The Gall-Peters projection of the world map
ENTRY
Pathways
Of the pathways of entry listed below, choose those that are considered to be possible for the assessed pest to enter into the PRA area. Up to five pathways may be assessed
for one pest. All commodities that are similar with respect to the questions in
the entry section can be assessed together as one pathway. When the answers to
the questions significantly differ between commodities they should be assessed
as separate pathways.
|
PATHWAY TYPES |
PATHWAYS |
|
Host
plant commodities |
Seeds
(i.e. true seeds) |
|
|
Plants
for planting: |
|
|
Wood
and wood products: |
|
|
Food
and fodder: |
|
|
Other
living plant parts: |
|
Hitchhiking |
Hitchhiking: |
|
Natural spread |
Natural spread |
|
Intentional introduction |
Intentional introduction: |
ENT1. How wide is the current global geographical distribution of the pest?
The answer should be determined by
comparing the extent of the pest´s present global distribution to the size of
the red circle in the lower left-hand corner of the map.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS
MEAN:
a.
Small
-
The distribution is considered small when it is smaller than one red
circle on the map.
b.
Medium
-
The distribution is considered medium when it is larger than one but
smaller than ten circles on the map.
c.
Large
-
The distribution is considered large when it is larger than ten circles
in the lower left-hand corner on the map.
The Gall-Peters projection of the world map
ENT2A. Not taking into account current official management measures, can the pest be transported via the considered pathway?
a. No it cannot
b. It can, but it is very unlikely
c. It can, but it is unlikely
d. It can, and it is likely
e. It can, and it is very likely
-
The answer options should be used so that they correspond to the same
actual probabilities for all the pathways.
-
If the pest´s establishment and spread is dependent on its vector
species, which is/are not present in the PRA area, the answer should reflect
the likelihood with which the vector and the pest could be transported
together.
TAKE INTO
ACCOUNT
-
Factors affecting the pest´s likelihood of being associated with the
pathway at the points of origin, e.g.
-
the abundance of the pest in its current range
-
the history of the spread of the pest as a result of
human action
-
plant protection measures carried out in the country of origin
-
the detectability of the pest
-
Factors affecting the pest´s likelihood of surviving transport via the
pathway, e.g.
-
treatments related to export and transport
-
the pest´s potential to survive without a living host plant
-
the pest´s potential to withstand temperature variations, dryness and
lack of energy
-
Information about interceptions in traded commodities, e.g., data from Europhyt interceptions / Traces NT in the EU
DO NOT TAKE INTO
ACCOUNT
-
Whether the considered commodity is traded to the PRA area
-
Whether the pest can transfer to a suitable habitat after entering the
PRA area
-
Whether the pest is able to establish in the
PRA area
-
The current geographical distribution of the pest (except for natural
spread)
-
Measures required in legislation on plant health, plant reproductive
material or plant protection products
EXAMPLES OF WHAT THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS
MEAN
-
The pest cannot survive the transport.
-
The treatments of the commodity prevent the movement of the pest along
the pathway.
-
The considered commodity is not traded internationally.
-
The pest´s current distribution is so far from the PRA area that its
natural spread to the PRA area is not possible.
-
The pest's biological characteristics, prior spreading history or
treatments of the commodity make its transportation very unlikely.
-
No interceptions are notified in Europhyt,
although the commodity is regularly imported into EU and it is under official
surveillance.
-
The pest is present in Europe, but not in the neighboring
countries, and its range has recently expanded naturally (natural spread).
-
The pest is used for biological control, but not in crops that are
cultivated in the PRA area, and not to control pests present in the PRA area
(intentional introduction).
-
The pest's biological characteristics, prior spreading history or
treatments of the commodity make its transportation unlikely.
-
There are a few interceptions notified in Europhyt,
but none in the recent years, although the commodity is regularly imported into
the EU and it is under official surveillance.
-
The pest is present in the neighboring
countries, but its range has remained relatively unchanged for a long time
(natural spread).
-
The pest is used for biological control in crops that are cultivated in
the PRA area, but not to control pests that are present in the PRA area
(intentional introduction).
-
The pest's biological characteristics or prior spreading history make
its transportation likely.
-
There are several, but not annual, interceptions notified in Europhyt.
-
The pest´s current range is close to the PRA area, and its range has
recently expanded naturally (natural spread).
-
The pest is used for biological control of pests which are present in
the PRA area (intentional introduction).
-
The pest is a popular terrarium animal, but it is not currently sold in
the PRA area (intentional introduction).
-
The pest's biological characteristics or prior spreading history make
its transportation very likely.
-
There are annual interceptions notified in Europhyt.
-
The pest has expanded naturally from its original range,
and has already arrived in the vicinity of the PRA area, from where its
further natural spread to the PRA area is very likely (natural spread).
-
The pest is known to be used for biological control in the PRA area
(intentional introduction).
-
The pest is a popular terrarium animal which is sold in PRA area
(intentional introduction).
ENT2B. Taking into account current official management measures, can the pest be transported via the considered pathway?
-
In addition to the factors considered in ENT2A the measures required in
the legislation on plant health, plant reproductive material and plant
protection products should be taken into account. The
current distribution of the pest should then be taken into
account.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS
MEAN
a. No it cannot
b. It can, but it is very unlikely
-
Strict requirements of the plant health legislation such as import bans
make the pest´s transportation (nearly) impossible.
-
The import of the pest or its use for biological pest control is
forbidden (intentional introduction).
c. It can, but it is unlikely
-
The transportation of the pest via the pathway would be likely, but the
requirements of the legislation on plant health or plant reproductive material
prevent the pest´s transportation rather effectively
d. It can, and it is likely
-
The transportation of the pest via the pathway would be very likely, but
the requirements of the legislation on plant health or plant propagation
material prevent the pest´s transportation rather effectively.
e. It can, and it is very likely
-
The transportation of the pest via the pathway would be very likely, and
there are no effective measures in the legislation on plant health or plant
propagation material to prevent it.
ENT3. How large a volume of the considered host plant commodity is
traded into the PRA area annually?
-
When the pathway is hitchhiking, natural spread or intentional
introduction the answer should be set to 'Non-existent'.
-
When considering true seeds assess the amount in pieces.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
-
The annual traded volume is less than 1 million kg or pc.
-
The annual traded volume is 1-10 million kg or pc.
-
The annual traded volume is more than 10 million kg or pc.
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
-
The total volume traded into the PRA area, regardless of the place of
origin.
ENT4. Can the pest
transfer to a suitable habitat after entering the PRA area via the pathway?
a. It cannot
b. It can, but it is very unlikely
c. It can, but it is unlikely
d. It can, and it is likely
e. It can, and it is very likely
-
Suitable habitats are locations where the pest can establish a permanent
population in production sites, natural environments or, in some cases garden centers.
-
If the pest´s spread is dependent on its vector species, which is/are
not present in the PRA area, the answer should reflect the likelihood with
which the vector and the pest would be able to transfer to a suitable habitat
together.
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
-
Factors related to the pathway, e.g.
-
the season when the commodity is traded to the PRA area
-
the storage conditions of the commodity in the PRA area
-
the final destination of the commodity
-
the intended use of the commodity
-
Factors related to pest characteristics and environmental conditions in
the PRA area, e.g.
-
the pest's natural potential to spread
-
the pest's ability to actively locate suitable habitats over long
distances
-
the distribution of suitable habitats
DO NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
-
Whether the pest could be transported via the pathway
-
Whether the pest would be able to establish in the PRA area
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
-
The pest´s host plants are used only as houseplants.
-
The pest enters the area in a commodity that is immediately processed in
a way that prevents the pest from spreading.
-
The pest enters the area with foodstuffs imported only during winter.
-
The pest enters the area with fresh fruits or vegetables, and its rate
of spread is very slow or its host plants grow very
sparsely.
-
The pest enters the area with Christmas trees
and it cannot survive for a long time in dead wood material.
-
The pest spreads to the PRA area naturally, but its host plants are not
cultivated in the PRA area, except in small amounts in greenhouses.
-
The pest is imported into the PRA area intentionally, and its host
plants are present, but only very sparsely and the pest´s rate of spread is
slow.
-
The pest enters the area with houseplants, from where it can spread to
host plants growing outdoors.
-
The pest enters the area with fresh fruit or vegetables, its rate of
spread is high and its host plants are widespread.
-
The pest's host plants are sparsely cultivated field crops or rare
native plants and the pest is not
able to actively locate suitable habitats.
-
The pest spreads to the PRA area naturally, its host plants are commonly
cultivated in the PRA area, but only in greenhouses.
-
The pest is imported to the PRA area intentionally, and its host plants
are widespread in the PRA area, but its rate of spread is slow.
-
The pest enters the area with wood packaging material, its host plants
are widespread in the PRA area and its rate of spread
is high.
-
The pest enters the area with cut flowers imported into stores some of
which may be located in places of production, and the
pest can spread from there to greenhouse crops.
-
The pest's host plants are field crops that are commonly cultivated in
the PRA area, and the pest enters the country with agricultural machinery.
-
The pest's host plants are sparsely cultivated field crops or rather
rare native plants, but the pest is able to actively
seek suitable habitats.
-
The pest is imported intentionally, its host plants are widespread, and
its rate of spread is high.
-
The pest arrives directly to places of production with plant
reproductive material.
-
The pest enters the area with wood packaging material, its host plants
are very widespread and its rate of spread is very
high.
-
The pest's host plants are widespread field crops or naturally occurring
plants.
-
The pest is used for biological control in the PRA area (intentional
introduction).
ESTABLISHMENT AND
SPREAD
EST1. Could the pest reproduce and overwinter in the PRA area taking into account the climate and production conditions?
-
Both outdoors and greenhouse conditions should be taken
into account.
-
The possibilities for reproduction and overwintering in fields, forests
and natural environments should be primarily assessed based on the suitability
of the climate.
-
The possibilities for reproduction and overwintering in greenhouses
should be assessed based on the production conditions, e.g. the seasonality of
production, the pest´s ability to survive without living host plants and the
suitability of abiotic factors.
-
If the pest´s establishment and spread is dependent on its vector
species, which is/are not present in the PRA area, the answer should be based
on the organism (i.e. the pest or the vector) for which the conditions are less
suitable.
-
If no other specific information is available, the assessment should be
based on climate comparisons between the PRA area and the area where the pest
occurs. This can for example be done using the climate matching algorithm from
the CLIMEX software (Kriticos et al., 2015). Specific guidance is provided on
how the Composite match index (CMI) can be used for this purpose using the
analysis performed for Sweden (see figure). Comparing Köppen-Geiger
climate classifications is another approach that can be used.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
-
The pest's host plants are not produced year-round in greenhouses, and
the pest cannot survive without a living host plant.
-
Species with a current geographical distribution range limited to areas
with a CMI <0.7
(beige; see figure).
-
The pest's host plants are not produced year-round in greenhouses, but
the pest may survive without host plants, e.g. in soil that is present in some
greenhouses all year round.
-
Species with a current geographical distribution range that covers areas
with a CMI of
≥0.7 (see figure) but other factors indicate that the pest is unlikely to reproduce and overwinter,
e.g. required developmental day degrees.
-
The pest´s host plants are produced in greenhouses year-round, but to
complete its life cycle, the pest requires factors that are not necessarily
always present in greenhouses, such as soil for pupation.
-
Species with a current geographical distribution range that covers areas
with a CMI of
≥0.7 (see figure) and other factors indicate that it is likely that the pest will reproduce and
overwinter, e.g. required developmental day degrees.
-
The pest´s host plants are produced in greenhouses year-round
and the pest is able to complete its lifecycle on its
host plants, or the pest can survive over long periods without host plants.
-
Species with a current geographical distribution range that covers areas
with a CMI in the upper
range (red; see figure) and the pest is known
to reproduce and overwinter in conditions similar to
those in the PRA area.
Composite match index (CMI) calculated
based on the whole of Sweden using default values for the present climate using
CLIMEX (Sutherst and Maywald 1985; Sutherst et al. 2007).
Map kindly provided by Juha Tuomola.
EST2. In how large an area do the pest's host
plants grow or are cultivated in the PRA area?
-
All host plants that are considered threatened in EST1 should be taken into account.
-
Only host plants supporting reproduction and establishment should be taken into account, e.g., areas where plants are present
together if more than one host plant species is required, only host plants in
regions where climate is suitable.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
-
Host plants do not occur naturally or are not cultivated.
-
The production area of the threatened host plants is less than 100 ha.
-
The pest threatens only one or a few ornamental plant species that are
cultivated in greenhouses.
-
The pest threatens only one wild plant that is very rare or occurs very
locally.
-
The production area of the threatened host plants is 100-1 000 ha.
-
The pest threatens almost all greenhouse crops.
-
The production area of the threatened host plants is 1 000-10 000 ha.
-
The pest threatens wild plants that are common, but do not occur
throughout the PRA area.
-
The production area of the threatened host plants is more than 10 000
ha.
-
The pest threatens wild plants that are common, and
occur almost throughout the whole PRA area.
EST3. How quickly would the pest likely spread in the PRA area?
-
If the pest´s establishment and spread is dependent on its vector
species, which is/are not present in the PRA area, the answer should be based
on the organism (i.e. the pest or the vector) for which the rate of spread is
slower.
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
-
The rate of natural spread and spread by human assistance
-
The spatial distribution of host plants (i.e. the spatial arrangement of
host plant patches, the size of the patches and the distances between them)
-
The likelihood of (and the time needed for) transfer from one host
species to another (e.g. from greenhouse ornamentals to potato fields)
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. Very slowly
- The pest lives only in soil and does not
spread by human assistance or with wind or water.
- The pest can disperse less than 10 m
annually.
- The pest's host plants are produced in
greenhouses, the places of production are located very far from each other, and
the pest does not spread by human assistance.
b. Rather slowly
- The pest is likely to spread via tools
within one farm from one field or greenhouse to another.
- The pest can disperse 10-1 000 m annually.
- The pest is likely to spread 'rather
quickly' on one of its host plant species, but a shift to another host species
(e.g. from greenhouse to field crops) is likely to happen 'rather slowly'.
c. Rather quickly
- The pest is likely to spread from one
farm to another via large agricultural machinery.
- The pest can disperse 1-10 km annually.
- The pest is likely to spread 'quickly'
on one of its host plants, but a shift to another host species (e.g. from
greenhouse to field crops) is likely to happen only 'rather quickly'.
d. Quickly
- The pest is likely to spread with plant
reproductive material from one farm to another.
- The pest can disperse more than 10 km
annually, e.g. by active flight or wind, and its host plants´ occurrence does
not limit its rate of spread.
EST4. Does the pest have characteristics that could assist in its
establishment or spread in new areas?
The answer
is determined by the number and importance of the following pest
characteristics.
- The pest can reproduce asexually.
- The pest has a high reproductive rate or
output.
- The pest can survive without host plants
for rather long periods.
- The pest is able to
actively locate host plants or mates from a long distance.
- The pest has several host plants from
different plant families.
- The pest has been observed to rapidly
acclimate or adapt to new conditions, e.g. it has developed new races or
resistance to pesticides or adapted to new host plants or climatic conditions.
- The pest has other characteristics that
could assist in its establishment or spread in new areas.
Characteristics that may assist to some
extent are given 1 point, whereas those likely to provide significant
assistance are given 2 points.
No it does not: 0-1 points
It has characteristics that could assist to some extent: 2-3 points
It has characteristics that could assist to a great extent: 4-5 points
It has characteristics that could assist to a very great extent: ≥ 6
points
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. No it does not
- The pest has none or one of the
above-mentioned characteristics.
b. It has characteristics that could assist to some extent
- The pest has two of the above-mentioned
characteristics.
- The pest has one of the above-mentioned characteristics
that is likely to be of significant assistance.
- The pest has three of the
above-mentioned characteristics, one or more of which are not likely to be of
significant assistance.
c. It has characteristics that could assist to a great extent
- The pest has three of the
above-mentioned characteristics.
- The pest has two of the above-mentioned
characteristics, at least one of which is likely to be of significant
assistance.
- The pest has four of the above-mentioned
characteristics, one or more of which are not likely to be of significant
assistance.
d. It has characteristics that could assist to a very great extent
- The pest has four or more of the
above-mentioned characteristics.
- The pest has two or three of the
above-mentioned characteristics, at least one of which is likely to be of
significant assistance.
IMPACT
IMP1. How significant are the direct economic losses that the pest would
cause in the PRA area?
a.
It would not cause losses in the PRA area
b. < 0.05 million € per year
c.
0.05-0.1 million € per year
d. 0.1-0.2 million € per year
e.
0.2-0.4 million € per year
f.
0.4-0.8 million € per year
g. 0.8-1.5 million € per year
h. 1.5-3 million € per year
i.
3-6 million € per year
j.
6-12 million € per year
k.
12-25 million € per year
l.
25-50 million € per year
m. > 50 million € per year
- The assessment should be done assuming
that the pest would be present in the entire area considered threatened in EST1
and EST2.
- Crop and quality losses should be
estimated as the product of the total value of the threatened crops (in the
threatened area) and the expected losses measured as a percentage.
- Pest control costs should be estimated
as the product of the costs per area (€/ha) and the total production area (ha)
of the threatened crops (in the threatened area).
- If the pest´s establishment and spread
is dependent on its vector species the vector´s effect on the pest´s potential
to cause economic losses should be taken into account.
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
- All crop plants and forestry trees,
ornamental plants and all the wild plants which can be utilized (e.g. wild
berries), which the pest could damage
- Crop losses, quality losses, and the
increase in pest control costs
- The effect of climate and other
production conditions on the pest´s potential to cause losses
DO NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
- Social or environmental impacts of any
kind
- Costs incurred in the current situation
by the control of other pests
- Costs incurred by eradication measures
required by the plant health legislation
- Any losses caused by the vector species
on its own
IMP2. Would the pest cause the following indirect economic impacts in
the PRA area?
IMP2.1. Would the pest impact foreign trade?
IMP2.2. Is the pest a vector for other pests?
IMP2.3. Would the pest have a significant impact on the profitability of a
plant production sector?
- All the questions are answered either
yes or no.
- Only the host plants considered
threatened in EST1 and EST2 should be taken into account.
- If the pest´s establishment and spread
is dependent on its vector species the vector´s effect on the pest´s potential
to cause indirect economic impacts (IMP2.1 and IMP2.3) should be taken into account.
- In IMP2.3 the pest´s impact should be considered to be
significant if
- there are no effective measures
available to control the pest in the PRA area and without the control the pest
would cause substantial crop or quality losses.
- the control of the pest would require
implementation of measures that are not currently used in the PRA area in the
considered sector of plant production.
insignificant if
the measures that are normally used to
control other pests in the considered sector of plant production would
effectively control the pest.
DO NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
- Impacts caused by the vector species on
its own.
- The size of the plant sector in relation
to other plant sectors in the PRA area.
IMP3. How much direct impact would the pest have on the natural
ecosystems in the PRA area?
- All host plants that occur naturally in
the PRA area should be taken into account.
- The impacts caused by vector species on
their own should not be taken into account.
- If the pest´s establishment and spread
is dependent on its vector species, the vector´s effect on the pest´s potential
to cause impacts on natural ecosystems should be taken into
account.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. No impact
- The pest's host plants do not occur
naturally in the PRA area.
- Some wild species are host plants, but
no damage has been observed in natural environments in the
area of the pest´s current distribution.
- The pest could damage some parts of wild
plants, such as berries, but the damage would not kill the plants, and the
damage would not hinder the functioning of the ecosystems.
b. Moderate impact
- The pest could kill individual wild
plants in the PRA area, but the damage would not be likely to lead to a
decrease in the host populations or hinder the functioning of the ecosystems.
c. Significant impact
The damages to wild plants in the PRA area
could cause a decrease in the plant populations, or
hinder the functioning of the ecosystems.
d. Very significant impact
- The damage to wild plants in the PRA
area could cause the extinction or significant decrease of the host species, or cause significant damages to the ecosystems.
IMP4. Would the pest have the following environmental or social impacts
in the PRA area?
IMP4.1. Social impacts
IMP4.2. Significant aesthetic impacts
IMP4.3. An impact on plants which have an
important, recognized position in the culture
-All the questions are answered either yes
or no.
-Only hosts considered threatened in EST1
and EST2 should be taken into account.
-Social impacts can be e.g. impacts on the
amount or quality of food, construction materials and other goods gathered from
nature, excluding aesthetic and cultural impact.
-Aesthetic impacts are caused by pests
that have a significant negative effect on the visual perception of gardens,
urban areas or landscapes (e.g., the impact of Dutch elm disease or the horse
chestnut leaf miner).
-Cultural impact is an impact on plants,
which have an important, recognized position in the culture, for example plant
species included in traditional food (e.g., potato), folktales and poetry
(e.g., ash in Nordic mythology) or plants with other symbolic values (e.g.,
'provincial flowers').
-If the pest´s establishment and spread is
dependent on its vector species, the vector´s effect on the pest´s potential to
cause impacts should be taken into account.
MANAGEMENT
Preventability
MAN1. Can the pest spread naturally to the
PRA area from its current range during the next ten years?
a. No, it cannot
b. It can, but it is unlikely or very unlikely
c. It can, but it is very unlikely
d. It can, and it is likely or very likely
e. It can, and it is very likely
- For instructions see ENT2 (natural
spread).
MAN2. Is the pest present in the area of the European Union?
- Pests under eradication are not
considered as present in the EU.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS
MEAN
a. No it is not
b. Yes, in a small area
- The pest's distribution in the EU is
either local or fragmented.
- The pest is present only in one to three
member states
c. Yes, in a large area
- The pest is present in four or more
member states.
MAN3. How difficult is it to detect the pest during inspections?
- Both the inspections in the country of
origin and import inspections should be taken into account.
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. Easy
- The pest always causes easily detectable
symptoms in plants.
- The pest is large and easily visually
detectable.
b. Difficult
- The pest may be present on plants for a
short time without causing symptoms.
- The pest causes symptoms that are
visually difficult to tell apart from symptoms caused by other pests.
c. Nearly impossible
- The pest may be present on plants for a
long time without causing any symptoms.
- The pest lives inside the plant during
some stages of its lifecycle so that detecting it is impossible without
destroying the plant.
Controllability
MAN4. How difficult would it be to eradicate the pest from the PRA area?
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. Easy
- The pest cannot survive outside its host
plants, and eradication of the host plants would be easy.
- The pest´s host plants are only
cultivated in greenhouses and the pest can be
eradicated with a short, e.g. a few months, break in cultivation.
b. Rather difficult
- The needed eradication methods are
expensive or difficult to implement, e.g. the destruction of a large area of
field crops or implementation of a long, e.g. over one year, break in
cultivation.
c. Very difficult
- The pest´s host plants are cultivated on
open land and the needed eradication methods are very expensive or nearly
impossible to implement, e.g. the destruction of a large area of woody plants.
d. Impossible
- The pest is able to
survive in the soil for years without a host plant.
- The pest can spread into natural
environments.
- The pest has several potential host
plants growing on open land.
MAN5. How difficult would it be to survey the pest's occurrence in the
PRA area?
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
- The pest´s natural potential to spread
- The abundance and the distribution of
host plants
- The detectability of the pest
- The availability and efficacy of survey
methods
EXAMPLES OF WHAT
THE DIFFERENT OPTIONS MEAN
a. Easy
- The pest is easy to detect, and its host
plants grow or are cultivated so sparsely, that they can be comprehensively
surveyed.
- The pest is very unlikely to spread and
effective survey methods are available.
b. Rather difficult
- The pest is easy to detect, but its host
plants grow or are cultivated so commonly that their comprehensive surveying
would be difficult.
- The pest is difficult to detect and no effective survey methods are available, but
host plants grow or are cultivated so sparsely that they can be rather
comprehensively surveyed.
c. Very difficult
- The pest spreads rather quickly, is
difficult to detect, and no effective survey methods are available.
d. Impossible
- The pest spreads very quickly and its host
plants are widely present, e.g. common forest trees.
References
Heikkilä, J.,
Tuomola, J., Pouta, E., & Hannunen, S. (2016). FinnPRIO: a model for ranking invasive plant pests
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