt theatric work true origin stray far theatric render stori .	best catalan film butaca award ventura pon	best catalan film actress butaca award share núria espert rosa maria sardà anna lizaran mercè pon	nomin best screenplay goya award share josep maria benet jornet ventura pon	archiv februari spanish
animalia illustr children book graem base . origin publish follow tenth anniversari edit 25th anniversari edit . three million copi sold . special number sign anniversari edit also publish emboss gold jacket .	animalia allit alphabet book contain twenty-six illustr one letter alphabet . illustr featur anim anim kingdom allig butterfli etc . along short poem util letter page mani word . illustr contain mani object begin letter reader tri identifi . addit challeng author hidden pictur child everi pictur .	julia macra book publish animalia colour book . . . abram also publish wall calendar colour book version children year .	. . abram publish animalia wall friez fold-out feet length author creat new riddl letter .	great american puzzl factori creat piec jigsaw puzzl base book cover .	televis seri also creat base book air unit state australia canada unit kingdom norway venezuela . also air minimax czech republ slovakia . recent greec channel et1 . australian children televis foundat releas teach resourc dvd-rom accompani tv seri teach aid classroom use .	base factori appbook releas animalia applic ipad iphon ipod touch .	animalia young australian best book award best pictur stori book .	children book council australia design animalia pictur book year honour book .	kid australian literatur award name animalia pictur book winner .	animalia creat littl big book club
intern atom time tai french name high-precis atom coordin time standard base notion passag proper time earth geoid . princip realis terrestri time except fix offset epoch . also basi coordin univers time utc use civil timekeep earth surfac . anoth leap second ad tai exactli second ahead utc . second result initi differ second start plu leap second utc sinc .	tai may report use tradit mean specifi day carri non-uniform time standard base rotat earth . specif julian date gregorian calendar use . tai form synchronis univers time begin two drift apart ever sinc due chang motion earth .	tai time scale weight averag time kept atom clock nation laboratori worldwid . clock compar use gp signal two-way satellit time frequenc transfer . due signal averag order magnitud stabl best clock alon would . major clock caesium clock definit si second written term caesium .	becam clear clock particip tai tick differ rate due gravit time dilat combin tai scale therefor correspond averag altitud variou clock . start julian date . januari correct appli output particip clock tai would correspond proper time mean sea level geoid . clock averag well sea level meant tai slow one part trillion . former uncorrect time scale continu publish name eal echel atomiqu libr mean free atom scale . three time scale defin read jd . januari exactli instant . offset provid continu older ephemeri time . tai henceforth realis tt equat tt tai tai .	utc discontinu . . regularli adjust leap second time scale compos segment linear transform atom time . begin decemb adjust made regularli fraction leap second utc approxim ut2 . afterward adjust made whole second approxim ut1 . compromis arrang order enabl publicli broadcast time scale post linear transform bih atom time meant time scale would stabl easier synchron intern . fact continu approxim ut1 mean task navig requir sourc univers time continu well serv public broadcast utc .	clock synchron	network time protocol	precis time protocol	time frequenc transfer
altruism selfless principl practic concern welfar . tradit virtu mani cultur core aspect variou religi tradit secular worldview though concept toward concern direct vari among cultur religion . altruism selfless opposit selfish . word coin french philosoph august comt french altruism antonym egoism . deriv italian altrui turn deriv latin alteri mean peopl somebodi els .	altruism biolog organ defin individu perform action cost . . pleasur qualiti life time probabl surviv reproduct benefit either directli indirectli anoth third-parti individu without expect reciproc compens action . steinberg suggest definit altruism clinic set intent voluntari action aim enhanc welfar anoth person absenc quid pro quo extern reward .	altruism distinguish feel loyalti whilst latter predic upon social relationship altruism consid relationship . much debat exist whether true altruism possibl human psycholog . theori psycholog egoism suggest act share help sacrif describ truli altruist actor may receiv intrins reward form person gratif . valid argument depend whether intrins reward qualifi benefit . actor also may expect reward .	term altruism may also refer ethic doctrin claim individu moral oblig benefit . use sens usual contrast egoism defin act benefit one self .	concept long histori philosoph ethic thought . term origin coin 19th centuri found sociologist philosoph scienc august comt becom major topic psychologist especi evolutionari psycholog research evolutionari biologist ethologist . whilst idea altruism one field affect field differ method focus field alway lead differ perspect altruism . simpl term altruism care welfar peopl act help .	marcel mauss book gift contain passag call note alm . note describ evolut notion alm extens altruism notion sacrific . write	alm fruit moral notion gift fortun one hand notion sacrific . generos oblig nemesi aveng poor god superabund happi wealth certain peopl rid . ancient moral gift becom principl justic . god spirit accept share wealth happi offer hitherto destroy useless sacrific serv poor children .	compar altruism ethic percept altruism self-sacrific .	compar explan alm variou scriptur .	scienc etholog studi anim behaviour gener studi social evolut altruism refer behaviour individu increas fit anoth individu decreas fit actor . evolutionari psycholog may appli wide rang human behavior chariti emerg aid help coalit partner tip courtship gift product public good environment .	theori appar altruist behavior acceler need produc theori compat evolutionari origin . two relat strand research altruism emerg tradit evolutionari analys evolutionari game theori mathemat model analysi behaviour strategi .	propos mechan	kin select . anim human altruist toward close kin distant kin non-kin confirm numer studi across mani differ cultur . even subtl cue indic kinship may unconsci increas altruist behavior . one kinship cue facial resembl . one studi found slightli alter photograph close resembl face studi particip increas trust particip express regard depict person . anoth cue famili name especi rare found increas help behavior . anoth studi found cooper behavior greater number perceiv kin group . use kinship term polit speech increas audienc agreement speaker one studi . effect especi strong firstborn typic close famili . see also reciproc evolut .	direct reciproc . research show benefici help chanc reciproc help . effect tit tat strategi one game theoret exampl . mani peopl seem follow similar strategi cooper cooper return . avoid poor reciproc cheater caus person reput becom import . person good reput reciproc higher chanc receiv help even person direct interact previous . form reciproc individu seem spend resourc cooper punish would benefici predict sever establish theori altruism . number theori propos explan well critic regard exist .	pseudo-reciproc . organ behav altruist recipi reciproc increas chanc act way selfish also byproduct benefit altruist .	costli signal handicap principl . sinc altruism take away resourc altruist honest signal resourc avail abil need gather resourc . may signal altruist valuabl potenti partner . may also signal interact cooper intent sinc interact futur gain noth costli signal . unclear costli signal indic long-term cooper person peopl increas trust help . costli signal pointless everyon trait resourc cooper intent becom potenti import signal popul increasingli vari characterist .	women found find altruist men attract partner . look long-term partner altruism may prefer trait may indic also share resourc children . shown men perform altruist act earli stage romant relationship simpli presenc attract woman . sex state kind prefer trait partner evid men place less valu women women may altruist presenc attract man . men may even avoid altruist women short-term relationship may expect less success .	explan impli human alway conscious calcul increas inclus fit altruist act . instead evolut shape psycholog mechan emot promot altruist behavior .	cooper behavior sometim seen argument left-w polit russian zoologist anarchist peter kropotkin book mutual aid factor evolut peter singer book darwinian left .	problem earli stage evolut altruism . first emot empath individu would genet effect exploit death preexist non-empath individu . appli regardless far back evolut problem move restrict hominid extend pre-reptilian anyth includ earli mammal . first empath individu would effect exploit everi time anoth individu right place right time take advantag evolutionari adapt exploit empath individu would requir lethal take effect . de facto imposs mutat emot empathi abil recogn direct toward individu would occur time . abil recogn non-exist behavior evolutionari use cannot pre-evolv .	jorg moll jordan grafman neuroscientist nation institut health labs-d'or hospit network . . provid first evid neural base altruist give normal healthi volunt use function magnet reson imag . research publish proceed nation academi scienc usa octob show pure monetari reward charit donat activ mesolimb reward pathway primit part brain usual respond food sex . howev volunt gener place interest make charit donat anoth brain circuit select activ subgenu cortex septal region . structur intim relat social attach bond speci . altruism experi suggest superior moral faculti suppress basic selfish urg rather basic brain hard-wir pleasur . one brain region subgenu anterior cingul cortex basal forebrain contribut learn altruist behavior especi trait empathi . studi shown connect give chariti promot social bond .	anoth studi dr . bill harbaugh univers oregon economist conclud peopl motiv give reason person prestig similar fmri scanner test psychologist colleagu dr . ulrich mayr reach conclus jorg moll jordan grafman give chariti although abl divid studi group two group egoist altruist . one discoveri though rare even consid egoist sometim gave expect would help lead conclus factor caus chariti person environ valu .	debat whether human truli capabl psycholog altruism . definit specifi self-sacrifici natur altruism lack extern reward altruist behavior . howev altruism ultim benefit self mani case selfless altruist act brought question . social exchang theori postul altruism exist benefit self outweigh cost self . daniel batson psychologist examin question argu social exchang theori . identifi four major motiv altruism altruism ultim benefit self egoism ultim benefit person altruism benefit group collectiv uphold moral principl principl . altruism ultim serv selfish gain thu differenti selfless altruism gener conclus empathy-induc altruism genuin selfless . empathy-altru hypothesi basic state psycholog altruism exist evok empath desir help someon suffer . feel empath concern contrast feel person distress compel peopl reduc unpleas emot . peopl empath concern help distress even exposur situat could easili avoid wherea lack empath concern avoid help unless difficult imposs avoid exposur anoth suffer .	psycholog research altruism studi often observ altruism demonstr prosoci behavior help comfort share cooper philanthropi commun servic . howev wit high level empath concern like assum person respons entir regardless number bystand .	mani studi observ effect volunteer form altruism happi health consist found strong connect volunteer current futur health well-b . studi older adult volunt higher life satisfact live lower depress anxieti somat . volunteer help behavior shown improv mental health physic health longev well attribut activ social integr encourag . one studi examin physic health mother volunt year period found belong volunt organ experienc major ill volunt experienc one . studi adult age found four-year studi period peopl volunt two organ lower likelihood die . control prior health statu determin volunteer account reduct mortal . mere awar kind oneself also associ greater well-b . studi ask particip count act kind perform one week significantli enhanc subject happi .	import note research support idea altruist act bring happi also found work opposit direct happier peopl also kinder . relationship altruist behavior happi bidirect . studi found generos increas linearli sad happi affect state . studi also care note feel over-tax need convers neg effect health happi . addit gener act make peopl feel good also import peopl appreci kind receiv . studi suggest gratitud goe hand-in-hand kind also import well-b . studi relationship happi variou charact strength show consciou focu gratitud led reduct neg affect increas optimist apprais posit affect offer emot support sleep qualiti well-b . . psychologist gener refer virtuou cycl help good subsequ feel good helper high .	sociologist long concern build good societi altruism moral social solidar . american sociolog associ . . structur societi individu come exhibit charit philanthrop pro-soci altruist action common good larg research topic within field . american sociolog associ asa acknowledg public sociolog say intrins scientif polici public relev field investig help construct good societi unquestion altruism moral social solidar asa . type sociolog seek contribut aid grassroot theoret understand motiv altruism organ promot altruist focu order benefit world peopl studi . altruism frame organ carri motiv group level area focu sociologist seek investig order contribut back group studi build good societi .	patholog altruism altruism taken unhealthi extrem either harm altruist person well-intent action caus harm good .	term patholog altruism popularis book patholog altruism .	exampl includ depress burnout seen healthcar profession unhealthi focu detriment one need hoard anim ineffect philanthrop social program ultim worsen situat meant aid .	world religion promot altruism import moral valu . buddhism christian hinduism islam jainism judaism sikhism etc . place particular emphasi altruist moral .	altruism figur promin buddhism . love compass compon form buddhism focus equal love wish happi compass wish free suffer . mani ill cure one medicin love compass . qualiti ultim sourc human happi need lie core dalai lama .	sinc includ individu love compass buddhism outsid opposit self . even said distinct self part root caus suffer . practic term howev sinc us spontan self-cent buddhism encourag us focu love compass thu character altruist . mani would agre dalai lama buddhism religion kind toward .	still notion altruism modifi world-view sinc belief practic promot happi care happi greater sens well-b becom dalai lama	kamma niyama consequ one action	utu niyama season chang climat	biija niyama law hered	citta niyama mind	dhamma niyama natur tendenc produc perfect type	fundament principl jainism revolv around concept altruism human sentient . jainism preach view ahimsa live let live therebi harm sentient . . uncompromis rever life . also consid live thing equal . first tirthankara rishabhdev introduc concept altruism live extend knowledg experi donat give oneself non-viol compass live thing .	jainism prescrib path non-viol progress soul ultim goal . major characterist jain belief emphasi consequ physic also mental behavior . one unconqu mind anger pride ego deceit greed uncontrol sens organ power enemi human . anger spoil good relat pride destroy humil deceit destroy peac greed destroy everyth . jainism recommend conquer anger forgiv pride humil deceit straight-forward greed content .	jain believ attain enlighten ultim liber one must practic follow ethic principl major vow thought speech action . degre principl practic differ household monk .	non-viol ahimsa	truth satya	non-steal asteya	celibaci brahmacharya	non-possess non-materi aparigraha	great vow mahavrata prescrib monk limit vow anuvrata prescrib household . house-hold encourag practic above-ment five vow . monk observ strictli . consist practic possibl overcom limit gradual acceler spiritu progress .	principl non-viol seek minim karma limit capabl soul . jainism view everi soul worthi respect potenti becom siddha god jainism . live possess soul great care awar essenti one action . jainism emphas equal life advoc harmless toward whether creatur great small . polici extend even microscop organ . jainism acknowledg everi person differ capabl capac practic therefor accept differ level complianc ascet household .	altruism central teach jesu found gospel especi sermon mount sermon plain . biblic mediev christian tradit tension self-affirm other-regard sometim discuss head disinterest love paulin phrase love seek interest . book indoctrin self-decept roderick hinderi tri shed light tension contrast impostor authent self-affirm altruism analysi other-regard within creativ individu self contrast love love mani . love confirm freedom shun propaganda mask assur presenc ultim confirm mere declar person experi practic within . practic art presenc mean love becom valid grasp word reflect alon make connect .	st thoma aquina interpret love neighbour mean love exemplar love . consid love man love form root friendship quot aristotl origin friendli relat lie relat conclud though bound love natur seek common good good whole privat good good part . howev think love god neighbour bodili life sinc ultim purpos love neighbour share etern beatitud desir thing bodili well . coin word altruism state comt probabl oppos thomist doctrin present theolog school within catholic .	mani biblic author draw strong connect love love god . john state one love god one must love fellowman hatr one fellowman hatr god . thoma jay oord argu sever book altruism one possibl form love . altruist action alway love action . oord defin altruism act good agre feminist note sometim love requir act one good demand undermin overal well-b .	german philosoph max scheler distinguish two way strong help weak . one way sincer express christian love motiv power feel secur strength inner salvat invinc full one life exist . anoth way mere one mani modern substitut love ... noth urg turn away oneself lose oneself peopl busi . worst scheler say love small poor weak oppress realli disguis hatr repress envi impuls detract etc . direct opposit phenomena wealth strength power largess .	islam concept  th r       altruism notion prefer oneself . sufi mean devot complet forget one concern concern root demand made allah human bodi consid properti allah alon . import lie sacrific sake greater good islam consid practic  th r abid highest degre nobil .	similar notion chivalri unlik european concept i'thar attent focus everyth exist . constant concern allah . . god result care attitud toward peopl anim thing world .	concept emphas sufi islam like rabia al-adawiyya paid attent differ dedic allah . . god dedic peopl . thirteenth-centuri turkish sufi poet yunu emr explain philosophi yarat lan  severiz yaratandan ötürü love creatur creator . mani muslim i'thar must practic religi oblig specif islam holiday . howev i'thar also still islam ideal muslim strive adher time .	judaism defin altruism desir goal creation . famou rabbi abraham isaac kook state love import attribut human . defin bestow give intent altruism . altruism toward human lead altruism toward creator god . kabbalah defin god forc give exist . rabbi mosh chaim luzzatto particular focus purpos creation god bring creation perfect adhes upper forc .	modern kabbalah develop rabbi yehuda ashlag write futur gener focus societi could achiev altruist social framework . ashlag propos framework purpos creation everyth happen rais human level altruism love one anoth . ashlag focus societi relat divin .	altruism essenti sikh religion .	central faith sikhism greatest deed one imbib live godli qualiti like love affect sacrific patienc harmoni truth .	fifth nanak guru arjun dev sacrif life uphold carat pure truth greatest gift human guru granth . ninth guru	guru tegh bahadur sacrif head protect weak defenseless peopl atroc . late seventeenth centuri guru gobind singh ji tenth guru sikhism war mughal ruler protect peopl differ faith fellow sikh bhai kanhaiya attend troop enemi . gave water friend foe wound battlefield . enemi began fight sikh warrior annoy bhai kanhaiya help enemi . sikh soldier brought bhai kanhaiya guru gobind singh ji complain action consid counter-product struggl battlefield .	. ask guru . give water wound saw face repli bhai kanhaiya .	guru respond also give ointment heal wound . practic coach hous guru .	tutelag guru bhai kanhaiya subsequ found volunt corp altruism . volunt corp still date engag good train new volunt recruit .	swami sivananda advaita scholar reiter view commentari synthesis vedanta view brahma sutra vedant text . commentari chapter brahma sutra sivananda note karma insenti short-liv ceas exist soon deed execut . henc karma cannot bestow fruit action futur date accord one merit . furthermor one cannot argu karma gener apurva punya give fruit . sinc apurva non-senti cannot act unless move intellig god . cannot independ bestow reward punish .	howev well known popular text bhagavad gita support doctrin karma yoga selfless action action without desir person gain said encompass altruism . altruist act gener celebr well receiv hindu literatur central hindu moral .	exist wide rang philosoph view human oblig motiv act altruist . propon ethic altruism maintain individu moral oblig act altruist . oppos view ethic egoism maintain moral agent alway act self-interest . ethic altruism ethic egoism contrast utilitarian maintain agent act order maximis efficaci function benefit co-inhabit .	relat concept descript ethic psycholog egoism thesi human alway act self-interest true altruism imposs . ration egoism view ration consist act one self-interest without specifi affect one moral oblig .	gene oxtr cd38 comt drd drd igf gabrb found candid gene altruism .	comt august catechism positivist catech positiv tr . . congrev london kegan paul	kropotkin peter mutual aid factor evolut	nietzsch friedrich beyond good evil	pierre-joseph proudhon philosophi poverti	lysand spooner natur law	matt ridley origin virtu	olin samuel . pearl . toward care societi idea action . west port ct praeger .
ayn rand born alisa zinov'yevna rosenbaum march russian-american novelist philosoph playwright screenwrit . known two best-sel novel fountainhead atla shrug develop philosoph system call objectiv . educ russia move unit state . play produc broadway . two earli novel initi unsuccess america achiev fame novel fountainhead .	rand publish best-known work novel atla shrug . afterward turn non-fict promot philosophi publish magazin releas sever collect essay death . rand advoc reason mean acquir knowledg reject faith religion . support ration ethic egoism reject altruism . polit condemn initi forc immor oppos collectiv statism well anarch instead support laissez-fair capit defin system base recogn individu right . art rand promot romant realism . sharpli critic philosoph philosoph tradit known except aristotl thoma aquina classic liber .	literari critic receiv rand fiction mix review academia gener ignor reject philosophi though academ interest increas recent decad . objectivist movement attempt spread idea public academ set . signific influenc among libertarian american conserv .	rand born alisa zinov'yevna rosenbaum februari russian jewish bourgeoi famili live saint petersburg . eldest three daughter zinovi zakharovich rosenbaum wife anna borisovna née kaplan larg non-observ jew . zinovi rosenbaum success pharmacist businessman eventu pharmaci build locat . passion liber art rand later said found school unchalleng began write screenplay age eight novel age ten . prestigi stoiunina gymnasium closest friend vladimir nabokov younger sister olga . two girl share intens interest polit would engag debat nabokov mansion nabokova defend constitut monarchi rand support republican ideal .	twelv time februari revolut favor alexand kerenski tsar nichola ii . subsequ octob revolut rule bolshevik vladimir lenin disrupt life famili previous enjoy . father busi confisc famili displac . fled crimean peninsula initi control white armi russian civil war . later recal high school determin atheist valu reason human virtu . graduat high school crimea rand return famili petrograd saint petersburg renam time face desper condit occas nearli starv .	russian revolut univers open women allow rand first group women enrol petrograd state univers age began studi depart social pedagogi major histori . univers introduc write aristotl plato would greatest influenc counter-influ respect . also studi philosoph work friedrich nietzsch . abl read french german russian rand also discov writer fyodor dostoevski victor hugo edmond rostand friedrich schiller becam perenni favorit .	along mani bourgeoi student rand purg univers shortli graduat . complaint group visit foreign scientist howev mani purg student allow complet work graduat rand octob . subsequ studi year state technicum screen art leningrad . one assign wrote essay polish actress pola negri becam first publish work .	time decid profession surnam write would rand possibl graphic similar vowelless excerpt      birth surnam cyril handwrit adopt first name ayn either finnish name aino hebrew word ayin mean eye .	autumn rand grant visa visit american rel . depart januari . arriv new york citi februari impress skylin manhattan cri later call tear splendor . intent stay unit state becom screenwrit live month rel chicago one movi theater allow watch dozen film free . set hollywood california .	initi rand struggl hollywood took odd job pay basic live expens . chanc meet fame director cecil . demil led job extra film king king well subsequ work junior screenwrit . work king king met aspir young actor frank o'connor two marri april . becam perman us resid juli becam american citizen march . take variou job support write work time head costum depart rko studio . made sever attempt bring parent sister unit state unabl acquir permiss emigr .	rand first literari success came sale screenplay red pawn univers studio although never produc . follow courtroom drama night januari 16th first produc . . clive hollywood success reopen broadway . night juri select member audienc one two differ end depend juri verdict would perform . paramount pictur produc movi loos base play . rand particip product highli critic result . ideal novel play written first publish estat . heroin actress embodi randian ideal .	rand first publish novel semi-autobiograph live publish . set soviet russia focus struggl individu state . foreword novel rand state live near autobiographi ever write . autobiographi liter intellectu sens . plot invent background ... initi sale slow american publish let go print although european edit continu sell . success later novel rand abl releas revis version sinc sold three million copi . without rand knowledg permiss novel made pair italian film noi vivi addio kira . rediscov film re-edit new version approv rand re-releas live .	novella anthem written break write next major novel fountainhead . present vision dystopian futur world totalitarian collectiv triumph extent even word forgotten replac . publish england rand initi could find american publish . live rand later success allow get revis version publish sold million copi .	rand becam polit activ . husband work full-tim volunt posit presidenti campaign republican wendel willki . work led rand first public speak experi includ field sometim hostil question new york citi audienc view pro-willki newsreel experi greatli enjoy . activ also brought contact intellectu sympathet free-market capit . becam friend journalist henri hazlitt wife hazlitt introduc austrian school economist ludwig von mise . despit philosoph differ rand strongli endors write men throughout career express admir . mise refer rand courag man america compliment particularli pleas said man instead woman . rand also develop friendship libertarian writer isabel paterson . rand question well-inform paterson american histori polit long night numer meet gave paterson idea nonfict book god machin .	rand first major success writer came fountainhead romant philosoph novel wrote period seven year . novel center uncompromis young architect name howard roark struggl rand describ second-hand attempt live place . reject twelv publish final accept bobbs-merril compani insist editor archibald ogden threaten quit employ publish . complet novel rand prescrib benzedrin brand amphetamin fight fatigu . drug help work long hour meet deadlin deliv finish novel book done exhaust doctor order two week rest . use drug approxim three decad may contribut later associ describ volatil mood swing .	fountainhead eventu becam worldwid success bring rand fame financi secur . rand sold right film version warner bro . return hollywood write screenplay . finish work screenplay hire produc hal walli screenwrit script-doctor . work walli includ screenplay oscar-nomin love letter came along . role gave rand time work project includ plan nonfict treatment philosophi call moral basi individu . although plan book never complet condens version publish essay titl path tomorrow januari edit reader digest magazin .	rand extend involv free-market anti-communist activ work hollywood . becam involv motion pictur allianc preserv american ideal hollywood anti-communist group wrote articl group behalf . also join anti-communist american writer associ . visit isabel paterson meet rand california associ led final fall two paterson made comment rand consid rude valu polit alli . second red scare rand testifi friendli wit unit state hous un-american activ committe . testimoni describ dispar person experi soviet union portray film song russia . rand argu film grossli misrepres condit soviet union portray life much better happier actual . want also critic laud film best year live interpret neg present busi world allow testifi . ask hear feel effect investig rand describ process futil .	sever delay film version fountainhead releas . although use rand screenplay minim alter dislik movi begin end complain edit act element .	year follow public fountainhead rand receiv numer letter reader book profoundli influenc . rand move lo angel new york citi gather group admir around . group jokingli design collect includ futur feder reserv chairman alan greenspan young psycholog student name nathan blumenth later nathaniel branden wife barbara barbara cousin leonard peikoff . first group inform gather friend met rand weekend apart discuss philosophi . later began allow read draft new novel atla shrug manuscript page written . rand close relationship younger nathaniel branden turn romant affair consent spous .	atla shrug publish consid rand magnum opu . rand describ theme novel role mind man exist corollari demonstr new moral philosophi moral ration self-interest . advoc core tenet rand philosophi objectiv express concept human achiev . plot involv dystopian unit state creativ industrialist scientist artist respond welfar state govern go strike retreat mountain hideaway build independ free economi . novel hero leader strike john galt describ strike stop motor world withdraw mind individu contribut nation wealth achiev . fiction strike rand intend illustr without effort ration product economi would collaps societi would fall apart . novel includ element romanc mysteri scienc fiction contain rand extens statement objectiv work fiction lengthi monologu deliv galt .	despit mani neg review atla shrug becam intern bestsel . interview mike wallac rand declar creativ thinker aliv . complet novel rand fell sever depress . atla shrug rand last complet work fiction turn point life mark end rand career novelist begin role popular philosoph .	nathaniel branden establish nathaniel branden lectur later incorpor nathaniel branden institut nbi promot rand philosophi . collect member gave lectur nbi wrote articl objectivist period edit . rand later publish articl book form . critic includ former nbi student branden describ cultur nbi one intellectu conform excess rever rand describ nbi objectivist movement cult religion . rand express opinion wide rang topic literatur music sexual facial hair follow mimick prefer wear cloth match charact novel buy furnitur like . rand unimpress mani nbi student held strict standard sometim react coldli angrili disagre . howev former nbi student believ extent behavior exagger problem concentr among rand closest follow new york .	throughout rand develop promot objectivist philosophi nonfict work give talk student institut yale princeton columbia harvard mit . receiv honorari doctor lewi clark colleg . also began deliv annual lectur ford hall forum respond afterward question audienc . speech session often took controversi stanc polit social issu day . includ support abort right oppos vietnam war militari draft condemn mani draft dodger bum support israel yom kippur war coalit arab nation civil men fight savag say european colonist right develop land taken american indian call homosexu immor disgust also advoc repeal law . also endors sever republican candid presid unit state strongli barri goldwat whose candidaci promot sever articl objectivist newslett .	nathaniel branden began affair young actress patrecia scott later marri . nathaniel barbara branden kept affair hidden rand . learn though romant relationship branden alreadi end rand termin relationship branden led closur nbi . rand publish articl objectivist repudi nathaniel branden dishonesti irrat behavior privat life . branden later apolog interview everi student objectiv perpetu ayn rand mystiqu contribut dread atmospher intellectu repress pervad objectivist movement . subsequ year rand sever closest associ part compani .	rand underw surgeri lung cancer decad heavi smoke . retir write newslett despit initi object allow evva pryor social worker attorney offic enrol social secur medicar . late activ within objectivist movement declin especi death husband novemb . one final project work never-complet televis adapt atla shrug .	rand die heart failur march home new york citi inter kensico cemeteri valhalla new york . rand funer attend promin follow includ alan greenspan . floral arrang shape dollar sign place near casket . rand name leonard peikoff inherit estat .	rand call philosophi objectiv describ essenc concept man heroic happi moral purpos life product achiev noblest activ reason absolut . consid objectiv systemat philosophi laid posit metaphys epistemolog ethic polit philosophi aesthet .	metaphys rand support philosoph realism oppos anyth regard mystic supernatur includ form religion .	epistemolog consid knowledg base sens percept valid consid axiomat reason describ faculti identifi integr materi provid man sens . reject claim non-perceptu priori knowledg includ instinct intuit revel form know . rand argu requir cognit determin object criteria conceptu summar form philosoph razor . known rand razor state concept multipli beyond necess corollari integr disregard necess . introduct objectivist epistemolog rand present theori concept format reject analyt synthet dichotomi .	ethic rand argu ration ethic egoism ration self-interest guid moral principl . said individu exist sake neither sacrif sacrif . refer egoism virtu selfish book titl present solut is-ought problem describ meta-eth theori base moral need man surviv qua man . condemn ethic altruism incompat requir human life happi	rand polit philosophi emphas individu right includ properti right consid laissez-fair capit moral social system view system base protect right . presidenti candid argu fascism commun two rival gang statism reject opposit impos fraudul choic dictatorship rich fascism poor commun favor rule cliqu elimin choic capit freedom . consid fascism product polit left socialist oppos capit .	rand believ natur right enforc constitut limit govern . although polit view often classifi conserv libertarian prefer term radic capit . work conserv polit project disagre issu religion ethic . denounc libertarian associ anarch . reject anarch naïv theori base subjectiv could lead collectiv practic .	aesthet rand defin art select re-creat realiti accord artist metaphys value-judg . accord art allow philosoph concept present concret form easili grasp therebi fulfil need human conscious . writer art form rand focus close literatur consid romantic approach accur reflect exist human free . describ approach literatur romant realism .	rand acknowledg aristotl greatest influenc remark histori philosophi could recommend three aristotl aquina ayn rand . interview mike wallac ask philosophi came respond mind sole acknowledg debt aristotl philosoph ever influenc . devis rest philosophi . howev also found earli inspir friedrich nietzsch scholar found indic influenc earli note rand journal passag first edit live rand later revis overal write style . howev time wrote fountainhead rand turn nietzsch idea extent influenc even earli year disput . among philosoph rand held particular disdain immanuel kant refer monster although philosoph georg walsh fred seddon argu misinterpret kant exagger differ .	rand said import contribut philosophi theori concept ethic discoveri polit evil violat right consist initi forc . believ epistemolog foundat branch philosophi consid advocaci reason singl signific aspect philosophi state primarili advoc capit egoism primarili advoc egoism reason . one recogn supremaci reason appli consist rest follow .	rand lifetim work evok extrem prais condemn . rand first novel live admir literari critic . . mencken broadway play night januari 16th critic popular success fountainhead hail review new york time master . rand novel derid critic first publish long melodramat .	first review rand receiv night januari 16th . review product larg posit rand consid even posit review embarrass signific chang made script produc . novella anthem receiv littl attent review first public england subsequ re-issu .	rand first bestsel fountainhead receiv far fewer review live review opinion mix . posit review new york time rand greatli appreci . review call rand writer great power wrote brilliantli beauti bitterli state abl read master book without think basic concept time . nation review conserv author whittak chamber call book sophomor remark silli . describ tone book shrill without repriev accus rand support godless system relat soviet claim almost page atla shrug voic heard pain necess command ga chamber go . atla shrug receiv posit review public includ prais note book review john chamberlain	rand nonfict receiv far fewer review novel . tenor critic first nonfict book new intellectu similar atla shrug philosoph sidney hook liken certainti way philosophi written soviet union author gore vidal call viewpoint nearli perfect immor . subsequ book got progress less attent review . book critic lesli clark describ fiction romanc novel patina pseudo-philosophi . gq critic columnist tom carson describ book capit version middlebrow religi novel ben-hur left behind seri .	survey conduct librari congress book-of-the-month club ask club member influenti book respond life . rand atla shrug second popular choic bibl . rand book continu wide sold read million copi sold total purchas free distribut school ayn rand institut . modern librari reader vote atla shrug 20th centuri finest work fiction follow fountainhead second place anthem seventh live eighth none four appear critic list . although rand influenc greatest unit state intern interest work . rand work continu among top seller among book india .	rand contemporari admir includ fellow novelist ira levin kay nolt smith . neil smith later writer erika holzer terri goodkind influenc . artist cite rand import influenc live thought includ comic book artist steve ditko musician neil peart rush . rand provid posit view busi respons busi execut entrepreneur admir promot work . john allison bb ed snider comcast spectacor fund promot rand idea mark cuban owner dalla maverick john . mackey ceo whole food among said consid rand crucial success .	rand work refer varieti media televis show includ anim sitcom live-act comedi drama game show well movi video game . charact base figur promin posit neg light literari scienc fiction novel promin american author . nick gillespi editor chief reason remark rand tortur immort one like punch line protagonist ... jibe rand cold inhuman run popular cultur . two movi made rand life . documentari film ayn rand sens life nomin academi award documentari featur . passion ayn rand televis adapt book name sever award . rand imag also appear . . postag stamp design artist nick gaetano .	although reject label conserv libertarian rand continu influenc right-w polit libertarian . david nolan one founder libertarian parti state without ayn rand libertarian movement would exist . histori libertarian movement journalist brian doherti describ influenti libertarian twentieth centuri public larg	face intens opposit william . buckley jr . contributor nation review magazin . publish numer critic whittak chamber garri . stanton evan . nevertheless influenc among conserv forc buckley nation review contributor reconsid tradit notion virtu christian could integr support capit .	polit figur cite rand influenc usual conserv often member unit state republican parti despit rand take posit atyp conserv pro-choic atheist . articl new york time refer reagan administr novelist laureat . republican congressmen conserv pundit acknowledg influenc live recommend novel .	financi crisi spur renew interest work especi atla shrug saw foreshadow crisi opinion articl compar real-world event plot novel . time sign mention rand fiction hero john galt appear tea parti protest . also increas critic idea especi polit left critic blame econom crisi support selfish free market particularli influenc alan greenspan . exampl mother jone remark rand particular geniu alway abil turn upsid tradit hierarchi recast wealthi talent power oppress	rand lifetim work receiv littl attent academ scholar . articl rand idea appear academ journal death mani personalist . one randian argument libertarian philosoph robert nozick argu meta-eth argument unsound fail solv ought problem pose david hume . respons nozick academ philosoph also publish personalist argu nozick misstat rand case .	sinc rand death interest work gradual increas . historian jennif burn identifi three overlap wave scholarli interest rand recent explos scholarship sinc year . howev univers current includ rand objectiv philosoph specialti research area mani literatur philosophi depart dismiss pop cultur phenomenon rather subject seriou studi .	gladstein chri matthew sciabarra allan gotthelf edwin . lock tara smith taught work academ institut . sciabarra co-edit journal ayn rand studi nonpartisan peer-review journal dedic studi rand philosoph literari work . gotthelf help found ayn rand societi georg walsh david kelley activ sponsor seminar rand idea . smith written sever academ book paper rand idea includ ayn rand norm ethic virtuou egoist volum rand ethic theori publish cambridg univers press . rand idea also made subject studi clemson duke univers . scholar english american literatur larg ignor work although attent literari work increas sinc .	rand scholar dougla den uyl dougla . rasmussen stress import origin thought describ style literari hyperbol emot . philosoph jack wheeler say despit incess bombast continu vent randian rage rand ethic immens achiev studi vastli fruit contemporari thought . literari encyclopedia entri rand written john david lewi declar rand wrote intellectu challeng fiction gener . interview chronicl higher educ sciabarra comment know laugh rand forecast growth interest work academ commun .	libertarian philosoph michael huemer argu peopl find rand idea convinc especi ethic believ difficult interpret may lack logic coher . attribut attent receiv compel writer especi novelist . thu atla shrug outsel rand non-fict work well work philosoph classic liber ludwig von mise friedrich hayek freder bastiat .	although rand maintain objectiv integr philosoph system philosoph robert . bass argu central ethic idea inconsist contradictori central polit idea .	rand intellectu heir leonard peikoff establish ayn rand institut nonprofit organ dedic promot rand idea work . ideolog disagr peikoff philosoph david kelley found institut objectivist studi known atla societi . historian john mccaskey organ anthem foundat objectivist scholarship provid grant scholarli work objectiv academia . charit foundat bb corpor also given grant teach rand idea work . univers texa austin univers pittsburgh univers north carolina chapel hill among school receiv grant . case grant controversi due requir research teach relat rand .	novel	live	fountainhead	atla shrug	fiction	night januari 16th	anthem	ideal	non-fict	new intellectu	virtu selfish	capit unknown ideal	romant manifesto	new left anti-industri revolut	introduct objectivist epistemolog	philosophi need	ayn rand institut	searchabl databas	c-span american writer journey histori
alain conn born april french mathematician current professor collèg de franc ihé ohio state univers vanderbilt univers . invit professor conservatoir nation de art et métier .	alain conn studi oper algebra . earli work von neumann algebra succeed obtain almost complet classif inject factor . follow made contribut oper k-theori index theori culmin	baum conn conjectur . also introduc cyclic cohomolog earli first step studi noncommut differenti geometri . member bourbaki .	conn appli work area mathemat theoret physic includ number theori differenti geometri particl physic .	conn award field medal crafoord prize gold medal cnr . invit speaker icm vancouv berkeley plenari speaker icm helsinki . member french academi scienc sever foreign academi societi includ danish academi scienc norwegian academi scienc russian academi scienc us nation academi scienc .	alain conn matild marcolli noncommut geometri quantum field motiv colloquium public american mathemat societi	alain conn andr lichnerowicz marcel paul schutzenberg triangl thought translat jennif gage american mathemat societi	jean-pierr changeux alain conn convers mind matter mathemat translat . . debevois princeton univers press	alain conn noncommut geometri academ press	cyclic homolog	factor function analysi	higg boson	algebra	theori	groupoid	critic non-standard analysi	contain book .	
allan dwan april decemb pioneer canadian-born american motion pictur director produc screenwrit .	born joseph aloysiu dwan toronto ontario canada dwan younger son commerci travel woolen cloth joseph michael dwan wife mari jane dwan née hunt . famili move unit state seven year old decemb ferri windsor detroit accord natur petit august . elder brother leo garnet dwan becam physician . univers notr dame allan dwan studi engin began work light compani chicago . howev strong interest fledgl motion pictur industri essanay studio offer opportun becom scriptwrit took job . time east coast movi maker began spend winter california climat allow continu product requir warm weather . soon number movi compani work year-round dwan began work part-tim hollywood . still new york found presid east coast chapter motion pictur director associ .	dwan oper fli studio la mesa california august juli . fli one first motion pictur studio california histori . august plaqu unveil wolff build third avenu la mesa boulevard commemor dwan fli studio origin la mesa california .	make seri western comedi dwan direct fellow canadian-american mari pickford sever success movi well husband dougla fairbank notabl acclaim robin hood . dwan direct gloria swanson eight featur film one short film made short-liv sound-on-film process phonofilm . short also featur thoma meighan henri de la falais produc joke april lamb gambol lamb film show swanson crash all-mal club .	follow introduct talki dwan direct child-star shirley templ heidi rebecca sunnybrook farm .	dwan help launch career two success hollywood director victor fleme went direct wizard oz gone wind marshal neilan becam actor director writer produc . long career span almost year dwan direct motion pictur highli acclaim box offic hit sand iwo jima . direct last movi .	die lo angel age ninety-six inter san fernando mission cemeteri mission hill california .	dwan star hollywood walk fame hollywood boulevard .	gold lust	picket guard	restless spirit	back life	bloodhound north	lie	honor mount	rememb mari magdalen	discord harmoni	embezzl	lamb woman wolf	end feud	tragedi whisper creek	unlaw trade	forbidden room	hope blind alley	richelieu	wildflow	small town girl	david harum	girl yesterday	pretti sister jose	jordan hard road	betti grayston	habit happi	good bad man	innoc magdalen	half-bre	manhattan mad	accus evid	panthea	modern musket	bound morocco	headin south	mr . fix-it	come smile	cheat cheater	dark star	get mari marri	soldier fortun	heart fool also produc	forbidden thing also produc	splendid hazard	perfect crime	robin hood	zaza	big brother	manhandl	argentin love	coast folli	night life new york	stage struck	gloria swanson dialogu short film made phonofilm lamb annual gambol held metropolitan opera hous	padlock	sea hors	summer bachelor	tin god	french dress	joy girl	east side west side	big nois	frozen justic	iron mask	tide empir	far call	widow .	man man	chanc	wick	pari sleep	counsel opinion	black sheep	navi wife	high tension	maiden lane	one mile heaven	heidi	rebecca sunnybrook farm	suez	josett	three musket	gorilla	frontier marshal	sailor ladi	young peopl	trail vigilant	look laugh also produc	rise shine	friendli enemi	around world also produc	mabel room	abroad two yank	get gerti garter also screenwrit	brewster million	rendezv anni	driftwood	calendar girl	northwest outpost also associ produc	insid stori	angel exil philip ford	sand iwo jima	surrend	bell le grand	wild blue yonder	dream jeani	montana bell	woman almost lynch	sweetheart parad	silver lode	passion	cattl queen montana	tennesse partner	pearl south pacif	escap burma	slightli scarlet	hold back night	restless breed	river edg	enchant island	danger man aliv	canadian pioneer earli hollywood	brownlow kevin parad gone ...	bogdanovich peter allan dwan last pioneer	foster charl stardust shadow canadian earli hollywood	lombardi freder allan dwan rise declin hollywood studio	print ebook	virtual-history.com access june
algeria offici peopl democrat republ algeria sovereign state north africa mediterranean coast . capit popul citi algier locat countri far north . area algeria tenth-largest countri world largest africa . algeria border northeast tunisia east libya west morocco southwest western saharan territori mauritania mali southeast niger north mediterranean sea . countri semi-presidenti republ consist provinc commun counti . abdelaziz bouteflika presid sinc .	ancient algeria known mani empir dynasti includ ancient numidian phoenician carthaginian roman vandal byzantin umayyad abbasid idrisid aghlabid rustamid fatimid zirid hammadid almoravid almohad spaniard ottoman french coloni empir . berber indigen inhabit algeria .	algeria region middl power . north african countri suppli larg amount natur ga europ energi export backbon economi . accord opec algeria 16th largest oil reserv world second largest africa 9th largest reserv natur ga . sonatrach nation oil compani largest compani africa . algeria one largest militari africa largest defenc budget contin algeria weapon import russia close alli . algeria member african union arab leagu opec unit nation found member maghreb union .	countri name deriv citi algier . citi name turn deriv arab island truncat form older island mazghanna tribe employ mediev geograph al-idrisi .	region hanech saïda provinc earli remnant bc hominid occup north africa found . neanderth tool maker produc hand axe levalloisian mousterian style bc similar levant . algeria site highest state develop middl paleolith flake tool techniqu . tool era start bc call aterian archeolog site bir el ater south tebessa .	earliest blade industri north africa call iberomaurusian locat mainli oran region . industri appear spread throughout coastal region maghreb bc . neolith civil anim domest agricultur develop saharan mediterranean maghreb perhap earli bc late bc . life richli depict tassili n'ajjer paint predomin algeria classic period . amalgam peopl north africa coalesc eventu distinct nativ popul came call berber indigen peopl northern africa .	princip center power carthag carthaginian expand establish small settlement along north african coast bc phoenician presenc exist tipasa east cherchel hippo regiu modern annaba rusicad modern skikda . settlement serv market town well anchorag .	carthaginian power grew impact indigen popul increas dramat . berber civil alreadi stage agricultur manufactur trade polit organ support sever state . trade link carthag berber interior grew territori expans also result enslav militari recruit berber extract tribut .	earli 4th centuri bc berber form singl largest element carthaginian armi . revolt mercenari berber soldier rebel bc unpaid follow defeat carthag first punic war . succeed obtain control much carthag north african territori mint coin bear name libyan use greek describ nativ north africa . carthaginian state declin success defeat roman punic war .	bc citi carthag destroy . carthaginian power wane influenc berber leader hinterland grew . 2nd centuri bc sever larg loos administ berber kingdom emerg . two establish numidia behind coastal area control carthag . west numidia lay mauretania extend across moulouya river modern-day morocco atlant ocean . high point berber civil unequ come almohad almoravid millennium later reach reign masinissa 2nd centuri bc .	masinissa death bc berber kingdom divid reunit sever time . masinissa line surviv ad remain berber territori annex roman empir .	sever centuri algeria rule roman found mani coloni region . like rest north africa algeria one breadbasket empir export cereal agricultur product . saint augustin bishop hippo regiu modern-day algeria locat roman provinc africa . german vandal geiser move north africa control coastal numidia . make signific settlement land harass local tribe . fact time byzantin arriv lepci magna abandon msellata region occupi indigen laguatan busi facilit amazigh polit militari cultur reviv .	neglig resist local muslim arab umayyad caliph conquer algeria mid 7th centuri larg number indigen peopl convert newli found faith islam . fall umayyad caliph numer local dynasti emerg includ aghlabid almohad abdalwadid zirid rustamid hammadid almoravid fatimid .	middl age north africa home mani great scholar saint sovereign includ judah ibn quraysh first grammarian suggest afroasiat languag famili great sufi master sidi boumedien abu madyan sidi el houari well emir abd al mu'min y ghm rasen . time period fatimid children fatima daughter muhammad came maghreb . fatimid went found long last dynasti stretch across maghreb hejaz levant boast secular inner govern well power armi navi primarili made arab levantian extend algeria capit state cairo . fatimid caliph began collaps governor zirid seced . order punish fatimid sent arab banu hilal banu sulaym . result war recount epic t ghrib t . al-t ghr b t amazigh zirid hero kh l f  al-z nat  ask daili duel defeat hilalan hero  bu zayd al-hilal  mani arab knight string victori . zirid howev ultim defeat usher adopt arab custom cultur . indigen amazigh tribe howev remain larg independ depend tribe locat time control vari part maghreb time unifi fatimid . fatimid islam state also known fatimid caliph made islam empir includ north africa sicili palestin jordan lebanon syria egypt red sea coast africa tihamah hejaz yemen . caliph northern africa trade empir time well form part confeder support trade network islam state islam era .	amazigh histor consist sever tribe . two main branch botr barnè tribe divid tribe sub-trib . region maghreb contain sever tribe exampl sanhadja houara zenata masmouda kutama awarba berghwata . tribe made independ territori decis .	sever amazigh dynasti emerg middl age maghreb nearbi land . ibn khaldun provid tabl summaris amazigh dynasti maghreb region zirid banu ifran maghrawa almoravid hammadid almohad merinid abdalwadid wattasid meknassa hafsid dynasti .	earli 16th centuri spain construct fortifi outpost presidio near algerian coast . spain took control coastal town like mer el kebir oran tlemcen mostaganem ténè . year merchant algier cede one rocki islet harbour spain built fort . presidio north africa turn costli larg ineffect militari endeavour guarante access spain merchant fleet .	reign ifriqiya current tunisia berber famili zirid somehow recognis suzerainti fatimid caliph cairo . probabl zirid ruler viceroy el-mu'izz decid end suzerainti . fatimid state weak attempt punit expedit viceroy el-mu'izz also found anoth mean reveng .	nile red sea live bedouin tribe expel arabia disrupt turbul influenc banu hilal banu sulaym among whose presenc disrupt farmer nile valley sinc nomad would often loot . fatimid vizier devis relinquish control maghreb obtain agreement sovereign . prompt bedouin leav fatimid treasuri even gave light expatri cash allow .	whole tribe set women children ancestor anim camp equip . stop way especi cyrenaica still one essenti element settlement arriv ifriqiya gabe region . zirid ruler tri stop rise tide meet last wall kairouan troop defeat arab remain master field .	flood still rise arab spread high plain constantin gradual choke qalaa banu hammad done kairouan decad ago . gradual gain upper algier oran plain . forcibl taken almohad second half 12th centuri . say 13th centuri north africa except main mountain rang certain coastal region remain entir berber .	region algeria partial rule ottoman three centuri . turkish privat brother aruj hayreddin barbarossa oper success hafsid move base oper algier . succeed conquer jijel algier spaniard eventu assum control citi surround region forc previou ruler abu hamo musa iii bani ziyad dynasti flee . aruj kill invas tlemcen hayreddin succeed militari command algier . ottoman sultan gave titl beylerbey conting janissari . aid forc hayreddin conquer whole area constantin oran although citi oran remain spanish hand .	barbari pirat prey christian non-islam ship western mediterranean sea . pirat often took passeng crew ship sold use slave . also brisk busi ransom captiv . accord robert davi 16th 19th centuri pirat captur million million european slave . often made raid call razzia european coastal town captur christian slave sell slave market north africa ottoman empir .	hayreddin captur island ischia take prison enslav inhabit lipari almost entir popul . turgut rei enslav entir popul maltes island gozo send captiv libya . pirat sack viest southern itali took estim captiv slave .	barbari corsair captur town ciutadella minorca destroy slaughter inhabit took survivor slave istanbul . barbari pirat often attack balear island respons resid built mani coastal watchtow fortifi church . threat sever resid abandon island formentera . england lost merchant ship barbari pirat . raid captur slave . two week earlier anoth pirat ship salé morocco also raid iceland . slave brought algier later ransom back iceland chose stay algeria . pirat ship algeria raid faro island .	19th centuri pirat forg affili caribbean power pay licenc tax exchang safe harbour vessel . one american slave report algerian enslav american seamen mediterranean atlant .	piraci american vessel mediterranean result unit state initi first second barbari war . follow war algeria weaker european anglo-dutch fleet command british lord exmouth attack algier . nine-hour bombard obtain treati dey reaffirm condit impos captain later commodor stephen decatur . . navi concern demand tribut . addit dey agre end practic enslav christian .	pretext slight consul french invad captur algier . algerin slave trade piraci ceas french conquer algier . conquest algeria french took time result consider bloodsh . combin violenc diseas epidem caus indigen algerian popul declin nearli one-third . historian ben kiernan wrote french conquest algeria french conquest complet . war kill approxim indigen algerian sinc . popul algeria stood million reach nearli million . french polici predic civilis countri . period small influenti french-speak indigen elit form made berber mostli kabyl .	consequ french govern favor kabyl . indigen school construct kabyl .	independ franc administ whole mediterranean region algeria integr part département nation . one franc longest-held oversea territori algeria becam destin hundr thousand european immigr becam known colon later pied-noir . french peopl emigr algeria . settler benefit french govern confisc commun land tribal peopl applic modern agricultur techniqu increas amount arabl land . mani european settl oran algier earli 20th centuri form major popul citi .	late 19th earli 20th centuri european share almost fifth popul . french govern aim make algeria assimil part franc includ substanti educ invest especi . indigen cultur religi resist heavili oppos tendenc contrast colonis countri path central asia caucasu algeria kept individu skill rel human-capit intens agricultur .	gradual dissatisfact among muslim popul lack polit econom statu coloni system gave rise demand greater polit autonomi eventu independ franc . may upris occupi french forc suppress known sétif guelma massacr . tension two popul group came head first violent event later call algerian war began . historian estim harki depend kill front de libérat national fln lynch mob algeria . fln use hit run attack algeria franc part war french conduct sever repris .	war led death hundr thousand algerian hundr thousand injuri . historian like alistair horn raymond aron state actual number algerian muslim war dead far greater origin fln offici french estim less million death claim algerian govern independ . horn estim algerian casualti span eight year around . war uproot million algerian .	war french rule conclud algeria gain complet independ follow march evian agreement juli self-determin referendum .	number european pied-noir fled algeria total . exodu mainland franc acceler oran massacr hundr milit enter european section citi began attack civilian .	algeria first presid front de libérat national fln leader ahm ben bella . morocco claim portion western algeria led sand war . ben bella overthrown houari boumedien former alli defenc minist . ben bella govern becom increasingli socialist authoritarian boumédienn continu trend . reli much armi support reduc sole legal parti symbol role . collectivis agricultur launch massiv industri drive . oil extract facil nationalis . especi benefici leadership intern oil crisi .	presid houari boumedien algeria pursu program industri within state-control socialist economi . boumedien successor chadli bendjedid introduc liber econom reform . promot polici arabis algerian societi public life . teacher arab brought muslim countri spread convent islam thought school sow seed return orthodox islam . econom recess caus crash world oil price result algerian social unrest end decad bendjedid introduc multi-parti system . polit parti develop islam salvat front fi broad coalit muslim group . sever point conflict situat algeria becam point intern concern notabl crisi surround air franc flight hijack perpetr arm islam group . arm islam group declar ceasefir octob . presid abdelaziz bouteflika . work restor polit stabil countri announc civil concord initi approv referendum mani polit prison pardon sever thousand member arm group grant exempt prosecut limit amnesti forc januari . ai disband level insurg violenc fell rapidli . group salafist pour la prédicat et le combat gspc splinter group group islam armé continu terrorist campaign govern . govern enact legisl deal polit parti elector code represent women elect bodi . howev elect routin critic opposit group unfair intern human right group say media censorship harass polit oppon continu .	algeria largest countri africa arab world mediterranean basin . southern part includ signific portion sahara . north tell atla form saharan atla south two parallel set relief approach eastbound insert vast plain highland . atla tend merg eastern algeria . vast mountain rang aur nememcha occupi entir northeastern algeria delin tunisian border . highest point mount tahat .	algeria lie mostli latitud small area north longitud . coastal area hilli sometim even mountain natur harbour . area coast tell atla fertil . south tell atla stepp landscap end saharan atla farther south sahara desert .	ahaggar mountain also known hoggar highland region central sahara southern algeria . locat south capit algier west tamanghasset . algier oran constantin annaba algeria main citi .	north nativ flora includ macchia scrub oliv tree oak cedar conif . mountain region contain larg forest evergreen aleppo pine junip evergreen oak decidu tree . fig eucalyptu agav variou palm tree grow warmer area . grape vine indigen coast . sahara region oas palm tree . acacia wild oliv predomin flora remaind sahara .	camel use extens desert also abound venom nonvenom snake scorpion numer insect .	elect politician consid rel littl sway algeria . instead group unelect civilian militari décideur known le pouvoir power actual rule countri even decid presid . power man may moham medièn head militari intellig . recent year mani gener die retir . death gener larbi belkheir bouteflika put loyalist key post notabl sonatrach secur constitut amend make re-elect indefinit .	head state presid algeria elect five-year term . presid formerli limit two five-year term constitut amend pass parliament novemb remov limit . algeria univers suffrag year age .	algerian parliament bicamer lower hous peopl nation assembl member directli elect five-year term upper hous council nation member serv six-year term member chosen local assembl appoint presid .	parliamentari elect last held may judg larg free intern monitor though local group alleg fraud irregular . elect fln seat military-back nation ralli democraci islamist green algeria allianc .	tension algeria morocco relat western sahara obstacl tighten arab maghreb union nomin establish carri littl practic weight .	militari algeria consist peopl nation armi anp algerian nation navi mra algerian air forc qjj plu territori air defenc forc . servic militari compulsori men age total month . militari expenditur gross domest product gdp .	algeria categor freedom hous free sinc began publish rate except countri label partli free . decemb euro-mediterranean human right monitor issu report regard violat media freedom algeria . clarifi algerian govern impos restrict freedom press express right peac demonstr protest assembl well intensifi censorship media websit . due fact journalist activist critic rule govern media organ licens cancel .	homosexu illeg algeria . public homosexu behavior punish two year prison .	algeria divid provinc wilaya district daïra municip baladiyah . provinc district municip name seat usual largest citi .	administr divis chang sever time sinc independ . introduc new provinc number old provinc kept henc non-alphabet order . offici number current sinc algeria currenc dinar dzd . economi remain domin state legaci countri socialist post-independ develop model . recent year algerian govern halt privat state-own industri impos restrict import foreign involv economi .	algeria announc budgetari surplu billion increas comparison surplu . gener countri export billion worth commod import billion .	thank strong hydrocarbon revenu algeria cushion billion foreign currenc reserv larg hydrocarbon stabil fund . addit algeria extern debt extrem low gdp .	march russia agre eras billion algeria soviet-era debt visit russian presid vladimir putin countri first russian leader half centuri . return algerian presid abdelaziz bouteflika agre buy billion worth combat plane air-def system arm russia accord head russia state arm export rosoboronexport .	dubai-bas conglomer emarat dzayer group said sign joint ventur agreement develop billion steel factori algeria .	algeria whose economi reliant petroleum opec member sinc . crude oil product stand around million barrel day also major ga produc export import link europ . hydrocarbon long backbon economi account roughli budget revenu gdp export earn . algeria 10th largest reserv natur ga world sixth-largest ga export . . . energi inform administr report algeria proven natural-ga reserv . also rank 16th oil reserv . budgetari receipt usd billion .	algeria invest estim billion dinar toward develop research facil pay research . develop program meant advanc altern energi product especi solar wind power . algeria estim largest solar energi potenti mediterranean govern fund creation solar scienc park hassi mel . current algeria research professor variou univers research lab state-set goal expand . besid solar energi area research algeria includ space satellit telecommun nuclear power medic research .	despit declin total unemploy youth women unemploy high . unemploy particularli affect young jobless rate among age group .	develop tourism sector algeria previous hamper lack facil sinc broad tourism develop strategi implement result mani hotel high modern standard built .	sever unesco world heritag site algeria includ al qal'a beni hammad first capit hammadid empir tipasa phoenician later roman town djémila timgad roman ruin m'zab valley limeston valley contain larg urban oasi also casbah algier import citadel . natur world heritag site tassili n'ajjer mountain rang .	algerian road network densest africa length estim km highway structur pave rate . network complement east-west highway major infrastructur project current construct . way highway link annaba extrem east tlemcen far west . algeria also cross trans-sahara highway complet pave . road support algerian govern increas trade six countri cross algeria mali niger nigeria chad tunisia .	januari algeria popul estim million mainli arab-berb ethnic . outset 20th centuri popul approxim four million . algerian live northern coastal area inhabit sahara desert mainli concentr oas although million remain nomad partli nomad . algerian age .	sahrawi western sahara live sahrawi refuge camp western algerian sahara desert . also palestinian refuge well integr ask assist unit nation high commission refuge unhcr .	largest concentr algerian migrant outsid algeria franc reportedli million algerian second gener .	indigen berber well phoenician roman byzantin arab turk variou sub-saharan african french contribut histori algeria . descend andalusian refuge also present popul algier citi . moreov spanish spoken aragones castillian morisco descend deep 18th centuri even catalan spoken time catalan morisco descend small town grish el-ou .	million former algerian turk descend turkish ruler soldier doctor rule region ottoman rule north africa . today turkish descend often call kouloughli mean descend turkish men nativ algerian women .	despit domin berber cultur ethnic algeria major algerian identifi arabic-bas ident especi arab nation rise 20th centuri . berber berber-speak algerian divid mani group vari languag . largest kabyl live kabyli region east algier chaoui northeast algeria tuareg southern desert shenwa peopl north algeria .	coloni period larg european popul becam known pied-noir . primarili french spanish italian origin . almost popul left war independ immedi end .	berber modern standard arab offici languag . algerian arab darja languag use major popul . colloqui algerian arab heavili infus borrow french berber .	berber recogn nation languag constitut amend may . kabyl predomin berber languag taught partial co-offici restrict part kabyli . februari algerian constitut pass resolut would make berber offici languag alongsid arab .	although french offici statu algeria second-largest francophon countri world term speaker french wide use govern media newspap radio local televis educ system primari school onward academia due algeria coloni histori . regard de facto co-offici languag algeria . million algerian could read write french . abassa institut studi april found household could speak understand french million popul million . earlier period algerian govern tri phase french offici statu recent decad govern backtrack reinforc studi french tv program reinforc use languag .	algeria emerg bilingu state . colloqui algerian arab spoken popul berber .	islam predomin religion algeria adher account popul .	estim number christian algeria vari . pew research center studi estim christian algeria . studi feder research divis estim cathol protest algeria . studi estim muslim convert christian algeria .	follow revolut algerian independ countri jew left countri move franc pied-noir left israel .	algeria given muslim world number promin thinker includ emir abdelkad abdelhamid ben badi mouloud kacem naît belkacem malek bennabi moham arkoun .	list import algerian citi	modern algerian literatur split arab tamazight french strongli influenc countri recent histori . famou novelist 20th centuri includ moham dib albert camu kateb yacin ahlam mosteghanemi assia djebar wide translat . among import novelist rachid mimouni later vice-presid amnesti intern tahar djaout murder islamist group secularist view .	malek bennabi frantz fanon note thought decolon augustin hippo born tagast modern-day souk ahra ibn khaldun though born tuni wrote muqaddima stay algeria . work sanusi famili pre-coloni time emir abdelkad sheikh ben badi coloni time wide note . latin author apuleiu born madauru mdaourouch later becam algeria .	contemporari algerian cinema variou term genr explor wider rang theme issu . transit cinema focus war independ film concern everyday live algerian .	algerian painter like moham racim baya attempt reviv prestigi algerian past prior french colon time contribut preserv authent valu algeria . line moham temam abdelkhad houamel also return art scene histori countri habit custom past countri life . new artist current includ one m'hame issiakhem moham khadda bachir yell appear scene algerian paint abandon figur classic paint find new pictori way order adapt algerian paint new realiti countri struggl aspir . moham khadda m'hame issiakhem notabl recent year .	algeria palm d'or chronicl year fire two oscar award battl algier .	variou game exist algeria sinc antiqu . aur peopl play sever game el kherdba el khergueba chess variant . play card checker chess game part algerian cultur . race fantasia rifl shoot part cultur recreat algerian .	first algerian african gold medalist boughera el ouafi olymp amsterdam marathon . second algerian medalist alain mimoun summer olymp melbourn . sever men women champion athlet includ noureddin morc hassiba boulmerka nouria merah-benida taoufik makhloufi special middle-dist run .	footbal popular sport algeria . sever name engrav histori sport includ lakhdar belloumi rachid mekhloufi hassen lalma rabah madjer salah assad djamel zidan . algeria nation footbal team qualifi fifa world cup fifa world cup fifa world cup fifa world cup . addit sever footbal club continent intern trophi club es sétif js kabylia . algerian footbal feder associ algeria footbal club organ nation competit intern match select algeria nation footbal team .	algerian cuisin rich divers . countri consid granari rome . offer compon dish vari dish depend region accord season . cuisin use cereal main product sinc alway produc abund countri . dish cereal present .	algerian cuisin vari one region anoth accord season veget . prepar use meat fish veget . among dish known couscou chorba rechta chakhchoukha berkouk shakshouka mthewem chtitha mderbel dolma brik bourek garantita lham'hlou etc . merguez sausag wide use algeria differ depend region ad spice .	cake market found citi either algeria europ north america . howev tradit cake also made home follow habit custom famili . among cake tamina chrik garn logzel griouech kalb el-louz makroud mbardja mchewek samsa tcharak baghrir khfaf zlabia aarayech ghroubiya mghergchett . algerian pastri also contain tunisian french cake . market home-mad bread product includ varieti kessra khmira harchaya chopstick so-cal washer khoubz dar matlou .	tradionel meal chakhchokha-hassoua-t'chicha-mahjouba doubara famou biskra .	algeria inadequ number physician per peopl nurs per peopl dentist per peopl . access improv water sourc limit popul urban area popul rural area . algerian live urban area live rural area access improv sanit . accord world bank algeria make progress toward goal reduc half number peopl without sustain access improv drink water basic sanit . given algeria young popul polici favor prevent health care clinic hospit . keep polici govern maintain immun program . howev poor sanit unclean water still caus tuberculosi hepat measl typhoid fever cholera dysenteri . poor gener receiv health care free charg .	health record maintain algeria sinc began ad muslim live south vital record databas french rule .	sinc central system design significantli reduc rate illiteraci algerian govern introduc decre school attend becam compulsori children age year abil track learn facil built sinc independ literaci rate around .	apart privat learn school univers state free charg . nine year primari school student go high school educ institut . school offer two program gener technic . end third year secondari school student pass exam bachelor degre allow success pursu graduat studi univers institut .	educ offici compulsori children age six . illiteraci rate peopl men women . provinc lowest rate illiteraci algier provinc provinc highest rate djelfa provinc .	algeria univers institut higher educ must accommod million algerian foreign student . univers algier found oldest offer educ variou disciplin law medicin scienc letter . univers almost institut higher educ found independ countri .	even offer instruct arab like area law economi sector scienc medicin continu provid french english . among import univers univers scienc technolog houari boumedien univers mentouri constantin univers oran es-senia . univers abou bekr belkaïd tlemcen univers batna hadj lakhdar occupi 26th 45th row africa .	index algeria-rel articl	outlin algeria	ageron charles-robert . modern algeria histori present . translat french edit michael brett . london hurst . .	aghrout ahm bougherira redha . . algeria transit reform develop prospect . routledg . .	bennoun mahfoud . make contemporari algeria coloni upheav post-independ develop . cambridg cambridg univers press . .	fanon frantz paperback . wretch earth . grove press . asin b0007fw4aw .	horn alistair . savag war peac algeria . vike adult . reprint	laouisset djamel . retrospect studi algerian iron steel industri . new york citi nova publish . .	robert hugh . battlefield algeria . studi broken politi . london verso book . .	ruedi john . modern algeria origin develop nation . bloomington indiana univers press . .	stora benjamin . algeria short histori . ithaca new york cornel univers press . .	sidaoui riadh . islam polit militari algeria . . farnham ashgat publish . .	offici govern websit	bbc news	intern futur
list charact ayn rand novel atla shrug .	follow major charact novel .	dagni taggart protagonist novel . vice-presid charg oper taggart transcontinent brother jame taggart . given jame incompet dagni respons work railroad .	francisco d'anconia one central charact atla shrug owner inherit world largest copper mine oper . childhood friend first love dagni taggart . child prodigi except talent francisco dub climax d'anconia line alreadi prestigi famili skill industrialist . classmat john galt ragnar danneskjöld student hugh akston robert stadler . began work still school prove could made fortun without aid famili wealth power . later francisco bankrupt d'anconia busi put reach . full name given francisco domingo carlo andr sebastián d'anconia .	john galt primari male hero atla shrug . initi appear unnam menial worker taggart transcontinent often dine eddi willer employe cafeteria lead eddi reveal import inform dagni taggart taggart transcontinent . eddi side convers given novel . later novel reader discov worker true ident .	work taggart transcontinent galt work engin twentieth centuri motor compani secretli invent gener usabl electr energi ambient static electr abandon prototyp employ dissatisfi easili corrupt novel system payment . prototyp found dagni taggart hank rearden . galt remain conceal throughout much novel valley conceal unit skill inventor busi leader leadership . much book third divis given broadcast speech present author philosophi objectiv .	henri known hank rearden one central charact atla shrug . import steel compani unit state invent rearden metal alloy stronger steel similar properti stainless steel . live philadelphia wife lillian brother philip elderli mother . rearden repres type self-mad man prototyp hero illustr rand theori sex far accept tradit view sexual congress subhuman instinct respond sexual dagni taggart . although state book .	edwin eddi willer special assist vice-presid charg oper taggart transcontinent . father grandfath work taggart likewis . complet loyal dagni taggart transcontinent . willer possess creativ abil galt associ match moral courag capabl appreci make use creation . dagni shift attent loyalti save captiv galt willer maintain railroad collaps .	one galt first follow world-fam pirat seiz relief ship sent unit state peopl state europ . work ensur espous galt philosophi restor right place societi enough capit rebuild world . kept background much book danneskjöld make person appear encourag rearden persever increasingli difficult situat give bar gold compens incom tax paid last sever year . danneskjöld marri actress kay ludlow relationship kept hidden outsid world know ludlow retir film star . consid misfit galt adher view action mean speed world along understand galt perspect .	accord barbara branden close associ rand time book written section written describ danneskjöld adventur sea cut final publish text . comment lectur ayn rand admit danneskjöld name tribut victor hugo novel han iceland wherein hero becom first count danneskjöld . publish book danneskjöld alway seen eye dagni taggart hank rearden except brief paragraph last chapter .	presid taggart transcontinent book import antagonist . taggart expert influenc peddler incap make oper decis . reli sister dagni taggart actual run railroad nonetheless oppos almost everi endeavor variou anti-capitalist moral polit belief . sens antithesi dagni . contradict lead recur absurd life desir overcom life depend horror succeed . final chapter novel suffer complet mental breakdown upon realiz longer deceiv respect .	unsupport wife hank rearden dislik habit secretli first seek ruin rearden prove valu . lillian achiev pass inform jame taggart husband affair sister . inform use persuad rearden sign gift certif deliv properti right rearden metal . lillian thereaft use jame taggart sexual satisfact hank abandon .	ferri biologist work co-ordin state scienc institut . use posit derid reason product achiev publish book entitl think think . clash sever occas hank rearden twice attempt blackmail rearden give rearden metal . also one group looter tri get rearden agre steel unif plan . ferri host demonstr project weapon creator ferri persuad tortur machin . john galt captur looter ferri use devic galt break extract inform ferri want galt . ferri repres group use brute forc hero achiev end looter .	former professor patrick henri univers along colleagu hugh akston mentor francisco d'anconia john galt ragnar danneskjöld . sinc becom sell-out one great promis squander social approv detriment free . work state scienc institut invent pervert use militari includ instrument demis project xylophon . charact part model . robert oppenheim rand interview earlier project part creation nuclear weapon . former student galt stadler repres epitom human evil man knew better chose act good .	incompet treacher lobbyist hank rearden reluctantli employ washington rise promin author throughout novel trade favour disloyalti . return betray hank help broker equal opportun bill restrict number busi person may one forc hank divest compani given senior posit bureau econom plan nation resourc . later novel becom top co-ordin posit eventu becom econom dictat countri .	follow secondari charact also appear novel .	hugh akston identifi one last great advoc reason . renown philosoph head depart philosophi patrick henri univers taught francisco d'anconia john galt ragnar danneskjöld . along robert stadler father figur three . akston name hallow young ladi hear francisco studi shock . thought must one great name earlier centuri . work cook roadsid diner prove extrem skill job . dagni track discov true ident reject enthusiast offer manag dine car servic taggart transcontinent . base aristotl .	jeff allen tramp stow away taggart train one dagni cross-countri trip . instead throw allow ride guest . allen learn full stori behind collaps twentieth centuri motor compani rand extens metaphor inher flaw commun well hint john galt true background .	calvin atwood owner atwood light power compani join galt strike .	mayor bascom mayor rome wisconsin reveal part histori twentieth centuri motor compani .	dr . blodgett scientist pull lever demonstr project .	orren boyl head associ steel antithesi hank rearden friend jame taggart . investor san sebastián mine . disappear stori nervou breakdown follow fail unif steel industri .	laura bradford actress kip chalmer mistress .	bill brent chief dispatch colorado divis taggart transcontinent tri prevent taggart tunnel disast .	cherryl brook dime store shopgirl marri jame taggart chanc encount store night john galt line fals deem greatest success . marri think heroic person behind taggart transcontinent . cherryl first harsh toward dagni believ jim taggart descript sister question employe railroad . upon learn scorn misdirect cherryl put apolog dagni shame night commit suicid confess dagni marri jim thought heroic qualiti look thought marri someon like dagni . eventu commit suicid unabl live worthless husband unabl escap .	milli bush mean ugli littl eight-year-old girl vote receiv gold brace straighten teeth marxist famili committe determin pay alloc twentieth centuri motor compani . teeth later knock man deni allow committe purchas thing valu .	emma chalmer kip chalmer mother gain influenc death . known kip start soybean-grow project louisiana command thousand railcar move harvest . result year wheat crop minnesota never reach rest countri instead rot storag also soybean crop lost reap earli .	kip chalmer washington man decid run elect legisl california . way campaign taggart transcontinent train carri encount split rail result destruct diesel engin . demand lead coal-burn steam engin attach train stead use pull eight-mil tunnel . result suffoc passeng destruct taggart tunnel .	dan conway middle-ag presid phoenix-durango railroad . run railroad thing know . anti-dog-eat-dog rule use drive busi colorado lose fight resign quiet life book fish .	ken danagg danagg coal pennsylvania . help hank rearden illeg make rearden metal later decid quit join galt strike moment dagni arriv tri persuad otherwis .	quentin daniel enterpris engin hire dagni taggart reconstruct john galt motor . partway process quentin withdraw effort reason john galt . dagni pursuit quentin lead galt gulch .	sebastian d'anconia 16th 17th centuri founder d'anconia dynasti . escap spain express opinion freeli come conflict inquisit leav behind palac belov . start small mine south america becam begin mine empir new fortun new palac . eventu sent belov wait mani year . role model francisco d'anconia look dagni taggart look nathaniel taggart . francisco remark respect ancestor would like .	balph eubank call literari leader age despit fact book written sold copi . complain disgrac artist treat peddler law limit sale book copi . misogynist think disgust dagni taggart railroad vice-presid .	fishwif one striker earn live provid fish hammond groceri market describ dark dishevel hair larg eye writer . galt say publish outsid . believ one deal word one deal mind . accord barbara branden book passion ayn rand fishwif ayn hitchcock-lik appear atla shrug . say leonard peikoff .	lawrenc hammond run hammond car colorado one compani exist still produc top-qual vehicl . eventu quit join strike .	richard halley dagni taggart favorit compos mysteri disappear even greatest triumph . halley spent year struggl unappreci compos . age opera phaethon perform first time audienc boo heckl . year phaethon perform time receiv greatest ovat opera hous ever heard . follow day halley retir sold right music disappear . later reveal join strike settl galt gulch .	mr . william hast widow chief engin twentieth centuri motor compani . husband quit shortli galt join strike year later . lead allow dagni find hugh akston .	dr . thoma hendrick famou brain surgeon develop new method prevent stroke . join galt strike american medic system put govern control .	tinki holloway one looter frequent refer quot charact stori one major appear washington meet hank rearden .	lee hunsack charg compani call amalgam servic take twentieth centuri motor compani . file lawsuit eventu lead mida mulligan judg narragansett join strike . fail businessman lament constantli no-on ever gave chanc .	gwen ive hank rearden secretari .	owen kellogg assist manag taggart termin new york . catch dagni taggart eye one compet men staff . see sorri state ohio divis decid make new superintend . howev soon return new york kellogg inform quit job . owen kellogg eventu reach settl galt gulch .	gilbert keith-worth british novelist erstwhil fame neglect still consid walk classic . rand introduc page guest kip chalmer reason either could discov implicitli asphyxi tunnel catastroph give statement .	fred kinnan labor leader member looter cabal . unlik howev kinnan straightforward honest purpos . kinnan one openli state true motiv fellow conspir . end galt three-hour speech express admir man say mean . despit kinnan admit one peopl galt destroy .	paul larkin unsuccess middle-ag businessman friend rearden famili . meet looter work plan bring rearden . jame taggart know friend hank rearden challeng loyalti larkin assur taggart go along .	eugen lawson head commun bank madison get job govern bank goe bankrupt . one looter cabal collectivist abhor product money-mak .	mort liddi hack compos write trite score movi modern symphoni one listen . believ melodi primit vulgar . one lillian rearden friend member cultur elit .	clifton locey friend jim taggart take posit vice-presid oper dagni taggart quit .	pat logan engin first run john galt line . later strike .	kay ludlow beauti actress wife ragnar danneskjöld .	dick mcnamara contractor finish san sebastian line . dagni taggart plan hire lay new rearden metal track rio nort line mysteri disappear . later discov join strike settl galt gulch .	cuffi meig director unif railroad busi . carri pistol lucki rabbit foot dress militari uniform describ impervi thought . meig seiz control project accident destroy demolish countri last railroad bridg across mississippi river kill men dr . stadler .	dave mitchum state-hir superintend colorado divis taggart transcontinent . partial respons taggart tunnel disast .	chick morrison hold posit moral condition govern . quit societi begin collaps flee stronghold tennesse . fellow looter consid unlik surviv .	horac bussbi mowen presid amalgam switch signal compani inc . connecticut . businessman see noth wrong moral code destroy societi would never dream say busi reason good societi . dagni taggart hire mowen produc switch made rearden metal . reluct build anyth unproven technolog cajol accept contract . pressur public opinion discontinu product switch forc dagni find altern sourc .	mida mulligan wealthi banker mysteri disappear protest given court order lend money incompet applic . order came liquid entir busi paid depositor join galt strike . legal owner land galt gulch locat . mulligan birth name michael legal chang news articl call mida derogatori fashion mulligan took compliment .	judg narragansett american jurist rule favor mida mulligan case brought incompet loan applic . narragansett rule revers appeal retir join strike . end novel seen edit unit state constitut cross contradict amend ad amend prohibit congress pass law restrain freedom trade .	ben neali railroad contractor dagni taggart hire replac track rio nort line rearden metal . neali incompet dagni find one better countri . neali believ anyth get done enough muscl power . see role intellig human achiev . reli dagni elli wyatt run thing resent appear like boss peopl around .	ted nielsen head nielsen motor . eventu goe strike along industrialist produc type close motor factori . dagni later find visit galt gulch first time .	betti pope wealthi socialit meaningless sexual affair jame taggart . deliber crude way cast ridicul high social posit .	dr . potter hold undefin posit state scienc institut . sent tri obtain right rearden metal .	dr . simon pritchett prestigi head depart philosophi patrick henri univers consid lead philosoph age . believ man noth collect chemic reason superstit futil seek mean life duti philosoph show noth understood .	rearden mother whose name mention live rearden home philadelphia . involv chariti work berat rearden whenev . dote weak son philip rearden .	philip rearden younger brother hank rearden . live brother home philadelphia complet depend . resent brother chariti .	dwight sander sander aircraft produc high-qual airplan join strike .	bertram scudder editori writer magazin futur . typic bash busi businessmen never say anyth specif articl reli innuendo sneer denunci . wrote hatchet job hank rearden call octopu . also vocal support equal opportun bill . scudder claim import thing life brother love seem noth hatr around . lose job dagni taggart reveal affair hank rearden air radio show .	claud slagenhop presid polit organ friend global progress one lillian rearden friend . believ idea air time talk action . global progress sponsor equal opportun bill .	gerald ivi starn two surviv children jed starn founder twentieth centuri motor compani . togeth since-deceas brother eric institut communist payment-and-benefit program drove compani bankruptci . gerald die alcohol ivi pseudo-buddhist ascet continu insist plan perfect failur father compani entir due worker . eric weak attention-seek man patholog desir love . commit suicid woman love marri anoth man . gerald claim alway act good employe vain incompet often threw lavish parti use compani fund . ivi hand describ sadist relish see poverti desir wealth .	andrew stockton run stockton foundri stockton colorado . join strike open foundri galt gulch .	nathaniel nat taggart founder taggart transcontinent . built railroad without govern handout ran busi reason turn profit . began penniless adventur end one wealthiest men countri . never earn money forc fraud except bribe govern offici throw oppon flight stair never apolog becom wealthi success . one hate men time . dagni often inspir look statu nat taggart railroad headquart draw dollar sign base signal francisco readi join galt strike . suspect model jame jerom hill builder great northern railroad .	mr . thompson head state unit state . particularli intellig undistinguish look . know polit howev master public relat back-room deal . rand note indic model presid harri . truman deliber decid call presid unit state titl honor connot charact deserv .	lester tuck press agent kip chalmer .	clem weatherbi govern repres board director taggart transcontinent . dagni consid least bad govern repres sinc real knowledg run train . notic howev least appreci boss .	wet nurs toni young bureaucrat sent govern watch rearden mill . though start cynic follow looter code experi mill transform come respect admir produc . shot attempt inform hank rearden govern plot succeed warn rearden die .	elli wyatt head wyatt oil . almost single-handedli reviv economi colorado discov new process extract oil thought exhaust oil well . first introduc aggress toward dagni yet know blame fact brother polici directli threaten busi . govern pass law decre make imposs continu set oil well fire leav jeer note leav found . take . . one particular burn well resist effort extinguish becom known wyatt torch . later dagni meet galt gulch .
anthropolog studi variou aspect human within past present societi . social anthropolog cultur anthropolog europ view disciplin right group relat disciplin histori .	abstract noun anthropolog first attest refer histori . new latin deriv combin form greek word ánthr po human lógo studi . adjectiv form appear work aristotl .	anthropolog say scienc treat man divid ordinarili reason anatomi consid bodi part psycholog speak soul .	sporad use term subject matter occur subsequ use étienn serr describ natur histori paleontolog man base compar anatomi creation chair anthropolog ethnographi nation museum natur histori franc jean loui armand de quatrefag de bréau . variou short-liv organ anthropologist alreadi form . société ethnologiqu de pari first use ethnolog form . member primarili anti-slaveri activist . slaveri abolish franc société abandon .	meanwhil ethnolog societi new york current american ethnolog societi found model well ethnolog societi london break-away group aborigin protect societi . anthropologist time liber anti-slaveri pro-human-right activist . maintain intern connect .	anthropolog mani current field intellectu result compar method develop earlier 19th centuri . theorist divers field anatomi linguist ethnolog make feature-by-featur comparison subject matter begin suspect similar anim languag folkway result process law unknown . public charl darwin origin speci epiphani everyth begun suspect . darwin arriv conclus comparison speci seen agronomi wild .	darwin wallac unveil evolut late . immedi rush bring social scienc . paul broca pari process break away société de biologi form first explicitli anthropolog societi société d'anthropologi de pari meet first time pari . read darwin becam immedi convert transformism french call evolution . definit becam studi human group consid whole detail relat rest natur .	broca today would call neurosurgeon taken interest patholog speech . want local differ man anim appear resid speech . discov speech center human brain today call broca area . interest mainli biolog anthropolog german philosoph special psycholog theodor waitz took theme gener social anthropolog six-volum work entitl die anthropologi der naturvölk . titl soon translat anthropolog primit peopl . last two volum publish posthum .	waitz defin anthropolog scienc natur man . natur meant matter anim divin breath . . animist . follow broca lead waitz point anthropolog new field would gather materi field would differ use compar anatomi physiolog psycholog differenti man anim nearest . stress data comparison must empir gather experiment . histori civil well ethnolog brought comparison . presum fundament speci man uniti law thought applic men .	waitz influenti among british ethnologist . explor richard franci burton speech therapist jame hunt broke away ethnolog societi london form anthropolog societi london henceforward would follow path new anthropolog rather ethnolog . 2nd societi dedic gener anthropolog exist . repres french société present though broca . keynot address print first volum new public anthropolog review hunt stress work waitz adopt definit standard . among first associ young edward burnett tylor inventor cultur anthropolog brother alfr tylor geologist . previous edward refer ethnologist subsequ anthropologist .	similar organ countri follow anthropolog societi madrid american anthropolog associ anthropolog societi vienna italian societi anthropolog ethnolog mani subsequ . major evolutionist . one notabl except berlin societi anthropolog ethnolog prehistori found rudolph virchow known vitup attack evolutionist . religi insist darwin conclus lack empir foundat .	last three decad 19th centuri prolifer anthropolog societi associ occur independ publish journal intern membership associ . major theorist belong organ . support gradual osmosi anthropolog curricula major institut higher learn . american associ advanc scienc abl report educ institut countri curriculum anthropolog . none faculti member depart name anthropolog .	meagr statist expand 20th centuri compris anthropolog depart major world higher educ institut mani thousand number . anthropolog diversifi major subdivis dozen . practic anthropolog use anthropolog knowledg techniqu solv specif problem arriv exampl presenc buri victim might stimul use forens archaeologist recreat final scene . organ reach global level . exampl world council anthropolog associ wcaa network nation region intern associ aim promot worldwid commun cooper anthropolog current contain member three dozen nation .	sinc work franz boa bronis aw malinowski late 19th earli 20th centuri social anthropolog great britain cultur anthropolog us distinguish social scienc emphasi cross-cultur comparison long-term in-depth examin context import place participant-observ experienti immers area research . cultur anthropolog particular emphas cultur relativ holism use find frame cultur critiqu . particularli promin unit state boa argument 19th centuri racial ideolog margaret mead advocaci gender equal sexual liber current critic post-coloni oppress promot multicultur . ethnographi one primari research design well text gener anthropolog fieldwork .	great britain commonwealth countri british tradit social anthropolog tend domin . unit state anthropolog tradit divid four field approach develop franz boa earli 20th centuri biolog physic anthropolog social cultur sociocultur anthropolog archaeolog plu anthropolog linguist . field frequent overlap tend use differ methodolog techniqu .	european countri oversea coloni tend practic ethnolog term coin defin adam . kollár . sometim refer sociocultur anthropolog part world influenc european tradit .	anthropolog global disciplin involv human social scienc natur scienc . anthropolog build upon knowledg natur scienc includ discoveri origin evolut homo sapien human physic trait human behavior variat among differ group human evolutionari past homo sapien influenc social organ cultur social scienc includ organ human social cultur relat institut social conflict etc . earli anthropolog origin classic greec persia studi tri understand observ cultur divers . anthropolog central develop sever new late 20th centuri interdisciplinari field cognit scienc global studi variou ethnic studi .	accord clifford geertz	sociocultur anthropolog heavili influenc structuralist postmodern theori well shift toward analysi modern societi . epistemolog shift away positivist tradit larg inform disciplin . shift endur question natur product knowledg came occupi central place cultur social anthropolog . contrast archaeolog biolog anthropolog remain larg positivist . due differ epistemolog four sub-field anthropolog lack cohes last sever decad .	sociocultur anthropolog draw togeth principl axe cultur anthropolog social anthropolog . cultur anthropolog compar studi manifold way peopl make sens world around social anthropolog studi relationship among person group . cultur anthropolog relat philosophi literatur art one cultur affect experi self group contribut complet understand peopl knowledg custom institut social anthropolog relat sociolog histori . accept cultur term moder reduction cross-cultur comparison . project often accommod field ethnographi . ethnographi refer methodolog product ethnograph research . . ethnograph monograph . methodolog ethnographi base upon long-term fieldwork within commun research site . particip observ one foundat method social cultur anthropolog . ethnolog involv systemat comparison differ cultur . process participant-observ especi help understand cultur emic conceptu vs . etic technic point view .	studi kinship social organ central focu sociocultur anthropolog kinship human univers . sociocultur anthropolog also cover econom polit organ law conflict resolut pattern consumpt exchang materi cultur technolog infrastructur gender relat ethnic childrear social religion myth symbol valu etiquett worldview sport music nutrit recreat game food festiv languag also object studi linguist anthropolog .	comparison across cultur key element method sociocultur anthropolog includ industri de-industri west . cultur standard cross-cultur sampl scc world societi	biolog anthropolog physic anthropolog synonym term describ anthropolog research focus studi human non-human primat biolog evolutionari demograph dimens . examin biolog social factor affect evolut human primat gener maintain chang contemporari genet physiolog variat .	archaeolog studi human past materi remain . artifact faunal remain human alter landscap evid cultur materi live past societi . archaeologist examin materi remain order deduc pattern past human behavior cultur practic . ethnoarchaeolog type archaeolog studi practic materi remain live human group order gain better understand evid left behind past human group presum live similar way .	linguist anthropolog also call anthropolog linguist seek understand process human commun verbal non-verb variat languag across time space social use languag relationship languag cultur . branch anthropolog bring linguist method bear anthropolog problem link analysi linguist form process interpret sociocultur process . linguist anthropologist often draw relat field includ sociolinguist pragmat cognit linguist semiot discours analysi narr analysi .	one central problem anthropolog art concern univers art cultur phenomenon . sever anthropologist note western categori paint sculptur literatur conceiv independ artist activ exist exist significantli differ form non-western context . surmount difficulti anthropologist art focus formal featur object without exclus artist certain evid aesthet qualiti . boa primit art claud lévi-strauss way mask geertz art cultur system exampl trend transform anthropolog art anthropolog cultur specif aesthet .	media anthropolog also known anthropolog media mass media emphas ethnograph studi mean understand produc audienc cultur social aspect mass media . type ethnograph context explor rang context media product . . ethnographi newsroom newspap journalist field film product context media recept follow audienc everyday respons media . type includ cyber anthropolog rel new area internet research well ethnographi area research happen involv media develop work social movement health educ . addit mani classic ethnograph context media radio press new media televis start make presenc felt sinc earli .	ethnomusicolog academ field encompass variou approach studi music broadli defin emphas cultur social materi cognit biolog dimens context instead addit isol sound compon particular repertoir .	visual anthropolog concern part studi product ethnograph photographi film sinc mid new media . term sometim use interchang ethnograph film visual anthropolog also encompass anthropolog studi visual represent includ area perform museum art product recept mass media . visual represent cultur sandpaint tattoo sculptur relief cave paint scrimshaw jewelri hieroglyph paint photograph includ focu visual anthropolog .	econom anthropolog attempt explain human econom behavior widest histor geograph cultur scope . complex relationship disciplin econom highli critic . origin sub-field anthropolog begin polish-british founder anthropolog bronislaw malinowski french compatriot marcel mauss natur gift-giv exchang reciproc altern market exchang . econom anthropolog remain part focus upon exchang . school thought deriv marx known polit economi focus product contrast . econom anthropologist abandon primitivist nich releg economist turn examin corpor bank global financi system anthropolog perspect .	polit economi anthropolog applic theori method histor materi tradit concern anthropolog includ limit non-capitalist societi . polit economi introduc question histori coloni ahistor anthropolog theori social structur cultur . three main area interest rapidli develop . first area concern pre-capitalist societi subject evolutionari tribal stereotyp . sahlin work hunter-gather origin affluent societi much dissip imag . second area concern vast major world popul time peasantri mani involv complex revolutionari war vietnam . third area coloni imperi creation capitalist world-system . recent polit economist directli address issu industri post-industri capit around world .	appli anthropolog refer applic method theori anthropolog analysi solut practic problem . complex relat research-bas instrument method produc chang stabil specif cultur system provis data initi direct action formul polici . simpli appli anthropolog practic side anthropolog research includ research involv activ within particip commun . close relat develop anthropolog distinct critic anthropolog develop .	anthropolog develop tend view develop critic perspect . kind issu address implic approach simpli involv ponder key develop goal allevi poverti poverti increas . gap plan outcom . work develop disregard histori lesson might offer . develop extern driven rather intern basi . short much plan develop fail .	kinship refer studi pattern social relationship one human cultur refer pattern social relationship . histori anthropolog develop number relat concept term descent descent group lineag affin cognat even fictiv kinship . broadli kinship pattern may consid includ peopl relat descent one social relat develop also rel marriag .	feminist anthropolog four field approach anthropolog archeolog biolog cultur linguist seek reduc male bia research find anthropolog hire practic scholarli product knowledg . anthropolog engag often feminist non-western tradit whose perspect experi differ white european american feminist . histor peripher perspect sometim margin regard less valid import knowledg western world . feminist anthropologist claim research help correct systemat bia mainstream feminist theori . feminist anthropologist central concern construct gender across societi . feminist anthropolog inclus special . first african-american femal anthropologist caribbeanist said vera mae green studi ethnic famili relat caribbean well unit state therebi tri improv way black life experi cultur studi .	medic anthropolog interdisciplinari field studi human health diseas health care system biocultur adapt . believ william caudel first discov field medic anthropolog . current research medic anthropolog one main growth area field anthropolog whole . focus follow six basic field	develop system medic knowledg medic care	patient-physician relationship	integr altern medic system cultur divers environ	interact social environment biolog factor influenc health ill individu commun whole	critic analysi interact psychiatr servic migrant popul critic ethnopsychiatri beneduc	impact biomedicin biomed technolog non-western set	subject becom central medic anthropolog worldwid violenc social suffer farmer beneduc well issu involv physic psycholog harm suffer result ill . hand field intersect medic anthropolog term research methodolog theoret product cultur psychiatri transcultur psychiatri ethnopsychiatri .	nutrit anthropolog synthet concept deal interplay econom system nutrit statu food secur chang former affect latter . econom environment chang commun affect access food food secur dietari health interplay cultur biolog turn connect broader histor econom trend associ global . nutrit statu affect overal health statu work perform potenti overal potenti econom develop either term human develop tradit western model given group peopl .	psycholog anthropolog interdisciplinari subfield anthropolog studi interact cultur mental process . subfield tend focu way human develop encultur within particular cultur group histori languag practic conceptu categori shape process human cognit emot percept motiv mental health . also examin understand cognit emot motiv similar psycholog process inform constrain model cultur social process .	cognit anthropolog seek explain pattern share knowledg cultur innov transmiss time space use method theori cognit scienc especi experiment psycholog evolutionari biolog often close collabor historian ethnograph archaeologist linguist musicologist specialist engag descript interpret cultur form . cognit anthropolog concern peopl differ group know implicit knowledg chang way peopl perceiv relat world around .	polit anthropolog concern structur polit system look basi structur societi . polit anthropolog develop disciplin concern primarili polit stateless societi new develop start still unfold anthropologist start increasingli studi complex social set presenc state bureaucraci market enter ethnograph account analysi local phenomena . turn toward complex societi meant polit theme taken two main level . first anthropologist continu studi polit organ polit phenomena lay outsid state-regul sphere patron-cli relat tribal polit organ . second anthropologist slowli start develop disciplinari concern state institut cours relationship formal inform polit institut . anthropolog state develop thrive field today . geertz compar work negara balines state earli famou exampl .	legal anthropolog anthropolog law special cross-cultur studi social order . earlier legal anthropolog research often focus narrowli conflict manag crime sanction formal regul . recent applic includ issu human right legal plural polit upris .	public anthropolog creat robert borofski professor hawaii pacif univers demonstr abil anthropolog anthropologist effect address problem beyond disciplin illumin larger social issu time well encourag broad public convers explicit goal foster social chang .	cyborg anthropolog origin sub-focu group within american anthropolog associ annual meet . sub-group close relat st societi social studi scienc . donna haraway cyborg manifesto could consid found document cyborg anthropolog first explor philosoph sociolog ramif term . cyborg anthropolog studi humankind relat technolog system built specif modern technolog system reflex shape notion mean human .	digit anthropolog studi relationship human digital-era technolog extend variou area anthropolog technolog intersect . sometim group sociocultur anthropolog sometim consid part materi cultur . field new thu varieti name varieti emphas . includ techno-anthropolog digit ethnographi cyberanthropolog virtual anthropolog .	ecolog anthropolog defin studi cultur adapt environ . sub-field also defin studi relationship popul human biophys environ . focu research concern cultur belief practic help human popul adapt environ environ across space time . contemporari perspect environment anthropolog arguabl least backdrop focu ethnographi cultur fieldwork today polit ecolog . mani character new perspect inform cultur polit power global local issu centuri anthropolog . focu data interpret often use argument creation polici prevent corpor exploit damag land . often observ becom activ part struggl either directli organ particip indirectli articl documentari book ethnographi . case environment justic advoc melissa checker relationship peopl hyde park .	ethnohistori studi ethnograph cultur indigen custom examin histor record . also studi histori variou ethnic group may may exist today . ethnohistori use histor ethnograph data foundat . histor method materi go beyond standard use document manuscript . practition recogn util sourc materi map music paint photographi folklor oral tradit site explor archaeolog materi museum collect endur custom languag place name .	anthropolog religion involv studi religi institut relat social institut comparison religi belief practic across cultur . modern anthropolog assum complet continu magic think religion everi religion cultur product creat human commun worship .	urban anthropolog concern issu urban poverti neoliber . ulf hannerz quot remark tradit anthropologist notori agoraphob lot anti-urban definit . variou social process western world well third world latter habitu focu attent anthropologist brought attent specialist cultur closer home .	anthrozoolog also known human anim studi studi interact live thing . burgeon interdisciplinari field overlap number disciplin includ anthropolog etholog medicin psycholog veterinari medicin zoolog . major focu anthrozoolog research quantifi posit effect human-anim relationship either parti studi interact . includ scholar divers rang field includ anthropolog sociolog biolog philosophi .	biocultur anthropolog scientif explor relationship human biolog cultur . physic anthropologist throughout first half 20th centuri view relationship racial perspect assumpt typolog human biolog differ lead cultur differ . world war ii emphasi began shift toward effort explor role cultur play shape human biolog .	evolutionari anthropolog interdisciplinari studi evolut human physiolog human behaviour relat hominin non-hominin primat . evolutionari anthropolog base natur scienc social scienc combin human develop socioeconom factor . evolutionari anthropolog concern biolog cultur evolut human past present . base scientif approach bring togeth field archaeolog behavior ecolog psycholog primatolog genet . dynam interdisciplinari field draw mani line evid understand human experi past present .	forens anthropolog applic scienc physic anthropolog human osteolog legal set often crimin case victim remain advanc stage decomposit . forens anthropologist assist identif deceas individu whose remain decompos burn mutil otherwis unrecogniz . adject forens refer applic subfield scienc court law .	paleoanthropolog combin disciplin paleontolog physic anthropolog . studi ancient human found fossil hominid evid petrifact bone footprint .	contemporari anthropolog establish scienc academ depart univers colleg . singl largest organ anthropologist american anthropolog associ aaa found . membership made anthropologist around globe .	group european american scholar field anthropolog establish european associ social anthropologist easa serv major profession organ anthropologist work europ . easa seek advanc statu anthropolog europ increas visibl margin anthropolog tradit therebi contribut project global anthropolog world anthropolog .	hundr organ exist variou sub-field anthropolog sometim divid nation region mani anthropologist work collabor disciplin geolog physic zoolog paleontolog anatomi music theori art histori sociolog belong profession societi disciplin well .	american anthropolog associ	american ethnolog societi	asociación de antropólogo iberoamericano en red aibr	move anthropolog student network	anthropolog societi london	center world indigen studi	ethnolog societi london	institut anthropolog ethnographi	max planck institut evolutionari anthropolog	network concern anthropologist	. . miklukho-maklai institut ethnolog anthropolog	royal anthropolog institut great britain ireland	societi anthropolog scienc	societi appli anthropolog	usc center visual anthropolog	field matur debat arriv ethic principl aim protect subject anthropolog research well research profession societi gener code ethic .	anthropologist like research especi historian scientist engag field research time assist state polici project especi coloni .	comment contend	disciplin grew coloni perhap leagu deriv key notion conscious . see exampl gough pel salemink cf . lewi .	ethnograph work often ahistor write peopl time ethnograph present johann fabian time .	part quest scientif object present-day anthropologist typic urg cultur relativ influenc sub-field anthropolog .	ethic commit anthropolog includ notic document genocid infanticid racism mutil includ circumcis subincis tortur . topic like racism slaveri human sacrific attract anthropolog attent theori rang nutrit defici gene accultur propos mention theori coloni mani root caus man inhuman man . illustr depth anthropolog approach one take one topic racism find thousand anthropolog refer stretch across major minor sub-field .	anthropologist involv . . govern particular caus bitter controversi within disciplin . franz boa publicli object us particip world war war publish brief expos condemn particip sever american archaeologist espionag mexico cover scientist .	mani boa anthropologist contemporari activ alli war effort axi nazi germani fascist itali imperi japan . mani serv arm forc work intellig exampl offic strateg servic offic war inform . time david . price work american anthropolog cold war provid detail account pursuit dismiss sever anthropologist job communist sympathi .	attempt accus anthropologist complic cia govern intellig activ vietnam war year turn surprisingli littl . mani anthropologist student teacher activ antiwar movement . numer resolut condemn war aspect pass overwhelmingli annual meet american anthropolog associ aaa .	profession anthropolog bodi often object use anthropolog benefit state . code ethic statement may proscrib anthropologist give secret brief . associ social anthropologist uk commonwealth asa call certain scholarship ethic danger . aaa current statement profession respons clearli state relat govern host govern ... secret research secret report debrief kind agre given .	anthropologist along social scientist work us militari part us armi strategi afghanistan . christian scienc monitor report counterinsurg effort focu better grasp meet local need afghanistan human terrain system ht program addit ht team work us militari iraq . american anthropolog associ commiss engag anthropolog us secur intellig commun releas final report conclud part ethnograph investig determin militari mission subject extern review data collect occur context war integr goal counterinsurg potenti coerciv environ characterist factor ht concept applic longer consid legitim profession exercis anthropolog . summari stress construct engag anthropolog militari possibl ceaussic suggest aaa emphas incompat ht disciplinari ethic practic job seeker recogn problem allow ht defin mean anthropolog within dod .	wwii british social anthropolog american cultur anthropolog still distinct tradit . war enough british american anthropologist borrow idea methodolog approach one anoth began speak collect sociocultur anthropolog .	sever characterist tend unit anthropolog work . one central characterist anthropolog tend provid compar holist account phenomena tend highli empir .	biolog anthropologist interest human variat possibl human univers behavior idea concept share virtual human cultur . use mani differ method studi modern popul genet particip observ techniqu often take anthropologist field mean travel commun set someth call fieldwork . biolog physic side human measur genet sampl nutrit data may gather publish articl monograph .	along divid project theoret emphasi anthropologist typic divid world relev time period geograph region . human time earth divid relev cultur tradit base materi paleolith neolith particular use archaeolog . cultur subdivis accord tool type olduwan mousterian levalloisian help archaeologist anthropologist understand major trend human past . anthropologist geograph share approach cultur region well sinc map cultur central scienc . make comparison across cultur tradit time-bas cultur region space-bas anthropologist develop variou kind compar method central part scienc .	anthropolog develop mani differ enterpris see histori anthropolog includ limit fossil-hunt explor documentari film-mak paleontolog primatolog antiqu deal curatorship philolog etymolog genet region analysi ethnolog histori philosophi religi studi difficult character entir field brief articl although attempt write histori entir field made .	author argu anthropolog origin develop studi cultur term time past societi space non-european non-western societi . exampl classic urban anthropolog ulf hannerz introduct semin explor citi inquiri toward urban anthropolog mention third world habitu receiv attent anthropologist tradit special cultur look far away start look across track late .	exist mani work focus peopl topic close author home . also argu field studi like histori sociolog contrari focu disproportion west .	franc studi western societi tradit left sociologist increasingli chang start scholar like isac chiva journal like terrain fieldwork develop center found marc augé le centr d'anthropologi de mond contemporain anthropolog research center contemporari societi .	sinc becom common social cultur anthropologist set ethnograph research north atlant region frequent examin connect locat rather limit research singl local . also relat shift toward broaden focu beyond daili life ordinari peopl increasingli research set set scientif laboratori social movement government nongovernment organ busi .	anthropolog index onlin aio	anthropolog scienc fiction	engag theori	ethnolog	ethnobiolog	etholog	folklor	human etholog	human evolut	human relat area file	intang cultur heritag	list anthropologist	memet	origin societi	prehistor medicin	qualit research	sociolog	theolog anthropolog sub-field theolog	philosoph anthropolog sub-field philosophi	anthropolog tinbergen four question	.	carneiro circumscript theori	cite web url titl aio home
agricultur scienc broad multidisciplinari field biolog encompass part exact natur econom social scienc use practic understand agricultur . veterinari scienc anim scienc often exclud definit .	three term often confus . howev cover differ concept	agricultur set activ transform environ product anim plant human use . agricultur concern techniqu includ applic agronom research .	agronomi research develop relat studi improv plant-bas crop .	agricultur scienc includ research develop	plant breed genet	plant patholog	horticultur	soil scienc	entmolog	product techniqu . . irrig manag recommend nitrogen input	improv agricultur product term quantiti qualiti . . select drought-resist crop anim develop new pesticid yield-sens technolog simul model crop growth in-vitro cell cultur techniqu	minim effect pest weed insect pathogen nematod crop anim product system .	transform primari product end-consum product . . product preserv packag dairi product	prevent correct advers environment effect . . soil degrad wast manag bioremedi	theoret product ecolog relat crop product model	tradit agricultur system sometim term subsist agricultur feed poorest peopl world . system interest sometim retain level integr natur ecolog system greater industri agricultur may sustain modern agricultur system .	food product demand global basi special attent paid major produc china india brazil usa eu .	variou scienc relat agricultur resourc environ . . soil scienc agroclimatolog biolog agricultur crop anim . . crop scienc anim scienc includ scienc . . rumin nutrit farm anim welfar field agricultur econom rural sociolog variou disciplin encompass agricultur engin .	agricultur biotechnolog specif area agricultur scienc involv use scientif tool techniqu includ genet engin molecular marker molecular diagnost vaccin tissu cultur modifi live organ plant anim microorgan .	one common yield reduc fertil appli slightli higher quantiti transit period time take soil rebuild aggreg organ matter . yield decreas temporarili nitrogen immobil crop residu take month sever year decompos depend crop ratio local environ	except theoret agronomi research agronomi field strongli relat local area . consid scienc ecoregion close link soil properti climat never exactli one place anoth . mani peopl think agricultur product system reli local weather soil characterist specif crop studi local . feel need know understand product system mani area possibl human dimens interact natur .	agricultur scienc began gregor mendel genet work modern term might better date chemic fertil output plant physiolog understand 18th centuri germani . unit state scientif revolut agricultur began hatch act use term agricultur scienc . hatch act driven farmer interest know constitu earli artifici fertil . smith-hugh act shift agricultur educ back vocat root scientif foundat built . public expenditur agricultur research us exceed privat expenditur next year .	intensif agricultur sinc develop develop countri often refer green revolut close tie progress made select improv crop anim high product well develop addit input artifici fertil phytosanitari product .	oldest largest human intervent natur environment impact agricultur gener recent intens agricultur industri develop popul growth rais mani question among agricultur scientist led develop emerg new field . includ technolog field assum solut technolog problem lie better technolog integr pest manag wast treatment technolog landscap architectur genom agricultur philosophi field includ refer food product someth essenti differ non-essenti econom good . fact interact two approach provid fertil field deeper understand agricultur scienc .	new technolog biotechnolog comput scienc data process storag technolog advanc made possibl develop new research field includ genet engin agrophys improv statist analysi precis farm . balanc natur human scienc agricultur scienc seek understand human-natur interact tradit agricultur includ interact religion agricultur non-materi compon agricultur product system .	robert bakewel	norman borlaug	luther burbank	georg washington carver	rené dumont	sir albert howard	kaila nath kaul	justu von liebig	jay lush	gregor mendel	loui pasteur	. . swaminathan	jethro tull	artturi ilmari virtanen	eli whitney	sewal wright	wilbur olin atwat	agricultur scienc seek feed world popul prevent biosafeti problem may affect human health environ . requir promot good manag natur resourc respect environ increasingli concern psycholog wellb concern food product consumpt system .	econom environment social aspect agricultur scienc subject ongo debat . recent crise avian influenza mad cow diseas issu use genet modifi organ illustr complex import debat .	agricultur biotechnolog	agricultur chemistri	agricultur diversif	agricultur educ	agricultur econom	agricultur engin	agricultur geographi	agricultur philosophi	agricultur market	agricultur soil scienc	agroecolog	agrophys	anim scienc	anim breed	anim husbandri	anim nutrit	farm manag	farm product	farm plan	agro busi plan	product market trade	agronomi	botani	theoret product ecolog	horticultur	plant breed	plant fertil	aquacultur	biolog engin	genet engin	nematolog	microbiolog	plant patholog	rang manag	environment scienc	entomolog	food scienc	human nutrit	irrig water manag	soil scienc	agrolog	wast manag	weed scienc	agricultur ministri	agricultur scienc basic topic	agroecolog	american societi agronomi	genom domest	list agricultur topic	histori agricultur scienc	institut food agricultur scienc	intern assess agricultur scienc technolog develop	intern food polici research institut ifpri	research institut crop product ricp czech republ	univers agricultur scienc	nation ffa organ	agricultur research council	edit michel adato ruth meinzen-dick john hopkin univers press food polici report	claud bourguignon regener soil agronomi agrolog india press	pimentel david pimentel marcia comput le kilocalori cérè . sept-oct .	russel . walter soil condit plant growth longman group london new york	salamini francesco oezkan hakan brandolini andrea schaefer-pregl ralf martin william genet geographi wild cereal domest near east natur vol . ju .	saltini antonio storia dell scienz agrari vol bologna	vavilov nicolai . starr chester . editor origin variat immun breed cultiv plant . select write chronica botanica waltham mass .	vavilov nicolai . world resourc cereal legumin seed crop flax academi scienc urss nation scienc foundat washington israel program scientif translat jerusalem	winogradski serg microbiologi du sol . problèm et method . cinquant de recherch masson c.ie pari	comprehens agricultur librari world .	be-x-old          	bg              	da agronomi	es agronomía	fr agronomi	agronomia	         	nl landbouwkund	ja   	pl agronomia	fi maataloustied	sv lantbruksvetenskap	th           
alchemi philosoph protoscientif tradit practic throughout europ africa asia . aim purifi matur perfect certain object . common aim chrysopoeia transmut base metal . . lead nobl metal particularli gold creation elixir immort creation panacea abl cure diseas develop alkahest univers solvent . perfect human bodi soul thought permit result alchem magnum opu hellenist western tradit achiev gnosi . particularli chemistri medicin . islam european alchemist develop structur basic laboratori techniqu theori terminolog experiment method still use today . howev continu antiqu belief four element guard work secreci includ cypher cryptic symbol . work guid hermet principl relat magic mytholog religion .	modern discuss alchemi gener split examin exoter practic applic esoter spiritu aspect despit argument scholar like holmyard von franz understood complementari . former pursu historian physic scienc examin subject term earli chemistri medicin charlatan philosoph religi context event occur . latter interest historian esoteric psychologist philosoph spiritualist . subject also made ongo impact literatur art . despit split von franz believ exist sinc western tradit origin mix greek philosophi mix egyptian mesopotamian technolog	word alchemi borrow old french alquemi alkimi taken mediev latin alchymia turn borrow arab al-k miy  . arab word borrow late greek ch meía        ch mía       agglutin arab definit articl al . ancient greek word deriv earli greek name egypt ch mia       base egyptian name egypt k me hieroglyph 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 khmi lit . black earth oppos red desert sand .	alchemi cover sever philosoph tradit span four millennia three contin . tradit gener penchant cryptic symbol languag make hard trace mutual influenc genet relationship . one distinguish least three major strand appear larg independ least earlier stage chines alchemi center china zone cultur influenc indian alchemi center indian subcontin western alchemi occur around mediterranean whose center shift millennia greco-roman egypt islam world final mediev europ . chines alchemi close connect taoism indian alchemi dharmic faith wherea western alchemi develop philosoph system larg independ influenc variou western religion . still open question whether three strand share common origin extent influenc .	start western alchemi may gener trace ancient hellenist egypt citi alexandria center alchem knowledg retain pre-emin greek roman period . element technolog religion mytholog hellenist philosophi much longer histori combin form earliest known record alchemi west . zosimo panopoli wrote oldest known book alchemi mari jewess credit first non-fictiti western alchemist . wrote greek live egypt roman rule .	mytholog zosimo panopoli assert alchemi date back pharaon egypt domain priestli class though littl evid assert . alchem writer use classic figur greek roman egyptian mytholog illumin work allegor alchem transmut . includ pantheon god relat classic planet isi osiri jason mani .	central figur mytholog alchemi herm trismegistu thrice-great herm . name deriv god thoth greek counterpart herm . herm caduceu serpent-staff among alchemi princip symbol . accord clement alexandria wrote call forty-two book herm cover field knowledg . hermetica thrice-great herm gener understood form basi western alchem philosophi practic call hermet philosophi earli practition . write collect first centuri common era .	technolog dawn western alchemi sometim associ metallurgi extend back . mani write lost emperor diocletian order burn alchem book suppress revolt alexandria . origin egyptian document alchemi surviv notabl among stockholm papyru leyden papyru . date contain recip dye make artifici gemston clean fabric pearl manufactur imit gold silver . write lack mystic philosoph element alchemi contain work bolu mend pseudo-democritu align recip theoret knowledg astrolog classic element . time bolu zosimo chang took place transform metallurgi hermet art .	philosophi alexandria act melt pot philosophi pythagorean platon stoicism gnostic form origin alchemi charact . four element greek mostli qualit aspect matter quantit modern element ... true alchemi never regard earth air water fire corpor chemic substanc present-day sens word . four element simpli primari gener qualiti mean amorph pure quantit substanc bodi first reveal differenti form . later alchemist extens develop mystic aspect concept .	alchemi coexist alongsid emerg christian . lactantiu believ herm trismegistu prophesi birth . st augustin later affirm 4th 5th centuri also condemn trismegistu idolatri . exampl pagan christian jewish alchemist found period .	greco-roman alchemist preced zosimo known pseudonym mose isi cleopatra democritu ostan . author komario chyme know fragment text . greek alchem writer occupi sole comment work predecessor . middl 7th centuri alchemi almost entir mystic disciplin . time khalid ibn yazid spark migrat alexandria islam world facilit translat preserv greek alchem text 8th 9th centuri .	veda describ connect etern life gold .	11th centuri persian chemist physician ab  rayh n b r n  visit gujarat part court mahmud ghazni report	goal alchemi india includ creation divin bodi sanskrit divya-deham immort still embodi sanskrit j van-mukti . sanskrit alchem text includ much materi manipul mercuri sulphur homolog semen god  iva menstrual blood goddess dev  .	earli alchem write seem origin kaula tantric school associ teach person matsyendranath . earli write found jaina medic treatis kaly  ak rakam ugr ditya written south india earli 9th centuri .	two famou earli indian alchem author n g rjuna siddha nityan tha siddha . n g rjuna siddha buddhist monk . book rasendramangalam exampl indian alchemi medicin . nityan tha siddha wrote rasaratn kara also highli influenti work . sanskrit rasa translat mercuri n g rjuna siddha said develop method convert mercuri gold .	reliabl scholarship indian alchemi advanc major way public alchem bodi david gordon white . trustworthi scholarship indian alchemi must take find work account .	import modern bibliographi indian alchem studi also provid david gordon white .	content sanskrit alchem treatis analys detail . jan meulenbeld histori indian medic literatur . discuss work himl give summari content work special featur possibl evid concern date . chapter himl variou work rasa  stra ratna  stra variou work alchemi gem give brief detail six hundr fifty-f treatis . case meulenbeld give note content authorship work case refer made unpublish manuscript titl .	great deal remain discov indian alchem literatur . content sanskrit alchem corpu yet adequ integr wider gener histori alchemi .	fall roman empir focu alchem develop move islam world . much known islam alchemi better document inde earlier write come year preserv arab translat . word alchemi deriv arab word al-k miy           . earli islam world melt pot alchemi . platon aristotelian thought alreadi somewhat appropri hermet scienc continu assimil late 7th earli 8th centuri syriac translat scholarship .	late 8th centuri j bir ibn hayy n latin geber geberu introduc new approach alchemi base scientif methodolog control experiment laboratori contrast ancient greek egyptian alchemist whose work often allegor unintellig littl concern laboratori work . albeit reserv titl robert boyl antoin lavoisi . scienc historian paul krau wrote	jabir clearli recogn proclaim import experiment	earli islam chemist jabir ibn hayyan al-kindi alkindu muhammad ibn zakar ya r zi rasi rhaze contribut number key chemic discoveri muriat hydrochlor acid sulfur nitric acid . discoveri aqua regia mixtur nitric hydrochlor acid could dissolv noblest metal gold fuel imagin alchemist next millennium .	islam philosoph also made great contribut alchem hermetic . influenti author regard arguabl jabir . jabir ultim goal takwin artifici creation life alchem laboratori includ human life . analyz aristotelian element term four basic qualiti hot cold dryness moist . reason search philosoph stone introduc western alchemi . jabir develop elabor numerolog wherebi root letter substanc name arab treat variou transform held correspond element physic properti .	element system use mediev alchemi also origin jabir . origin system consist seven element includ five classic element aether air earth fire water addit two chemic element repres metal sulphur stone burn character principl combust mercuri contain ideal principl metal properti . shortli thereaft evolv eight element arab concept three metal principl sulphur give flammabl combust mercuri give volatil stabil salt give solid . atom theori corpuscularian physic bodi possess inner outer layer minut particl corpuscl also origin work jabir .	9th 14th centuri alchem theori face critic varieti practic muslim chemist includ alkindu ab  al-rayh n al-b r n  avicenna ibn khaldun . particular wrote refut idea transmut metal .	wherea european alchemi eventu center transmut base metal nobl metal chines alchemi obviou connect medicin . philosoph stone european alchemist compar grand elixir immort sought chines alchemist . howev hermet view two goal unconnect philosoph stone often equat univers panacea therefor two tradit may common initi appear .	black powder may import invent chines alchemist . previous state chines alchemi relat medicin . said chines invent gunpowd tri find potion etern life . describ 9th centuri text use firework china 10th centuri use cannon . china use gunpowd spread japan mongol muslim world europ . gunpowd use mongol hungarian europ 14th centuri .	chines alchemi close connect taoist form tradit chines medicin acupunctur moxibust martial art tai chi chuan kung fu although tai chi school believ art deriv philosoph hygien branch taoism alchem . fact earli song dynasti follow taoist idea chiefli elit upper class would ingest mercur sulfid though toler low level led mani suicid . think consequenti death would lead freedom access taoist heaven ensu death encourag peopl eschew method alchemi favor extern sourc aforement tai chi chuan master qi etc . .	introduct alchemi latin europ may date februari complet robert chester translat arab book composit alchemi . although european craftsmen technician preexist robert note prefac alchemi unknown latin europ time write . translat arab text concern numer disciplin includ alchemi flourish 12th centuri toledo spain contributor like gerard cremona adelard bath . translat time includ turba philosophorum work avicenna al-razi . brought mani new word european vocabulari previou latin equival . alcohol carboy elixir athanor exampl .	meanwhil theologian contemporari translat made stride toward reconcili faith experiment ration therebi prime europ influx alchem thought . 11th centuri st anselm put forth opinion faith ration compat encourag ration christian context . earli 12th centuri peter abelard follow anselm work lay foundat accept aristotelian thought first work aristotl reach west . earli 13th centuri robert grossetest use abelard method analysi ad use observ experiment conclus conduct scientif investig . grossetest also much work reconcil platon aristotelian think .	much 12th 13th centuri alchem knowledg europ remain center translat new latin contribut made . effort translat succeed encyclopaedist . 13th centuri albertu magnu roger bacon notabl work summar explain newli import alchem knowledg aristotelian term . albertu magnu dominican monk known written work book miner observ comment oper theori alchem author like herm democritu unnam alchemist time . albertu critic compar write aristotl avicenna concern transmut metal . time shortli death 15th centuri alchem tract misattribut common practic give rise reput accomplish alchemist . likewis alchem text attribut albert student thoma aquina .	roger bacon franciscan monk wrote wide varieti topic includ optic compar linguist medicin compos great work part project toward rebuild mediev univers curriculum includ new learn time . alchemi import scienc produc allegor work topic consid astrolog import part natur philosophi theolog contribut advanc alchemi connect soteriolog christian theolog . bacon write integr moral salvat alchemi prolong life . correspond clement highlight note import alchemi papaci . like greek bacon acknowledg divis alchemi practic theoret sphere . note theoret lay outsid scope aristotl natur philosoph latin writer time . practic howev confirm theoret thought experi bacon advoc use natur scienc medicin . later european legend howev bacon becam archmag . particular along albertu magnu credit forg brazen head capabl answer owner question .	soon bacon influenti work pseudo-geb sometim identifi paul taranto appear . summa perfectioni remain stapl summari alchem practic theori mediev renaiss period . notabl inclus practic chemic oper alongsid sulphur-mercuri theori unusu clariti describ . end 13th centuri alchemi develop fairli structur system belief . adept believ macrocosm-microcosm theori herm say believ process affect miner substanc could effect human bodi exampl one could learn secret purifi gold one could use techniqu purifi human soul . believ four element four qualiti describ strong tradit cloak written idea labyrinth code jargon set trap mislead uniniti . final alchemist practic art activ experi chemic made observ theori univers oper . entir philosophi revolv around belief man soul divid within fall adam . purifi two part man soul man could reunit god .	14th centuri alchemi becam access european outsid confin latin speak churchmen scholar . alchem discours shift scholarli philosoph debat expos social commentari alchemist . dant pier plowman chaucer paint unflatt pictur alchemist thiev liar . pope john xxii edict spondent qua non exhib forbad fals promis transmut made pseudo-alchemist . henri iv england ban practic multipli metal although possibl buy licenc attempt make gold alchem number grant henri vi edward iv . critiqu regul center around pseudo-alchem charlatan actual studi alchemi continu increasingli christian tone . 14th centuri saw christian imageri death resurrect employ alchem text petru bonu john rupescissa work written name raymond lull arnold villanova .	nicola flamel well-known alchemist good exampl pseudepigraphi practic give work name someon els usual famou . though histor flamel exist write legend assign appear . flamel religi scholar mani predecessor entir interest subject revolv around pursuit philosoph stone . work spend great deal time describ process reaction never actual give formula carri transmut . work aim gather alchem knowledg exist especi regard philosoph stone . 14th 15th centuri alchemist much like flamel concentr look philosoph stone . bernard trevisan georg ripley made similar contribut . cryptic allus symbol led wide variat interpret art .	renaiss hermet platon foundat restor european alchemi . dawn medic pharmaceut occult entrepreneuri branch alchemi follow .	late 15th centuri marsilo ficino translat corpu hermeticum work plato latin . previous unavail european first time full pictur alchem theori bacon declar absent . renaiss human renaiss neoplaton guid alchemist away physic refocu mankind alchem vessel .	esoter system develop blend alchemi broader occult hermetic fuse magic astrolog christian cabala . key figur develop german heinrich corneliu agrippa receiv hermet educ itali school humanist . de occulta philosophia attempt merg kabbalah hermetic alchemi . instrument spread new blend hermetic outsid border itali .	philippu aureolu paracelsu theophrastu bombastu von hohenheim cast alchemi new form reject agrippa occult move away chrysopoeia . paracelsu pioneer use chemic miner medicin wrote mani said alchemi make gold silver . aim consid virtu power may lie medicin .	hermet view sick health bodi reli harmoni man microcosm natur macrocosm . took approach differ use analog manner soul-purif manner human must certain balanc miner bodi certain ill bodi chemic remedi could cure . paracelsian practic alchemi especi herbal medicin plant remedi sinc name spagyr synonym alchemi greek word mean separ join togeth base latin alchem maxim solv et coagula . iatrochemistri also refer pharmaceut applic alchemi champion paracelsu .	john dee juli decemb follow agrippa occult tradit . though better known angel summon divin role astrolog cryptograph consult queen elizabeth dee alchem mona hieroglyphica written popular influenti work . write portray alchemi sort terrestri astronomi line hermet axiom . 17th centuri short-liv supernatur interpret alchemi becam popular includ support fellow royal societi robert boyl elia ashmol . propon supernatur interpret alchemi believ philosoph stone might use summon commun angel .	entrepreneuri opportun uncommon alchemist renaiss europ . alchemist contract elit practic purpos relat mine medic servic product chemic medicin metal gemston . rudolf ii holi roman emperor late 16th centuri famous receiv sponsor variou alchemist court pragu includ dee associ edward kelley . king jame iv scotland juliu duke brunswick-lüneburg henri duke brunswick-lüneburg augustu elector saxoni juliu echter von mespelbrunn mauric landgrav hesse-kassel contract alchemist . john son arthur dee work court physician michael russia charl england also compil alchem book fasciculu chemicu .	though appoint legitim trend pseudo-alchem fraud continu renaiss . betrüger would use sleight hand claim secret knowledg make money secur patronag . legitim mystic medic alchemist michael maier heinrich khunrath wrote fraudul transmut distinguish con artist . fals alchemist sometim prosecut fraud .	term chemia alchemia use synonym earli modern period differ alchemi chemistri small-scal assay metallurgi neat present day . import overlap practition tri classifi alchemist chemist craftsmen anachronist . exampl tycho brahe alchemist better known astronom astrolog investig laboratori built uraniborg observatori research institut . michael sendivogiu micha  s dziwój polish alchemist philosoph medic doctor pioneer chemistri wrote mystic work also credit distil oxygen lab sometim around . sendivogi taught techniqu corneliu drebbel appli submarin . isaac newton devot consider write studi alchemi see isaac newton occult studi either optic physic . earli modern alchemist emin studi includ robert boyl jan baptist van helmont . hermetic complement rather preclud practic achiev medicin scienc .	declin european alchemi brought rise modern scienc emphasi rigor quantit experiment disdain ancient wisdom . although seed event plant earli 17th centuri alchemi still flourish two hundr year fact may reach apoge 18th centuri . late jame price claim produc powder could transmut mercuri silver gold . earli modern european alchemi continu exhibit divers theori practic purpos scholast anti-aristotelian paracelsian anti-paracelsian hermet neoplaton mechanist vitalist plu virtual everi combin compromis thereof .	robert boyl pioneer scientif method chemic investig . assum noth experi compil everi piec relev data . boyl would note place experi carri wind characterist posit sun moon baromet read case prove relev . approach eventu led found modern chemistri 18th 19th centuri base revolutionari discoveri lavoisi john dalton .	begin around rigid distinct drawn alchemi chemistri first time . alchemi restrict realm gold make lead popular belief alchemist charlatan tradit noth fraud .	occult reviv earli 19th centuri alchemi receiv new attent occult scienc . esoter occultist school aros 19th centuri held continu hold view substanc oper mention alchem literatur interpret spiritu sens downplay role alchemi practic tradit protosci . interpret forward view alchemi art primarili concern spiritu enlighten illumin oppos physic manipul apparatu chemic claim obscur languag alchem text allegor guis spiritu moral mystic process . atwood work influenc subsequ author occult reviv includ elipha levi arthur edward wait rudolf steiner . hitchcock remark upon alchymist attempt make case spiritu interpret claim alchemist wrote spiritu disciplin materialist guis order avoid accus blasphemi church state . baron carl reichenbach publish studi odic forc concept similar alchemi research enter mainstream scientif discuss .	sever women figur earliest histori alchemi . michael maier name mari jewess cleopatra alchemist medera taphnutia four women knew make philosoph stone . zosimo sister theosebia later known euthica arab isi prophetess also play role earli alchem text .	first alchemist recogn mari jewess . . . . mari known number improv alchemi equip tool well novel techniqu chemistri . double-boil often use chemistri process might requir gentl heat . tribiko basic still kerotaki intric distil apparatu two advanc process distil credit . great achiev mari jewess critic contribut consid identif hydrochlor acid frequent use chemic today . though write maria known fourth centuri write zosimo panopoli .	due prolifer pseudepigrapha anonym work difficult know alchemist actual women . greco-roman period women name appear less frequent alchem literatur . women vacat histori alchemi mediev renaiss period asid fictiti account perenel flamel . mari ann atwood suggest inquiri hermet mysteri mark return nineteenth centuri occult reviv .	histori alchemi becom signific recogn subject academ studi . languag alchemist analyz historian becom awar intellectu connect disciplin facet western cultur histori evolut scienc philosophi sociolog psycholog intellectu commun kabbal spiritu rosicrucian mystic movement . institut involv research includ chymistri isaac newton project indiana univers univers exet centr studi esoteric exeseso european societi studi western esoteric essw univers amsterdam sub-depart histori hermet philosophi relat current . larg collect book alchemi kept bibliotheca philosophica hermetica amsterdam . recip found mid 19th centuri kabbalah base book featur step step instruct turn copper gold . author attribut recip ancient manuscript locat .	journal publish regularli topic alchemi includ ambix publish societi histori alchemi chemistri isi publish histori scienc societi .	western alchem theori correspond worldview late antiqu born . concept import neoplaton earlier greek cosmolog . classic element appear alchem write seven classic planet correspond seven metal antiqu . similarli god roman pantheon associ luminari discuss alchem literatur . concept prima materia anima mundi central theori philosoph stone .	eye varieti esoter hermet practition alchemi fundament spiritu . transmut lead gold present analog person transmut purif perfect . write attribut herm trismegistu primari sourc alchem theori . name alchemi founder chief patron author inspir guid .	earli alchemist zosimo panopoli . ad highlight spiritu natur alchem quest symbol religi regener human soul . approach continu middl age metaphys aspect substanc physic state materi process use metaphor spiritu entiti spiritu state ultim transform . sens liter mean alchem formula blind hide true spiritu philosophi . practition patron melchior cibinensi pope innoc viii exist within rank church martin luther applaud alchemi consist christian teach . transmut common metal gold univers panacea symbol evolut imperfect diseas corrupt ephemer state toward perfect healthi incorrupt everlast state philosoph stone repres mystic key would make evolut possibl . appli alchemist twin goal symbol evolut ignor enlighten stone repres hidden spiritu truth power would lead goal . text written accord view cryptic alchem symbol diagram textual imageri late alchem work typic contain multipl layer mean allegori refer equal cryptic work must labori decod discov true mean .	alchem catech théodor henri de tschudi denot usag metal mere symbol	great work alchemi often describ seri four stage repres color .	nigredo blacken melanosi	albedo whiten leucosi	citrinita yellow xanthosi	rubedo redden purpl iosi	due complex obscur alchem literatur 18th centuri disappear remain alchem practition area chemistri gener understand alchemi strongli influenc sever distinct radic differ interpret . focus exoter historian scienc lawrenc . princip william . newman interpret decknamen code word alchemi physic substanc . scholar reconstruct physicochem experi say describ mediev earli modern text . opposit end spectrum focus esoter scholar georg calian anna mari roo question read princip newman interpret decknamen spiritu religi psycholog concept .	today new interpret alchemi still perpetu sometim merg concept new age radic environment movement . group like rosicrucian freemason continu interest alchemi symbol . sinc victorian reviv alchemi occultist reinterpret alchemi spiritu practic involv self-transform practition incident transform laboratori substanc .	spagyrist 20th centuri albert richard riedel jean dubui merg paracelsian alchemi occult teach laboratori pharmaceut method . school found le philosoph de la natur paracelsu research societi popular modern spagyr includ manufactur herbal tinctur product . cours book organ confer gener student continu influenc popular applic alchemi new age medicin practic .	alchem symbol import depth analyt psycholog reviv popular near extinct swiss psychologist carl gustav jung . initi confound odd alchemi imag given copi translat secret golden flower chines alchem text friend richard wilhelm jung discov direct correl parallel symbol imag alchem draw inner symbol imag come dream vision imagin psychic process transform occur patient . process call process individu . regard alchem imag symbol express aspect process individu creation gold lapi within symbol origin goal . pore . volum work wrote brought new light understand art transubstanti renew alchemi popular symbol process come whole human opposit brought contact inner outer spirit matter reunit hiero gamo divin marriag . write influenti psycholog person interest understand import dream symbol unconsci archetyp forc archetyp influenc life .	von franz jung contribut greatli subject work alchemi continu presenc psycholog well contemporari cultur . jung wrote volum alchemi magnum opu volum collect work mysterium conuinctioni .	alchemi long-stand relationship art seen alchem text mainstream entertain . literari alchemi appear throughout histori english literatur shakespear . . rowl . charact plot structur follow alchem magnum opu . 14th centuri chaucer began trend alchem satir still seen recent fantasi work like terri pratchett .	visual artist similar relationship alchemi . use alchemi sourc satir work alchemist integr alchem thought symbol work . music also present work alchemist continu influenc popular perform . last hundr year alchemist portray magic spagyr role fantasi fiction film televis novel comic video game .	alchemi art entertain	biolog transmut	chemistri	chines alchemi	cupel	herm trismegistu	historic	histori chemistri	list alchemist	list topic character pseudosci	magnum opu alchemi	mari jewess	nuclear transmut	outlin alchemi	philosoph stone	physic	porta alchemica	scientif method	supersed scientif theori	synthesi preciou metal	adam mclean onlin collect academ discuss .	alchemi	digit exhibit
alien primarili refer	extraterrestri life life origin earth	specif intellig extraterrestri . see list alleg extraterrestri .	alien law person countri nation countri	alien alien alien alien may also refer	introduc speci speci nativ environ	alien softwar linux program	alien alic environ grid framework	alien technolog manufactur rfid technolog	alien newslett iucn invas speci specialist group	alien franchis media franchis	alien film film ridley scott	alien film sequel jame cameron	alien third film seri david fincher	alien unreleas film incomplet indian-american film	alien film mexican film	alien tappan wright novel novel mari tappan wright	alien animorph eighth book animorph seri	alien novel extens alien franchis	alien band swedish rock group	alien australian band new wave group	alien scottish band present rock group	alien strap young lad album	alien tankard album	alien britney spear song	alien pennywis song	alien third day song	alien coldplay song	alien soundtrack	alien soundtrack	alien song simpl plan album pad helmet ... ball	alien song bush album sixteen stone	alien song erasur album loveboat	alien song japan album quiet life	alien song lamb album fear four	alien song nerina pallot album dear frustrat superstar	alien song p-model album landsal	alien song thrive ivori self-titl album	alien song tokio hotel album humanoid . also fan band call alien	alien song warlord	alien tv seri british sci-fi televis seri	alien video game base film	alien video game base sequel film	alien kaypro video game text-onli clone space invad written cp oper system	alien dark hors comic line	alien creatur alien franchis	alien ship compani russian compani	alien literari concept	alien sun born singaporean actress	alien perfum thierri mugler	astrobiolog	list alien predat game	alian islam order	atlien album outkast
astronom scientist field astronomi concentr studi specif question field outsid scope earth . look star planet moon comet galaxi well mani celesti object either observ astronomi analyz data theoret astronomi . exampl topic field astronom work includ planetari scienc solar astronomi origin evolut star format galaxi . also relat distinct subject like physic cosmolog studi univers whole .	astronom usual fit two type observ theoret . observ astronom make direct observ planet star galaxi analyz data . contrast theoret astronom creat investig model thing cannot observ . take million billion year system star galaxi complet life cycl astronom observ snapshot differ system uniqu point evolut determin form evolv die . use data creat model simul theoriz differ celesti bodi work .	subcategori insid two main branch astronomi planetari astronomi galact astronomi physic cosmolog .	histor astronomi concern classif descript phenomena sky astrophys attempt explain phenomena differ use physic law . today distinct mostli disappear term astronom astrophysicist interchang . profession astronom highli educ individu typic ph . . physic astronomi employ research institut univers . spend major time work research although quit often duti teach build instrument aid oper observatori .	number profession astronom unit state actual quit small . american astronom societi major organ profession astronom north america approxim member . number includ scientist field physic geolog engin whose research interest close relat astronomi . intern astronom union compris almost member differ countri involv astronom research ph . . level beyond .	contrari classic imag old astronom peer telescop dark hour night far common use charge-coupl devic ccd camera record long deep exposur allow sensit imag creat light ad time . ccd photograph plate common method observ . modern astronom spend rel littl time telescop usual week per year . analysi observ phenomena along make predict caus observ take major observ astronom time .	astronom serv faculti spend much time teach undergradu graduat class . univers also outreach program includ public telescop time sometim planetarium public servic encourag interest field .	becom astronom usual broad background math scienc comput high school . take cours teach research write present paper also invalu . colleg univers astronom get ph . . astronomi physic . keep mind astronom understood graduat school field competit grade import . student must take graduat record exam unit state wish accept us graduat school .	rel low number profession astronom field popular among amateur . citi amateur astronomi club meet regular basi often host star parti . astronom societi pacif largest gener astronom societi world compris profession amateur astronom well educ differ nation . like hobbi peopl think amateur astronom may devot hour month stargaz read latest develop research . howev amateur span rang so-cal armchair astronom ambiti science-grad telescop instrument abl make discoveri assist profession astronom research .	list astronom	list women astronom	list muslim astronom	list russian astronom astrophysicist
