It occurred to me one day that Sparta , though among the most thinly
						populated of states, was evidently the most powerful and most celebrated
						city in Greece ; and I fell to
						wondering how this could have happened. But when I considered the
						institutions of the Spartans, I wondered no longer.

Lycurgus, who gave them the laws that they
						obey, and to which they owe their prosperity, I do regard with wonder; and I
						think that he reached the utmost limit of wisdom. For it was not by
						imitating other states, but by devising a system utterly different from that
						of most others, that he made his country pre-eminently prosperous.

First, to begin at the beginning, I will take
						the begetting of children. In other states the
						girls who are destined to become mothers and are brought up in the approved
						fashion, live on the very plainest fare, with a most meagre allowance of
						delicacies. Wine is either witheld altogether, or, if allowed them, is
						diluted with water. The rest of the Greeks expect their girls to imitate the
						sedentary life that is typical of handicraftsmen — to keep quiet and do
						wool-work. How, then, is it to be expected that women so brought up will
						bear fine children?

But Lycurgus thought the labour of slave women
						sufficient to supply clothing. He believed motherhood to be the most
						important function of freeborn woman. Therefore, in the first place, he
						insisted on physical training for the female no less than for the male sex:
						moreover, he instituted races and trials of strength for women competitors
						as for men, believing that if both parents are strong they produce more
						vigorous offspring.

He noticed, too, that, during the time
						immediately succeeding marriage, it was usual elsewhere for the husband to
						have unlimited intercourse with his wife. The rule that he adopted was the
						opposite of this: for he laid it down that the husband should be ashamed to
						be seen entering his wife’s room or leaving it. With this restriction on
						intercourse the desire of the one for the other must necessarily be
						increased, and their offspring was bound to be more vigorous than if they
						were surfeited with one another.

In addition to this, he withdrew from men the right to take a wife whenever
						they chose, and insisted on their marrying in the prime of their manhood,
						believing that this too promoted the production of fine children.

It might happen, however, that an old man had a young wife; and he observed
						that old men keep a very jealous watch over their young wives. To meet these
						cases he instituted an entirely different system by requiring the elderly
						husband to introduce into his house some man whose physical and moral
						qualities he admired, in order to beget children.

On the other hand, in case a man did not want to cohabit with his wife and
						nevertheless desired children of whom he could be proud, he made it lawful
						for him to choose a woman who was the mother of a fine family and of high
						birth, and if he obtained her husband’s consent, to make her the mother of
						his children.

He gave his sanction to many similar
						arrangements. For the wives want to
						take charge of two households, and the husbands want to get brothers for
						their sons, brothers who are members of the family and share in its
						influence, but claim no part of the money.

Thus his regulations with regard to the
						begetting of children were in sharp contrast with those of other states.
						Whether he succeeded in populating Sparta with a race of men remarkable for their size and
						strength anyone who chooses may judge for himself.

Having dealth with the subject of birth, I
						wish next to explain the educational system of Lycurgus, and how it differs
						from other systems. 
					 In the other Greek states parents who profess
						to give their sons the best education place their boys under the care and
						control of a moral tutor as soon as they
						can understand what is said to them, and send them to a school to learn
						letters, music and the exercises of the wrestling-ground. Moreover, they
						soften the children’s feet by giving them sandals, and pamper their bodies
						with changes of clothing; and it is customary to allow them as much food as
						they can eat.

Lycurgus, on the contrary, instead of leaving
						each father to appoint a slave to act as tutor, gave the duty of controlling
						the boys to a member of the class from which the highest offices are filled,
						in fact to the Warden as he is called. He gave this person authority to
						gather the boys together, to take charge of them and to punish them severely
						in case of misconduct. He also assigned to him a staff of youths provided
						with whips to chastise them when necessary; and the result is that modesty
						and obedience are inseparable companions at Sparta .

Instead of softening the boys’ feet with sandals he required them to harden
						their feet by going without shoes. He believed that if this habit were
						cultivated it would enable them to climb hills more easily and descend steep
						inclines with less danger, and that a youth who had accustomed himself to go
						barefoot would leap and jump and run more nimbly than a boy in sandals.

And instead of letting them be pampered in the matter of clothing, he
						introduced the custom of wearing one garment throughout the year, believing
						that they would thus be better prepared to face changes of heat and cold.

As to the food, he required the prefect to bring with him such
						a moderate amount of it that the boys would never suffer from repletion, and
						would know what it was to go with their hunger unsatisfied; for he believed
						that those who underwent this training would be better able to continue
						working on an empty stomach, if necessary, and would be capable of carrying
						on longer without extra food, if the word of command were given to do so:
						they would want fewer delicacies and would accommodate themselves more
						readily to anything put before them, and at the same time would enjoy better
						health.

He also thought that a diet which made their bodies slim would do more to
						increase their height than one that consisted of flesh-forming food. 
					 On the other hand, lest they should feel too
						much the pinch of hunger, while not giving them the
						opportunity of taking what they wanted without trouble he allowed them to
						alleviate their hunger by stealing something.

It was not on account of a difficulty in providing for them that he
						encouraged them to get their food by their own cunning. No one, I suppose,
						can fail to see that. Obviously a man who intends to take to thieving must
						spend sleepless nights and play the deceiver and lie in ambush by day, and
						moreover, if he means to make a capture, he must have spies ready. There can
						be no doubt then, that all this education was planned by him in order to
						make the boys more resourceful in getting supplies, and better fighting
						men. 
					 Someone may ask:

But why, if he believed stealing to be a fine thing, did he have the boy who
						was caught beaten with many stripes? I reply: Because in all cases men
						punish a learner for not carrying out properly whatever he is taught to do.
						So the Spartans chastise those who get caught for stealing badly.

He made it a point of honour to steal as many cheeses as possible from the
						altar of Artemis Orthia , but appointed others to scourge the
						thieves, meaning to show thereby that by enduring pain for a short time one
						may win lasting fame and felicity. It is shown herein that where there is
						need of swiftness, the slothful, as usual, gets little profit and many
						troubles.

In order that the boys might never lack a
						ruler even when the Warden was away, he gave authority to any citizen who
						chanced to be present to require them to do anything that he thought right,
						and to punish them for any misconduct. This had the effect of making the
						boys more respectful; in fact boys and men alike respect their rulers above
						everything.

And that a ruler might not be lacking to the boys even when no grown man
						happened to be present, he selected the keenest of the prefects, and gave to
						each the command of a division. And so at Sparta the boys are never without a ruler.

I think I ought to say something also about
						intimacy with boys, since this matter also has a bearing on education. In
						other Greek states, for instance among the Boeotians, man and boy live
						together, like married people; elsewhere, among the
						Eleians, for example, consent is won by means of favours. Some, on the other
						hand, entirely forbid suitors to talk with boys.

The customs instituted by Lycurgus were
						opposed to all of these. If someone, being himself an honest man, admired a
						boy’s soul and tried to make of him an ideal friend without reproach and to
						associate with him, he approved, and believed in the excellence of this kind
						of training. But if it was clear that the attraction lay in the boy’s
						outward beauty, he banned the connexion as an abomination; and thus he
						caused lovers to abstain from boys no less than parents abstain from sexual
						intercourse with their children and brothers and sisters with each other.

I am not surprised, however, that people
						refuse to believe this. For in many states the laws are not opposed to the
						indulgence of these appetites. 
					 I have now dealt with the Spartan system of
						education, and that of the other Greek states. Which system turns out men
						more obedient, more respectful, and more strictly temperate, anyone who
						chooses may once more judge for himself.

When a boy ceases to be a child, and begins to
						be a lad, others release him from his moral tutor and his schoolmaster: he
						is then no longer under a ruler and is allowed to go his own way. Here again
						Lycurgus introduced a wholly different system.

For he observed that at this time of life self-will makes strong root in a
						boy’s mind, a tendency to insolence manifests itself, and a keen appetite
						for pleasure in different forms takes possession of him. At this stage,
						therefore, he imposed on him a ceaseless round of work, and contrived a
						constant round of occupation.

The penalty for shirking the duties was exclusion from all future honours. He
						thus caused not only the public authorities, but their relations also to
						take pains that the lads did not incur the contempt of their fellow citizens
						by flinching from their tasks.

Moreover, wishing modesty to be firmly rooted
						in them, he required them to keep their hands under their cloaks, to walk in
						silence, not to look about them, but to fix their eyes on the ground. The
						effect of this rule has been to prove that even in the matter of decorum the
						male is stronger than the female sex.

At any rate you would expect a stone image to utter a sound sooner than those
						lads; you would sooner attract the attention of a bronze figure; you might
						think them more modest even than a young bride in the bridal chamber. When they have taken their place at
						a public meal, you must be content if you can get an answer to a
						question. 
					 Such was the care that he bestowed on the
						growing lads.

For those who had reached the prime of life he
						showed by far the deepest solicitude. For he believed that if these were of
						the right stamp they must exercise a powerful influence for good on the
						state.

He saw that where the spirit of rivalry is strongest among the
						people, there the choruses are most worth hearing and the athletic contests
						afford the finest spectacle. He believed, therefore, that if he could match
						the young men together in a strife of valour, they too would reach a high
						level of manly excellence. I will proceed to
						explain, therefore, how he instituted matches between the young men.

The Ephors, then, pick out three of the very
						best among them. These three are called Commanders of the Guard. Each of
						them enrols a hundred others, stating his reasons for preferring one and
						rejecting another.

The result is that those who fail to win the honour are at war both with
						those who sent them away and with their successful rivals; and they are on
						the watch for any lapse from the code of honour.

Here then you find that kind of strife that is
						dearest to the gods, and in the highest sense political — the strife that
						sets the standard of a brave man’s conduct; and in which either party exerts
						itself to the end that it may never fall below its best, and that, when the
						time comes, every member of it may support the state with all his
							might.

And they are bound, too, to keep themselves fit, for one effect of the strife
						is that they spar whenever they meet; but anyone present has a right to part
						the combatants. If anyone refuses to obey the mediator the Warden takes him
						to the Ephors; and they fine him heavily, in order to make him realize that
						he must never yield to a sudden impulse to disobey the laws.

To come to those who have passed the time of
						youth, and are now eligible to hold the great offices of state. While
						absolving these from the duty of bestowing further attention on their bodily
						strength, the other Greeks require them to continue serving in the army. But
						Lycurgus established the principle that for citizens of that age, hunting
						was the noblest occupation, except when some public duty prevented, in order
						that they might be able to stand the fatigues of soldiering as well as the
						younger men.

I have given a fairly complete account of the
						institutions of Lycurgus so far as they apply to the successive stages of
						life. I will now try to describe the system that he established for all
						alike.

Lycurgus found the Spartans boarding at home
						like the other Greeks, and came to the conclusion that the custom was
						responsible for a great deal of misconduct. He therefore established the
						public messes outside in the open, 
						thinking that this would reduce disregard of orders to a minimum.

The amount of food he allowed was just enough to prevent them from getting
						either too much or too little to eat. But many extras are supplied from the
						spoils of the chase; and for these rich men sometimes substitute wheaten
						bread. Consequently the board is never bare until the company breaks up, and
						never extravagantly furnished.

Another of his reforms was the abolition of compulsory drinking, which is the
						undoing alike of body of mind. But he allowed everyone to drink when he was
						thirsty, believing that drink is then most harmless and most welcome. 
					 Now what opportunity did these public messes
						give a man to ruin himself or his estate by gluttony or wine-bibbing?

Note that in other states the company usually consists of men of the same
						age, where modesty is apt to be conspicuous by its absence from the board.
						But Lycurgus introduced mixed companies at Sparta , so
						that the experience of the elders might contribute largely to the education
						of the juniors.

In point of fact, by the custom of the country the conversation at the public
						meals turns on the great deeds wrought in the state, and so there is little
						room for insolence or drunken uproar, for unseemly conduct or indecent talk.

And the system of feeding in the open has other good results. They must needs
						walk home after the meal, and, of course, must take good care not to stumble
						under the influence of drink (for they know that they will not stay on at
						the table); and they must do in the dark what they do in the day. Indeed,
						those who are still in the army are not even allowed a torch to guide them.

Lycurgus had also observed the effects of the
						same rations on the hard worker and the idler; that the former has a fresh
						colour, firm flesh and plenty of vigour, while the latter looks puffy, ugly
						and weak. He saw the importance of this; and reflecting that even a man who
						works hard of his own will because it is his duty to do so, looks in pretty
						good condition, he required the senior for the time being in every gymnasium
						to take care that the tasks set should be not too small for the rations
						allowed.

And I think that in this matter too he succeeded. So it would not be easy to
						find healthier or handier men than the Spartans. For their exercises train
						the legs, arms and neck equally.

In the following respects, again, his
						institutions differ from the ordinary type. In most states every man has
						control of his own children, servants and goods. Lycurgus wanted to secure
						that the citizens should get some advantage from one another without doing
						any harm. He therefore gave every father authority over other men’s children
						as well as over his own.

When a man knows that fathers have this power, he is bound to rule the
						children over whom he exercises authority as he would wish his own to be
							ruled. If a boy tells his own father when he has
						been whipped by another father, it is a disgrace if the parent does not give
						his son another whipping. So completely do they trust one another not to
						give any improper orders to the children.

He also gave the power of using other men’s
						servants in case of necessity; and made sporting dogs common property to
						this extent, that any who want them invite their master, and if he is
						engaged himself he is glad to send the hounds. A similar plan of borrowing
						is applied to horses also; thus a man who falls ill or wants a carriage or
						wishes to get to some place quickly, if he sees a horse anywhere, takes and
						uses it carefully and duly restores it.

There is yet another among the customs
						instituted by him which is not found in other communities. It was intended
						to meet the needs of parties belated in the hunting-field with nothing ready
						to eat. He made a rule that those who had plenty should leave behind the
						prepared food, and that those who needed food should break the
						seals, take as much as they wanted, seal up the rest and leave it behind.

The result of this method of going shares with one another is that even those
						who have but little receive a share of all that the country yields whenever
						they want anything.

Nor does this exhaust the list of the customs
						established by Lycurgus at Sparta that are contrary to those of the other Greeks. In
						other states, I suppose, all men make as much money as they can. One is a
						farmer, another a ship-owner, another a merchant, and others live by
						different handicrafts.

But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade
						freeborn citizens to have anything to do with business affairs. He insisted
						on their regarding as their own concern only those activities that make for
						civic freedom.

Indeed, how should wealth be a serious object there, when he insisted on
						equal contributions to the food supply and on the same standard of living
						for all, and thus cut off the attraction of money for indulgence’ sake? Why,
						there is not even any need of money to spend on cloaks: for their adornment
						is due not to the price of their clothes, but to the excellent condition of
						their bodies.

Nor yet is there any reason for amassing money in order to spend it on one’s
						messmates; for he made it more respectable to help one’s fellows by toiling
						with the body than by spending money, pointing out that toil is an
						employment of the soul, spending an employment of wealth.

By other enactments he rendered it impossible
						to make money in unfair ways. In the first place the system of coinage that
						he established was of such a kind that even a sum of ten minae could not be brought into a house
						without the master and the servants being aware of it: the money would fill
						a large space and need a wagon to draw it.

Moreover, there is a right of search for gold and silver, and, in the event
						of discovery, the possessor is fined. Why, then, should money-making be a
						preoccupation in a state where the pains of its possession are more than the
						pleasures of its enjoyment?

To continue: we all know that obedience to the
						magistrates and the laws is found in the highest degree in Sparta . For my part, however, I think
						that Lycurgus did not so much as attempt to introduce this habit of
						discipline until he had secured agreement among the most important men in
						the state.

I base my inference on the following facts. In other states the most powerful
						citizens do not even wish it to be thought that they fear the magistrates:
						they believe such fear to be a badge of slavery. But at Sparta the most
						important men show the utmost deference to the magistrates: they pride
						themselves on their humility, on running instead of walking to answer any
						call, in the belief that, if they lead, the rest will follow along the path
						of eager obedience. And so it has proved.

It is probable also that these same citizens
						helped to set up the office of Ephor, having come to the conclusion that
						obedience is a very great blessing whether in a state or an army or a
						household. For they thought that the greater the power of these magistrates
						the more they would impress the minds of the citizens.

Accordingly, the Ephors are competent to fine whom they choose, and have
						authority to enact immediate payment: they have authority also to deprive
						the magistrates of office, and even to imprison and prefer a capital charge
						against them. Possessing such wide power they do not, like other states,
						leave persons elected to office to rule as they like throughout the year,
						but in common with despots and the presidents of the games, they no sooner
						see anyone breaking the law than they punish the offender.

Among many excellent plans contrived by
						Lycurgus for encouraging willing obedience to the laws among the citizens, I
						think one of the most excellent was this: before delivering his laws to the
						people he paid a visit to Delphi , accompanied by the most important citizens, and inquired of
						the god whether it was desirable and better for Sparta that she should obey the laws
						that he himself had framed. Only when the god answered that it was better in
						every way did he deliver them, after enacting that to refuse obedience to
						laws given by the Pythian god was not only unlawful, but wicked.

The following achievement of Lycurgus, again,
						deserves admiration. He caused his people to choose an honourable death in
						preference to a disgraceful life. And, in fact, one would find on
						consideration that they actually lose a smaller proportion of their men than
						those who prefer to retire from the danger zone.

To tell the truth, escape from premature death more generally goes with
						valour than with cowardice: for valour is actually easier and pleasanter and
						more resourceful and mightier. And obviously glory adheres to
						the side of valour, for all men want to ally themselves somehow with the
						brave.

However, it is proper not to pass over the
						means by which he contrived to bring about this result. Clearly, what he did
						was to ensure that the brave should have happiness, and the coward misery.

For in other states whn a man proves a coward, the only consequence is that
						he is called a coward. He goes to the same market as the brave man, sits
						beside him, attends the same gymnasium, if he chooses. But in Lacedaemon everyone would be ashamed to
						have a coward with him at the mess or to be matched with him in a wrestling
						bout.

Often when sides are picked for a game of ball he is the odd man left out: in
						the chorus he is banished to the ignominious place; in the streets he is
						bound to make way; when he occupies a seat he must needs give it up, even to
						a junior; he must support his spinster relatives at home and must explain to
						them why they are old maids: he must make the best of a fireside without a
						wife, and yet pay forfeit for that: he may not stroll about with a cheerful
						countenance, nor behave as though he were a man of unsullied fame, or else
						he must submit to be beaten by his betters.

Small wonder, I think, that where such a load of dishonour is laid on the
						coward, death seems preferable to a life so dishonoured, so ignominious.

The law by which Lycurgus encouraged the
						practice of virtue up to old age is another excellent measure in my opinion.
						By requiring men to face the ordeal of election to the Council of Elders
						near the end of life, he prevented neglect of high principles even in old
						age.

Worthy of admiration also is the protection that he afforded to the old age
						of good men. For the enactment by which he made the Elders judges in trials
						on the capital charge caused old age to be held in greater honour than the
						full vigour of manhood.

And surely it is natural that of all contests in the world this should excite
						the greatest zeal. For noble as are the contests in the Games, they are
						merely tests of bodily powers. But the contest for the Council judges souls
						whether they be good. As much then, as the soul surpasses the body, so much
						more worthy are the contests of the soul to kindle zeal than those of the
						body.

Again, the following surely entitles the work
						of Lycurgus to high admiration. He observed that where the cult of virtue is
						left to voluntary effort, the virtuous are not strong enough to increase the
						fame of their fatherland. So he compelled all men at Sparta to practise all the virtues in
						public life. And therefore, just as private individuals differ from one
						another in virtue according as they practise or neglect it, so Sparta , as a matter of course,
						surpasses all other states in virtue, because she alone makes a public duty
						of gentlemanly conduct.

For was not this too a noble rule of his, that whereas other states punish
						only for wrong done to one’s neighbour, he inflicted penalties no less
						severe on any who openly neglected to live as good a life as possible?

For he believed, it seems, that enslavement, fraud, robbery, are crimes that
						injure only the victims of them; but the wicked man and the coward are
						traitors to the whole body politic. And so he had good reason, I think, for
						visiting their offences with the heaviest penalties.

And he laid on the people the duty of
						practising the whole virtue of a citizen as a necessity irresistible. For to
						all who satisfied the requirements of his code he gave equal rights of
						citizenship, without regard to bodily infirmity or want of money. But the
						coward who shrank from the task of observing the rules of his code he caused
						to be no more reckoned among the peers.

Now that these laws are of high antiquity
						there can be no doubt: for Lycurgus is said to have lived in the days of the
						Heracleidae. Nevertheless, in spite of their antiquity, they are wholly
						strange to others even at this day. Indeed, it is most astonishing that all
						men praise such institutions, but no state chooses to imitate them.

The blessings that I have enumerated so far
						were shared by all alike in peace and in war. But if anyone wishes to
						discover in what respect Lycurgus’ organisation of the army on active
						service was better than other systems, here is the information that he
						seeks.

The Ephors issue a proclamation stating the
						age-limit fixed for the levy, first for the cavalry and infantry, and then
						for the handicraftsmen. Thus the Lacedaemonians are well supplied in the
						field with all things that are found useful in civil life. All the
						implements that an army may require in common are ordered to be assembled,
						some in carts, some on baggage animals; thus anything missing is not at all
						likely to be overlooked.

In the equipment that he devised for the
						troops in battle he included a red cloak, because he believed this garment
						to have least resemblance to women’s clothing and to be most suitable for
						war, and a brass shield, because it is very soon polished and tarnishes very
							slowly. He also permitted men who were
						past their first youth to wear long hair, believing that it would make them
						look taller, more dignified and more terrifying.

The men so equipped were divided into six
						regiments of cavalry and infantry. The officers of each citizen regiment comprise one colonel, four captains, eight first lieutenants and sixteen
						second lieutenants. These regiments at the word of command form
							sections sometimes
						(two), sometimes three, and sometimes six abreast.

The prevalent opinion that the Laconian
						infantry formation is very complicated is the very reverse of the truth. In
						the Laconian formation the front rank men are all officers, and each file
						has all that it requires to make it efficient.

The formation is so easy to understand that no one who knows man from man can
						possibly go wrong. For some have the privilege of leading; and the rest are
						under orders to follow. Orders to wheel from column into line of battle are
						given verbally by the second lieutenant acting as a herald, and the line is
						formed either thin or deep, by wheeling. Nothing whatever in these movements
						is difficult to understand.

To be sure, the secret of carrying on in a battle with any troops at hand
						when the line gets into confusion is not so easy to grasp, except for
						soldiers trained under the laws of Lycurgus.

The Lacedaemonians also carry out with perfect
						ease manoeuvres that instructors in tactics think very difficult. Thus, when
						they march in column, every section of course follows in the rear of the
						section in front of it. Suppose that at such a time an enemy in order of
						battle suddenly makes his appearance in front: the word is passed to the
						second lieutenant to deploy into line to the left, and so throughout the
						column until the battle-line stands facing the enemy. Or again, if the enemy
						appears in the rear while they are in this formation, each file
						counter-marches, in order that the best men may always be face to face with
						the enemy.

True, the leader is then on the left, but instead of thinking this a
						disadvantage, they regard it as a positive advantage at times. For should
						the enemy attempt a flanking movement he would try to encircle them, not on
						the exposed but on the protected side. If, however, it seems better for any reason
						that the leader should be on the right wing, the left wing wheels, and the
						army counter-marches by ranks until the leader is on the right, and the rear
						of the column on the left.

If, on the other hand, an enemy force appears on the right when they are
						marching in column, all that they have to do is to order each company to
						wheel to the right so as to front the enemy like a man-of-war, and thus
						again the company at the rear of the column is on the right. If again an
						enemy approaches on the left, they do not allow that either, but either push
						him back 
						or wheel their companies to the left to face him, and thus the rear of the
						column finds itself on the left.

I will now explain the method of encampment
						approved by Lycurgus. 
					 Seeing that the angles of a square are
						useless, he introduced the circular form of camp, except where there was a
						secure hill or wall, or a river afforded protection in the rear.

He caused sentries to be posted by day facing inwards along the place where
						the arms were kept, for the object of these is to keep an eye not on the
						enemy but on their friends. The enemy is watched by cavalry from positions
						that command the widest outlook.

To meet the case of a hostile approach at night, he assigned the duty of
						acting as sentries outside the lines to the Sciritae. In these days the duty
						is shared by foreigners, if any happen to be present in the camp.

The rule that patrols invariably carry their spears, has the same purpose,
						undoubtedly, as the exclusion of slaves from the place of arms. Nor is it
						surprising that sentries who withdraw for necessary purposes only go so far
						away from one another and from the arms as not to cause inconvenience.
						Safety is the first object of this rule also.

The camp is frequently shifted with the double
						object of annoying their enemies and of helping their friends. 
					 Moreover the law requires all Lacedaemonians
						to practise gymnastics regularly throughout the campaign; and the result is
						that they take more pride in themselves and have a more dignified appearance
						than other men. Neither walk nor race-course may exceed in length the space
						covered by the regiment, so that no one may get far away from his own arms.

After the exercises the senior colonel gives the order by herald to sit down
						— this is their method of inspection — and next to take breakfast and to
						relieve the outposts quickly. After this there are amusements and
						recreations until the evening exercises.

These being finished, the herald gives the order to take the evening meal,
						and, as soon as they have sung to the praise of the gods to whom they have
						sacrificed with good omens, to rest by the arms. 
					 Let not the length to which I run occasion
						surprise, for it is almost impossible to find any detail in military matters
						requiring attention that is overlooked by the Lacedaemonians.

I will also give an account of the power and
						honour that Lycurgus conferred on the King in the field. In the first place,
						while on military service the King and his staff are maintained by the
						state. The colonels mess with the King, in order that constant intercourse
						may give better opportunities for taking counsel together in case of need.
						Three of the peers also attend the King’s mess. These three take entire
						charge of the commissariat for the King and his staff, so that these may
						devote all their time to affairs of war.

But I will go back to the beginning, and
						explain how the King sets out with an army. First he offers up sacrifice at
						home to Zeus the Leader and to the gods associated with him. If the sacrifice appears propitious, the Fire-bearer takes
						fire from the altar and leads the way to the borders of the land. There the
						King offers sacrifice again to Zeus and Athena.

Only when the sacrifice proves acceptable to both these deities does he cross
						the borders of the land. And the fire from these sacrifices leads the way
						and is never quenched, and animals for sacrifice of every sort follow. At
						all times when he offers sacrifice, the King begins the work before dawn of
						day, wishing to forestall the goodwill of the god.

And at the sacrifice are assembled colonels, captains, lieutenants,
						commandants of foreign contingents, commanders of the baggage train, and, in
						addition, any general from the states who chooses to be present.

There are also present two of the Ephors, who interfere in nothing except by
						the King’s request, but keep an eye on the proceedings, and see that all
						behave with a decorum suitable to the occasion. When the sacrifices are
						ended, the King summons all and delivers the orders of the day. And so,
						could you watch the scene, you would think all other men mere improvisors in
						soldiering and the Lacedaemonians the only artists in warfare.

When the King leads, provided that no enemy
						appears, no one precedes him except the Sciritae and the mounted vedettes.
						But if ever they think there will be fighting, he takes the lead of the
						first regiment and wheels to the right, until he is between two regiments
						and two colonels.

The troops that are to support these are marshalled by the senior member of
						the King’s staff. The staff consists of all peers who are members of the
						royal mess, seers, doctors, fluteplayers, commanding officers and any
						volunteers who happen to be present. Thus nothing that has to be done causes
						any difficulty, for everything is duly provided for.

The following arrangements made by Lycurgus with a view to the actual fighting are
						also, in my opinion, very useful. When a goat is sacrificed, the enemy being
						near enough to see, custom ordains that all the fluteplayers present are to
						play and every Lacedaemonian is to wear a wreath. An order is also given to
						polish arms. It is also the privilege of the young warrior to comb his
						hair(?) before entering battle, to look cheerful and earn a good report.

Moreover, the men shout words of encouragement to the subaltern, for it is
						impossible for each subaltern to make his voice travel along the whole of
						his section to the far end. The colonel is responsible for seeing that
						all is done properly.

When the time for encamping seems to have
						arrived, the decision rests with the King, who also indicates the proper
						place. On the other hand the dispatch of embassies whether to friends or
						enemies is not the King’s affair. All who have any business to transact deal
						in the first instance with the King.

Suitors for justice are remitted by the King to the Court of Hellanodicae,
						applications for money to the treasurers; and if anyone brings booty, he is
						sent to the auctioneers. With this routine the only duties left to the King
						on active service are to act as priest in matters of religion and as general
						in his dealings with the men.

Should anyone ask me whether I think that the
						laws of Lycurgus still remain unchanged at this day, I certainly could not
						say that with any confidence whatever.

For I know that formerly the Lacedaemonians preferred to live together at
						home with moderate fortunes rather than expose themselves to the corrupting
						influences of flattery as governors of dependent states.

And I know too that in former days they were afraid to be found in possession
						of gold; whereas nowadays there are some who even boast of their
						possessions.

There were alien acts in former days, and to live abroad was illegal; and I
						have no doubt that the purpose of these regulations was to keep the citizens
						from being demoralized by contact with foreigners; and now I have no doubt
						that the fixed ambition of those who are thought to be first among them is
						to live to their dying day as governors in a foreign land.

There was a time when they would fain be worthy of leadership; but now they
						strive far more earnestly to exercise rule than to be worthy of it.

Therefore in times past the Greeks would come to Lacedaemon and beg her to lead them against reputed
						wrongdoers; but now many are calling on one another to prevent a revival of
						Lacedaemonian supremacy.

Yet we need not wonder if these reproaches are levelled at them, since it is
						manifest that they obey neither their god nor the laws of Lycurgus.

I wish also to give an account of the compact
						made by Lycurgus between King and state. For this is the only government
						that continues exactly as it was originally established, whereas other
						constitutions will be found to have undergone and still to be undergoing
						modifications.

He ordained that the King shall offer all the
						public sacrifices on behalf of the state, in virtue of his divine descent,
						and that, whatever may be the destination to which the state sends out an
						army, he shall be its leader.

He also gave him the right to receive certain parts of the beasts sacrificed,
						and assigned to him enough choice land in many of the outlanders’ cities to
						ensure him a reasonable competence without excessive riches.

In order that even the kings should mess in public, he assigned to them a
						public mess tent; he also honoured them with a double portion at the meal,
						not that they might eat enough for two, but that they might have the
						wherewithal to honour anyone whom they chose.

He also allowed each King to choose two messmates, who are called Pythii.
						Further, he granted them to take of every litter of pigs a porker, that a
						King may never want victims, in case he wishes to seek counsel of the gods.

A lake near the house supplies abundance of
						water; and how useful that is for many purposes none know so well as those
						who are without it. Further, all rise from their seats when the King
						appears; only the Ephors do not rise from their official chairs.

And they exchange oaths monthly, the Ephors on behalf of the state, the King
						for himself. And this is the King’s oath: 
						 I will reign according to the
						established laws of the state. And this the oath of the state: 
						 While you
						abide by your oath, we will keep the kingship unshaken.

These then are the honours that are bestowed on the King at
							home during his lifetime; and they do not greatly exceed those of
							private persons. For it was not the wish of Lycurgus to put into the
							King’s hearts despotic pride, nor to implant in the mind of the citizens
							envy of their power.

As for the honours assigned to the King at his death, the intention of the
						laws of Lycurgus herein is to show that they have preferred the Kings of the
						Lacedaemonians in honour not as mere men, but as demigods.