This is the display of the inquiry of Herodotus of Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 , so that things done by man not be forgotten in time, and that great
 and marvelous deeds, some displayed by the Hellenes , some by the barbarians, not lose their glory, including
 among others what was the cause of their waging war on each other.

The Persian learned men
 say that the Phoenicians were the cause of the
 dispute. These (they say) came to our seas from the sea which is called
 Red, and having settled in the country
 which they still occupy, at once began to make long voyages. Among other
 places to which they carried Egyptian and Assyrian merchandise, they came to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) 
 Argos 
 ,

which was at that time preeminent in every way among the people of what is
 now called Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 . The Phoenicians came to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) 
 Argos 
 , and set out their cargo.

On the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when their wares were almost
 all sold, many women came to the shore and among them especially the
 daughter of the king, whose name was Io (according
 to Persians and Greeks 
 alike), the daughter of Inachus .

As these stood about the stern of the ship bargaining for the wares they
 liked, the Phoenicians incited one another to set
 upon them. Most of the women escaped: Io and others
 were seized and thrown into the ship, which then sailed away for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

In this way, the Persians 
 say (and not as the Greeks ), was how Io came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and this, according to them, was the first wrong that was done.
 Next, according to their story, some Greeks (they
 cannot say who) landed at Tyre
 [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 in Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 and carried off the king's daughter Europa .
 These Greeks must, I suppose, have been Cretans . So far, then, the account between them was
 balanced. But after this (they say), it was the Greeks who were guilty of the second wrong.

They sailed in a long ship to Aea , a city of the
 Colchians , and to the river Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited
 place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia 
 Phasis 
 : and when they had done the business for which they
 came, they carried off the king's daughter Medea .

When the Colchian king sent a herald to demand
 reparation for the robbery and restitution of his daughter, the Greeks replied that, as they had been refused
 reparation for the abduction of the Argive 
 Io , they would not make any to the Colchians .

Then (they say), in the second generation after
 this, Alexandrus , son of Priam , who had heard this tale, decided to get himself a wife
 from Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe 
 Hellas 
 by capture; for he was confident that he would not suffer
 punishment.

So he carried off Helen . The Greeks first resolved to send messengers demanding that Helen be restored and atonement made for the seizure;
 but when this proposal was made, the Trojans 
 pleaded the seizure of Medea , and reminded the
 Greeks that they asked reparation from others,
 yet made none themselves, nor gave up the booty when asked.

So far it was a matter of mere seizure on both
 sides. But after this (the Persians say), the
 Greeks were very much to blame; for they
 invaded Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 before the Persians attacked Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 .

“We think,” they say, “that it is unjust to carry women off. But to be
 anxious to avenge rape is foolish: wise men take no notice of such things.
 For plainly the women would never have been carried away, had they not
 wanted it themselves.

We of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 did not deign to notice the seizure of our women; but the Greeks , for the sake of a Lacedaemonian woman, recruited a great armada, came to Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , and destroyed the power of Priam .

Ever since then we have regarded Greeks as our
 enemies.” For the Persians claim Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 for their own, and the foreign peoples that inhabit it; Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 and the Greek people they consider to be
 separate from them.

Such is the Persian 
 account; in their opinion, it was the taking of Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) 
 Troy 
 which began their hatred of the Greeks .

But the Phoenicians do not tell the same story
 about Io as the Persians . They say that they did not carry her off to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 by force. She had intercourse in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) 
 Argos 
 with the captain of the ship. Then, finding herself pregnant, she
 was ashamed to have her parents know it, and so, lest they discover her
 condition, she sailed away with the Phoenicians 
 of her own accord.

These are the stories of the Persians and the Phoenicians . For my
 part, I shall not say that this or that story is true, but I shall identify
 the one who I myself know did the Greeks unjust
 deeds, and thus proceed with my history, and speak of small and great cities
 of men alike.

For many states that were once great have now become small; and those that
 were great in my time were small before. Knowing therefore that human
 prosperity never continues in the same place, I shall mention both alike.

Croesus was a Lydian by
 birth, son of Alyattes , and sovereign of all the
 nations west of the river Halys
 River (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 , which flows from the south between Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 and Paphlagonia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Paphlagonia 
 and empties into the sea called Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Euxine 
 .

This Croesus was the first foreigner whom we know
 who subjugated some Greeks and took tribute from
 them, and won the friendship of others: the former being the Ionians , the Aeolians ,
 and the Dorians of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , and the latter the Lacedaemonians .

Before the reign of Croesus , all Greeks were free: for the Cimmerian host which invaded Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 before his time did not subjugate the cities, but raided and robbed
 them.

Now the sovereign power that belonged to the
 descendants of Heracles 
 fell
 to the family of Croesus , called the Mermnadae , in the following way.

Candaules , whom the Greeks call Myrsilus , was the ruler of
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 ; he was descended from Alcaeus , son of
 Heracles ; Agron son of
 Ninus , son of Belus ,
 son of Alcaeus , was the first Heraclid king of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and Candaules son of Myrsus was the last.

The kings of this country before Agron were
 descendants of Lydus , son of Atys , from whom this whole Lydian 
 district got its name; before that it was called the land of the Meii .

The Heraclidae , descendants of Heracles and a female slave of Iardanus ,
 received the sovereignty from these and held it, because of an oracle; and
 they ruled for twenty-two generations, or five hundred and five years, son
 succeeding father, down to Candaules son of Myrsus .

This Candaules , then, fell
 in love with his own wife, so much so that he believed her to be by far the
 most beautiful woman in the world; and believing this, he praised her beauty
 beyond measure to Gyges son of Dascylus , who was his favorite among his bodyguard; for it was to
 Gyges that he entrusted all his most important
 secrets.

After a little while, Candaules , doomed to
 misfortune, spoke to Gyges thus: “ Gyges , I do not think that you believe what I say about the
 beauty of my wife; men trust their ears less than their eyes: so you must
 see her naked.” Gyges protested loudly at this.

“Master,” he said, “what an unsound suggestion, that I should see my
 mistress naked! When a woman's clothes come off, she dispenses with her
 modesty, too.

Men have long ago made wise rules from which one ought to learn; one of
 these is that one should mind one's own business. As for me, I believe that
 your queen is the most beautiful of all women, and I ask you not to ask of
 me what is lawless.”

Speaking thus, Gyges 
 resisted: for he was afraid that some evil would come of it for him. But
 this was Candaules ' answer: “Courage, Gyges ! Do not be afraid of me, that I say this to test
 you, or of my wife, that you will have any harm from her. I will arrange it
 so that she shall never know that you have seen her.

I will bring you into the chamber where she and I lie and conceal you behind
 the open door; and after I have entered, my wife too will come to bed. There
 is a chair standing near the entrance of the room: on this she will lay each
 article of her clothing as she takes it off, and you will be able to look
 upon her at your leisure.

Then, when she moves from the chair to the bed, turning her back on you, be
 careful she does not see you going out through the doorway.”

As Gyges could not escape,
 he consented. Candaules , when he judged it to be
 time for bed, brought Gyges into the chamber; his
 wife followed presently, and when she had come in and was laying aside her
 garments, Gyges saw her;

when she turned her back upon him to go to bed, he slipped from the room.
 The woman glimpsed him as he went out, and perceived what her husband had
 done. But though shamed, she did not cry out or let it be seen that she had
 perceived anything, for she meant to punish Candaules ;

since among the Lydians and most of the foreign
 peoples it is felt as a great shame that even a man be seen naked.

For the present she made no sign and kept quiet. But
 as soon as it was day, she prepared those of her household whom she saw were
 most faithful to her, and called Gyges . He,
 supposing that she knew nothing of what had been done, answered the summons;
 for he was used to attending the queen whenever she summoned him.

When Gyges came, the lady addressed him thus: “Now,
 Gyges , you have two ways before you; decide
 which you will follow. You must either kill Candaules and take me and the throne of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 for your own, or be killed yourself now without more ado; that will
 prevent you from obeying all Candaules ' commands in
 the future and seeing what you should not see.

One of you must die: either he, the contriver of this plot, or you, who have
 outraged all custom by looking on me uncovered.” Gyges stood awhile astonished at this; presently, he begged her
 not to compel him to such a choice.

But when he could not deter her, and saw that dire necessity was truly upon
 him either to kill his master or himself be killed by others, he chose his
 own life. Then he asked: “Since you force me against my will to kill my
 master, I would like to know how we are to lay our hands on him.”

She replied, “You shall come at him from the same place where he made you
 view me naked: attack him in his sleep.”

When they had prepared this plot, and night had
 fallen, Gyges followed the woman into the chamber
 (for Gyges was not released, nor was there any
 means of deliverance, but either he or Candaules 
 must die). She gave him a dagger and hid him behind the same door;

and presently he stole out and killed Candaules as
 he slept. Thus he made himself master of the king's wife and sovereignty. He
 is mentioned in the iambic verses of Archilochus of
 Parus who lived about the same time.

So he took possession of the sovereign power and was
 confirmed in it by the Delphic oracle. For when
 the Lydians took exception to what was done to
 Candaules , and took up arms, the faction of
 Gyges came to an agreement with the rest of the
 people that if the oracle should ordain him king of the Lydians , then he would reign; but if not, then he would return
 the kingship to the Heraclidae .

The oracle did so ordain, and Gyges thus became
 king. However, the Pythian priestess declared
 that the Heraclidae would have vengeance on Gyges ' posterity in the fifth generation; an utterance
 to which the Lydians and their kings paid no
 regard until it was fulfilled.

Thus the Mermnadae robbed
 the Heraclidae of the sovereignty and took it for
 themselves. Having gotten it, Gyges sent many
 offerings to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 : there are very many silver offerings of his there; and besides the
 silver, he dedicated a hoard of gold, among which six golden bowls are the
 offerings especially worthy of mention.

These weigh thirty talents and stand in the treasury of the Corinthians ; although in truth it is not the
 treasury of the Corinthian people but of Cypselus son of Eetion . This
 Gyges then was the first foreigner whom we know
 who placed offerings at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 after the king of Phrygia
 (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Phrygia 
 , Midas son of Gordias .

For Midas too made an offering: namely, the royal
 seat on which he sat to give judgment, and a marvellous seat it is. It is
 set in the same place as the bowls of Gyges . This
 gold and the silver offered by Gyges is called by
 the Delphians “ Gygian ”
 after its dedicator.

As soon as Gyges came to
 the throne, he too, like others, led an army into the lands of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 and Smyrna
 [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 ; and he took the city of Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) 
 Colophon 
 . But as he did nothing else great in his reign of thirty-eight
 years, I shall say no more of him, and shall speak instead of Ardys son of Gyges , who
 succeeded him. He took Priene
 [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 and invaded the country of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 ; and it was while he was monarch of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 that the Cimmerians , driven from their
 homes by the nomad Scythians , came into Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , and took Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , all but the acropolis.

Ardys reigned for forty-nine years and was
 succeeded by his son Sadyattes , who reigned for
 twelve years; and after Sadyattes came Alyattes ,

who waged war against Deioces ' descendant Cyaxares and the Medes ,
 drove the Cimmerians out of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , took Smyrna
 [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 (which was a colony from Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) 
 Colophon 
 ), and invaded the lands of Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) 
 Clazomenae 
 . But he did not return from these as he wished, but with great
 disaster. Of other deeds done by him in his reign, these were the most
 notable:

He continued the war against the Milesians which his father had begun. This was how he attacked
 and besieged Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 : he sent his army, marching to the sound of pipes and harps and bass
 and treble flutes, to invade when the crops in the land were ripe;

and whenever he came to the Milesian territory,
 he neither demolished nor burnt nor tore the doors off the country
 dwellings, but let them stand unharmed; but he destroyed the trees and the
 crops of the land, and so returned to where he came from;

for as the Milesians had command of the sea, it
 was of no use for his army to besiege their city. The reason that the Lydian did not destroy the houses was this: that the
 Milesians might have homes from which to plant
 and cultivate their land, and that there might be the fruit of their toil
 for his invading army to lay waste.

He waged war in this way for eleven years, and in
 these years two great disasters overtook the Milesians , one at the battle of Limeneion in their own territory, and the other in the valley of
 the Buyukmenderes Nehri
 [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Maeander 
 .

For six of these eleven years Sadyattes son of
 Ardys was still ruler of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 , and it was he who invaded the lands of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 , for it was he who had begun the war; for the following five the war
 was waged by Sadyattes ' son Alyattes , who, as I have indicated before, inherited the war from
 his father and carried it on vigorously.

None of the Ionians helped to lighten this war
 for the Milesians , except the Chians : these lent their aid in return for a similar service done
 for them; for the Milesians had previously helped
 the Chians in their war against the Erythraeans .

In the twelfth year, when the Lydian army was burning the crops, the fire set in the crops,
 blown by a strong wind, caught the temple of Athena 
 called Athena of Assesos , and the temple burned to the ground.

For the present no notice was taken of this. But after the army had returned
 to Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , Alyattes fell ill; and, as his sickness
 lasted longer than it should, he sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 to inquire of the oracle, either at someone's urging or by his own
 wish to question the god about his sickness.

But when the messengers came to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , the Pythian priestess would not answer
 them before they restored the temple of Athena at
 Assesos in the Milesian territory, which they had burnt.

I know this much to be so because the Delphians told me. The Milesians add that Periander son of
 Cypselus , a close friend of the Thrasybulus who then was sovereign of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 , learned what reply the oracle had given to Alyattes , and sent a messenger to tell Thrasybulus so that his friend, forewarned, could make his plans
 accordingly.

The Milesians say it
 happened so. Then, when the Delphic reply was
 brought to Alyattes , he promptly sent a herald to
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 , offering to make a truce with Thrasybulus 
 and the Milesians during his rebuilding of the
 temple. So the envoy went to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 . But Thrasybulus , forewarned of the whole
 matter, and knowing what Alyattes meant to do,
 devised the following plan:

he brought together into the marketplace all the food in the city, from
 private stores and his own, and told the men of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 all to drink and celebrate together when he gave the word.

Thrasybulus did this so that when the herald from
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 saw a great heap of food piled up, and the citizens celebrating, he
 would bring word of it to Alyattes :

and so it happened. The herald saw all this, gave Thrasybulus the message he had been instructed by the Lydian to deliver, and returned to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 ; and this, as I learn, was the sole reason for the reconciliation.

For Alyattes had supposed that there was great
 scarcity in Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 and that the people were reduced to the last extremity of misery;
 but now on his herald's return from the town he heard an account contrary to
 his expectations;

so presently the Lydians and Milesians ended the war and agreed to be friends and allies, and
 Alyattes built not one but two temples of Athena at Assesos , and
 recovered from his illness. That is the story of Alyattes ' war against Thrasybulus and
 the Milesians .

Periander , who disclosed the oracle's answer to
 Thrasybulus , was the son of Cypselus , and sovereign of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 . The Corinthians say (and the Lesbians agree) that the most marvellous thing that
 happened to him in his life was the landing on Taenarus of Arion of Methymna [26.2,39.3333]
 (Perseus) 
 Methymna 
 , brought there by a dolphin. This Arion was
 a lyre-player second to none in that age; he was the first man whom we know
 to compose and name the dithyramb which he afterwards taught
 at Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 .

They say that this Arion ,
 who spent most of his time with Periander , wished
 to sail to Italy [12.833,42.833]
 (nation), Europe 
 Italy 
 and Sicily [14,37.5]
 (region), Italy, Europe 
 Sicily 
 , and that after he had made a lot of money there he wanted to come
 back to Corinth
 [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 .

Trusting none more than the Corinthians , he hired
 a Corinthian vessel to carry him from Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited
 place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 . But when they were out at sea, the crew plotted to take Arion 's money and cast him overboard. Discovering
 this, he earnestly entreated them, asking for his life and offering them his
 money.

But the crew would not listen to him, and told him either to kill himself
 and so receive burial on land or else to jump into the sea at once.

Abandoned to this extremity, Arion asked that,
 since they had made up their minds, they would let him stand on the
 half-deck in all his regalia and sing; and he promised that after he had
 sung he would do himself in.

The men, pleased at the thought of hearing the best singer in the world,
 drew away toward the waist of the vessel from the stern. Arion , putting on all his regalia and taking his lyre, stood up
 on the half-deck and sang the “Stirring Song,” and when the song was finished
 he threw himself into the sea, as he was with all his regalia.

So the crew sailed away to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 ; but a dolphin (so the story goes) took Arion on his back and bore him to Taenarus . Landing there, he went to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 in his regalia, and when he arrived, he related all that had
 happened.

Periander , skeptical, kept him in confinement,
 letting him go nowhere, and waited for the sailors. When they arrived, they
 were summoned and asked what news they brought of Arion . While they were saying that he was safe in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation),
 Europe 
 Italy 
 and that they had left him flourishing at Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto,
 Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 , Arion appeared before them, just as he was
 when he jumped from the ship; astonished, they could no longer deny what was
 proved against them.

This is what the Corinthians and Lesbians say, and there is a little bronze memorial
 of Arion on Taenarus , the
 figure of a man riding upon a dolphin.

Alyattes the Lydian , his
 war with the Milesians finished, died after a
 reign of fifty-seven years.

He was the second of his family to make an offering to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 (after recovering from his illness) of a great silver bowl on a
 stand of welded iron. Among all the offerings at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , this is the most worth seeing, and is the work of Glaucus the Chian , the only one of all
 men who discovered how to weld iron.

After the death of Alyattes , his son Croesus , then thirty-five
 years of age, came to the throne . The first Greeks whom he attacked were the Ephesians .

These, besieged by him, dedicated their city to Artemis ; they did this by attaching a rope to the city wall from
 the temple of the goddess, which stood seven stades away from the ancient
 city which was then besieged.

These were the first whom Croesus attacked;
 afterwards he made war on the Ionian and Aeolian cities in turn, upon different pretexts: he
 found graver charges where he could, but sometimes alleged very petty
 grounds of offense.

Then, when he had subjugated all the Asiatic Greeks of the mainland and made them
 tributary to him, he planned to build ships and attack the islanders;

but when his preparations for shipbuilding were underway, either Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 or Pittacus of Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 (the story is told of both) came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and, asked by Croesus for news about Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , put an end to the shipbuilding by giving the following answer:

“O King, the islanders are buying ten thousand horse, intending to march to
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 against you.” Croesus , thinking that he
 spoke the truth, said: “Would that the gods would put this in the heads of
 the islanders, to come on horseback against the sons of the Lydians !” Then the other answered and said:

“O King, you appear to me earnestly to wish to catch the islanders riding
 horses on the mainland, a natural wish. And what else do you suppose the
 islanders wished, as soon as they heard that you were building ships to
 attack them, than to catch Lydians on the seas,
 so as to be revenged on you for the Greeks who
 dwell on the mainland, whom you enslaved?”

Croesus was quite pleased with this conclusion, for
 he thought the man spoke reasonably and, heeding him, stopped building
 ships. Thus he made friends with the Ionians 
 inhabiting the islands.

As time went on, Croesus 
 subjugated almost all the nations west of the Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 ; for except the Cilicians and Lycians , all the rest Croesus held subject under him. These were the Lydians , Phrygians , Mysians , Mariandynians ,
 Chalybes , Paphlagonians , the Thracian Thynians 
 and Bithynians , Carians , Ionians , Dorians , Aeolians , and Pamphylians ;

and after these were subdued and subject to Croesus in addition to the Lydians , all the sages from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 who were living at that time, coming in different ways, came to
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , which was at the height of its property; and among them came Solon the Athenian , who,
 after making laws for the Athenians at their
 request, went abroad for ten years, sailing forth to see the world, he said.
 This he did so as not to be compelled to repeal any of the laws he had made,

since the Athenians themselves could not do
 that, for they were bound by solemn oaths to abide for ten years by whatever
 laws Solon should make.

So for that reason, and to see the world, Solon went to visit Amasis in
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and then to Croesus in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 . When he got there, Croesus entertained him
 in the palace, and on the third or fourth day Croesus told his attendants to show Solon around his treasures, and they pointed out all those things
 that were great and blest.

After Solon had seen everything and had thought
 about it, Croesus found the opportunity to say, “My
 Athenian guest, we have heard a lot about you
 because of your wisdom and of your wanderings, how as one who loves learning
 you have traveled much of the world for the sake of seeing it, so now I
 desire to ask you who is the most fortunate man you have seen.”

Croesus asked this question believing that he was
 the most fortunate of men, but Solon , offering no
 flattery but keeping to the truth, said, “O King, it is Tellus the Athenian .”

Croesus was amazed at what he had said and replied
 sharply, “In what way do you judge Tellus to be the
 most fortunate?” Solon said, “ Tellus was from a prosperous city, and his children were good and
 noble. He saw children born to them all, and all of these survived. His life
 was prosperous by our standards, and his death was most glorious:

when the Athenians were fighting their neighbors
 in Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) 
 Eleusis 
 , he came to help, routed the enemy, and died very finely. The Athenians buried him at public expense on the spot
 where he fell and gave him much honor.”

When Solon had provoked him
 by saying that the affairs of Tellus were so
 fortunate, Croesus asked who he thought was next,
 fully expecting to win second prize. Solon 
 answered, “ Cleobis and Biton .

They were of Argive stock, had enough to live on,
 and on top of this had great bodily strength. Both had won prizes in the
 athletic contests, and this story is told about them: there was a festival
 of Hera in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) 
 Argos 
 , and their mother absolutely had to be conveyed to the temple by a
 team of oxen. But their oxen had not come back from the fields in time, so
 the youths took the yoke upon their own shoulders under constraint of time.
 They drew the wagon, with their mother riding atop it, traveling five miles
 until they arrived at the temple.

When they had done this and had been seen by the entire gathering, their
 lives came to an excellent end, and in their case the god made clear that
 for human beings it is a better thing to die than to live. The Argive men stood around the youths and congratulated
 them on their strength; the Argive women
 congratulated their mother for having borne such children.

She was overjoyed at the feat and at the praise, so she stood before the
 image and prayed that the goddess might grant the best thing for man to her
 children Cleobis and Biton , who had given great honor to the goddess.

After this prayer they sacrificed and feasted. The youths then lay down in
 the temple and went to sleep and never rose again; death held them there.
 The Argives made and dedicated at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 statues of them as being the best of men.”

Thus Solon granted second
 place in happiness to these men. Croesus was vexed
 and said, “My Athenian guest, do you so much
 despise our happiness that you do not even make us worth as much as common
 men?” Solon replied, “ Croesus , you ask me about human affairs, and I know that the
 divine is entirely grudging and troublesome to us.

In a long span of time it is possible to see many things that you do not
 want to, and to suffer them, too. I set the limit of a man's life at seventy
 years;

these seventy years have twenty-five thousand, two hundred days, leaving
 out the intercalary month. But if you make every other
 year longer by one month, so that the seasons agree opportunely, then there
 are thirty-five intercalary months during the seventy years, and from these
 months there are one thousand fifty days.

Out of all these days in the seventy years, all twenty-six thousand, two
 hundred and fifty of them, not one brings anything at all like another. So,
 Croesus , man is entirely chance.

To me you seem to be very rich and to be king of many people, but I cannot
 answer your question before I learn that you ended your life well. The very
 rich man is not more fortunate than the man who has only his daily needs,
 unless he chances to end his life with all well. Many very rich men are
 unfortunate, many of moderate means are lucky.

The man who is very rich but unfortunate surpasses the lucky man in only two
 ways, while the lucky surpasses the rich but unfortunate in many. The rich
 man is more capable of fulfilling his appetites and of bearing a great
 disaster that falls upon him, and it is in these ways that he surpasses the
 other. The lucky man is not so able to support disaster or appetite as is
 the rich man, but his luck keeps these things away from him, and he is free
 from deformity and disease, has no experience of evils, and has fine
 children and good looks.

If besides all this he ends his life well, then he is the one whom you seek,
 the one worthy to be called fortunate. But refrain from calling him
 fortunate before he dies; call him lucky.

It is impossible for one who is only human to obtain all these things at the
 same time, just as no land is self-sufficient in what it produces. Each
 country has one thing but lacks another; whichever has the most is the best.
 Just so no human being is self-sufficient; each person has one thing but
 lacks another.

Whoever passes through life with the most and then dies agreeably is the one
 who, in my opinion, O King, deserves to bear this name. It is necessary to
 see how the end of every affair turns out, for the god promises fortune to
 many people and then utterly ruins them.”

By saying this, Solon did
 not at all please Croesus , who sent him away
 without regard for him, but thinking him a great fool, because he ignored
 the present good and told him to look to the end of every affair.

But after Solon 's departure
 divine retribution fell heavily on Croesus ; as I
 guess, because he supposed himself to be blessed beyond all other men.
 Directly, as he slept, he had a dream, which showed him the truth of the
 evil things which were going to happen concerning his son.

He had two sons, one of whom was ruined, for he was mute, but the other,
 whose name was Atys , was by far the best in every
 way of all of his peers. The dream showed this Atys 
 to Croesus , how he would lose him struck and killed
 by a spear of iron.

So Croesus , after he awoke and considered, being
 frightened by the dream, brought in a wife for his son, and although Atys was accustomed to command the Lydian armies, Croesus now would not
 send him out on any such enterprise, while he took the javelins and spears
 and all such things that men use for war from the men's apartments and piled
 them in his store room, lest one should fall on his son from where it
 hung.

Now while Croesus was
 occupied with the marriage of his son, a Phrygian 
 of the royal house came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , in great distress and with unclean hands. This man came to Croesus ' house, and asked to be purified according to
 the custom of the country; so Croesus purified him
 (

the Lydians have the same manner of purification
 as the Greeks ), and when he had done everything
 customary, he asked the Phrygian where he came
 from and who he was:

“Friend,” he said, “who are you, and from what place in Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia 
 Phrygia 
 do you come as my suppliant? And what man or woman have you killed?”
 “O King,” the man answered, “I am the son of Gordias the son of Midas , and my name is
 Adrastus ; I killed my brother accidentally, and
 I come here banished by my father and deprived of all.”

Croesus answered, “All of your family are my
 friends, and you have come to friends, where you shall lack nothing, staying
 in my house. As for your misfortune, bear it as lightly as possible and you
 will gain most.”

So Adrastus lived in Croesus ' house. About this same time a great monster
 of a boar appeared on the Mysian Olympus , who
 would come off that mountain and ravage the fields of the Mysians . The Mysians had
 gone up against him often; but they never did him any harm but were hurt by
 him themselves.

At last they sent messengers to Croesus , with this
 message: “O King, a great monster of a boar has appeared in the land, who is
 destroying our fields; for all our attempts, we cannot kill him; so now we
 ask you to send your son and chosen young men and dogs with us, so that we
 may drive him out of the country.”

Such was their request, but Croesus remembered the
 prophecy of his dream and answered them thus: “Do not mention my son again:
 I will not send him with you. He is newly married, and that is his present
 concern. But I will send chosen Lydians , and all
 the huntsmen, and I will tell those who go to be as eager as possible to
 help you to drive the beast out of the country.”

This was his answer, and the Mysians were satisfied with it. But the son of Croesus now entered, having heard what the Mysians had asked for; and when Croesus 
 refused to send his son with them, the young man said,

“Father, it was once thought very fine and noble for us to go to war and
 the chase and win renown; but now you have barred me from both of these,
 although you have seen neither cowardice nor lack of spirit in me. With what
 face can I now show myself whenever I go to and from the market-place?

What will the men of the city think of me, and what my newly wedded wife?
 With what kind of man will she think that she lives? So either let me go to
 the hunt, or show me by reasoning that what you are doing is best for me.”

“My son,” answered Croesus ,
 “I do this not because I have seen cowardice or anything unseemly in you,
 but the vision of a dream stood over me in my sleep, and told me that you
 would be short-lived, for you would be killed by a spear of iron.

It is because of that vision that I hurried your marriage and do not send
 you on any enterprise that I have in hand, but keep guard over you, so that
 perhaps I may rob death of you during my lifetime. You are my only son: for
 that other, since he is ruined, he doesn't exist for me.”

“Father,” the youth replied, “no one can blame you
 for keeping guard over me, when you have seen such a vision; but it is my
 right to show you what you do not perceive, and why you mistake the meaning
 of the dream.

You say that the dream told you that I should be killed by a spear of iron?
 But has a boar hands? Has it that iron spear which you dread? Had the dream
 said I should be killed by a tusk or some other thing proper to a boar, you
 would be right in acting as you act; but no, it was to be by a spear.
 Therefore, since it is not against men that we are to fight, let me go.”

Croesus answered, “My son, your judgment concerning
 the dream has somewhat reassured me; and being reassured by you, I change my
 thinking and permit you to go to the chase.”

Having said this, Croesus 
 sent for Adrastus the Phrygian and when he came addressed him thus: “ Adrastus , when you were struck by ugly misfortune, for which I do
 not blame you, it was I who cleansed you, and received and still keep you in
 my house, defraying all your keep.

Now then, as you owe me a return of good service for the good which I have
 done you, I ask that you watch over my son as he goes out to the chase. See
 that no thieving criminals meet you on the way, to do you harm.

Besides, it is only right that you too should go where you can win renown by
 your deeds. That is fitting for your father's son; and you are strong enough
 besides.”

“O King,” Adrastus 
 answered, “I would not otherwise have gone into such an arena. One so
 unfortunate as I should not associate with the prosperous among his peers;
 nor have I the wish so to do, and for many reasons I would have held back.

But now, since you urge it and I must please you (since I owe you a return
 of good service), I am ready to do this; and as for your son, in so far as I
 can protect him, look for him to come back unharmed.”

So when Adrastus had
 answered Croesus thus, they went out provided with
 chosen young men and dogs. When they came to Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece,
 Europe 
 Mount Olympus 
 , they hunted for the beast and, finding him, formed a circle and
 threw their spears at him:

then the guest called Adrastus , the man who had
 been cleansed of the deed of blood, missed the boar with his spear and hit
 the son of Croesus .

So Atys was struck by the spear and fulfilled the
 prophecy of the dream. One ran to tell Croesus what
 had happened, and coming to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 told the king of the fight and the fate of his son.

Distraught by the death of his son, Croesus cried out the more vehemently because the
 killer was one whom he himself had cleansed of blood,

and in his great and terrible grief at this mischance he called on Zeus by three names— Zeus the
 Purifier , Zeus of the Hearth , Zeus of Comrades : the first, because he wanted the god
 to know what evil his guest had done him; the second, because he had
 received the guest into his house and thus unwittingly entertained the
 murderer of his son; and the third, because he had found his worst enemy in
 the man whom he had sent as a protector.

Soon the Lydians came,
 bearing the corpse, with the murderer following after. He then came and
 stood before the body and gave himself up to Croesus , holding out his hands and telling him to kill him over
 the corpse, mentioning his former misfortune, and that on top of that he had
 destroyed the one who purified him, and that he was not fit to live.

On hearing this, Croesus took pity on Adrastus , though his own sorrow was so great, and said
 to him, “Friend, I have from you the entire penalty, since you sentence
 yourself to death. But it is not you that I hold the cause of this evil,
 except in so far as you were the unwilling doer of it, but one of the gods,
 the same one who told me long ago what was to be.”

So Croesus buried his own son in such manner as was
 fitting. But Adrastus , son of Gordias who was son of Midas , this Adrastus , the destroyer of his own brother and of the
 man who purified him, when the tomb was undisturbed by the presence of men,
 killed himself there by the sepulcher, seeing clearly now that he was the
 most heavily afflicted of all whom he knew.

After the loss of his son, Croesus remained in deep sorrow for two years. After this time,
 the destruction by Cyrus son of Cambyses of the sovereignty of Astyages 
 son of Cyaxares , and the growth of the power of the
 Persians , distracted Croesus from his mourning; and he determined, if he could, to
 forestall the increase of the Persian power
 before they became great.

Having thus determined, he at once made inquiries of the Greek and Libyan oracles, sending
 messengers separately to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , to Abai
 [22.9583,38.5917] (Perseus) 
 Abae 
 in Phocia , and to Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 , while others were despatched to Amphiaraus 
 and Trophonius , and others
 to Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic
 site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 in the Milesian country.

These are the Greek oracles to which Croesus sent for divination: and he told others to go
 inquire of Ammon in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 . His intent in sending was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so
 that, if they were found to know the truth, he might send again and ask if
 he should undertake an expedition against the Persians .

And when he sent to test these shrines he gave the
 Lydians these instructions: they were to keep
 track of the time from the day they left Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , and on the hundredth day inquire of the oracles what Croesus , king of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 , son of Alyattes , was doing then; then they
 were to write down whatever the oracles answered and bring the reports back
 to him.

Now none relate what answer was given by the rest of the oracles. But at
 Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , no sooner had the Lydians entered the
 hall to inquire of the god and asked the question with which they were
 entrusted, than the Pythian priestess uttered the
 following hexameter verses:

“I know the number of the grains of sand and the extent of
 the sea, 
 And understand the mute and hear the voiceless. 
 The smell has come to my senses of a strong-shelled tortoise 
 Boiling in a cauldron together with a lamb's flesh, 
 Under which is bronze and over which is bronze.”

Having written down this inspired utterance of the
 Pythian priestess, the Lydians went back to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 . When the others as well who had been sent to various places came
 bringing their oracles, Croesus then unfolded and
 examined all the writings. Some of them in no way satisfied him. But when he
 read the Delphian message, he acknowledged it
 with worship and welcome, considering Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 as the only true place of divination, because it had discovered what
 he himself had done.

For after sending his envoys to the oracles, he had thought up something
 which no conjecture could discover, and carried it out on the appointed day:
 namely, he had cut up a tortoise and a lamb, and then boiled them in a
 cauldron of bronze covered with a lid of the same.

Such, then, was the answer from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 delivered to Croesus . As to the reply which
 the Lydians received from the oracle of Amphiaraus when they had followed the due custom of
 the temple, I cannot say what it was, for nothing is recorded of it, except
 that Croesus believed that from this oracle too he
 had obtained a true answer.

After this, he tried to win the favor of the Delphian god with great sacrifices. He offered up
 three thousand beasts from all the kinds fit for sacrifice, and on a great
 pyre burnt couches covered with gold and silver, golden goblets, and purple
 cloaks and tunics; by these means he hoped the better to win the aid of the
 god, to whom he also commanded that every Lydian 
 sacrifice what he could.

When the sacrifice was over, he melted down a vast store of gold and made
 ingots of it, the longer sides of which were of six and the shorter of three
 palms' length, and the height was one palm. There were a hundred and
 seventeen of these. Four of them were of refined gold, each weighing two
 talents and a half; the rest were of gold with silver alloy, each of two
 talents' weight.

He also had a figure of a lion made of refined gold, weighing ten talents.
 When the temple of Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 was burnt, this lion fell from the ingots which were the base on
 which it stood; and now it is in the treasury of the Corinthians , but weighs only six talents and a half, for the fire
 melted away three and a half talents.

When these offerings were ready, Croesus sent them to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , with other gifts besides: namely, two very large bowls, one of gold
 and one of silver. The golden bowl stood to the right, the silver to the
 left of the temple entrance.

These too were removed about the time of the temple's burning, and now the
 golden bowl, which weighs eight and a half talents and twelve minae, is in the treasury
 of the Clazomenians , and the silver bowl at the
 corner of the forecourt of the temple. This bowl holds six hundred
 nine-gallon measures: for the Delphians use it
 for a mixing-bowl at the feast of the Divine Appearance.

It is said by the Delphians to be the work of
 Theodorus of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , and I agree with them, for it seems to me to be of no common
 workmanship. Moreover, Croesus sent four silver
 casks, which stand in the treasury of the Corinthians , and dedicated two sprinkling-vessels, one of gold,
 one of silver. The golden vessel bears the inscription “Given by the Lacedaemonians ,” who claim it as their offering. But
 they are wrong,

for this, too, is Croesus ' gift. The inscription
 was made by a certain Delphian , whose name I know
 but do not mention, out of his desire to please the Lacedaemonians . The figure of a boy, through whose hand the water
 runs, is indeed a Lacedaemonian gift; but they
 did not give either of the sprinkling-vessels.

Along with these Croesus sent, besides many other
 offerings of no great distinction, certain round basins of silver, and a
 female figure five feet high, which the Delphians 
 assert to be the statue of the woman who was Croesus ' baker. Moreover, he dedicated his own wife's necklaces
 and girdles.

Such were the gifts which he sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 . To Amphiaraus , of whose courage and fate
 he had heard, he dedicated a shield made entirely of gold and a spear all of
 solid gold, point and shaft alike. Both of these were until my time at Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) 
 Thebes 
 , in the Theban temple of Ismenian Apollo .

The Lydians who were to
 bring these gifts to the temples were instructed by Croesus to inquire of the oracles whether he was to send an army
 against the Persians and whether he was to add an
 army of allies.

When the Lydians came to the places where they
 were sent, they presented the offerings, and inquired of the oracles, in
 these words: “ Croesus , king of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 and other nations, believing that here are the only true places of
 divination among men, endows you with such gifts as your wisdom deserves.
 And now he asks you whether he is to send an army against the Persians , and whether he is to add an army of
 allies.”

Such was their inquiry; and the judgment given to Croesus by each of the two oracles was the same: namely, that if
 he should send an army against the Persians he
 would destroy a great empire. And they advised him to discover the mightiest
 of the Greeks and make them his friends.

When the divine answers had been brought back and
 Croesus learned of them, he was very pleased
 with the oracles. So, altogether expecting that he would destroy the kingdom
 of Cyrus , he sent once again to Delphi [22.5,38.483] (inhabited
 place), Phocis, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Pytho 
 and endowed the Delphians , whose number
 he had learned, with two gold staters apiece.

The Delphians , in return, gave Croesus and all Lydians the right of
 first consulting the oracle, exemption from all charges, the chief seats at
 festivals, and perpetual right of Delphian 
 citizenship to whoever should wish it.

After his gifts to the Delphians , Croesus made a third inquiry
 of the oracle, for he wanted to use it to the full, having received true
 answers from it; and the question which he asked was whether his sovereignty
 would be of long duration. To this the Pythian 
 priestess answered as follows:

“When the Medes have a mule as
 king, 
 Just then, tender-footed Lydian , by the
 stone-strewn Hermus 
 
 Flee and do not stay, and do not be ashamed to be a coward.”

When he heard these verses, Croesus was pleased with them above all, for he thought that a
 mule would never be king of the Medes instead of
 a man, and therefore that he and his posterity would never lose his empire.
 Then he sought very carefully to discover who the mightiest of the Greeks were, whom he should make his friends.

He found by inquiry that the chief peoples were the Lacedaemonians among those of Doric ,
 and the Athenians among those of Ionic stock. These races, Ionian and Dorian , were the foremost in
 ancient time, the first a Pelasgian and the
 second a Hellenic people. The Pelasgian race has never yet left its home; the Hellenic has wandered often and far.

For in the days of king Deucalion 
 it inhabited the land of Phthia [22.75,36.2667] (Perseus) 
 Phthia 
 , then the country called Histiaean , under
 Ossa and Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece, Europe 
 Olympus 
 , in the time of Dorus son of Hellen ; driven from this Histiaean country by the Cadmeans , it
 settled about Pindus in the territory called Macedonian ; from there again it migrated to Dryopia , and at last came from Dryopia into the Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnese 
 , where it took the name of Dorian .

What language the Pelasgians spoke I cannot say definitely. But if one may judge by
 those that still remain of the Pelasgians who
 live above the Tyrrheni 
 in the city of 
 Creston 
 —who were once neighbors of the people now called Dorians , and at that time inhabited the country which now is
 called Thessalian —

and of the Pelasgians who inhabited Placia and Scylace on the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Hellespont 
 , who came to live among the Athenians ,
 and by other towns too which were once Pelasgian 
 and afterwards took a different name: if, as I said, one may judge by these,
 the Pelasgians spoke a language which was not
 Greek .

If, then, all the Pelasgian stock spoke so, then
 the Attic nation, being of Pelasgian blood, must
 have changed its language too at the time when it became part of the Hellenes . For the people of 
 Creston 
 and Placia have a language of their own in
 common, which is not the language of their neighbors; and it is plain that
 they still preserve the manner of speech which they brought with them in
 their migration into the places where they live.

But the Hellenic stock,
 it seems clear to me, has always had the same language since its beginning;
 yet being, when separated from the Pelasgians ,
 few in number, they have grown from a small beginning to comprise a
 multitude of nations, chiefly because the Pelasgians and many other foreign peoples united themselves with
 them. Before that, I think, the Pelasgic stock
 nowhere increased much in number while it was of foreign speech.

Now of these two peoples, Croesus learned that the Attic was held in subjection and divided
 into factions by Pisistratus , son of Hippocrates , who at that time was sovereign over the
 Athenians . This Hippocrates was still a private man when a great marvel happened
 to him when he was at Olympia
 [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) 
 Olympia 
 to see the games: when he had offered the sacrifice, the vessels,
 standing there full of meat and water, boiled without fire until they boiled
 over.

Chilon the Lacedaemonian , who happened to be there and who saw this marvel,
 advised Hippocrates not to take to his house a wife
 who could bear children, but if he had one already, then to send her away,
 and if he had a son, to disown him.

Hippocrates refused to follow the advice of Chilon ; and afterward there was born to him this Pisistratus , who, when there was a feud between the
 Athenians of the coast under Megacles son of Alcmeon and the Athenians of the plain under Lycurgus son of Aristolaides , raised up
 a third faction, as he coveted the sovereign power. He collected partisans
 and pretended to champion the uplanders, and the following was his plan.

Wounding himself and his mules, he drove his wagon into the marketplace,
 with a story that he had escaped from his enemies, who would have killed him
 (so he said) as he was driving into the country. So he implored the people
 to give him a guard: and indeed he had won a reputation in his command of
 the army against the Megarians , when he had taken
 
 Nisaea 
 and performed other great exploits.

Taken in, the Athenian people gave him a guard of
 chosen citizens, whom Pisistratus made clubmen
 instead of spearmen: for the retinue that followed him carried wooden clubs.

These rose with Pisistratus and took the Acropolis;
 and Pisistratus ruled the Athenians , disturbing in no way the order of offices nor changing
 the laws, but governing the city according to its established constitution
 and arranging all things fairly and well.

But after a short time the partisans of Megacles and of Lycurgus made
 common cause and drove him out. In this way Pisistratus first got Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 and, as he had a sovereignty that was not yet firmly rooted, lost
 it. Presently his enemies who together had driven him out began to feud once
 more.

Then Megacles , harassed by factional strife, sent a
 message to Pisistratus offering him his daughter to
 marry and the sovereign power besides.

When this offer was accepted by Pisistratus , who
 agreed on these terms with Megacles , they devised a
 plan to bring Pisistratus back which, to my mind,
 was so exceptionally foolish that it is strange (since from old times the
 Hellenic stock has always been distinguished
 from foreign by its greater cleverness and its freedom from silly
 foolishness) that these men should devise such a plan to deceive Athenians , said to be the subtlest of the Greeks .

There was in the Paeanian deme a woman called Phya , three
 fingers short of six feet, four inches in height, and otherwise, too,
 well-formed. This woman they equipped in full armor and put in a chariot,
 giving her all the paraphernalia to make the most impressive spectacle, and
 so drove into the city; heralds ran before them, and when they came into
 town proclaimed as they were instructed:

“ Athenians , give a hearty welcome to Pisistratus , whom Athena 
 herself honors above all men and is bringing back to her own acropolis.” So
 the heralds went about proclaiming this; and immediately the report spread
 in the demes that Athena was bringing Pisistratus back, and the townsfolk, believing that
 the woman was the goddess herself, worshipped this human creature and
 welcomed Pisistratus .

Having got back his sovereignty in the manner which
 I have described, Pisistratus married Megacles ' daughter according to his agreement with
 Megacles . But as he already had young sons, and
 as the Alcmeonid family were said to be under a
 curse, he had no wish that his newly-wedded wife bear him children, and
 therefore had unusual intercourse with her.

At first the woman hid the fact: presently she told her mother (whether
 interrogated or not, I do not know) and the mother told her husband. Megacles was very angry to be dishonored by Pisistratus ; and in his anger he patched up his
 quarrel with the other faction. Pisistratus ,
 learning what was going on, went alone away from the country altogether, and
 came to Eretria
 [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) 
 Eretria 
 where he deliberated with his sons.

The opinion of Hippias prevailing, that they should
 recover the sovereignty, they set out collecting contributions from all the
 cities that owed them anything. Many of these gave great amounts, the Thebans more than any,

and in course of time, not to make a long story, everything was ready for
 their return: for they brought Argive mercenaries
 from the Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnese 
 , and there joined them on his own initiative a man of Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Naxos 
 called Lygdamis , who was most keen in their
 cause and brought them money and men.

So after ten years they set out from Eretria [23.8083,38.3917]
 (Perseus) 
 Eretria 
 and returned home. The first place in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Attica 
 which they took and held was Marathon: and while encamped there they
 were joined by their partisans from the city, and by others who flocked to
 them from the country—demesmen who loved the rule of one more than freedom.
 These, then, assembled;

but the Athenians in the city, who while Pisistratus was collecting money and afterwards when
 he had taken Marathon took no notice of it, did now, and when they learned
 that he was marching from Marathon against Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 , they set out to attack him.

They came out with all their force to meet the returning exiles. Pisistratus ' men encountered the enemy when they had
 reached the temple of Pallenian Athena in their
 march from Marathon towards the city, and encamped face to face with them.

There (by the providence of heaven) Pisistratus met
 Amphilytus the Acarnanian , a diviner, who came to him and prophesied as follows
 in hexameter verses: 
 “The cast is made, the net spread, 
 The tunny-fish shall flash in the moonlit night.”

So Amphilytus spoke, being
 inspired; Pisistratus understood him and, saying
 that he accepted the prophecy, led his army against the enemy. The Athenians of the city had by this time had
 breakfast, and after breakfast some were dicing and some were sleeping: they
 were attacked by Pisistratus ' men and put to
 flight.

So they fled, and Pisistratus devised a very subtle
 plan to keep them scattered and prevent them assembling again: he had his
 sons mount and ride forward: they overtook the fugitives and spoke to them
 as they were instructed by Pisistratus , telling
 them to take heart and each to depart to his home.

The Athenians did, and by
 this means Pisistratus gained Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 for the third time, rooting his sovereignty in a strong guard and
 revenue collected both from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 and from the district of the river Strymon , and he took hostage the sons of the Athenians who remained and did not leave the city at once, and
 placed these in Nisos Naxos
 [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Naxos 
 .

(He had conquered Nisos Naxos
 [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Naxos 
 too and put Lygdamis in charge.) And
 besides this, he purified the island of Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) 
 Delos 
 as a result of oracles, and this is how he did it: he removed all
 the dead that were buried in ground within sight of the temple and conveyed
 them to another part of Delos
 [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) 
 Delos 
 .

So Pisistratus was sovereign of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 : and as for the Athenians , some had
 fallen in the battle, and some, with the Alcmeonids , were exiles from their native land.

So Croesus learned that at
 that time such problems were oppressing the Athenians , but that the Lacedaemonians 
 had escaped from the great evils and had mastered the Tegeans in war. In the kingship of Leon 
 and Hegesicles at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , the Lacedaemonians were successful in
 all their other wars but met disaster only against the Tegeans .

Before this they had been the worst-governed of nearly all the Hellenes and had had no dealings with strangers, but
 they changed to good government in this way: Lycurgus , a man of reputation among the Spartans , went to the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 . As soon as he entered the hall, the priestess said in hexameter:

You have come to my rich temple, Lycurgus , 
 A man dear to Zeus and to all who have Olympian homes. 
 I am in doubt whether to pronounce you man or god, 
 But I think rather you are a god, Lycurgus .

Some say that the Pythia also declared to him the
 constitution that now exists at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , but the Lacedaemonians themselves say
 that Lycurgus brought it from Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe 
 Crete 
 when he was guardian of his nephew Leobetes , the Spartan king.

Once he became guardian, he changed all the laws and took care that no one
 transgressed the new ones. Lycurgus afterwards
 established their affairs of war: the sworn divisions, the bands of thirty,
 the common meals; also the ephors and the council of elders.

Thus they changed their bad laws to good ones, and
 when Lycurgus died they built him a temple and now
 worship him greatly. Since they had good land and many men, they immediately
 flourished and prospered. They were not content to live in peace, but,
 confident that they were stronger than the Arcadians , asked the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 about gaining all the Arcadian land.

She replied in hexameter: 
 You ask me for Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece,
 Europe 
 Arcadia 
 ? You ask too much; I grant it not. 
 There are many men in Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece,
 Europe 
 Arcadia 
 , eaters of acorns, 
 Who will hinder you. But I grudge you not. 
 I will give you Tegea
 [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 to beat with your feet in dancing, 
 And its fair plain to measure with a rope.

When the Lacedaemonians heard the oracle
 reported, they left the other Arcadians alone and
 marched on Tegea [22.4,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 carrying chains, relying on the deceptive oracle. They were
 confident they would enslave the Tegeans , but
 they were defeated in battle.

Those taken alive were bound in the very chains they had brought with them,
 and they measured the Tegean plain with a
 rope by working the fields. The chains in which they were
 bound were still preserved in my day, hanging up at the temple of Athena Alea .

In the previous war the Lacedaemonians continually fought unsuccessfully against the
 Tegeans , but in the time of Croesus and the kingship of Anaxandrides 
 and Ariston in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 the Spartans had gained the upper hand.
 This is how:

when they kept being defeated by the Tegeans ,
 they sent ambassadors to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 to ask which god they should propitiate to prevail against the Tegeans in war. The Pythia 
 responded that they should bring back the bones of Orestes , son of Agamemnon .

When they were unable to discover Orestes ' tomb,
 they sent once more to the god to ask where he was buried. The Pythia responded in hexameter to the messengers:

There is a place Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 in the smooth plain of Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece,
 Europe 
 Arcadia 
 , 
 Where two winds blow under strong compulsion. 
 Blow lies upon blow, woe upon woe. 
 There the life-giving earth covers the son of Agamemnon . 
 Bring him back, and you shall be lord of Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 .

When the Lacedaemonians heard this, they were no
 closer to discovery, though they looked everywhere. Finally it was found by
 Lichas , who was one of the Spartans who are called “doers of good deeds.”. These men are
 those citizens who retire from the knights, the five oldest each year. They
 have to spend the year in which they retire from the knights being sent here
 and there by the Spartan state, never resting in
 their efforts.

It was Lichas , one of these
 men, who found the tomb in Tegea
 [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 by a combination of luck and skill. At that time there was free
 access to Tegea [22.4,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 , so he went into a blacksmith's shop and watched iron being forged,
 standing there in amazement at what he saw done.

The smith perceived that he was amazed, so he stopped what he was doing and
 said, “My Laconian guest, if you had seen what I
 saw, then you would really be amazed, since you marvel so at ironworking.

I wanted to dig a well in the courtyard here, and in my digging I hit upon a
 coffin twelve feet long. I could not believe that there had ever been men
 taller than now, so I opened it and saw that the corpse was just as long as
 the coffin. I measured it and then reburied it.” So the smith told what he
 had seen, and Lichas thought about what was said
 and reckoned that this was Orestes , according to
 the oracle.

In the smith's two bellows he found the winds, hammer and anvil were blow
 upon blow, and the forging of iron was woe upon woe, since he figured that
 iron was discovered as an evil for the human race.

After reasoning this out, he went back to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 and told the Lacedaemonians everything.
 They made a pretence of bringing a charge against him and banishing him.
 Coming to Tegea [22.4,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Tegea 
 , he explained his misfortune to the smith and tried to rent the
 courtyard, but the smith did not want to lease it.

Finally he persuaded him and set up residence there. He dug up the grave and
 collected the bones, then hurried off to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 with them. Ever since then the Spartans 
 were far superior to the Tegeans whenever they
 met each other in battle. By the time of Croesus '
 inquiry, the Spartans had subdued most of the
 Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnese 
 .

Croesus , then, aware of all this, sent messengers
 to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 with gifts to ask for an alliance, having instructed them what to
 say. They came and said:

“ Croesus , King of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 and other nations, has sent us with this message: ‘ Lacedaemonians , the god has declared that I should
 make the Greek my friend; now, therefore, since I
 learn that you are the leaders of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , I invite you, as the oracle bids; I would like to be your friend
 and ally, without deceit or guile.’”

Croesus proposed this through his messengers; and
 the Lacedaemonians , who had already heard of the
 oracle given to Croesus , welcomed the coming of the
 Lydians and swore to be his friends and
 allies; and indeed they were obliged by certain benefits which they had
 received before from the king.

For the Lacedaemonians had sent to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 to buy gold, intending to use it for the statue of Apollo which now stands on Thornax 
 
 in Laconia [22.583,37]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Laconia 
 ; and Croesus , when they offered to buy it,
 made them a free gift of it.

For this reason, and because he had chosen them as
 his friends before all the other Greeks , the
 Lacedaemonians accepted the alliance. So they
 declared themselves ready to serve him when he should require, and moreover
 they made a bowl of bronze, engraved around the rim outside with figures,
 and large enough to hold twenty-seven hundred gallons, and brought it with
 the intention of making a gift in return to Croesus .

This bowl never reached Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , for which two reasons are given: the Lacedaemonians say that when the bowl was near Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 on its way to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , the Samians descended upon them in
 warships and carried it off;

but the Samians themselves say that the Lacedaemonians who were bringing the bowl, coming
 too late, and learning that Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and Croesus were taken, sold it in Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 to certain private men, who set it up in the the temple of Hera . And it may be that the sellers of the bowl, when
 they returned to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , said that they had been robbed of it by the Samians . Such are the tales about the bowl.

Croesus , mistaking the meaning of the oracle,
 invaded Cappadocia [36,38.5]
 (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cappadocia 
 , expecting to destroy Cyrus and the Persian power.

But while he was preparing to march against the Persians , a certain Lydian , who was
 already held to be a wise man, and who, from the advice which he now gave,
 won a great name among the Lydians , advised him
 as follows (his name was Sandanis ): “O King, you
 are getting ready to march against men who wear trousers of leather and
 whose complete wardrobe is of leather, and who eat not what they like but
 what they have; for their land is stony.

Further, they do not use wine, but drink water, have no figs to eat, or
 anything else that is good. Now if you conquer them, of what will you
 deprive them, since they have nothing? But if on the other hand you are
 conquered, then look how many good things you will lose; for once they have
 tasted of our blessings they will cling so tightly to them that nothing will
 pry them away.

For myself, then, I thank the gods that they do not put it in the heads of
 the Persians to march against the Lydians .” Sandanis spoke
 thus but he did not persuade Croesus . Indeed,
 before they conquered the Lydians , the Persians had no luxury and no comforts.

Now the Cappadocians are
 called by the Greeks Syrians , and these Syrians before the Persian rule were subjects of the Medes , and, at this time, of Cyrus .

For the boundary of the Median and Lydian empires
 was the river Halys River (river),
 Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 , which flows from the Armenian mountains 
 first through Cilicia
 [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cilicia 
 and afterwards between the Matieni on the
 right and the Phrygians on the other hand; then,
 passing these and still flowing north, it separates the Cappadocian Syrians on the right from the Paphlagonians on the left.

Thus the Halys River (river),
 Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 river cuts off nearly the whole of the lower part of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 from the Cyprian to the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Euxine sea 
 . Here is the narrowest neck of all this land; the length of the
 journey across for a man traveling unencumbered is five days.

The reasons for Croesus '
 expedition against Cappadocia
 [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cappadocia 
 were these: he desired to gain territory in addition to his own, and
 (these were the chief causes) he trusted the oracle and wished to avenge
 Astyages on Cyrus ; for
 Cyrus , son of Cambyses ,
 had conquered Astyages and held him in subjection.

Now Astyages , son of Cyaxares and the king of Media, was Croesus ' brother-in-law: and this is how he came to be so.

A tribe of wandering Scythians separated itself
 from the rest, and escaped into Median territory. This was then ruled by
 Cyaxares , son of Phraortes , son of Deioces . Cyaxares at first treated the Scythians kindly, as suppliants for his mercy; and, as he had a
 high regard for them, he entrusted boys to their tutelage to be taught their
 language and the skill of archery.

As time went on, it happened that the Scythians ,
 who were accustomed to go hunting and always to bring something back, once
 had taken nothing, and when they returned empty-handed, Cyaxares treated them very roughly and contemptuously (being, as
 appears from this, prone to anger).

The Scythians , feeling themselves wronged by the
 treatment they had from Cyaxares , planned to take
 one of the boys who were their pupils and cut him in pieces; then, dressing
 the flesh as they were accustomed to dress the animals which they killed, to
 bring and give it to Cyaxares as if it were the
 spoils of the hunt; and after that, to make their way with all speed to
 Alyattes son of Sadyattes at Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 . All this they did.

Cyaxares and the guests who ate with him dined on
 the boy's flesh, and the Scythians , having done
 as they planned, fled to Alyattes for protection.

After this, since Alyattes 
 would not give up the Scythians to Cyaxares at his demand, there was war between the
 Lydians and the Medes for five years; each won many victories over the other, and
 once they fought a battle by night.

They were still warring with equal success, when it happened, at an
 encounter which occurred in the sixth year, that during the battle the day
 was suddenly turned to night. Thales of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 had foretold this loss of daylight to the Ionians , fixing it within the year in which the change did indeed
 happen.

So when the Lydians and Medes saw the day turned to night, they stopped fighting, and
 both were the more eager to make peace. Those who reconciled them were Syennesis the Cilician and
 Labynetus the Babylonian ;

they brought it about that there should be a sworn agreement and a compact
 of marriage between them: they judged that Alyattes 
 should give his daughter Aryenis to Astyages , son of Cyaxares ;
 for without strong constraint agreements will not keep their force.

These nations make sworn compacts as do the Greeks ; and besides, when they cut the skin of their arms, they
 lick each other's blood.

Cyrus had subjugated this Astyages , then, Cyrus ' own mother's
 father, for the reason which I shall presently disclose.

Having this reason to quarrel with Cyrus , Croesus sent to ask the oracles if he should march
 against the Persians ; and when a deceptive answer
 came he thought it to be favorable to him, and so led his army into the
 Persian territory.

When he came to the river Halys
 River (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 , he transported his army across it—by the bridges which were there
 then, as I maintain; but the general belief of the Greeks is that Thales of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 got the army across.

The story is that, as Croesus did not know how his
 army could pass the river (as the aforesaid bridges did not yet exist then),
 Thales , who was in the encampment, made the
 river, which flowed on the left of the army, also flow on the right, in the
 following way.

Starting from a point on the river upstream from the camp, he dug a deep
 semi-circular trench, so that the stream, turned from its ancient course,
 would flow in the trench to the rear of the camp and, passing it, would
 issue into its former bed, with the result that as soon as the river was
 thus divided into two, both channels could be forded.

Some even say that the ancient channel dried up altogether. But I do not
 believe this; for in that case, how did they pass the river when they were
 returning?

Passing over with his army, Croesus then came to the part of Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cappadocia 
 called Pteria
 [35.33,39.733] (deserted settlement), Yozgat, Ic Anadolu, Turkey,
 Asia 
 Pteria 
 (it is the strongest part of this country and lies on the line of
 the city of Sinope
 [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) 
 Sinope 
 on the Black Sea [38,42]
 (sea) 
 Euxine sea 
 ), where he encamped and devastated the farms of the Syrians ;

and he took and enslaved the city of the Pterians , and took all the places around it also, and drove the
 Syrians from their homes, though they had done
 him no harm. Cyrus , mustering his army, advanced to
 oppose Croesus , gathering to him all those who
 lived along the way.

But before beginning his march, he sent heralds to the Ionians to try to draw them away from Croesus . The Ionians would not be
 prevailed on; but when Cyrus arrived and encamped
 face to face with Croesus , there in the Pterian country the armies had a trial of strength.

The fighting was fierce, many on both sides fell, and at nightfall they
 disengaged with neither side victorious. The two sides contended thus.

Croesus was not content with the size of his force,
 for his army that had engaged was far smaller than that of Cyrus ; therefore, when on the day after the battle Cyrus did not try attacking again, he marched away to
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , intending to summon the Egyptians in
 accordance with their treaty

(for before making an alliance with the Lacedaemonians he had made one also with Amasis king of Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ), and to send for the Babylonians also
 (for with these too he had made an alliance, Labynetus at this time being their sovereign),

and to summon the Lacedaemonians to join him at
 a fixed time. He had in mind to muster all these forces and assemble his own
 army, then to wait until the winter was over and march against the Persians at the beginning of spring.

With such an intention, as soon as he returned to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , he sent heralds to all his allies, summoning them to assemble at
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 in five months' time; and as for the soldiers whom he had with him,
 who had fought with the Persians , all of them who
 were mercenaries he discharged, never thinking that after a contest so equal
 Cyrus would march against Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 .

This was how Croesus 
 reasoned. Meanwhile, snakes began to swarm in the outer part of the city;
 and when they appeared the horses, leaving their accustomed pasture,
 devoured them. When Croesus saw this he thought it
 a portent, and so it was.

He at once sent to the homes of the Telmessian 
 interpreters, to inquire concerning it; but though his
 messengers came and learned from the Telmessians 
 what the portent meant, they could not bring back word to Croesus , for he was a prisoner before they could make their
 voyage back to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 .

Nonetheless, this was the judgment of the Telmessians : that Croesus must expect a
 foreign army to attack his country, and that when it came, it would
 subjugate the inhabitants of the land: for the snake, they said, was the
 offspring of the land, but the horse was an enemy and a foreigner. This was
 the answer which the Telmessians gave Croesus , knowing as yet nothing of the fate of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and of the king himself; but when they gave it, Croesus was already taken.

When Croesus marched away
 after the battle in the Pterian country, Cyrus , learning that Croesus 
 had gone intending to disband his army, deliberated and perceived that it
 would be opportune for him to march quickly against Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , before the power of the Lydians could be
 assembled again.

This he decided, and this he did immediately; he marched his army into Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 and so came himself to bring the news of it to Croesus . All had turned out contrary to Croesus ' expectation, and he was in a great quandary;
 nevertheless, he led out the Lydians to battle.

Now at this time there was no nation in Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 more valiant or warlike than the Lydian .
 It was their custom to fight on horseback, carrying long spears, and they
 were skillful at managing horses.

So the armies met in the plain, wide and bare, that
 is before the city of Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 : the Hyllus and other rivers flow across
 it and run violently together into the greatest of them, which is called
 Hermus (this flows from the mountain sacred to
 the Mother Dindymene 
 and empties into the sea near the
 city of Foca [26.75,38.666]
 (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 ).

When Cyrus saw the Lydians maneuvering their battle-lines here, he was afraid of
 their cavalry, and therefore at the urging of one Harpagus , a Mede , he did as I shall
 describe. Assembling all the camels that followed his army bearing food and
 baggage, he took off their burdens and mounted men upon them equipped like
 cavalrymen; having equipped them, he ordered them to advance before his army
 against Croesus ' cavalry; he directed the infantry
 to follow the camels, and placed all his cavalry behind the infantry.

When they were all in order, he commanded them to kill all the other Lydians who came in their way, and spare none, but
 not to kill Croesus himself, even if he should
 defend himself against capture.

Such was his command. The reason for his posting the camels to face the
 cavalry was this: horses fear camels and can endure neither the sight nor
 the smell of them; this then was the intention of his maneuver, that Croesus ' cavalry, on which the Lydian relied to distinguish himself, might be of no use.

So when battle was joined, as soon as the horses smelled and saw the camels
 they turned to flight, and all Croesus ' hope was
 lost.

Nevertheless the Lydians were no cowards; when
 they saw what was happening, they leaped from their horses and fought the
 Persians on foot. Many of both armies fell; at
 length the Lydians were routed and driven within
 their city wall, where they were besieged by the Persians .

So then they were besieged. But Croesus , supposing that the siege would last a long time, again
 sent messengers from the city to his allies; whereas the former envoys had
 been sent to summon them to muster at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 in five months' time, these were to announce that Croesus was besieged and to plead for help as quickly as
 possible.

So he sent to the Lacedaemonians as well as to the rest of the allies. Now at this
 very time the Spartans themselves were feuding
 with the Argives over the country called Thyrea ;

for this was a part of the Argive territory
 which the Lacedaemonians had cut off and
 occupied. (All the land towards the west, as far as Malea , belonged then to the Argives ,
 and not only the mainland, but the island of Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe 
 Cythera 
 and the other islands.)

The Argives came out to save their territory from
 being cut off, then after debate the two armies agreed that three hundred of
 each side should fight, and whichever party won would possess the land. The
 rest of each army was to go away to its own country and not be present at
 the battle, since, if the armies remained on the field, the men of either
 party might render assistance to their comrades if they saw them losing.

Having agreed, the armies drew off, and picked men of each side remained and
 fought. Neither could gain advantage in the battle; at last, only three out
 of the six hundred were left, Alcenor and Chromios of the Argives ,
 Othryades of the Lacedaemonians : these three were left alive at nightfall.

Then the two Argives , believing themselves
 victors, ran to Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) 
 Argos 
 ; but Othryades the Lacedaemonian , after stripping the Argive dead and taking the arms to his camp, waited at his
 position. On the second day both armies came to learn the issue.

For a while both claimed the victory, the Argives 
 arguing that more of their men had survived, the Lacedaemonians showing that the Argives had fled, while their man had stood his ground and
 stripped the enemy dead.

At last from arguing they fell to fighting; many of both sides fell, but the
 Lacedaemonians gained the victory. The Argives , who before had worn their hair long by
 fixed custom, shaved their heads ever after and made a law, with a curse
 added to it, that no Argive grow his hair, and no
 Argive woman wear gold, until they recovered
 Thyreae ;

and the Lacedaemonians made a contrary law, that
 they wear their hair long ever after; for until now they had not worn it so.
 Othryades , the lone survivor of the three
 hundred, was ashamed, it is said, to return to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 after all the men of his company had been killed, and killed himself
 on the spot at Thyreae .

The Sardian herald came
 after this had happened to the Spartans to ask
 for their help for Croesus , now besieged;
 nonetheless, when they heard the herald, they prepared to send help; but
 when they were already equipped and their ships ready, a second message came
 that the fortification of the Lydians was taken
 and Croesus a prisoner. Then, though very sorry
 indeed, they ceased their efforts.

This is how Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 was taken. When Croesus had been besieged
 for fourteen days, Cyrus sent horsemen around in
 his army to promise to reward whoever first mounted the wall.

After this the army made an assault, but with no success. Then, when all the
 others were stopped, a certain Mardian 
 called Hyroeades attempted to mount by a part of the
 acropolis where no guard had been set, since no one feared that it could be
 taken by an attack made here.

For here the height on which the acropolis stood is sheer and unlikely to be
 assaulted; this was the only place where Meles the
 former king of Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 had not carried the lion which his concubine had borne him, the
 Telmessians having declared that if this lion
 were carried around the walls, Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 could never be taken. Meles then carried
 the lion around the rest of the wall of the acropolis where it could be
 assaulted, but neglected this place, because the height was sheer and defied
 attack. It is on the side of the city which faces towards Tmolus .

The day before, then, Hyroeades , this Mardian , had seen one of the Lydians come down by this part of the acropolis after a helmet
 that had fallen down, and fetch it; he took note of this and considered it.

And now he climbed up himself, and other Persians 
 after him. Many ascended, and thus Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 was taken and all the city sacked.

I will now relate what happened to Croesus himself. He had a son, whom I have already mentioned,
 fine in other respects, but mute. Now in his days of prosperity past Croesus had done all that he could for his son; and
 besides resorting to other devices he had sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 to inquire of the oracle concerning him.

The Pythian priestess answered him thus: 
 “ Lydian , king of many, greatly
 foolish Croesus , 
 Wish not to hear in the palace the voice often prayed for 
 Of your son speaking. 
 It were better for you that he remain mute as before; 
 For on an unlucky day shall he first speak.”

So at the taking of the fortification a certain Persian , not knowing who Croesus was,
 came at him meaning to kill him. Croesus saw him
 coming, but because of the imminent disaster he was past caring, and it made
 no difference to him whether he were struck and killed.

But this mute son, when he saw the Persian coming
 on, in fear and distress broke into speech and cried, “Man, do not kill
 Croesus !” This was the first word he uttered,
 and after that for all the rest of his life he had power of speech.

The Persians gained Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and took Croesus prisoner. Croesus had ruled fourteen years and been besieged
 fourteen days. Fulfilling the oracle, he had destroyed his own great empire.
 The Persians took him and brought him to Cyrus ,

who erected a pyre and mounted Croesus atop it,
 bound in chains, with twice seven sons of the Lydians beside him. Cyrus may have
 intended to sacrifice him as a victory-offering to some god, or he may have
 wished to fulfill a vow, or perhaps he had heard that Croesus was pious and put him atop the pyre to find out if some
 divinity would deliver him from being burned alive.

So Cyrus did this. As Croesus stood on the pyre, even though he was in such a wretched
 position it occurred to him that Solon had spoken
 with god's help when he had said that no one among the living is fortunate.
 When this occurred to him, he heaved a deep sigh and groaned aloud after
 long silence, calling out three times the name “ Solon .”

Cyrus heard and ordered the interpreters to ask
 Croesus who he was invoking. They approached and
 asked, but Croesus kept quiet at their questioning,
 until finally they forced him and he said, “I would prefer to great wealth
 his coming into discourse with all despots.” Since what he said was
 unintelligible, they again asked what he had said,

persistently harassing him. He explained that first Solon the Athenian had come and seen
 all his fortune and spoken as if he despised it. Now everything had turned
 out for him as Solon had said, speaking no more of
 him than of every human being, especially those who think themselves
 fortunate. While Croesus was relating all this, the
 pyre had been lit and the edges were on fire.

When Cyrus heard from the interpreters what Croesus said, he relented and considered that he, a
 human being, was burning alive another human being, one his equal in good
 fortune. In addition, he feared retribution, reflecting how there is nothing
 stable in human affairs. He ordered that the blazing fire be extinguished as
 quickly as possible, and that Croesus and those
 with him be taken down, but despite their efforts they could not master the
 fire.

Then the Lydians say that
 Croesus understood Cyrus ' change of heart, and when he saw everyone trying to
 extinguish the fire but unable to check it, he invoked Apollo , crying out that if Apollo had
 ever been given any pleasing gift by him, let him offer help and deliver him
 from the present evil.

Thus he in tears invoked the god, and suddenly out of a clear and windless
 sky clouds gathered, a storm broke, and it rained violently, extinguishing
 the pyre. Thus Cyrus perceived that Croesus was dear to god and a good man. He had him
 brought down from the pyre and asked,

“ Croesus , what man persuaded you to wage war
 against my land and become my enemy instead of my friend?” He replied, “O
 King, I acted thus for your good fortune, but for my own ill fortune. The
 god of the Hellenes is responsible for these
 things, inciting me to wage war.

No one is so foolish as to choose war over peace. In peace sons bury their
 fathers, in war fathers bury their sons. But I suppose it was dear to the
 divinity that this be so.”

Croesus said this, and Cyrus freed him and made him sit near and was very considerate to
 him, and both he and all that were with him were astonished when they looked
 at Croesus . He for his part was silent, deep in
 thought.

Presently he turned and said (for he saw the Persians sacking the city of the Lydians ), “O King, am I to say to you what is in my mind now, or
 keep silent?” When Cyrus urged him to speak up
 boldly, Croesus asked,

“The multitude there, what is it at which they are so busily engaged?”
 “They are plundering your city,” said Cyrus , “and
 carrying off your possessions.” “No,” Croesus 
 answered, “not my city, and not my possessions; for I no longer have any
 share of all this; it is your wealth that they are pillaging.”

Cyrus thought about what Croesus had said and, telling the rest to withdraw, asked Croesus what fault he saw in what was being done.
 “Since the gods have made me your slave,” replied the Lydian , “it is right that if I have any further insight I should
 point it out to you.

The Persians being by nature violent men are
 poor; so if you let them seize and hold great possessions, you may expect
 that he who has got most will revolt against you. Therefore do this, if you
 like what I say.

Have men of your guard watch all the gates; let them take the spoil from
 those who are carrying it out, and say that it must be paid as a tithe to
 Zeus . Thus you shall not be hated by them for
 taking their wealth by force, and they, recognizing that you act justly,
 will give up the spoil willingly.”

When Cyrus heard this, he
 was exceedingly pleased, for he believed the advice good; and praising him
 greatly, and telling his guard to act as Croesus 
 had advised, he said: “ Croesus , now that you, a
 king, are determined to act and to speak with integrity, ask me directly for
 whatever favor you like.”

“Master,” said Croesus , “you will most gratify me
 if you will let me send these chains of mine to that god of the Greeks whom I especially honored and to ask him if
 it is his way to deceive those who serve him well.” When Cyrus asked him what grudge against the god led him to make this
 request,

Croesus repeated to him the story of all his own
 aspirations, and the answers of the oracles, and more particularly his
 offerings, and how the oracle had encouraged him to attack the Persians ; and so saying he once more insistently
 pled that he be allowed to reproach the god for this. At this Cyrus smiled, and replied, “This I will grant you,
 Croesus , and whatever other favor you may ever
 ask me.”

When Croesus heard this, he sent Lydians to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , telling them to lay his chains on the doorstep of the temple, and
 to ask the god if he were not ashamed to have persuaded Croesus to attack the Persians ,
 telling him that he would destroy Cyrus ' power; of
 which power (they were to say, showing the chains) these were the
 first-fruits. They should ask this; and further, if it were the way of the
 Greek gods to be ungrateful.

When the Lydians came,
 and spoke as they had been instructed, the priestess (it is said) made the
 following reply. “No one may escape his lot, not even a god. Croesus has paid for the sin of his ancestor of the
 fifth generation before, who was led by the guile of a woman to kill his
 master, though he was one of the guard of the Heraclidae , and who took to himself the royal state of that
 master, to which he had no right.

And it was the wish of Loxias that the evil lot of
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 fall in the lifetime of Croesus ' sons, not
 in his own; but he could not deflect the Fates.

Yet as far as they gave in, he did accomplish his wish and favor Croesus : for he delayed the taking of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 for three years. And let Croesus know this:
 that although he is now taken, it is by so many years later than the
 destined hour. And further, Loxias saved Croesus from burning.

But as to the oracle that was given to him, Croesus 
 is wrong to complain concerning it. For Loxias 
 declared to him that if he led an army against the Persians , he would destroy a great empire. Therefore he ought, if
 he had wanted to plan well, to have sent and asked whether the god spoke of
 Croesus ' or of Cyrus '
 empire. But he did not understood what was spoken, or make further inquiry:
 for which now let him blame himself.

When he asked that last question of the oracle and Loxias gave him that answer concerning the mule, even that Croesus did not understand. For that mule was in fact
 Cyrus , who was the son of two parents not of the
 same people, of whom the mother was better and the father inferior:

for she was a Mede and the daughter of Astyages king of the Medes ;
 but he was a Persian and a subject of the Medes and although in all respects her inferior he
 married this lady of his.” This was the answer of the priestess to the Lydians . They carried it to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 and told Croesus , and when he heard it, he
 confessed that the sin was not the god's, but his. And this is the story of
 Croesus ' rule, and of the first overthrow of
 Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe 
 Ionia 
 .

There are many offerings of Croesus ' in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , and not only those of which I have spoken. There is a golden tripod
 at Thebes [23.3333,38.325]
 (Perseus) 
 Thebes 
 in Boeotia (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Boeotia 
 , which he dedicated to Apollo of Ismenus ; at Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege
 kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 
 there are the oxen of gold and the
 greater part of the pillars; and in the temple of Proneia at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , a golden shield. All these
 survived to my lifetime; but other of the offerings were destroyed.

And the offerings of Croesus at Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic
 site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 of the Milesians , as I learn by inquiry,
 are equal in weight and like those at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 . Those which he dedicated at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 and the shrine of Amphiaraus were his own,
 the first-fruits of the wealth inherited from his father; the rest came from
 the estate of an enemy who had headed a faction against Croesus before he became king, and conspired to win the throne of
 Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 for Pantaleon .

This Pantaleon was a son of Alyattes , and half-brother of Croesus :
 Croesus was Alyattes '
 son by a Carian and Pantaleon by an Ionian mother.

So when Croesus gained the sovereignty by his
 father's gift, he put the man who had conspired against him to death by
 drawing him across a carding-comb, and first confiscated his estate, then
 dedicated it as and where I have said. This is all that I shall say of Croesus ' offerings.

There are not many marvellous things in Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 to record, in comparison with other countries, except the gold dust
 that comes down from Tmolus .

But there is one building to be seen there which is much the greatest of
 all, except those of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and Babylon [44.4,32.55]
 (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 . In Lydia [27.516,38.683]
 (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 is the tomb of Alyattes , the father of
 Croesus , the base of which is made of great
 stones and the rest of it of mounded earth. It was built by the men of the
 market and the craftsmen and the prostitutes.

There survived until my time five corner-stones set on the top of the tomb,
 and in these was cut the record of the work done by each group: and
 measurement showed that the prostitutes' share of the work was the greatest.

All the daughters of the common people of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 ply the trade of prostitutes, to collect dowries, until they can get
 themselves husbands; and they themselves offer themselves in marriage.

Now this tomb has a circumference of thirteen hundred and ninety yards, and
 its breadth is above four hundred and forty yards; and there is a great lake
 hard by the tomb, which, the Lydians say, is fed
 by ever-flowing springs; it is called the Gygaean
 lake . Such then is this tomb.

The customs of the Lydians are like those of the Greeks ,
 except that they make prostitutes of their female children. They were the
 first men whom we know who coined and used gold and silver currency; and
 they were the first to sell by retail.

And, according to what they themselves say, the games now in use among them
 and the Greeks were invented by the Lydians : these, they say, were invented among them
 at the time when they colonized Etruria (region (general)), Italy, Europe Tyrrhenia .
 This is their story:

In the reign of Atys son of Manes there was great
 scarcity of food in all Lydia
 [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 . For a while the Lydians bore this with
 what patience they could; presently, when the famine did not abate, they
 looked for remedies, and different plans were devised by different men. Then
 it was that they invented the games of dice and knuckle-bones and ball and
 all other forms of game except dice, which the Lydians do not claim to have discovered.

Then, using their discovery to lighten the famine, every other day they
 would play for the whole day, so that they would not have to look for food,
 and the next day they quit their play and ate. This was their way of life
 for eighteen years.

But the famine did not cease to trouble them, and instead afflicted them
 even more. At last their king divided the people into two groups, and made
 them draw lots, so that the one group should remain and the other leave the
 country; he himself was to be the head of those who drew the lot to remain
 there, and his son, whose name was Tyrrhenus , of
 those who departed.

Then the one group, having drawn the lot, left the country and came down to
 Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167]
 (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 and built ships, in which they loaded all their goods that could be
 transported aboard ship, and sailed away to seek a livelihood and a country;
 until at last, after sojourning with one people after another, they came to
 the Ombrici , where they founded cities and have lived ever since.

They no longer called themselves Lydians , but
 Tyrrhenians , after the name of the king's son
 who had led them there. The Lydians , then, were enslaved by the Persians .

But the next business of my history is to inquire
 who this Cyrus was who took down the power of Croesus , and how the Persians came to be the rulers of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 . I mean then to be guided in what I write by some of the Persians who desire not to magnify the story of
 Cyrus but to tell the truth, though there are no
 less than three other accounts of Cyrus which I
 could give.

After the Assyrians had
 ruled Upper Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 for five hundred and twenty years, the Medes were the
 first who began to revolt from them. These, it would seem, proved their
 bravery in fighting for freedom against the Assyrians ; they cast off their slavery and won freedom.
 Afterwards, the other subject nations, too, did the same as the Medes .

All of those on the mainland were now free men; but
 they came to be ruled by monarchs again, as I will now relate. There was
 among the Medes a clever man called Deioces : he was the son of Phraortes .

Deioces was infatuated with sovereignty, and so he
 set about gaining it. Already a notable man in his own town (one of the many
 towns into which Media was divided), he began to profess and practice
 justice more constantly and zealously than ever, and he did this even though
 there was much lawlessness throughout the land of Media, and though he knew
 that injustice is always the enemy of justice. Then the Medes of the same town, seeing his behavior, chose him to be
 their judge, and he (for he coveted sovereign power) was honest and just.

By acting so, he won no small praise from his fellow townsmen, to such an
 extent that when the men of the other towns learned that Deioces alone gave fair judgments (having before suffered from
 unjust decisions), they came often and gladly to plead before Deioces ; and at last they would submit to no
 arbitration but his.

The number of those who came grew ever greater, for
 they heard that each case turned out in accord with the truth. Then Deioces , seeing that everything now depended on him,
 would not sit in his former seat of judgment, and said he would give no more
 decisions; for it was of no advantage to him (he said) to leave his own
 business and spend all day judging the cases of his neighbors.

This caused robbery and lawlessness to increase greatly in the towns; and,
 gathering together, the Medes conferred about
 their present affairs, and said (here, as I suppose, the main speakers were
 Deioces ' friends),

“Since we cannot go on living in the present way in the land, come, let us
 set up a king over us; in this way the land will be well governed, and we
 ourselves shall attend to our business and not be routed by lawlessness.”
 With such words they persuaded themselves to be ruled by a king.

The question was at once propounded: Whom should
 they make king? Then every man was loud in putting Deioces forward and praising Deioces ,
 until they agreed that he should be their king.

He ordered them to build him houses worthy of his royal power, and
 strengthen him with a bodyguard. The Medes did
 so. They built him a big and strong house wherever in the land he indicated
 to them, and let him choose a bodyguard out of all the Medes .

And having obtained power, he forced the Medes to
 build him one city and to fortify and care for this more strongly than all
 the rest. The Medes did this for him, too. So he
 built the big and strong walls, one standing inside the next in circles,
 which are now called Hamadan
 [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 .

This fortress is so designed that each circle of walls is higher than the
 next outer circle by no more than the height of its battlements; to which
 plan the site itself, on a hill in the plain, contributes somewhat, but
 chiefly it was accomplished by skill.

There are seven circles in all; within the innermost circle are the palace
 and the treasuries; and the longest wall is about the length of the wall
 that surrounds the city of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 . The battlements of the first circle are white, of the
 second black, of the third circle purple, of the fourth blue, and of the
 fifth orange:

thus the battlements of five circles are painted with colors; and the
 battlements of the last two circles are coated, the one with silver and the
 other with gold.

Deioces built these walls for himself and around
 his own quarters, and he ordered the people to dwell outside the wall. And
 when it was all built, Deioces was first to
 establish the rule that no one should come into the presence of the king,
 but everything should be done by means of messengers; that the king should
 be seen by no one; and moreover that it should be a disgrace for anyone to
 laugh or to spit in his presence.

He was careful to hedge himself with all this so that the men of his own age
 (who had been brought up with him and were as nobly born as he and his
 equals in courage), instead of seeing him and being upset and perhaps moved
 to plot against him, might by reason of not seeing him believe him to be
 different.

When he had made these arrangements and strengthened
 himself with sovereign power, he was a hard man in the protection of
 justice. They would write down their pleas and send them in to him; then he
 would pass judgment on what was brought to him and send his decisions out.

This was his manner of deciding cases at law, and he had other arrangements
 too; for when he heard that a man was doing violence he would send for him
 and punish him as each offense deserved: and he had spies and eavesdroppers
 everywhere in his domain.

Deioces , then, united the Median nation by itself
 and ruled it. The Median tribes are these: the
 Busae , the Paretaceni , the Struchates , the Arizanti , the Budii , the
 Magi . Their tribes are this many.

Deioces had a son, Phraortes , who inherited the throne when Deioces died after a reign of fifty-three years. Having inherited it, he was not content to rule the Medes alone: marching against the Persians , he attacked them first, and they were the
 first whom he made subject to the Medes .

Then, with these two strong nations at his back, he subjugated one nation of
 Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 after another, until he marched against the Assyrians ; that is, against those of the Assyrians who held Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 . These had formerly been rulers of all; but now their allies had
 deserted them and they were left alone, though well-off themselves. Marching
 against these Assyrians , then, Phraortes and most of his army perished, after he had reigned
 twenty-two years.

At his death he was succeeded by his son Cyaxares . He is said to have been a much greater
 soldier than his ancestors: it was he who first organized the men of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 in companies and posted each arm apart, the spearmen and archers and
 cavalry: before this they were all mingled together in confusion.

This was the king who fought against the Lydians 
 when the day was turned to night in the battle, and who united under his
 dominion all of Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 that is beyond the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 . Collecting all his subjects, he marched against Nineveh (deserted settlement),
 Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 , wanting to avenge his father and to destroy the city.

He defeated the Assyrians in battle; but while he
 was besieging their city, a great army of Scythians came down upon him, led by their king Madyes son of Protothyes . They had
 invaded Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 after they had driven the Cimmerians out
 of Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 : pursuing them in their flight, the Scythians came to the Median country.

It is a thirty days' journey for an unencumbered man
 from the Maeetian lake 
 to the river Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican
 jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia 
 Phasis 
 and the land of the Colchi ; from the
 Colchi it is an easy matter to cross into
 Media: there is only one nation between, the Saspires ; to pass these is to be in Media.

Nevertheless, it was not by this way that the Scythians entered; they turned aside and came by the upper and
 much longer way, keeping the Caucasian mountains 
 on their right. There, the Medes met the Scythians , who defeated them in battle, deprived
 them of their rule, and made themselves masters of all Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 .

From there they marched against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 : and when they were in the part of Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 called Palestine
 [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia 
 Palestine 
 , Psammetichus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 met them and persuaded them with gifts and prayers to come no
 further.

So they turned back, and when they came on their way to the city of Tel Ashqelon [34.55,31.666] (deserted
 settlement), Mehoz HaDarom, Israel, Asia 
 Ascalon 
 in Syria [38,35] (nation),
 Asia 
 Syria 
 , most of the Scythians passed by and did
 no harm, but a few remained behind and plundered the temple of Heavenly
 Aphrodite .

This temple, I discover from making inquiry, is the oldest of all the
 temples of the goddess, for the temple in Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia 
 Cyprus 
 was founded from it, as the Cyprians 
 themselves say; and the temple on Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe 
 Cythera 
 was founded by Phoenicians from this same
 land of Syria [38,35] (nation),
 Asia 
 Syria 
 .

But the Scythians who pillaged the temple, and
 all their descendants after them, were afflicted by the goddess with the
 “female” sickness: and so the Scythians say that
 they are afflicted as a consequence of this and also that those who visit
 Scythian territory see among them the
 condition of those whom the Scythians call
 “Hermaphrodites”.

The Scythians , then,
 ruled Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 for twenty-eight years: and the whole land was ruined because of
 their violence and their pride, for, besides exacting from each the tribute
 which was assessed, they rode about the land carrying off everyone's
 possessions.

Most of them were entertained and made drunk and then slain by Cyaxares and the Medes : so
 thus the Medes took back their empire and all
 that they had formerly possessed; and they took Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 (how, I will describe in a later part of my history), and brought
 all Assyria except the province of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 under their rule.

Afterwards, Cyaxares died
 after a reign of forty years (among which I count the years of the Scythian domination) and his son Astyages inherited the sovereignty. 
 Astyages had a daughter, whom he called Mandane : he dreamed that she urinated so much that she
 filled his city and flooded all of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 . He communicated this vision to those of the Magi who interpreted dreams, and when he heard what they told him
 he was terrified;

and presently, when Mandane was of marriageable
 age, he feared the vision too much to give her to any Mede worthy to marry into his family, but married her to a Persian called Cambyses , a
 man whom he knew to be wellborn and of a quiet temper: for Astyages held Cambyses to be much lower
 than a Mede of middle rank.

But during the first year that Mandane was married to Cambyses , Astyages saw a second vision. He dreamed that a vine
 grew out of the genitals of this daughter, and that the vine covered the
 whole of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 .

Having seen this vision, and communicated it to the interpreters of dreams,
 he sent to the Persians for his daughter, who was
 about to give birth, and when she arrived kept her guarded, meaning to kill
 whatever child she bore: for the interpreters declared that the meaning of
 his dream was that his daughter's offspring would rule in his place.

Anxious to prevent this, Astyages , when Cyrus was born, summoned Harpagus , a man of his household who was his most faithful
 servant among the Medes and was administrator of
 all that was his, and he said:

“ Harpagus , whatever business I turn over to you,
 do not mishandle it, and do not leave me out of account and, giving others
 preference, trip over your own feet afterwards. Take the child that Mandane bore, and carry him to your house, and kill
 him; and then bury him however you like.”

“O King,” Harpagus answered, “never yet have you
 noticed anything displeasing in your man; and I shall be careful in the
 future, too, not to err in what concerns you. If it is your will that this
 be done, then my concern ought to be to attend to it scrupulously.”

Harpagus answered thus. The child was then given to
 him, consigned to its death, and he went to his house weeping. When he came
 in, he told his wife the entire speech uttered by Astyages .

“Now, then,” she said to him, “what do you propose to do?” “Not to obey
 Astyages ' instructions,” he answered, “not even
 if he should lose his mind and be more frantic than he is now: I will not
 lend myself to his plan or be an accessory to such a murder.

There are many reasons why I will not kill him: because the child is related
 to me, and because Astyages is old and has no male
 children.

Now if the sovereignty passes to this daughter of his after his death, whose
 son he is now killing by means of me, what is left for me but the gravest of
 all dangers? For the sake of my safety this child has to die; but one of
 Astyages ' own people has to be the murderer and
 not one of mine.”

So saying, he sent a messenger at once to one of
 Astyages ' cowherds, who he knew pastured his
 herds in the likeliest spots and where the mountains were most infested with
 wild beasts. The man's name was Mitradates , and his
 wife was a slave like him; her name was in the Greek language Cyno , in the Median Spako : for “spax” is the Median word for dog.

The foothills of the mountains where this cowherd pastured his cattle are
 north of Hamadan [48.583,34.766]
 (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 , towards the Black Sea
 [38,42] (sea) 
 Euxine sea 
 ; for the rest of Media is everywhere a level plain, but here, on the
 side of the Saspires , the land is very high and mountainous and covered with
 woods.

So when the cowherd came in haste at the summons, Harpagus said: “ Astyages wants you to
 take this child and leave it in the most desolate part of the mountains so
 that it will perish as quickly as possible. And he wants me to tell you that
 if you do not kill it, but preserve it somehow, you will undergo the most
 harrowing death; and I am ordered to see it exposed.”

Hearing this, the cowherd took the child and went
 back the same way and came to his dwelling. Now as it happened his wife too
 had been on the verge of delivering every day, and as the divinity would
 have it, she did in fact give birth while the cowherd was away in the city.
 Each of them was anxious for the other, the husband being afraid about his
 wife's labor, and the wife because she did not know why Harpagus had so unexpectedly sent for her husband.

So when he returned and stood before her, she was startled by the unexpected
 sight and asked him before he could speak why Harpagus had so insistently summoned him. “Wife,” he said, “when
 I came to the city, I saw and heard what I ought never to have seen, and
 what ought never to have happened to our masters. Harpagus ' whole house was full of weeping; astonished, I went in;

and immediately I saw a child lying there struggling and crying, adorned in
 gold and embroidered clothing. And when Harpagus 
 saw me, he told me to take the child in haste and bring it away and leave it
 where the mountains are the most infested with wild beasts. It was Astyages , he said, who enjoined this on me, and Harpagus threatened me grievously if I did not do it.

So I took him and brought him away, supposing him to be the child of one of
 the servants; for I could never have guessed whose he was. But I was amazed
 at seeing him adorned with gold and clothing, and at hearing, too, the
 evident sound of weeping in the house of Harpagus .

Very soon on the way I learned the whole story from the servant who brought
 me out of the city and gave the child into my custody: namely, that it was
 the son of Mandane the king's daughter and Cambyses the son of Cyrus ,
 and that Astyages gave the command to kill him. And
 now, here he is.”

And as he said this the cowherd uncovered it and
 showed it. But when the woman saw how fine and fair the child was, she began
 to cry and laid hold of the man's knees and begged him by no means to expose
 him. But the husband said he could not do otherwise; for, he said, spies
 would be coming from Harpagus to see what was done,
 and he would have to die a terrible death if he did not obey.

Being unable to move her husband, the woman then said: “Since I cannot
 convince you not to expose it, then, if a child has to be seen exposed, do
 this: I too have borne a child, but I bore it dead.

Take this one and put it out, but the child of the daughter of Astyages let us raise as if it were our own; this way,
 you won't be caught disobeying our masters, and we will not have plotted
 badly. For the dead child will have royal burial, and the living will not
 lose his life.”

Thinking that his wife advised him excellently in
 his present strait, the cowherd immediately did as she said. He gave his
 wife the child whom he had brought to kill, and his own dead child he put
 into the chest in which he carried the other,

and dressed it with all the other child's finery and left it out in the
 most desolate part of the mountains. Then on the third day after leaving the
 child out, the cowherd left one of his herdsmen to watch it and went to the
 city, where he went to Harpagus ' house and said he
 was ready to show the child's dead body.

Harpagus sent the most trusted of his bodyguard,
 and these saw for him and buried the cowherd's child. So it was buried: and
 the cowherd's wife kept and raised the boy who was afterwards named Cyrus ; but she did not give him that name, but
 another.

Now when the boy was ten years old, the truth about
 him was revealed in some such way as this. He was playing in the village
 where these herdsmen's quarters were, playing in the road with others of his
 age. The boys while playing chose to be their king this one who was supposed
 to be the son of the cowherd.

Then he assigned some of them to the building of houses, some to be his
 bodyguard, one doubtless to be the King's Eye ; to
 another he gave the right of bringing him messages; to each he gave his
 proper work.

Now one of these boys playing with him was the son of Artembares , a notable Mede ; when he
 did not perform his assignment from Cyrus , Cyrus told the other boys to seize him, and when they
 did so he handled the boy very roughly and whipped him.

As soon as he was let go, very upset about the indignity he had suffered, he
 went down to his father in the city and complained of what he had received
 at the hands of the son of Astyages ' cowherd—not
 calling him Cyrus , for that name had not yet been
 given.

Artembares , going just as angry as he was to Astyages and bringing his son along, announced that an
 impropriety had been committed, saying, “O King, by your slave, the son of a
 cowherd, we have been outraged thus”: and with that he bared his son's
 shoulders.

When Astyages heard and
 saw, he was ready to avenge the boy in view of Artembares ' rank: so he sent for the cowherd and his son. When
 they were both present, Astyages said, fixing his
 eyes on Cyrus ,

“Is it you, then, the child of one such as this, who have dared to lay
 hands on the son of the greatest of my courtiers?” Cyrus answered, “Master, what I did to him I did with justice.
 The boys of the village, of whom he was one, chose me while playing to be
 their king, for they thought me the most fit for this.

The other boys then did as assigned: but this one was disobedient and cared
 nothing for me, for which he got what he deserved. Now, if I deserve
 punishment for this, here I am to take it.”

While the boy spoke, it seemed to Astyages that he recognized him; the character of his face was
 like his own, he thought, and his manner of answering was freer than
 customary: and the date of the exposure seemed to agree with the boy's age.

Astonished at this, he sat a while silent; but when at last with difficulty
 he could collect his wits, he said (for he wanted to be rid of Artembares and question the cowherd with no one
 present), “I shall act in such a way, Artembares ,
 that you and your son shall have no cause of complaint.”

So he sent Artembares away, and the attendants led
 Cyrus inside at Astyages ' bidding. When the cowherd was left quite alone, Astyages asked him where he had got the boy and who
 had been the giver.

The cowherd answered that Cyrus was his own son and
 that the mother was still with him. Astyages said
 that he was not well advised if he wished to find himself in a desperate
 situation, and as he said this made a sign to the spearbearers to seize him.

Then, under stress of necessity, the cowherd disclosed to him the whole
 story, telling everything exactly as it had happened from the beginning, and
 at the end fell to entreaty and urged the king to pardon him.

When the cowherd had disclosed the true story, Astyages took less interest in him, but he was very
 angry with Harpagus and had the guards summon him.

Harpagus came, and Astyages asked him “ Harpagus , how did
 you kill the boy, my daughter's son, whom I gave you?” Harpagus , when he saw the cowherd was there, did not take the way
 of falsehood, lest he be caught and confuted:

“O King,” he said,” when I took the boy, I thought and considered how to do
 what you wanted and not be held a murderer by your daughter or by you even
 though I was blameless toward you.

So I did this: I summoned this cowherd here, and gave the child to him,
 telling him that it was you who gave the command to kill it. And that was
 the truth; for such was your command. But I gave the child with the
 instructions that the cowherd was to lay it on a desolate mountainside and
 wait there and watch until it was dead; and I threatened all sorts of things
 if he did not accomplish this.

Then, when he had done what he was told, and the child was dead, I sent the
 most trusted of my eunuchs and had the body viewed and buried. This, O king,
 is the story, and such was the end of the boy.”

Harpagus told the story straight, while Astyages , hiding the anger that he felt against him
 for what had been done, first repeated the story again to Harpagus exactly as he had heard it from the cowherd, then, after
 repeating it, ended by saying that the boy was alive and that the matter had
 turned out well.

“For,” he said, “I was greatly afflicted by what had been done to this boy,
 and it weighed heavily on me that I was estranged from my daughter. Now,
 then, in this good turn of fortune, send your own son to this boy newly
 come, and (since I am about to sacrifice for the boy's safety to the gods to
 whom this honor is due) come here to dine with me.”

When Harpagus heard this,
 he bowed and went to his home, very pleased to find that his offense had
 turned out for the best and that he was invited to dinner in honor of this
 fortunate day.

Coming in, he told his only son, a boy of about thirteen years of age, to go
 to Astyages ' palace and do whatever the king
 commanded, and in his great joy he told his wife everything that had
 happened.

But when Harpagus ' son came, Astyages cut his throat and tore him limb from limb, roasted some
 of the flesh and boiled some, and kept it ready after he had prepared it.

So when the hour for dinner came and the rest of the guests and Harpagus were present, Astyages and the others were served dishes of lamb's meat, but
 Harpagus that of his own son, all but the head
 and hands and feet, which lay apart covered up in a wicker basket.

And when Harpagus seemed to have eaten his fill,
 Astyages asked him, “Did you like your meal,
 Harpagus ?” “Exceedingly,” Harpagus answered. Then those whose job it was brought him the
 head of his son and hands and feet concealed in the basket, and they stood
 before Harpagus and told him to open and take what
 he liked.

Harpagus did; he opened and saw what was left of
 his son: he saw this, but mastered himself and did not lose his composure.
 Astyages asked him, “Do you know what beast's
 meat you have eaten?”

“I know,” he said, “and all that the king does is pleasing.” With that
 answer he took the remains of the meat and went home. There he meant, I
 suppose, after collecting everything, to bury it.

Thus Astyages punished
 Harpagus . But, to help him to decide about Cyrus , he summoned the same Magi who had interpreted his dream as I have said: and when they
 came, Astyages asked them how they had interpreted
 his dream. They answered as before, and said that the boy must have been
 made king had he lived and not died first.

Then Astyages said, “The boy is safe and alive, and
 when he was living in the country the boys of his village made him king, and
 he duly did all that is done by true kings: for he assigned to each
 individually the roles of bodyguards and sentinels and messengers and
 everything else, and so ruled. And what do you think is the significance of
 this?”

“If the boy is alive,” said the Magi , “and has
 been made king without premeditation, then be confident on this score and
 keep an untroubled heart: he will not be made king a second time. Even in
 our prophecies, it is often but a small thing that has been foretold and the
 consequences of dreams come to nothing in the end.”

“I too, Magi ,” said Astyages , “am very much of your opinion: that the dream came true
 when the boy was called king, and that I have no more to fear from him.
 Nevertheless consider well and advise me what will be safest both for my
 house and for you.”

The Magi said, “O King, we too are very anxious
 that your sovereignty prosper: for otherwise, it passes from your nation to
 this boy who is a Persian , and so we Medes are enslaved and held of no account by the
 Persians , as we are of another blood, but
 while you, our countryman, are established king, we have our share of power,
 and great honor is shown us by you.

Thus, then, we ought by all means to watch out for you and for your
 sovereignty. And if at the present time we saw any danger we would declare
 everything to you: but now the dream has had a trifling conclusion, and we
 ourselves are confident and advise you to be so also. As for this boy, send
 him out of your sight to the Persians and to his
 parents.”

Hearing this, Astyages was
 glad, and calling Cyrus , said, “My boy, I did you
 wrong because of a vision I had in a dream, that meant nothing, but by your
 own destiny you still live; now therefore, go to the Persians , and good luck go with you; I will send guides with you.
 When you get there you will find a father and mother unlike the cowherd,
 Mitradates , and his wife.”

After saying this, Astyages 
 sent Cyrus away. When he returned to Cambyses ' house, his parents received him there, and
 learning who he was they welcomed him enthusiastically, for they had
 supposed that long ago he had been killed, and they asked him how his life
 had been saved.

Then he told them, and said that until now he had known nothing but been
 very deceived, but that on the way he had heard the whole story of his
 misfortune; for he had thought, he said, that Astyages ' cowherd was his father, but in his journey from the
 city his escort had told him the whole story.

And he had been raised, he said, by the cowherd's wife, and he was full of
 her praises, and in his tale he was constantly speaking of Cyno . Hearing this name, his parents circulated a story that
 Cyrus was suckled by a dog when exposed,
 thinking in this way to make the story of his salvation seem more marvellous
 to the Persians .

This then was the beginning of that legend. But as
 Cyrus grew up to be the manliest and best loved
 of his peers, Harpagus courted him and sent him
 gifts, wishing to be avenged on Astyages ; for he
 saw no hope for a private man like himself of punishing Astyages , but as he saw Cyrus growing
 up, he tried to make him an ally, for he likened Cyrus ' misfortune to his own.

Even before this the following had been done by him: since Astyages was harsh toward the Medes ,
 he associated with each of the chief Medes and
 persuaded them to make Cyrus their leader and
 depose Astyages .

So much being ready and done, Harpagus wanted to
 reveal his intent to Cyrus , who then lived among
 the Persians . But the roads were guarded, and he
 had no plan for sending a message but this:

he carefully slit the belly of a hare, and then leaving it as it was
 without further harm he put into it a paper on which he wrote what he
 thought best. Then he sewed up the hare's belly, and sent it to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 by the most trusted of his servants, giving him nets to carry as if
 he were a huntsman. The messenger was instructed to give Cyrus the hare and tell him by word of mouth to cut it open with
 his own hands, with no one else present.

All this was done. Cyrus 
 took the hare and slit it and read the paper which was in it; the writing
 was as follows: “Son of Cambyses , since the gods
 watch over you (otherwise you would not have prospered so) avenge yourself
 now on Astyages , your murderer;

for thanks to his intention you are dead, while thanks to the gods, and me,
 you live. I expect that long ago you heard the story of what was done
 concerning you and how Astyages treated me because
 I did not kill you but gave you to the cowherd. If, then, you will listen to
 me, you shall rule all the country which is now ruled by Astyages . Persuade the Persians to
 rebel, and lead their army against the Medes ;

then you have your wish, whether I am appointed to command the army against
 you or some other notable man among the Medes :
 for they will of themselves revolt from Astyages 
 and join you and try to pull him down. Seeing then that all is ready here,
 do as I say and do it quickly.”

When Cyrus read this, he
 deliberated as to what was the shrewdest way to persuade the Persians to revolt; and what he thought to be most
 effective, he did:

writing what he liked on a paper, he assembled the Persians , and then unfolded the paper and declared that in it
 Astyages appointed him leader of the Persian armies. “Now,” he said in his speech, “I
 command you, men of Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , to come, each provided with a sickle.” This is what Cyrus said.

Now there are many tribes in Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 : those of them that Cyrus assembled and
 persuaded to revolt from the Medes were the Pasargadae , the Maraphii ,
 and the Maspii . On these all the other Persians depend. The chief tribe is that of the
 Pasargadae ; to them belongs the clan of the
 Achaemenidae , the royal house of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 .

The other Persian tribes are the Panthialaei , the Derusiaei , and the Germanii , all
 tillers of the soil, and the Dai , the Mardi , the Dropici , the
 Sagartii , all wandering herdsmen.

So when they all came with sickles as ordered, Cyrus commanded them to reclaim in one day a thorny
 tract of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 , of two and one quarter or two and one half miles each way in
 extent.

The Persians accomplished the task appointed;
 Cyrus then commanded them to wash themselves and
 come the next day; meanwhile, collecting his father's goats and sheep and
 oxen in one place, he slaughtered and prepared them as a feast for the Persian host, providing also wine and all the foods
 that were most suitable.

When the Persians came on the next day he had
 them sit and feast in a meadow. After dinner he asked them which they liked
 more: their task of yesterday or their present pastime.

They answered that the difference was great: all yesterday they had had
 nothing but evil, to-day nothing but good. Then, taking up their word, Cyrus laid bare his whole purpose, and said:

“This is your situation, men of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 : obey me and you shall have these good things and ten thousand
 others besides with no toil and slavery; but if you will not obey me, you
 will have labors unnumbered like your toil of yesterday.

Now, then, do as I tell you, and win your freedom. For I think that I myself
 was born by a divine chance to undertake this work; and I hold you fully as
 good men as the Medes in war and in everything
 else. All this is true; therefore revolt from Astyages quickly now!”

The Persians had long
 been discontent that the Medes ruled them, and
 now having got a champion they were glad to win their freedom. But when
 Astyages heard that Cyrus was about this business, he sent a messenger to summon him;

Cyrus told the messenger to take back word that
 Astyages would see him sooner than he liked.
 Hearing this, Astyages armed all his Medes , and was distracted by Providence so that he
 forgot what he had done to Harpagus , and appointed
 him to command the army.

So when the Medes marched out and engaged with
 the Persians , those who were not in on the plan
 fought, while others deserted to the enemy, and most were deliberate cowards
 and ran.

Thus the Median army was shamefully scattered. As
 soon as Astyages heard, he sent a threatening
 message to Cyrus : “Nevertheless, Cyrus shall not rejoice”;

and with that he took the Magi who interpreted
 dreams, who had persuaded him to let Cyrus go free,
 and impaled them; then he armed the Medes who
 were left in the city, the very young and very old men.

Leading these out, and engaging the Persians , he
 was beaten: Astyages himself was taken prisoner,
 and lost the Median army which he led.

When Astyages was a
 captive, Harpagus came and exulted over him and
 taunted him, and besides much other bitter mockery he recalled his banquet,
 when Astyages had fed Harpagus his son's flesh, and asked Astyages what it was like to be a slave after having been a king.

Fixing his gaze on Harpagus , Astyages asked, “Do you imagine that this, which Cyrus has done, is your work?” “It was I,” said the
 other, “who wrote the letter; the accomplishment of the work is rightly
 mine.”

“Then,” said Astyages , “you stand confessed the
 most foolish and most unjust man on earth; most foolish, in giving another
 the throne which you might have had for yourself, if the present business is
 indeed your doing; most unjust, in enslaving the Medes because of that banquet.

For if in any event another and not you had to possess the royal power, then
 in justice some Mede should have had it, not a
 Persian : but now you have made the Medes , who did you no harm, slaves instead of
 masters and the Persians , who were the slaves,
 are now the masters of the Medes .”

Thus Astyages was deposed
 from his sovereignty after a reign of thirty-five years: and the Medes had to bow down before the Persians because of Astyages ' cruelty.
 They had ruled all Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 beyond the Halys River
 (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Halys 
 for one hundred and twenty-eight years, from which must be subtracted the time when the Scythians held sway.

At a later time they repented of what they now did, and rebelled against
 Darius 
 ; but they were
 defeated in battle and brought back into subjection. But now, in Astyages ' time, Cyrus and the
 Persians rose in revolt against the Medes , and from this time ruled Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 .

As for Astyages , Cyrus did
 him no further harm, and kept him in his own house until Astyages died. This is the story of the
 birth and upbringing of Cyrus , and of how he became
 king; and afterwards, as I have already related, he subjugated Croesus in punishment for the unprovoked wrong done
 him; and after this victory he became sovereign of all Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 .

As to the customs of the Persians , I know them to be these. It is not their custom to make
 and set up statues and temples and altars, but those who do such things they
 think foolish, because, I suppose, they have never believed the gods to be
 like men, as the Greeks do;

but they call the whole circuit of heaven Zeus ,
 and to him they sacrifice on the highest peaks of the mountains; they
 sacrifice also to the sun and moon and earth and fire and water and winds.

From the beginning, these are the only gods to whom they have ever
 sacrificed; they learned later to sacrifice to the “heavenly” 
 Aphrodite from the Assyrians and Arabians . She is called
 by the Assyrians 
 Mylitta , by the Arabians 
 Alilat , by the Persians 
 Mitra .

And this is their method of sacrifice to the
 aforesaid gods: when about to sacrifice, they do not build altars or kindle
 fire, employ libations, or music, or fillets, or barley meal: when a man
 wishes to sacrifice to one of the gods, he leads a beast to an open space
 and then, wearing a wreath on his tiara, of myrtle usually, calls on the
 god.

To pray for blessings for himself alone is not lawful for the sacrificer;
 rather, he prays that the king and all the Persians be well; for he reckons himself among them. He then cuts
 the victim limb from limb into portions, and, after boiling the flesh,
 spreads the softest grass, trefoil usually, and places all of it on this.

When he has so arranged it, a Magus comes near
 and chants over it the song of the birth of the gods, as the Persian tradition relates it; for no sacrifice can
 be offered without a Magus . Then after a little
 while the sacrificer carries away the flesh and uses it as he pleases.

The day which every man values most is his own
 birthday. On this day, he thinks it right to serve a more abundant meal than
 on other days: oxen or horses or camels or asses, roasted whole in ovens,
 are set before the rich; the poorer serve the lesser kinds of cattle.

Their courses are few, the dainties that follow many, and not all served
 together. This is why the Persians say of Greeks that they rise from table still hungry,
 because not much dessert is set before them: were this too given to Greeks (the Persians say)
 they would never stop eating.

They are very partial to wine. No one may vomit or urinate in another's
 presence: this is prohibited among them. Moreover, it is their custom to
 deliberate about the gravest matters when they are drunk;

and what they approve in their deliberations is proposed to them the next
 day, when they are sober, by the master of the house where they deliberate;
 and if, being sober, they still approve it, they act on it, but if not, they
 drop it. And if they have deliberated about a matter when sober, they decide
 upon it when they are drunk.

When one man meets another on the road, it is easy
 to see if the two are equals; for, if they are, they kiss each other on the
 lips without speaking; if the difference in rank is small, the cheek is
 kissed; if it is great, the humbler bows and does obeisance to the other.

They honor most of all those who live nearest them, next those who are next
 nearest, and so going ever onwards they assign honor by this rule: those who
 dwell farthest off they hold least honorable of all; for they think that
 they are themselves in all regards by far the best of all men, that the rest
 have only a proportionate claim to merit, until those who live farthest away
 have least merit of all.

Under the rule of the Medes , one tribe would even
 govern another; the Medes held sway over all
 alike and especially over those who lived nearest to them; these ruled their
 neighbors, and the neighbors in turn those who came next to them, on the
 same scheme by which the Persians assign honor;
 for the nation kept advancing its rule and dominion.

But the Persians more
 than all men welcome foreign customs. They wear the Median dress, thinking
 it more beautiful than their own, and the Egyptian cuirass in war. Their luxurious practices are of all
 kinds, and all borrowed: the Greeks taught them
 pederasty. Every Persian marries many lawful
 wives, and keeps still more concubines.

After valor in battle it is accounted noble to
 father the greatest number of sons: the king sends gifts yearly to him who
 gets most. Strength, they believe, is in numbers.

They educate their boys from five to twenty years old, and teach them only
 three things: riding and archery and honesty. A boy is not seen by his
 father before he is five years old, but lives with the women: the point of
 this is that, if the boy should die in the interval of his rearing, the
 father would suffer no grief.

This is a law which I praise; and it is a
 praiseworthy law, too, which does not allow the king himself to slay any one
 for a single offense, or any other Persian to do
 incurable harm to one of his servants for one offense. Not until an
 accounting shows that the offender's wrongful acts are more and greater than
 his services may a man give rein to his anger.

They say that no one has ever yet killed his father or mother; when such a
 thing has been done, it always turns out on inquest that the doer is shown
 to be a changeling or the fruit of adultery; for it is not to be believed
 (say they) that a son should kill his true parent.

Furthermore, of what they may not do, they may not
 speak, either. They hold lying to be the most disgraceful thing of all and
 next to that debt; for which they have many other reasons, but this in
 particular: it is inevitable (so they say) that the debtor also speak some
 falsehood. The citizen who has leprosy or the white sickness may not come
 into town or mingle with other Persians . They say
 that he is so afflicted because he has sinned in some way against the sun.

Every stranger who gets such a disease, many drive out of the country; and
 they do the same to white doves, for the reason given. Rivers they
 especially revere; they will neither urinate nor spit nor wash their hands
 in them, nor let anyone else do so.

There is another thing that always happens among
 them; we have noted it although the Persians have
 not: their names, which agree with the nature of their persons and their
 nobility, all end in the same letter, that which the Dorians call san, and the Ionians 
 sigma; you will find, if you search, that not some but all Persian names alike end in this letter.

So much I can say of them from my own certain
 knowledge. But there are other matters concerning the dead which are
 secretly and obscurely told: how the dead bodies of Persians are not buried before they have been mangled by birds or
 dogs.

That this is the way of the Magi , I know for
 certain; for they do not conceal the practice. But this is certain, that
 before the Persians bury the body in earth they
 embalm it in wax. These Magi are as unlike the
 priests of Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 as they are unlike all other men:

for the priests consider it sacrilege to kill anything that lives, except
 what they sacrifice; but the Magi kill with their
 own hands every creature, except dogs and men; they kill all alike, ants and
 snakes, creeping and flying things, and take great pride in it. Leaving this
 custom to be such as it has been from the first, I return now to my
 former story.

As soon as the Lydians 
 had been subjugated by the Persians , the Ionians and Aeolians sent
 messengers to Cyrus , offering to be his subjects on
 the same terms as those which they had under Croesus . After hearing what they proposed, Cyrus told them a story. Once, he said, there was a flute-player
 who saw fish in the sea and played upon his flute, thinking that they would
 come out on to the land.

Disappointed of his hope, he cast a net and gathered it in and took out a
 great multitude of fish; and seeing them leaping, “You had best,” he said,
 “stop your dancing now; you would not come out and dance before, when I
 played to you.”

The reason why Cyrus told the story to the Ionians and Aeolians was
 that the Ionians , who were ready to obey him when
 the victory was won, had before refused when he sent a message asking them
 to revolt from Croesus .

So he answered them in anger. But when the message came to the Ionians in their cities, they fortified themselves
 with walls, and assembled in the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) 
 Panionion 
 , all except the Milesians , with whom alone Cyrus made a
 treaty on the same terms as that which they had with the Lydians . The rest of the Ionians 
 resolved to send envoys in the name of them all to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , to ask help for the Ionians .

Now these Ionians 
 possessed the Panionion
 [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) 
 Panionion 
 , and of all men whom we know, they happened to found their cities in
 places with the loveliest of climate and seasons.

For neither to the north of them nor to the south does the land effect the
 same thing as in Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 [nor to the east nor to the west], affected here by the cold and
 wet, there by the heat and drought.

They do not all have the same speech but four different dialects. Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 lies farthest south among them, and next to it come Myous (deserted settlement), Aydin
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Myus 
 and Priene
 [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 ; these are settlements in Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Caria 
 , and they have a common language; Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 , Colophon
 [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) 
 Colophon 
 , Lebedos , Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) 
 Teos 
 , Klazomenai
 [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) 
 Clazomenae 
 , Foca [26.75,38.666]
 (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , all of them in Lydia
 [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 ,

have a language in common which is wholly different from the speech of the
 three former cities. There are yet three Ionian 
 cities, two of them situated on the islands of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 and Chios [26,38.366]
 (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Chios 
 , and one, Erythrae , on the mainland; the
 Chians and Erythraeans speak alike, but the Samians have a language which is their own and no one else's. It
 is thus seen that there are four modes of speech.

Among these Ionians , the
 Milesians were safe from the danger (for they
 had made a treaty), and the islanders among them had nothing to fear: for
 the Phoenicians were not yet subjects of the
 Persians , nor were the Persians themselves mariners.

But those of Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 were cut off from the rest of the Ionians 
 only in the way that I shall show. The whole Hellenic stock was then small, and the last of all its branches
 and the least regarded was the Ionian ; for it had
 no considerable city except Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 .

Now the Athenians and the rest would not be
 called Ionians , but spurned the name; even now
 the greater number of them seem to me to be ashamed of it; but the twelve
 cities aforesaid gloried in this name, and founded a holy place for
 themselves which they called the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) 
 Panionion 
 , and agreed among themselves to allow no other Ionians to use it (nor in fact did any except the men of Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167]
 (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 ask to be admitted);

just as the Dorians of
 what is now the country of the “ Five
 Cities ”—formerly the country of the “ Six
 Cities ”—forbid admitting any of the neighboring Dorians to the Triopian 
 temple, and even barred from using it those of their own group who had
 broken the temple law.

For long ago, in the games in honor of Triopian
 Apollo , they offered certain bronze tripods to the victors; and
 those who won these were not to carry them away from the temple but dedicate
 them there to the god.

Now when a man of Bodrum
 [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 called Agasicles won, he disregarded this
 law, and, carrying the tripod away, nailed it to the wall of his own house.
 For this offense the five cities— Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) 
 Lindus 
 , Trianda [28.166,36.416]
 (inhabited place), Rhodes, Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Ialysus 
 , Camirus , Kos City [27.3,36.8917] (Perseus) 
 Cos 
 , and Cnidus Nova
 [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Cnidus 
 —forbade the sixth city— Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 —to share in the use of the temple. Such was the penalty imposed on
 the Halicarnassians .

As for the Ionians , the
 reason why they made twelve cities and would admit no more was in my
 judgment this: there were twelve divisions of them when they dwelt in the
 Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnese 
 , just as there are twelve divisions of the Achaeans who drove the Ionians 
 out— Pellene [22.5583,38.05]
 (Perseus) 
 Pellene 
 nearest to Sikyon
 [22.725,37.9833] (Perseus) 
 Sicyon 
 ; then Aegira
 [22.3833,38.1333] (Perseus) 
 Aegira 
 and Aegae [22.05,40.8]
 (Perseus) 
 Aegae 
 , where is the never-failing river Crathis ,
 from which the river in Italy
 [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe 
 Italy 
 took its name; Bura
 [22.2167,38.15] (Perseus) 
 Bura 
 and Helike
 [22.1167,38.2167] (Perseus) 
 Helice 
 , where the Ionians fled when they were
 worsted in battle by the Achaeans ; Aegion ; Rhype ; Patrai [21.75,38.2333]
 (Perseus) 
 Patrae 
 ; Phareae ; and Olenus [21.55,38.15] (Perseus) 
 Olenus 
 , where is the great river Pirus ; Dyme [21.5833,38.1] (Perseus) 
 Dyme 
 and Tritaeae , the only inland city of all
 these—these were the twelve divisions of the Ionians , as they are now of the Achaeans .

For this reason, and for no other, the Ionians too made twelve cities; for it would be
 foolishness to say that these are more truly Ionian or better born than the other Ionians ; since not the least part of them are Abantes from Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe 
 Euboea 
 , who are not Ionians even in name, and
 there are mingled with them Minyans of Orkhomenos (deserted settlement),
 Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Orchomenus 
 , Cadmeans , Dryopians , Phocian renegades from
 their nation, Molossians , Pelasgian Arcadians , Dorians of Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) 
 Epidaurus 
 , and many other tribes;

and as for those who came from the very town-hall of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 and think they are the best born of the Ionians , these did not bring wives with them to their
 settlements, but married Carian women whose
 parents they had put to death.

For this slaughter, these women made a custom and bound themselves by oath
 (and enjoined it on their daughters) that no one would sit at table with her
 husband or call him by his name, because the men had married them after
 slaying their fathers and husbands and sons. This happened at Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 .

And as kings, some of them chose Lycian descendants of Glaucus son of
 Hippolochus , and some Caucones of Pylus , descendants of Codrus son of Melanthus , and
 some both. Yet since they set more store by the name than the rest of the
 Ionians , let it be granted that those of pure
 birth are Ionians ;

and all are Ionians who are of Athenian descent and keep the feast
 Apaturia . All do keep it, except the men
 of Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 and Colophon
 [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) 
 Colophon 
 ; these are the only Ionians who do not
 keep it, and these because, they say, of a certain pretext of murder.

The Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) 
 Panionion 
 is a sacred ground in Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) 
 Mykale 
 , facing north; it was set apart for Poseidon of Helicon by the joint will
 of the Ionians . Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) 
 Mykale 
 is a western promontory of the mainland opposite Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ; the Ionians used to assemble there from
 their cities and keep the festival to which they gave the name of
 Panionia .

Not only the Ionian festivals, but all those of
 all the Greeks alike, end in the same letter,
 just as do the names of the Persians .

Those are the Ionian 
 cities, and these are the Aeolian : Kyme [24.1167,38.6333]
 (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 (called “ Phriconian ”), 
 Lerisae , Neon Teichos ,
 Temnos , Cilla , Notium (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Notion 
 , Aegiroessa , Pitane [26.9333,38.9333] (Perseus) 
 Pitane 
 , Aegaeae , Mirina [25.66,39.866] (inhabited place), Lemnos,
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Myrina 
 , Gryneia . These are the ancient Aeolian cities, eleven in number; but one of them,
 Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167]
 (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 , was taken away by the Ionians ; for these
 too were once twelve, on the mainland.

These Aeolians had settled where the land was
 better than the Ionian territory, but the climate
 was not so good.

Now this is how the Aeolians lost Smyrna
 [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 . Some men of Colophon
 [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) 
 Colophon 
 , the losers in civil strife and exiles from their country, had been
 received by them into the town. These Colophonian 
 exiles waited for the time when the men of Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 were holding a festival to Dionysus outside
 the walls; then they shut the gates and so got the city.

Then all the Aeolians came to recover it; and an
 agreement was made, whereby the Aeolians would
 receive back their movable goods from the Ionians , and leave the city. After this was done, the other eleven
 cities divided the Smyrnaeans among themselves
 and made them citizens of their own.

These then are the Aeolian cities on the mainland, besides those that are situated
 on Ida and are separate.

Among those on the islands, five divide Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Lesbos 
 among them (there was a sixth on Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Lesbos 
 , Arisba , but its people were enslaved by
 their kinfolk of Methymna
 [26.2,39.3333] (Perseus) 
 Methymna 
 ); there is one on Tenedos [26.05,39.8167] (Perseus) 
 Tenedos 
 , and one again in the “ Hundred
 Isles ,” as they are called.

The men of Lesbos [26.333,39.166]
 (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Lesbos 
 and Tenedos
 [26.05,39.8167] (Perseus) 
 Tenedos 
 , then, like the Ionian islanders, had
 nothing to fear. The rest of the cities deliberated together and decided to
 follow the Ionians ' lead.

So when the envoys of the Ionians and Aeolians came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 (for they set about this in haste) they chose a Phocaean , whose name was Pythennos , to
 speak for all. He then put on a purple cloak, so that as many Spartans as possible might assemble to hear him, and
 stood up and made a long speech asking aid for his people.

But the Lacedaemonians would not listen to him
 and refused to help the Ionians . So the Ionians departed; but the Lacedaemonians , though they had rejected their envoys, did
 nevertheless send men in a ship of fifty oars to see (as I suppose) the
 situation with Cyrus and Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 .

These, after coming to Foca
 [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey,
 Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , sent Lacrines , who was the most esteemed
 among them, to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , to repeat there to Cyrus a proclamation of
 the Lacedaemonians , that he was to harm no city
 on Greek territory, or else the Lacedaemonians would punish him.

When the herald had proclaimed this, Cyrus is said to have asked the Greeks who were present who and how many in number these Lacedaemonians were who made this declaration. When
 he was told, he said to the Spartan herald, “I
 never yet feared men who set apart a place in the middle of their city where
 they perjure themselves and deceive each other. They, if I keep my health,
 shall talk of their own misfortunes, not those of the Ionians .”

He uttered this threat against all the Greeks ,
 because they have markets and buy and sell there; for the Persians themselves were not used to resorting to
 markets at all, nor do they even have a market of any kind.

Presently, entrusting Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 to a Persian called Tabalus , and instructing Pactyes , a
 Lydian , to take charge of the gold of Croesus and the Lydians , he
 himself marched away to Hamadan
 [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 , taking Croesus with him, and at first
 taking no notice of the Ionians .

For he had Babylon [44.4,32.55]
 (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 on his hands and the Bactrian nation and
 the Sacae and Egyptians ; he meant to lead the army against these himself, and
 to send another commander against the Ionians .

But no sooner had Cyrus 
 marched away from Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 than Pactyes made the Lydians revolt from Tabalus and Cyrus ; and he went down to the sea, where, as he had
 all the gold of Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , he hired soldiers and persuaded the men of the coast to join his
 undertaking. Then, marching to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , he penned Tabalus in the acropolis and
 besieged him there.

When Cyrus heard of this on
 his journey, he said to Croesus , “What end to this
 business, Croesus ? It seems that the Lydians will never stop making trouble for me and
 for themselves. It occurs to me that it may be best to make slaves of them;
 for it seems I have acted like one who slays the father and spares the
 children.

So likewise I have taken with me you who were more than a father to the
 Lydians , and handed the city over to the Lydians themselves; and then indeed I marvel that
 they revolt!” So Cyrus uttered his thought; but
 Croesus feared that he would destroy Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , and answered him thus:

“O King, what you say is reasonable. But do not ever yield to anger, or
 destroy an ancient city that is innocent both of the former and of the
 present offense. For the former I am responsible, and bear the punishment on
 my head; while Pactyes , in whose charge you left
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , does this present wrong; let him, then, pay the penalty.

But pardon the Lydians , and give them this
 command so that they not revolt or pose a danger to you: send and forbid
 them to possess weapons of war, and order them to wear tunics under their
 cloaks and knee-boots on their feet, and to teach their sons lyre-playing
 and song and dance and shop-keeping. And quickly, O king, you shall see them
 become women instead of men, so that you need not fear them, that they might
 revolt.”

Croesus proposed this to him, because he thought
 this was better for the Lydians than to be sold
 as slaves; he knew that without some reasonable plea he could not change the
 king's mind, and feared that even if the Lydians 
 should escape this time they might later revolt and be destroyed by the
 Persians .

Cyrus was pleased by this counsel; he relented in
 his anger and said he would follow Croesus ' advice.
 Then calling Mazares , a Mede , he told him to give the Lydians 
 the commands that Croesus advised; further, to
 enslave all the others who had joined the Lydians 
 in attacking Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 ; and as for Pactyes himself, by all means
 to bring him into his presence alive.

After giving these commands on his journey, he
 marched away into the Persian country. But Pactyes , learning that an army sent against him was
 approaching, was frightened and fled to Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 .

Mazares the Mede , when
 he came to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 with the part that he had of Cyrus ' host
 and found Pactyes ' followers no longer there, first
 of all compelled the Lydians to carry out Cyrus ' commands; and by his order they changed their
 whole way of life.

After this, he sent messengers to Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 demanding that Pactyes be surrendered. The
 Cymaeans resolved to make the god at Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic
 site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 their judge as to what course they should take; for there was an
 ancient place of divination there, which all the Ionians and Aeolians used to consult;
 the place is in the land of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 , above the harbor of Panormus [27.2167,37.3833] (Perseus) 
 Panormus 
 .

The men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 , then, sent to Didyma
 [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 to inquire of the shrine what they should do in the matter of Pactyes that would be most pleasing to the gods; and
 the oracle replied that they must surrender Pactyes 
 to the Persians .

When this answer came back to them, they set about surrendering him. But
 while the greater part were in favor of doing this, Aristodicus son of Heraclides , a notable
 man among the citizens, stopped the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 from doing it; for he did not believe the oracle and thought that
 those who had inquired of the god spoke falsely; until at last a second band
 of inquirers was sent to inquire concerning Pactyes , among whom was Aristodicus .

When they came to Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege
 kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 , Aristodicus , speaking for all, put this
 question to the oracle: “Lord, Pactyes the Lydian has come to us a suppliant fleeing a violent
 death at the hands of the Persians ; and they
 demand him of us, telling the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 to surrender him.

But we, as much as we fear the Persian power,
 have not dared give up this suppliant of ours until it is clearly made known
 to us by you whether we are to do this or not.” Thus Aristodicus inquired; and the god again gave the same answer,
 that Pactyes should be surrendered to the Persians .

With that Aristodicus did as he had already
 decided; he went around the temple, and took away the sparrows and all the
 families of nesting birds that were in it. But while he was doing so, a
 voice (they say) came out of the inner shrine calling to Aristodicus , and saying, “Vilest of men, how dare you do this?
 Will you rob my temple of those that take refuge with me?”

Then Aristodicus had his answer ready: “Lord,” he
 said, “will you save your own suppliants, yet tell the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333]
 (Perseus) 
 Cyme 
 to deliver up theirs?” But the god replied, “Yes, I do command them,
 so that you may perish all the sooner for your impiety, and never again come
 to inquire of my oracle about giving up those that seek refuge with you.”

When the Cymaeans heard
 this answer, they sent Pactyes away to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 ; for they were anxious not to perish for delivering him up or to be
 besieged for keeping him with them.

Then Mazares sent a message to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 demanding the surrender of Pactyes , and the
 Mytilenaeans prepared to give him, for a
 price; I cannot say exactly how much it was, for the bargain was never
 fulfilled;

for when the Cymaeans learned what the Mytilenaeans were about, they sent a ship to Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Lesbos 
 and took Pactyes away to Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Chios 
 . From there he was dragged out of the temple of City-guarding Athena and delivered up by the Chians ,

who received in return Atarneus [26.95,39.05] (Perseus) 
 Atarneus 
 , which is a district in Mysia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Mysia 
 opposite Lesbos
 [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Lesbos 
 . The Persians thus received Pactyes and kept him guarded, so that they might show
 him to Cyrus ;

and for a long time no one would use barley meal from this land of Atarneus [26.95,39.05] (Perseus) 
 Atarneus 
 in sacrifices to any god, or make sacrificial cakes of what grew
 there; everything that came from that country was kept away from any sacred
 rite.

The Chians , then,
 surrendered Pactyes , and afterwards Mazares led his army against those who had helped to
 besiege Tabalus , and he enslaved the people of
 Priene [27.2833,37.6333]
 (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 , and overran the plain of the Maeandrus ,
 giving it to his army to pillage and Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833] (deserted settlement), Aydin
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Magnesia 
 likewise. Immediately after this he died of an illness.

After his death, Harpagus ,
 a Mede like Mazares ,
 came down to succeed him in his command; this is the Harpagus who was entertained by Astyages 
 the king of the Medes at that unnatural feast,
 and who helped win the kingship for Cyrus .

This man was now made general by Cyrus . When he
 came to Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe 
 Ionia 
 , he took the cities by means of earthworks; he would drive the men
 within their walls and then build earthworks against the walls and so take
 the cities.

Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited
 place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 was the first Ionian town that he
 attacked. These Phocaeans were the earliest of
 the Greeks to make long sea-voyages, and it was
 they who discovered the Adriatic
 Sea [16,43] (sea), Europe 
 Adriatic Sea 
 , and Etruria (region
 (general)), Italy, Europe Tyrrhenia , and Iberian Peninsula (peninsula),
 Europe 
 Iberia 
 , and Tartessus ,

not sailing in round freightships but in fifty-oared vessels. When they
 came to Tartessus they made friends with the king
 of the Tartessians , whose name was Arganthonius ; he ruled Tartessus for eighty years and lived a hundred and twenty.

The Phocaeans won this man's friendship to such a
 degree that he invited them to leave Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 and settle in his country wherever they liked; and then, when he
 could not persuade them to, and learned from them how the Median power was
 increasing, he gave them money to build a wall around their city.

He gave it generously: for the circuit of the wall is of not a few stades,
 and all this is made of great stones well fitted together.

In such a manner the Phocaeans ' wall was built. Harpagus 
 marched against the city and besieged it, but he made overtures, and said
 that it would suffice him if the Phocaeans would
 demolish one rampart of the wall and dedicate one house.

But the Phocaeans , very indignant at the thought
 of slavery, said they wanted to deliberate for a day, and then they would
 answer; but while they were deliberating, Harpagus 
 must withdraw his army from the walls, they said. Harpagus said that he well knew what they intended to do, but
 that nevertheless he would allow them to deliberate.

So when Harpagus withdrew his army from the walls,
 the Phocaeans launched their fifty-oared ships,
 embarked their children and women and all their movable goods, besides the
 statues from the temples and everything dedicated in them except bronze or
 stonework or painting, and then embarked themselves and set sail for Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Chios 
 ; and the Persians took Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited
 place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , left thus uninhabited.

The Phocaeans would have
 bought the islands called Oenussae from the Chians ; but the Chians would not sell them, because they feared that the islands
 would become a market and so their own island be cut off from trade: so the
 Phocaeans prepared to sail to Corsica [9,42] (region), France,
 Europe 
 Cyrnus 
 , where at the command of an oracle they had built a city
 called Aleria [9.5,42.83]
 (inhabited place), Haute-Corse, Corsica, France, Europe 
 Alalia 
 twenty years before.

Arganthonius was by this time dead. While getting
 ready for their voyage, they first sailed to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege
 kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , where they destroyed the Persian guard
 to whom Harpagus had entrusted the defense of the
 city; and when this was done, they called down mighty curses on any one of
 them who should stay behind when the rest sailed.

Not only this, but they sank a mass of iron in the sea, and swore never to
 return to Foca [26.75,38.666]
 (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 before the iron should appear again. But while they prepared to sail
 to Cyrnus , more than half of the citizens were
 overcome with longing and pitiful sorrow for the city and the life of their
 land, and they broke their oath and sailed back to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege
 kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 . Those of them who kept the oath put out to sea from the Oenussae .

And when they came to Cyrnus they lived there for five years as one community with
 those who had come first, and they founded temples there. But they harassed
 and plundered all their neighbors, as a result of which the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians made common cause against them, and sailed to
 attack them with sixty ships each.

The Phocaeans also manned their ships, sixty in
 number, and met the enemy in the sea called Sardonian . They engaged and the Phocaeans won, yet it was only a kind of Cadmean victory; for
 they lost forty of their ships, and the twenty that remained were useless,
 their rams twisted awry.

Then sailing to Aleria [9.5,42.83]
 (inhabited place), Haute-Corse, Corsica, France, Europe 
 Alalia 
 they took their children and women and all of their possessions that
 their ships could hold on board, and leaving Cyrnus they sailed to Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di
 Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe 
 Rhegium 
 .

As for the crews of the disabled ships, the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians drew lots for them, and of the Tyrrhenians the Agyllaioi 
 were allotted by far the majority and these they
 led out and stoned to death. But afterwards, everything from Agylla that passed the place where the stoned Phocaeans lay, whether sheep or beasts of burden or
 men, became distorted and crippled and palsied.

The Agyllaeans sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , wanting to mend their offense; and the Pythian priestess told them to do what the people of Agylla do to this day: for they pay great honors to
 the Phocaeans , with religious rites and games and
 horse-races.

Such was the end of this part of the Phocaeans .
 Those of them who fled to Reggio
 di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di Calabria,
 Calabria, Italy, Europe 
 Rhegium 
 set out from there and gained possession of that city in the Oenotrian 
 country
 which is now called Elea (deserted
 settlement), Salerno, Campania, Italy, Europe 
 Hyele 
 ;

they founded this because they learned from a man of Posidonia that the Cyrnus whose
 establishment the Pythian priestess ordained was
 the hero, and not the island.

Thus, then, it went with the Ionian Phocaea . The Teians did the
 same things as the Phocaeans : when Harpagus had taken their walled city by building an
 earthwork, they all embarked aboard ship and sailed away for Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe 
 Thrace 
 . There they founded a city, Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) 
 Abdera 
 , which before this had been founded by Timesius of Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) 
 Clazomenae 
 ; yet he got no profit of it, but was driven out by the Thracians . This Timesius is
 now honored as a hero by the Teians of Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) 
 Abdera 
 .

These were the only Ionians who left their native lands, unable to endure slavery.
 The rest of the Ionians , except the Milesians , though they faced Harpagus in battle as did the exiles, and conducted themselves
 well, each fighting for his own country, yet, when they were defeated and
 their cities taken, they remained where they were and did as they were told.

The Milesians , as I have already said, made a
 treaty with Cyrus himself and struck no blow. Thus
 Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe 
 Ionia 
 was enslaved for the second time: and when Harpagus had conquered the Ionians of
 the mainland, the Ionians of the islands, fearing
 the same fate, surrendered to Cyrus .

When the Ionians , despite
 their evil plight, nonetheless assembled at the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833]
 (Perseus) 
 Panionion 
 , Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 , I have learned, gave them very useful advice, and had they followed
 it they might have been the most prosperous of all Greeks :

for he advised them to put out to sea and sail all together to Sardo and then found one city for all Ionians : thus, possessing the greatest island in the
 world and ruling others, they would be rid of slavery and have prosperity;
 but if they stayed in Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 he could see (he said) no hope of freedom for them.

This was the advice which Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) 
 Priene 
 gave after the destruction of the Ionians ; and that given before the destruction by Thales of Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 , a Phoenician by descent, was good too;
 he advised that the Ionians have one place of
 deliberation, and that it be in Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) 
 Teos 
 (for that was the center of Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 ), and that the other cities be considered no more than
 demes. Thus Bias and
 Thales advised.

Harpagus , after subjugating Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 , made an expedition against the Carians ,
 Caunians , and Lycians , taking Ionians and Aeolians with him.

Of these, the Carians have come to the mainland
 from the islands; for in the past they were islanders, called Leleges and under the rule of Minos , not (as far as I can learn by report) paying tribute, but
 manning ships for him when he needed them.

Since Minos had subjected a good deal of territory
 for himself and was victorious in war, this made the Carians too at that time by far the most respected of all
 nations.

They invented three things in which they were followed by the Greeks : it was the Carians who originated wearing crests on their helmets and
 devices on their shields, and who first made grips for their shields; until
 then all who used shields carried them without these grips, and guided them
 with leather belts which they slung round the neck and over the left
 shoulder.

Then, a long time afterwards, the Carians were
 driven from the islands by Dorians and Ionians and so came to the mainland. This is the
 Cretan story about the Carians ; but the Carians themselves do
 not subscribe to it, but believe that they are aboriginal inhabitants of the
 mainland and always bore the name which they bear now;

and they point to an ancient shrine of Carian Zeus 
 at Mylasa [27.8,37.3167]
 (Perseus) 
 Mylasa 
 , to which Mysians and Lydians , as brethren of the Carians 
 (for Lydus and Mysus , they
 say, were brothers of Car ), are admitted, but not
 those who spoke the same language as the Carians 
 but were of another people.

I think the Caunians are
 aborigines of the soil, but they say that they came from Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe 
 Crete 
 . Their speech has become like the Carian ,
 or the Carian like theirs (for I cannot clearly
 decide), but in their customs they diverge widely from the Carians , as from all other men. Their chief pleasure
 is to assemble for drinking-bouts in groups according to their ages and
 friendships: men, women, and children.

Certain foreign rites of worship were established among them; but
 afterwards, when they were inclined otherwise, and wanted to worship only
 the gods of their fathers, all Caunian men of
 full age put on their armor and went together as far as the boundaries of
 Calynda , striking the air with their spears and
 saying that they were casting out the alien gods.

Such are their ways. The Lycians were from Crete
 [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Crete 
 in ancient times (for in the past none that lived on Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe 
 Crete 
 were Greek ).

Now there was a dispute in Crete
 [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Crete 
 about the royal power between Sarpedon and
 Minos , sons of Europa ;
 Minos prevailed in this dispute and drove out
 Sarpedon and his partisans; who, after being
 driven out, came to the Milyan land in Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 . What is now possessed by the Lycians was
 in the past Milyan , and the Milyans were then called Solymi .

For a while Sarpedon ruled them, and the people
 were called Termilae , which was the name that
 they had brought with them and that is still given to the Lycians by their neighbors; but after Lycus son of Pandion came
 from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 —banished as well by his brother, Aegeus —to
 join Sarpedon in the land of the Termilae , they came in time to be called Lycians after Lycus .

Their customs are partly Cretan and partly Carian . But they have one which is their own and
 shared by no other men: they take their names not from their fathers but
 from their mothers,

and when one is asked by his neighbor who he is, he will say that he is the
 son of such a mother, and rehearse the mothers of his mother. Indeed, if a
 female citizen marries a slave, her children are considered pure-blooded;
 but if a male citizen, even the most prominent of them, takes an alien wife
 or concubine, the children are dishonored.

Neither the Carians nor
 any Greeks who dwell in this country did any
 thing notable before they were all enslaved by Harpagus .

Among those who inhabit it are certain Cnidians ,
 colonists from Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 . Their country (it is called the Triopion )
 lies between the sea and that part of the peninsula which belongs to Bubassus , and all but a small part of the Cnidian territory is washed by the sea

(for it is bounded on the north by the gulf of Ceramicus , and on the south by the sea off Nisos Symi [27.833,36.583] (island),
 Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Syme 
 and Rhodes [28,36.166]
 (island), Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Rhodes 
 ). Now while Harpagus was conquering Ionia (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 , the Cnidians dug a trench across this
 little space, which is about two-thirds of a mile wide, in order that their
 country might be an island. So they brought it all within the entrenchment;
 for the frontier between the Cnidian country and
 the mainland is on the isthmus across which they dug.

Many of them were at this work; and seeing that the workers were injured
 when breaking stones more often and less naturally than usual, some in other
 ways, but most in the eyes, the Cnidians sent
 envoys to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 to inquire what it was that opposed them.

Then, as they themselves say, the priestess gave them this answer in iambic
 verse: 
 “Do not wall or trench the isthmus: 
 
 Zeus would have given you an island, if he
 had wanted to.”

At this answer from the priestess, the Cnidians 
 stopped their digging, and when Harpagus came
 against them with his army they surrendered to him without resistance.

There were Pedaseans 
 dwelling inland above Bodrum
 [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 ; when any misfortune was approaching them or their neighbors, the
 priestess of Athena grew a long beard. This had
 happened to them thrice. These were the only men near Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia 
 Caria 
 who held out for long against Harpagus , and
 they gave him the most trouble; they fortified a hill called Lide .

The Pedaseans were at
 length taken, and when Harpagus led his army into
 the plain of Xanthos
 [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) 
 Xanthus 
 , the Lycians came out to meet him, and
 showed themselves courageous fighting few against many; but being beaten and
 driven into the city, they gathered their wives and children and goods and
 servants into the acropolis, and then set the whole acropolis on fire.

Then they swore great oaths to each other, and sallying out fell fighting,
 all the men of Xanthos
 [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) 
 Xanthus 
 .

Of the Xanthians who claim now to be Lycians the greater number, all except eighty
 households, are of foreign descent; these eighty families as it happened
 were away from the city at that time, and thus survived. So Harpagus gained Xanthos [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) 
 Xanthus 
 , and Caunus
 [28.6333,36.8333] (Perseus) 
 Caunus 
 too in a somewhat similar manner, the Caunians following for the most part the example of the Lycians .

Harpagus , then, made havoc of lower Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 ; in the upper country, Cyrus himself
 vanquished every nation, leaving none untouched. Of the greater part of
 these I will say nothing, but will speak only of those which gave Cyrus the most trouble and are most worthy of being
 described.

When Cyrus had made all the
 mainland submit to him, he attacked the Assyrians . In Assyria there are many other
 great cities, but the most famous and the strongest was Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , where the royal dwelling had been established after the destruction
 of Nineveh (deserted settlement),
 Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 . 
 Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 was a city such as I will now describe.

It lies in a great plain, and is in shape a square, each side fifteen miles
 in length; thus sixty miles make the complete circuit of the city. Such is
 the size of the city of Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 ; and it was planned like no other city of which we know.

Around it runs first a moat deep and wide and full of water, and then a wall
 eighty three feet thick and three hundred thirty three feet high. The royal
 measure is greater by three fingers' breadth than the common measure.

Further, I must relate where the earth was used as
 it was dug from the moat and how the wall was constructed. As they dug the
 moat, they made bricks of the earth which was carried out of the place they
 dug, and when they had moulded bricks enough, they baked them in ovens;

then using hot bitumen for cement and interposing layers of wattled reeds
 at every thirtieth course of bricks, they built first the border of the moat
 and then the wall itself in the same fashion.

On the top, along the edges of the wall, they built houses of a single room,
 facing each other, with space enough between to drive a four-horse chariot.
 There are a hundred gates in the circuit of the wall, all of bronze, with
 posts and lintels of the same.

There is another city, called Is , eight days' journey from Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , where there is a little river, also named Is, a tributary of the
 Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river),
 Asia 
 Euphrates river 
 ; from the source of this river Is, many lumps of bitumen rise with
 the water; and from there the bitumen was brought for the wall of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 .

Thus, then, this wall was built; the city is divided
 into two parts; for it is cut in half by a river named Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river),
 Asia 
 Euphrates 
 , a wide, deep, and swift river, flowing from Armenia (region (general)), Asia 
 Armenia 
 and issuing into the Red
 Sea [42,15] (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 .

The angles of the wall, then, on either side are built quite down to the
 river; here they turn, and from here a fence of baked bricks runs along each
 bank of the stream.

The city itself is full of houses three and four stories high; and the ways
 that traverse it, those that run crosswise towards the river and the rest,
 are all straight.

Further, at the end of each road there was a gate in the riverside fence,
 one gate for each alley; these gates also were of bronze, and these too
 opened on the river.

These walls are the city's outer armor; within them
 there is another encircling wall, nearly as strong as the other, but
 narrower.

In the middle of one division of the city stands the royal palace,
 surrounded by a high and strong wall; and in the middle of the other is
 still to this day the sacred enclosure of Zeus
 Belus , a square of
 four hundred and forty yards each way, with gates of bronze.

In the center of this sacred enclosure a solid tower has been built, two
 hundred and twenty yards long and broad; a second tower rises from this and
 from it yet another, until at last there are eight.

The way up them mounts spirally outside the height of the towers; about
 halfway up is a resting place, with seats for repose, where those who ascend
 sit down and rest.

In the last tower there is a great shrine; and in it stands a great and
 well-covered couch, and a golden table nearby. But no image has been set up
 in the shrine, nor does any human creature lie there for the night, except
 one native woman, chosen from all women by the god, as the Chaldaeans say, who are priests of this god.

These same Chaldaeans say
 (though I do not believe them) that the god himself is accustomed to visit
 the shrine and rest on the couch, as in Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 of Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , as the Egyptians say

(for there too a woman sleeps in the temple of Theban
 Zeus , and neither the Egyptian nor the Babylonian woman, it
 is said, has intercourse with men), and as does the prophetess of the
 god at Patara [29.35,36.2167] (Perseus) 
 Patara 
 in Lycia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lycia 
 , whenever she is appointed; for there is not always a place of
 divination there; but when she is appointed she is shut up in the temple
 during the night.

In the Babylonian temple
 there is another shrine below, where there is a great golden image of Zeus , sitting at a great golden table, and the
 footstool and the chair are also gold; the gold of the whole was said by the
 Chaldeans to be eight hundred talents' weight.

Outside the temple is a golden altar. There is also another great altar, on
 which are sacrificed the full-grown of the flocks; only nurslings may be
 sacrificed on the golden altar, but on the greater altar the Chaldeans even offer a thousand talents' weight of
 frankincense yearly, when they keep the festival of this god; and in the
 days of Cyrus there was still in this sacred
 enclosure a statue of solid gold twenty feet high.

I myself have not seen it, but I relate what is told by the Chaldeans . Darius son of
 Hystaspes proposed to take this statue but dared
 not; Xerxes his son took it, and killed the priest
 who warned him not to move the statue. Such is the furniture of this temple,
 and there are many private offerings besides.

Now among the many rulers of this city of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 (whom I shall mention in my Assyrian 
 history) who finished the building of the walls and the temples, there were
 two that were women. The first of these lived five generations earlier than
 the second, and her name was Semiramis : it was she
 who built dikes on the plain, a notable work; before that the whole plain
 used to be flooded by the river.

The second queen, whose name was Nitocris , was a wiser woman than the first. She left such
 monuments as I shall record; and moreover, seeing that the kingdom of Media
 was great and restless and Nineveh
 (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 itself among other cities had fallen to it, she took such
 precautions as she could for her protection.

First she dealt with the river Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia 
 Euphrates 
 , which flows through the middle of her city; this had been straight
 before; but by digging canals higher up she made the river so crooked that
 its course now passes one of the Assyrian 
 villages three times; the village which is so approached by the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river),
 Asia 
 Euphrates 
 is called Ardericca . And now those who
 travel from our sea to Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 must spend three days as they float down the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia 
 Euphrates 
 coming three times to the same village.

Such was this work; and she built an embankment along either shore of the
 river, marvellous for its greatness and height.

Then a long way above Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 she dug the reservoir of a lake, a little way off from the river,
 always digging deep enough to find water, and making the circumference a
 distance of fifty two miles; what was dug out of this hole, she used to
 embank either edge of the river;

and when she had it all dug, she brought stones and made a quay all around
 the lake.

Her purpose in making the river wind and turning the hole into marsh was
 this: that the current might be slower because of the many windings that
 broke its force, and that the passages to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil,
 Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 might be crooked, and that right after them should come also the
 long circuit of the lake.

All this work was done in that part of the country where the passes are and
 the shortest road from Media, so that the Medes 
 might not mix with her people and learn of her affairs.

So she made the deep river her protection; and this
 work led to another which she added to it. Her city was divided into two
 parts by the river that flowed through the middle. In the days of the former
 rulers, when one wanted to go from one part to the other, one had to cross
 in a boat; and this, I suppose, was a nuisance. But the queen also provided
 for this; she made another monument of her reign out of this same work when
 the digging of the basin of the lake was done.

She had very long blocks of stone cut; and when these were ready and the
 place was dug, she turned the course of the river into it, and while it was
 filling, the former channel now being dry, she bricked the borders of the
 river in the city and the descent from the gate leading down to the river
 with baked bricks, like those of the wall; and near the middle of the city
 she built a bridge with the stones that had been dug up, binding them
 together with iron and lead.

Each morning, she laid square-hewn logs across it, on which the Babylonians crossed; but these logs were removed at
 night, lest folk always be crossing over and stealing from one another.

Then, when the basin she had made for a lake was filled by the river and the
 bridge was finished, Nitocris brought the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river),
 Asia 
 Euphrates 
 back to its former channel out of the lake; thus she had served her
 purpose, as she thought, by making a swamp of the basin, and her citizens
 had a bridge made for them.

There was a trick, too, that this same queen
 contrived. She had a tomb made for herself and set high over the very gate
 of that entrance of the city which was used most, with writing engraved on
 the tomb, which read:

“If any king of Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 in the future is in need of money, let him open this tomb and take
 as much as he likes: but let him not open it unless he is in need; for it
 will be the worse for him.”

This tomb remained untouched until the kingship fell to Darius . He thought it a very strange thing that he should never
 use this gate, or take the money when it lay there and the writing itself
 invited him to.

The reason he did not use the gate was that the dead body would be over his
 head as he passed through.

After opening the tomb, he found no money there, only the dead body, with
 writing which read: “If you were ever satisfied with what you had and did
 not disgrace yourself seeking more, you would not have opened the coffins of
 the dead.” Such a woman, it is recorded, was this queen.

Cyrus , then, marched against Nitocris ' son, who inherited the name of his father Labynetus and the sovereignty of Assyria . Now when the Great King 
 campaigns, he marches well provided with food and flocks from home; and
 water from the Choaspes river that flows past
 Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 is carried with him, the only river from which the king will drink.

This water of the Choaspes 
 is boiled, and very many four-wheeled wagons drawn
 by mules carry it in silver vessels, following the king wherever he goes at
 any time.

When Cyrus reached the
 Gyndes river on his march to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , which rises in the mountains of the Matieni and flows through the Dardanean country into another river, the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia 
 Tigris 
 , that again passes the city of Opis and
 empties into the Red Sea [42,15]
 (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 —when, I say, Cyrus tried to cross the Gyndes , which was navigable there, one of his sacred
 white horses dashed recklessly into the river trying to get through it, but
 the current overwhelmed him and swept him under and away.

At this violence of the river Cyrus was very angry,
 and he threatened to make it so feeble that women could ever after cross it
 easily without wetting their knees.

After uttering this threat, he paused in his march against Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , and, dividing his army into two parts, drew lines planning out a
 hundred and eighty canals running every way from either bank of the Gyndes ; then he organized his army along the lines
 and made them dig.

Since a great multitude was at work, it went quickly; but they spent the
 whole summer there before it was finished.

Then at the beginning of the following spring, when
 Cyrus had punished the Gyndes by dividing it among the three hundred and sixty canals,
 he marched against Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 at last. The Babylonians sallied out and
 awaited him; and when he came near their city in his march, they engaged
 him, but they were beaten and driven inside the city.

There they had stored provisions enough for very many years, because they
 knew already that Cyrus was not a man of no
 ambitition, and saw that he attacked all nations alike; so now they were
 indifferent to the siege; and Cyrus did not know
 what to do, being so long delayed and gaining no advantage.

Whether someone advised him in his difficulty, or
 whether he perceived for himself what to do, I do not know, but he did the
 following.

He posted his army at the place where the river goes into the city, and
 another part of it behind the city, where the river comes out of the city,
 and told his men to enter the city by the channel of the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river),
 Asia 
 Euphrates 
 when they saw it to be fordable. Having disposed them and given this
 command, he himself marched away with those of his army who could not fight;

and when he came to the lake, Cyrus dealt with it
 and with the river just as had the Babylonian 
 queen: drawing off the river by a canal into the lake, which was a marsh, he
 made the stream sink until its former channel could be forded.

When this happened, the Persians who were posted
 with this objective made their way into Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 by the channel of the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia 
 Euphrates 
 , which had now sunk to a depth of about the middle of a man's thigh.

Now if the Babylonians had known beforehand or
 learned what Cyrus was up to, they would have let
 the Persians enter the city and have destroyed
 them utterly; for then they would have shut all the gates that opened on the
 river and mounted the walls that ran along the river banks, and so caught
 their enemies in a trap.

But as it was, the Persians took them unawares,
 and because of the great size of the city (those who dwell there say) those
 in the outer parts of it were overcome, but the inhabitants of the middle
 part knew nothing of it; all this time they were dancing and celebrating a
 holiday which happened to fall then, until they learned the truth only too
 well.

And Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 , then for the first time, was taken in this way. I shall show how
 great the power of Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 is by many other means, but particularly by this. All the land that
 the great King rules is parcelled out to provision him and his army, and
 pays tribute besides: now the territory of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil,
 Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 feeds him for four of the twelve months in the year, the whole of
 the rest of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 providing for the other eight.

Thus the wealth of Assyria is one third of the
 entire wealth of Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 . The governorship of this land, which the Persians call “satrapy,” is by far the most powerful of all the
 governorships, since the daily income of Tritantaechmes son of Artabazus , who
 governed this province by the king's will, was an artaba full of silver

(the artaba is a Persian measure, containing
 more than an Attic medimnus by three Attic choenixes), and besides warhorses he had eight hundred stallions in his stables,
 and sixteen thousand brood mares, each stallion servicing twenty mares.

Moreover he kept so great a number of Indian dogs
 that four great villages of the plain were appointed to provide food for the
 dogs and exempted from all other burdens. Such were the riches of the
 governor of Babylon [44.4,32.55]
 (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 .

There is little rain in Assyria . This nourishes the roots of the grain; but it is
 irrigation from the river that ripens the crop and brings the grain to
 fullness. In Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the river itself rises and floods the fields; in Assyria , they are watered by hand and by swinging beams.

For the whole land of Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , like Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , is cut across by canals. The greatest of these is navigable: it
 runs towards where the sun rises in winter, from the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia 
 Euphrates 
 to another river, the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia 
 Tigris 
 , on which stood the city of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 . This land is by far the most fertile in grain which we know.

It does not even try to bear trees, fig, vine, or olive, but Demeter 's grain is so abundant there that it yields
 for the most part two hundred fold, and even three hundred fold when the
 harvest is best. The blades of the wheat and barley there are easily four
 fingers broad;

and for millet and sesame, I will not say to what height they grow, though
 it is known to me; for I am well aware that even what I have said regarding
 grain is wholly disbelieved by those who have never visited Babylonia (region (general)), Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylonia 
 . They use no oil except what they make from sesame. There are palm trees there growing all over the
 plain, most of them yielding fruit, from which food is made and wine and
 honey.

The Assyrians tend these like figs, and chiefly
 in this respect, that they tie the fruit of the palm called male by the
 Greeks to the date-bearing palm, so that the
 gall-fly may enter the dates and cause them to ripen, and that the fruit of
 the palm may not fall; for the male palms, like unripened figs, have
 gall-flies in their fruit.

I am going to indicate what seems to me to be the
 most marvellous thing in the country, next to the city itself. Their boats
 which ply the river and go to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 are all of skins, and round.

They make these in Armenia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Armenia 
 , higher up the stream than Assyria . First
 they cut frames of willow, then they stretch hides over these for a
 covering, making as it were a hold; they neither broaden the stern nor
 narrow the prow, but the boat is round, like a shield. They then fill it
 with reeds and send it floating down the river with a cargo; and it is for
 the most part palm wood casks of wine that they carry down.

Two men standing upright steer the boat, each with a paddle, one drawing it
 to him, the other thrusting it from him. These boats are of all sizes, some
 small, some very large; the largest of them are of as much as five thousand
 talents burden. There is a
 live ass in each boat, or more than one in the larger.

So when they have floated down to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 and disposed of their cargo, they sell the framework of the boat and
 all the reeds; the hides are set on the backs of asses, which are then
 driven back to Armenia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Armenia 
 ,

for it is not by any means possible to go upstream by water, because of the
 swiftness of the current; it is for this reason that they make their boats
 of hides and not of wood. When they have driven their asses back into Armenia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Armenia 
 , they make more boats in the same way.

Such then are their boats. For clothing, they wear a
 linen tunic, reaching to the feet; over this the Babylonian puts on another tunic, of wool, and wraps himself in a
 white mantle; he wears the shoes of his country, which are like Boeotian sandals. Their hair is worn long, and
 covered by caps; the whole body is perfumed.

Every man has a seal and a carved staff, and on every staff is some image,
 such as that of an apple or a rose or a lily or an eagle: no one carries a
 staff without an image.

This is the equipment of their persons. I will now
 speak of their established customs. The wisest of these, in our judgment, is
 one which I have learned by inquiry is also a custom of the Eneti in Illyria (region (general)), Europe 
 Illyria 
 . It is this: once a year in every village all the maidens as they
 attained marriageable age were collected and brought together into one
 place, with a crowd of men standing around.

Then a crier would display and offer them for sale one by one, first the
 fairest of all; and then, when she had fetched a great price, he put up for
 sale the next most attractive, selling all the maidens as lawful wives. Rich
 men of Assyria who desired to marry would outbid
 each other for the fairest; the ordinary people, who desired to marry and
 had no use for beauty, could take the ugly ones and money besides;

for when the crier had sold all the most attractive, he would put up the
 one that was least beautiful, or crippled, and offer her to whoever would
 take her to wife for the least amount, until she fell to one who promised to
 accept least; the money came from the sale of the attractive ones, who thus
 paid the dowry of the ugly and the crippled. But a man could not give his
 daughter in marriage to whomever he liked, nor could one that bought a girl
 take her away without giving security that he would in fact make her his
 wife.

And if the couple could not agree, it was a law that the money be returned.
 Men might also come from other villages to buy if they so desired.

This, then, was their best custom; but it does not continue at this time;
 they have invented a new one lately [so that the women not be wronged or
 taken to another city]; since the conquest of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil,
 Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 made them afflicted and poor, everyone of the people that lacks a
 livelihood prostitutes his daughters.

I come now to the next wisest of their customs:
 having no use for physicians, they carry the sick into the market-place;
 then those who have been afflicted themselves by the same illness as the
 sick man's, or seen others in like case, come near and advise him about his
 disease and comfort him, telling him by what means they have themselves
 recovered from it or seen others recover. No one may pass by the sick man
 without speaking and asking after his sickness.

The dead are embalmed in honey for burial, and their
 dirges are like the dirges of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Whenever a Babylonian has had
 intercourse with his wife, they both sit before a burnt offering of incense,
 and at dawn they wash themselves; they will touch no vessel before this is
 done. This is the custom in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 also.

The foulest Babylonian 
 custom is that which compels every woman of the land to sit in the temple of
 Aphrodite and have intercourse with some
 stranger once in her life. Many women who are rich and proud and disdain to
 mingle with the rest, drive to the temple in covered carriages drawn by
 teams, and stand there with a great retinue of attendants.

But most sit down in the sacred plot of Aphrodite ,
 with crowns of cord on their heads; there is a great multitude of women
 coming and going; passages marked by line run every way through the crowd,
 by which the men pass and make their choice.

Once a woman has taken her place there, she does not go away to her home
 before some stranger has cast money into her lap, and had intercourse with
 her outside the temple; but while he casts the money, he must say, “I invite
 you in the name of Mylitta ” (that is the Assyrian name for Aphrodite ).

It does not matter what sum the money is; the woman will never refuse, for
 that would be a sin, the money being by this act made sacred. So she follows
 the first man who casts it and rejects no one. After their intercourse,
 having discharged her sacred duty to the goddess, she goes away to her home;
 and thereafter there is no bribe however great that will get her.

So then the women that are fair and tall are soon free to depart, but the
 uncomely have long to wait because they cannot fulfill the law; for some of
 them remain for three years, or four. There is a custom like this in some
 parts of Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia 
 Cyprus 
 .

These are established customs among the Babylonians . Furthermore, there are three tribes in
 the country that eat nothing but fish, which they catch and dry in the sun;
 then, after throwing it into a mortar, they pound it with pestles and strain
 everything through linen. Then whoever desires kneads as it were a cake of
 it and eats it; others bake it like bread.

When Cyrus had conquered
 this nation, too, he wanted to subject the Massagetae . These are said to be a great and powerful people
 dwelling towards the east and the sunrise, beyond the Araxes and opposite the Issedones ; and
 some say that they are a Scythian people.

The Araxes is said by some
 to be greater and by some to be less than the Ister . It is reported that there are many islands in it as big as
 Lesbos [26.333,39.166]
 (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Lesbos 
 , and men on them who in summer live on roots of all kinds that they
 dig up, and in winter on fruit that they have got from trees when it was
 ripe and stored for food;

and they know (it is said) of trees bearing a fruit whose effect is this:
 gathering in groups and kindling a fire, the people sit around it and throw
 the fruit into the flames; then the fumes of it as it burns make them drunk
 as the Greeks are with wine, and more and more
 drunk as more fruit is thrown on the fire, until at last they rise up to
 dance and even sing. Such is said to be their way of life.

The Araxes 
 flows
 from the country of the Matieni (as does the
 Gyndes , which Cyrus 
 divided into the three hundred and sixty channels) and empties itself
 through forty mouths, of which all except one issue into bogs and swamps,
 where men are said to live whose food is raw fish, and their customary dress
 sealskins.

The one remaining stream of the Araxes flows in a
 clear channel into the Caspian Sea
 [51,39] (sea) 
 Caspian sea 
 . This is a sea by itself, not joined to the
 other sea. For that on which the Greeks sail, and
 the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles , which they
 call Atlantic Ocean
 [-40.000,1.000] (ocean) 
 Atlantic 
 , and the Red Sea [42,15]
 (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 , are all one:

but the Caspian is separate and by itself. Its
 length is what a ship rowed by oars can traverse in fifteen days, and its
 breadth, where it is broadest, is an eight days' journey. Along its western
 shore stretches the range of Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus 
 , which has more and higher peaks than any other range. Many and all
 kinds of nations dwell in the Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus 
 , and the most of them live on the fruits of the forest.

Here, it is said, are trees growing leaves that men crush and mix with water
 and use for painting figures on their clothing; these figures cannot be
 washed out, but last as long as the wool, as if they had been woven into it
 from the first. Men and women here (they say) have intercourse openly, like
 beasts of the flock.

This sea called Caspian is
 hemmed in to the west by the Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus 
 : towards the east and the sunrise there stretches from its shores a
 boundless plain as far as the eye can see. The greater part of this wide
 plain is the country of the Massagetae , against
 whom Cyrus was eager to lead his army.

For there were many weighty reasons that impelled and encouraged him to do
 so: first, his birth, because of which he seemed to be something more than
 mortal; and next, his victories in his wars: for no nation that Cyrus undertook to attack could escape from him.

Now at this time the Massagetae were ruled by a queen called Tomyris , whose husband was dead. Cyrus 
 sent a message with a pretence of wanting her for his wife, but Tomyris would have none of his advances, well
 understanding that he wanted not her but the kingdom of the Massagetae .

So when guile was of no avail, Cyrus marched to the
 Araxes and openly prepared to attack the Massagetae ; he bridged the river for his army to
 cross, and built towers on the pontoons bridging the river.

But while he was busy at this, Tomyris sent a herald to him with this message: “O king of the
 Medes , stop hurrying on what you are hurrying
 on, for you cannot know whether the completion of this work will be for your
 advantage. Stop, and be king of your own country; and endure seeing us
 ruling those whom we rule.

But if you will not take this advice, and will do anything rather than
 remain at peace, then if you so greatly desire to try the strength of the
 Massagetae , stop your present work of bridging
 the river, and let us withdraw three days' journey from the Araxes ; and when that is done, cross into our
 country.

Or if you prefer to receive us into your country, then withdraw yourself as
 I have said.” Hearing this, Cyrus called together
 the leading Persians and laid the matter before
 them, asking them to advise him which he should do. They all spoke to the
 same end, urging him to let Tomyris and her army
 enter his country.

But Croesus the Lydian , who was present, was displeased by their
 advice and spoke against it. “O King,” he said, “you have before now heard
 from me that since Zeus has given me to you I will
 turn aside to the best of my ability whatever misadventure I see threatening
 your house. And disaster has been my teacher.

Now, if you think that you and the army that you lead are immortal, I have
 no business giving you advice; but if you know that you and those whom you
 rule are only men, then I must first teach you this: men's fortunes are on a
 wheel, which in its turning does not allow the same man to prosper forever.

So, if that is the case, I am not of the same opinion about the business in
 hand as these other counsellors of yours. This is the danger if we agree to
 let the enemy enter your country: if you lose the battle, you lose your
 empire also, for it is plain that if the Massagetae win they will not retreat but will march against your
 provinces.

And if you conquer them, it is a lesser victory than if you crossed into
 their country and routed the Massagetae and
 pursued them; for I weigh your chances against theirs, and suppose that when
 you have beaten your adversaries you will march for the seat of Tomyris ' power.

And besides what I have shown, it would be a shameful thing and not to be
 endured if Cyrus the son of Cambyses should yield and give ground before a woman. Now then,
 it occurs to me that we should cross and go forward as far as they draw
 back, and that then we should endeavor to overcome them by doing as I shall
 show.

As I understand, the Massagetae have no
 experience of the good things of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , and have never fared well as to what is greatly desirable.
 Therefore, I advise you to cut up the meat of many of your sheep and goats
 into generous portions for these men, and to cook it and serve it as a feast
 in our camp, providing many bowls of unmixed wine and all kinds of food.

Then let your army withdraw to the river again, leaving behind that part of
 it which is of least value. For if I am not mistaken in my judgment, when
 the Massagetae see so many good things they will
 give themselves over to feasting on them; and it will be up to us then to
 accomplish great things.”

So these opinions clashed; and Cyrus set aside his former plan and chose that of Croesus ; consequently, he told Tomyris to draw her army off, for he would cross (he said) and
 attack her; so she withdrew as she had promised before. Then he entrusted
 Croesus to the care of his own son Cambyses , to whom he would leave his sovereignty,
 telling Cambyses to honor Croesus and treat him well if the crossing of the river against
 the Massagetae should not go well. With these
 instructions, he sent the two back to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , and he and his army crossed the river.

After he had crossed the Araxes , he dreamed that night while sleeping in the country of
 the Massagetae that he saw the eldest of Hystapes ' sons with wings on his shoulders, the one
 wing overshadowing Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 and the other Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 .

Hystaspes son of Arsames 
 was an Achaemenid , and Darius was the eldest of his sons, then about twenty years old;
 this Darius had been left behind in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , not yet being of an age to go on campaign.

So when Cyrus awoke he considered his vision, and
 because it seemed to him to be of great importance, he sent for Hystaspes and said to him privately, “ Hystaspes , I have caught your son plotting against me
 and my sovereignty; and I will tell you how I know this for certain.

The gods care for me and show me beforehand all that is coming. Now then, I
 have seen in a dream in the past night your eldest son with wings on his
 shoulders, overshadowing Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 with the one and Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 with the other.

From this vision, there is no way that he is not plotting against me.
 Therefore hurry back to Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , and see that when I come back after subjecting this country you
 bring your son before me to be questioned about this.”

Cyrus said this, thinking that Darius was plotting against him; but in fact, heaven was showing
 him that he himself was to die in the land where he was and Darius inherit his kingdom.

So then Hystaspes replied with this: “O King, may
 there not be any Persian born who would plot
 against you! But if there is, may he perish suddenly; for you have made the
 Persians free men instead of slaves and rulers
 of all instead of subjects of any.

But if your vision does indeed signify that my son is planning revolution, I
 give him to you to treat as you like.”

After having given this answer and crossed the Araxes , Hystaspes went to
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 to watch his son for Cyrus ; and Cyrus , advancing a day's journey from the Araxes , acted according to Croesus ' advice.

Cyrus and the sound portion of the Persian army marched back to the Araxes , leaving behind those that were useless; a third of the
 Massagetae forces attacked those of the army
 who were left behind and destroyed them despite resistance; then, when they
 had overcome their enemies, seeing the banquet spread they sat down and
 feasted, and after they had had their fill of food and wine, they fell
 asleep.

Then the Persians attacked them, killing many and
 taking many more alive, among whom was the son of Tomyris the queen, Spargapises by name,
 the leader of the Massagetae .

When Tomyris heard what had
 happened to her army and her son, she sent a herald to Cyrus with this message:

“ Cyrus who can never get enough blood, do not be
 elated by what you have done; it is nothing to be proud of if, by the fruit
 of the vine—with which you Persians fill
 yourselves and rage so violently that evil words rise in a flood to your
 lips when the wine enters your bodies—if, by tricking him with this drug,
 you got the better of my son, and not by force of arms in battle.

Now, then, take a word of good advice from me: give me back my son and leave
 this country unpunished, even though you have savaged a third of the Massagetae army. But if you will not, then I swear
 to you by the sun, lord of the Massagetae , that I
 shall give even you who can never get enough of it your fill of blood.”

Cyrus dismissed this warning when it was repeated
 to him. But Spargapises , the son of the queen Tomyris , after the wine wore off and he recognized his
 evil plight, asked Cyrus to be freed from his
 bonds; and this was granted him; but as soon as he was freed and had the use
 of his hands, he did away with himself.

Such was the end of Spargapises . Tomyris , when Cyrus would not listen to her, collected all her
 forces and engaged him. This fight I judge to have been the fiercest ever
 fought by men that were not Greek ; and indeed I
 have learned that this was so.

For first (it is said) they shot arrows at each other from a distance; then,
 when their arrows were all spent, they rushed at each other and fought with
 their spears and swords; and for a long time they stood fighting and neither
 would give ground; but at last the Massagetae got
 the upper hand.

The greater part of the Persian army was
 destroyed there on the spot, and Cyrus himself fell
 there, after having reigned for one year short of thirty years.

Tomyris filled a skin with human blood, and
 searched among the Persian dead for Cyrus ' body; and when she found it, she pushed his
 head into the skin, and insulted the dead man in these words:

“Though I am alive and have defeated you in battle, you have destroyed me,
 taking my son by guile; but just as I threatened, I give you your fill of
 blood.” Many stories are told of Cyrus ' death;
 this, that I have told, is the most credible.

These Massagetae are like
 the Scythians in their dress and way of life.
 They are both cavalry and infantry (having some of each kind), and spearmen
 and archers; and it is their custom to carry battle-axes. They always use
 gold and bronze; all their spear-points and arrow-heads and battle-axes are
 bronze and the adornment of their headgear and belts and girdles is gold.

They equip their horses similarly, protecting their chests with bronze
 breastplates and putting gold on reins, bits, and cheekplates. But they
 never use iron and silver, for there is none at all in their country, but
 gold and bronze abound.

Now for their customs: each man marries a wife, but
 the wives are common to all. The Greeks say this
 is a Scythian custom; it is not, but a custom of
 the Massagetae . There, when a man desires a
 woman, he hangs his quiver before her wagon, and has intercourse with her
 without fear.

Though they fix no certain term to life, yet when a man is very old all his
 family meet together and kill him, with beasts of the flock besides, then
 boil the flesh and feast on it.

This is held to be the happiest death; when a man dies of an illness, they
 do not eat him, but bury him in the earth, and lament that he did not live
 to be killed. They never plant seed; their fare is their livestock and the
 fish which they take in abundance from the Araxes .

Their drink is milk. The sun is the only god whom they worship; they
 sacrifice horses to him; the reasoning is that he is the swiftest of the
 gods, and therefore they give him the swiftest of mortal things.

After the death of Cyrus ,
 Cambyses inherited his throne. He was the son of
 Cyrus and of Cassandane , the daughter of Pharnaspes , for
 whom Cyrus mourned deeply when she died before him,
 and had all his subjects mourn also.

Cambyses was the son of this woman and of Cyrus . He considered the Ionians and Aeolians slaves inherited
 from his father, and prepared an expedition against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , taking with him some of these Greek 
 subjects besides others whom he ruled.

Now before Psammetichus 
 became king of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the Egyptians believed
 that they were the oldest people on earth. But ever since Psammetichus became king and wished to find out which people were
 the oldest, they have believed that the Phrygians 
 were older than they, and they than everybody else.

Psammetichus , when he was in no way able to learn
 by inquiry which people had first come into being, devised a plan by which
 he took two newborn children of the common people and gave them to a
 shepherd to bring up among his flocks. He gave instructions that no one was
 to speak a word in their hearing; they were to stay by themselves in a
 lonely hut, and in due time the shepherd was to bring goats and give the
 children their milk and do everything else necessary.

Psammetichus did this, and gave these instructions,
 because he wanted to hear what speech would first come from the children,
 when they were past the age of indistinct babbling. And he had his wish; for
 one day, when the shepherd had done as he was told for two years, both
 children ran to him stretching out their hands and calling “Bekos!” as he
 opened the door and entered.

When he first heard this, he kept quiet about it; but when, coming often and
 paying careful attention, he kept hearing this same word, he told his master
 at last and brought the children into the king's presence as required. Psammetichus then heard them himself, and asked to
 what language the word “Bekos” belonged; he found it to be a Phrygian word, signifying bread.

Reasoning from this, the Egyptians acknowledged
 that the Phrygians were older than they. This is
 the story which I heard from the priests of Hephaestus ' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; the Greeks say among many foolish things
 that Psammetichus had the children reared by women
 whose tongues he had cut out.

Besides this story of the rearing of the children, I
 also heard other things at Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 in conversation with the priests of Hephaestus ; and I visited Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 and Heliopolis
 [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 , too, for this very purpose, because I wished to know if the people
 of those places would tell me the same story as the priests at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; for the people of Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 are said to be the most learned of the Egyptians .

Now, such stories as I heard about the gods I am not ready to relate, except
 their names, for I believe that all men are equally knowledgeable about
 them; and I shall say about them what I am constrained to say by the course
 of my history.

But as to human affairs, this was the account in
 which they all agreed: the Egyptians , they said,
 were the first men who reckoned by years and made the year consist of twelve
 divisions of the seasons. They discovered this from the stars (so they
 said). And their reckoning is, to my mind, a juster one than that of the
 Greeks ; for the Greeks add an intercalary month every other year, so that the
 seasons agree; but the Egyptians , reckoning
 thirty days to each of the twelve months, add five days in every year over
 and above the total, and thus the completed circle of seasons is made to
 agree with the calendar.

Furthermore, the Egyptians (they said) first used
 the names of twelve gods 
 (which the Greeks afterwards borrowed from them);
 and it was they who first assigned to the several gods their altars and
 images and temples, and first carved figures on stone. Most of this they
 showed me in fact to be the case. The first human king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , they said, was Min .

In his time all of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 except the Thebaic 
 district was a marsh: all the country that we now see was
 then covered by water, north of Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 , which is seven days' journey up the river from the sea.

And I think that their account of the country was
 true. For even if a man has not heard it before, he can readily see, if he
 has sense, that that Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to which the Greeks sail is land
 deposited for the Egyptians , the river's gift—not
 only the lower country, but even the land as far as three days' voyage above
 the lake, which is of the same nature as the other, although the priests did
 not say this, too.

For this is the nature of the land of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 : in the first place, when you approach it from the sea and are still
 a day's sail from land, if you let down a sounding line you will bring up
 mud from a depth of eleven fathoms. This shows that the deposit from the
 land reaches this far.

Further, the length of the seacoast of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 itself is sixty “schoeni” —of Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , that is, as we judge it to be, reaching from the Plinthinete gulf to the Serbonian
 marsh , which is under the Casian
 mountain —between these there is this length of sixty schoeni.

Men that have scant land measure by feet; those that have more, by miles;
 those that have much land, by parasangs; and those who have great abundance
 of it, by schoeni.

The parasang is three and three quarters miles, and the schoenus, which is
 an Egyptian measure, is twice that.

By this reckoning, then, the seaboard of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 will be four hundred and fifty miles in length. Inland from the sea
 as far as Heliopolis [31.333,30.1]
 (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 , Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 is a wide land, all flat and watery and marshy. From the sea up to
 Heliopolis [31.333,30.1]
 (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 is a journey about as long as the way from the altar of the twelve
 gods at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 to the temple of Olympian Zeus at Pisa [21.65,37.65] (Perseus) 
 Pisa 
 .

If a reckoning is made, only a little difference of length, not more than
 two miles, will be found between these two journeys; for the journey from
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 to Pisa [21.65,37.65]
 (Perseus) 
 Pisa 
 is two miles short of two hundred, which is the number of miles
 between the sea and Heliopolis
 [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 .

Beyond and above Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo,
 Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 , Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 is a narrow land. For it is bounded on the one side by the mountains
 of Arabian Peninsula [45,25]
 (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 , which run north to south, always running south towards the sea
 called the 
 Red Sea 
 . In these mountains are the quarries that were hewn out for making
 the pyramids at Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 . This way, then, the mountains run, and end in the places of which I
 have spoken; their greatest width from east to west, as I learned by
 inquiry, is a two months' journey, and their easternmost boundaries yield
 frankincense.

Such are these mountains. On the side of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 is bounded by another range of rocky mountains among which are the
 pyramids; these are all covered with sand, and run in the same direction as
 those Arabian hills that run southward.

Beyond Heliopolis [31.333,30.1]
 (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 , there is no great distance—in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , that is: the narrow land has a length of only fourteen days'
 journey up the river. Between the aforesaid mountain ranges, the land is
 level, and where the plain is narrowest it seemed to me that there were no
 more than thirty miles between the Arabian
 mountains and those that are called Libyan . Beyond this Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is a wide land again. Such is the nature of this country.

From Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 to Thebes [32.666,25.683]
 (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 is nine days' journey by river, and the distance is six hundred and
 eight miles, or eighty-one schoeni.

This, then, is a full statement of all the distances in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 : the seaboard is four hundred and fifty miles long; and I will now
 declare the distance inland from the sea to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 : it is seven hundred and sixty-five miles. And between Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 and the city called Elephantine there are
 two hundred and twenty-five miles.

The greater portion, then, of this country of which
 I have spoken was land deposited for the Egyptians as the priests told me, and I myself formed the same
 judgment; all that lies between the ranges of mountains above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 to which I have referred seemed to me to have once been a gulf of
 the sea, just as the country about Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Ilion 
 and Teuthrania and Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 and the plain of the Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Maeander 
 , to compare these small things with great.

For of the rivers that brought down the stuff to make these lands, there is
 none worthy to be compared for greatness with even one of the mouths of the
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , and the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 has five mouths.

There are also other rivers, not so great as the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , that have had great effects; I could rehearse their names, but
 principal among them is the Achelous , which,
 flowing through Akarnania (region
 (general)), Aitolia and Akarnania, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe 
 Acarnania 
 and emptying into the sea, has already made half of the Echinades Islands mainland.

Now in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 , not far from Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , there is a gulf extending inland from the sea called Red , whose length and
 width are such as I shall show:

in length, from its inner end out to the wide sea, it is a forty days'
 voyage for a ship rowed by oars; and in breadth, it is half a day's voyage
 at the widest. Every day the tides ebb and flow in it.

I believe that where Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is now, there was once another such gulf; this extended from the
 northern sea towards Aethiopia , and the other, the
 Arabian gulf of which I shall speak, extended
 from the south towards Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 ; the ends of these gulfs penetrated into the country near each
 other, and but a little space of land separated them.

Now, if the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 inclined to direct its current into this Arabian gulf, why should the latter not be silted up by it inside
 of twenty thousand years? In fact, I expect that it would be silted up
 inside of ten thousand years. Is it to be doubted, then, that in the ages
 before my birth a gulf even much greater than this should have been silted
 up by a river so great and so busy?

As for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , then, I credit those who say it, and myself very much believe it to
 be the case; for I have seen that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 projects into the sea beyond the neighboring land, and shells are
 exposed to view on the mountains, and things are coated with salt, so that
 even the pyramids show it, and the only sandy mountain in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is that which is above Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 ;

besides, Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 is like neither the neighboring land of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Arabia 
 nor Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , not even like Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 (for Syrians inhabit the seaboard of
 Arabian Peninsula [45,25]
 (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 ); it is a land of black and crumbling earth, as if it were alluvial
 deposit carried down the river from Aethiopia ;

but we know that the soil of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 is redder and somewhat sandy, and Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Arabia 
 and Syria [38,35]
 (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 are lands of clay and stones.

This, too, that the priests told me about Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , is a strong proof: when Moeris was king,
 if the river rose as much as thirteen feet, it watered all of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 below Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 . 
 Moeris had not been dead nine hundred years when I
 heard this from the priests. But now, if the river does not rise at least
 twenty-six or twenty-five feet, the land is not flooded.

And, in my opinion, the Egyptians who inhabit the
 lands lower down the river than Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 , and especially what is called the Delta—if this land of theirs
 rises in the same proportion and broadens likewise in extent, and the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 no longer floods it—will forever after be in the same straits as
 they themselves once said the Greeks would be;

for, learning that all the Greek land is watered
 by rain, but not by river water like theirs, they said that one day the
 Greeks would be let down by what they counted
 on, and miserably starve: meaning that, if heaven send no rain for the Greeks and afflict them with drought, the Greeks will be overtaken by famine, for there is no
 other source of water for them except Zeus alone.

And this prediction of the Egyptians about the Greeks was true
 enough. But now let me show the prospect for the Egyptians themselves: if, as I have already said, the country
 below Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 (for it is this which rises) should increase in height in the same
 proportion as formerly, will not the Egyptians 
 who inhabit it go hungry, as there is no rain in their country and the river
 will be unable to inundate their fields?

At present, of course, there are no people, either in the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 or in the whole world, who live from the soil with so little labor;
 they do not have to break the land up with the plough, or hoe, or do any
 other work that other men do to get a crop; the river rises of itself,
 waters the fields, and then sinks back again; then each man sows his field
 and sends swine into it to tread down the seed, and waits for the harvest;
 then he has the swine thresh his grain, and so garners it.

Now if we agree with the opinion of the Ionians , who say that only the Delta is Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and that its seaboard reaches from the so-called Watchtower of Perseus 
 forty schoeni to the Salters' at Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Pelusium 
 , while inland it stretches as far as the city of Cercasorus , where the Nahr
 an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 divides and flows to Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Pelusium 
 and Canopus [30.5,31.316]
 (deserted settlement), Al-Iskandariyah, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Canobus 
 , and that all the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is partly Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and partly Arabian
 Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 —if we follow this account, we can show that there was once no land
 for the Egyptians ;

for we have seen that (as the Egyptians 
 themselves say, and as I myself judge) the Delta is alluvial land and but
 lately (so to speak) came into being. Then if there was once no land for
 them, it was an idle notion that they were the oldest nation on earth, and
 they need not have made that trial to see what language the children would
 first speak.

I maintain, rather, that the Egyptians did not
 come into existence together with what the Ionians call the Delta, but have existed since the human race
 came into being; and as the land grew in extent, there were many of them who
 stayed behind, and many who spread down over it. Be that as it may, the
 Theban district, a land of seven hundred and
 sixty-five miles in circumference, was in the past called Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

If, then, our judgment of this is right, the Ionians are in error concerning Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; but if their opinion is right, then it is plain that they and the
 rest of the Greeks cannot reckon truly, when they
 divide the whole earth into three parts, Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 , Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , and Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 ;

they must add to these a fourth part, the Delta of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , if it belongs neither to Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 nor to Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 ; for by their showing the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 is not the river that separates Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 ; the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 divides at the apex of this Delta, so that this land must be between
 Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 .

We leave the Ionians '
 opinion aside, and our own judgment about the matter is this: Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is all that country which is inhabited by Egyptians , just as Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cilicia 
 and Assyria are the countries inhabited by
 Cilicians and Assyrians , and we know of no boundary line (rightly so called)
 below Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 except the borders of the Egyptians .

But if we follow the belief of the Greeks , we
 shall consider all Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 commencing from the Cataracts and the city of Elephantine 
 to be divided into two parts, and to claim both the
 names, the one a part of Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and the other of Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 .

For the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , beginning from the Cataracts, divides Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 into two parts as it flows to the sea. Now, as far as the city Cercasorus the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 flows in one channel, but after that it parts into three.

One of these, which is called the Pelusian mouth,
 flows east; the second flows west, and is called the Canobic mouth . But the direct channel of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 , when the river in its downward course reaches the apex of the
 Delta, flows thereafter clean through the middle of the Delta into the sea;
 in this is seen the greatest and most famous part of its waters, and it is
 called the Sebennytic mouth .

There are also two channels which separate themselves from the Sebennytic and so flow into the sea: by name, the
 Saïtic and the Mendesian .

The Bolbitine and Bucolic mouths are not natural but excavated channels.

The response of oracle of Ammon in fact bears witness to my opinion, that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is of such an extent as I have argued; I learned this by inquiry
 after my judgment was already formed about Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

The men of the cities of Marea and Apis , in the part of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 bordering on Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , believing themselves to be Libyans and
 not Egyptians , and disliking the injunction of
 the religious law that forbade them to eat cows' meat, sent to Ammon saying that they had no part of or lot with
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 : for they lived (they said) outside the Delta and did not consent to
 the ways of its people, and they wished to be allowed to eat all foods.

But the god forbade them: all the land, he said, watered by the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 in its course was Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and all who lived lower down than the city Elephantine and drank the river's water were Egyptians . Such was the oracle given to them.

When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 is in flood, it overflows not only the Delta but also the lands
 called Libyan and Arabian , as far as two days' journey from either bank in places,
 and sometimes more than this, sometimes less. Concerning its nature, I could
 not learn anything either from the priests or from any others.

Yet I was anxious to learn from them why the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 comes down with a rising flood for a hundred days from the summer
 solstice; and when this number of days is passed, sinks again with a
 diminishing stream, so that the river is low for the whole winter until the
 summer solstice again.

I was not able to get any information from any of the Egyptians regarding this, when I asked them what power the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 has to be contrary in nature to all other rivers. I wished to know
 this, and asked; also, why no breezes blew from it as from every other
 river .

But some of the Greeks ,
 wishing to be notable for cleverness, put forward three opinions about this
 river, two of which I would not even mention except just to show what they
 are.

One of them maintains that the Etesian winds are the cause of the river being in flood, because they
 hinder the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 from emptying into the sea. But there are many times when the Etesian winds do not blow, yet the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 does the same as before.

And further, if the Etesian winds were the cause,
 then the other rivers which flow contrary to those winds should be affected
 like the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , and even more so, since being smaller they have a weaker current.
 Yet there are many rivers in Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 and many in Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , and they behave nothing like the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 .

The second opinion is less grounded on knowledge
 than the previous, though it is more marvellous to the ear: according to it,
 the river effects what it does because it flows from Ocean, which flows
 around the whole world.

The third opinion is by far the most plausible, yet
 the most erroneous of all. It has no more truth in it than the others.
 According to this, the Nahr an-
 Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 flows from where snows melt; but it flows from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 through the midst of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , and comes out into Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

How can it flow from snow, then, seeing that it comes from the hottest
 places to lands that are for the most part cooler? In fact, for a man who
 can reason about such things, the principal and strongest evidence that the
 river is unlikely to flow from snows is that the winds blowing from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and Ethiopia [39,8]
 (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 are hot.

In the second place, the country is rainless and frostless; but after snow
 has fallen, it has to rain within five days ; so that if it snowed, it would rain in these lands.
 And thirdly, the men of the country are black because of the heat.

Moreover, kites and swallows live there all year round, and cranes come
 every year to these places to winter there, flying from the wintry weather
 of Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Scythia 
 . Now, were there but the least fall of snow in this country through
 which the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 flows and where it rises, none of these things would happen, as
 necessity proves.

The opinion about Ocean is grounded in obscurity and
 needs no disproof; for I know of no Ocean river; and I suppose that Homer or
 some older poet invented this name and brought it into his poetry.

If, after having condemned the opinions proposed, I
 must indicate what I myself think about these obscure matters, I shall say
 why I think the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 floods in the summer. During the winter, the sun is driven by storms
 from his customary course and passes over the inland parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 .

For the briefest demonstration, everything has been said; for whatever
 country this god is nearest, or over, it is likely that that land is very
 thirsty for water and that the local rivers are dried up.

A lengthier demonstration goes as follows. In its
 passage over the inland parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , the sun does this: as the air is always clear in that region, the
 land warm, and the winds cool, the sun does in its passage exactly as it
 would do in the summer passing through the middle of the heaven:

it draws the water to itself, and having done so, expels it away to the
 inland regions, and the winds catch it and scatter and dissolve it; and, as
 is to be expected, those that blow from that country, the south and the
 southwest, are the most rainy of all winds.

Yet I think that the sun never lets go of all of the water that it draws up
 from the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 yearly, but keeps some back near itself. Then, as the winter becomes
 milder, the sun returns to the middle of the heaven, and after that draws
 from all rivers alike.

Meanwhile, the other rivers are swollen to high flood by the quantity of
 water that falls into them from the sky, because the country is rained on
 and cut into gullies; but in the summer they are low, lacking the rain and
 being drawn up too by the sun.

But the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , being fed by no rain, and being the only river drawn up by the sun
 in winter, at this time falls far short of the height that it had in summer;
 which is but natural; for in summer all other waters too and not it alone
 are attracted to the sun, but in the winter it alone is afflicted.

I am convinced, therefore, that the sun is the cause
 of this phenomenon. The dryness of the air in these parts is also caused by
 the sun, in my opinion, because it burns its way through it; hence, it is
 always summer in the inland part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 .

But were the stations of the seasons changed, so that the south wind and the
 summer had their station where the north wind and winter are now set, and
 the north wind was where the south wind is now—if this were so, the sun,
 when driven from mid-heaven by the winter and the north wind, would pass
 over the inland parts of Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 as it now passes over Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , and I think that in its passage over all Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 it would have the same effect on the Ister 
 as it now does on the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 .

And as to why no breeze blows from the river, this
 is my opinion: it is not natural that any breeze blow from very hot places;
 breezes always come from that which is very cold.

Let this be, then, as it is and as it was in the
 beginning. But as to the sources of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , no one that conversed with me, Egyptian ,
 Libyan , or Greek ,
 professed to know them, except the recorder of the sacred treasures of Athena in the Egyptian city
 of Saïs .

I thought he was joking when he said that he had exact knowledge, but this
 was his story. Between the city of Aswan [32.933,24.83] (inhabited place), Aswan, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Syene 
 in the Thebaid (region
 (general)), Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebaid 
 and Elephantine , there are two hills with
 sharp peaks, one called Crophi and the other Mophi .

The springs of the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , which are bottomless, rise between these hills; half the water
 flows north towards Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and the other half south towards Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 .

He said that Psammetichus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 had put to the test whether the springs are bottomless: for he had a
 rope of many thousand fathoms' length woven and let down into the spring,
 but he could not reach to the bottom.

This recorder, then, if he spoke the truth, showed, I think, that there are
 strong eddies and an upward flow of water, such that with the stream rushing
 against the hills the sounding-line when let down cannot reach bottom.

I was unable to learn anything from anyone else, but
 this much further I did learn by the most extensive investigation that I
 could make, going as far as the city of Elephantine to look myself, and beyond that by question and
 hearsay.

Beyond Elephantine , as one travels inland, the
 land rises. Here one must pass with the boat roped on both sides as men
 harness an ox; and if the rope breaks, the boat will be carried away by the
 strength of the current.

This part of the river is a four days' journey by boat, and the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 here is twisty just as the Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Maeander 
 ; a distance of twelve schoeni must be passed in the foregoing
 manner. After that, you come to a level plain, where there is an island in
 the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , called Takhompso .

The country above Elephantine now begins to be
 inhabited by Ethiopians : half the people of the
 island are Ethiopians , and half Egyptians . Near the island is a great lake, on whose
 shores live nomadic Ethiopians . After crossing
 this, you come to the stream of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , which empties into this lake.

Then you disembark and journey along the river bank for forty days; for
 there are sharp projecting rocks in the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 and many reefs, through which no boat can pass.

Having traversed this part in forty days as I have said, you take boat again
 and so travel for twelve days until you come to a great city called Meroe [33.716,16.933] (deserted
 settlement), Nile, Ash-Shamaliyah, Sudan, Africa 
 Meroe 
 , which is said to be the capital of all Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 .

The people of the place worship no other gods but Zeus and Dionysus ; 
 these they greatly honor, and they have a place of divination sacred to
 Zeus ; they send out armies whenever and wherever
 this god through his oracle commands them .

From this city you make a journey by water equal in
 distance to that by which you came from Elephantine to the capital city of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , and you come to the land of the Deserters . These Deserters are called
 Asmakh , which translates, in Greek , as “those who stand on the left hand of the
 king”.

These once revolted and joined themselves to the Ethiopians , two hundred and forty thousand Egyptians of fighting age. The reason was as follows. In the
 reign of Psammetichus , there were watchposts at
 Elephantine facing Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , at Daphnae
 [32.183,30.866] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Daphnae 
 of Pelusium (deserted
 settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa 
 Pelusium 
 facing Arabian Peninsula
 [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 and Assyria , and at Marea facing Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 .

And still in my time the Persians hold these
 posts as they were held in the days of Psammetichus ; there are Persian guards at
 Elephantine and at Daphnae [32.183,30.866] (deserted settlement), Ash
 Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Daphnae 
 . Now the Egyptians had been on guard for
 three years, and no one came to relieve them; so, organizing and making
 common cause, they revolted from Psammetichus and
 went to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation),
 Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 .

Psammetichus heard of it and pursued them; and when
 he overtook them, he asked them in a long speech not to desert their
 children and wives and the gods of their fathers. Then one of them, the
 story goes, pointed to his genitals and said that wherever that was, they
 would have wives and children.

So they came to Ethiopia [39,8]
 (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , and gave themselves up to the king of the country; who, to make
 them a gift in return, told them to dispossess certain Ethiopians with whom he was feuding, and occupy their land. These
 Ethiopians then learned Egyptian customs and have become milder-mannered by intermixture
 with the Egyptians .

To a distance of four months' travel by land and
 water, then, there is knowledge of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , besides the part of it that is in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . So many months, as reckoning shows, are found to be spent by one
 going from Elephantine to the country of the
 Deserters. The river flows from the west and the sun's setting. Beyond this,
 no one has clear information to declare; for all that country is desolate
 because of the heat.

But I heard this from some men of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 , who told me that they had gone to the oracle of Ammon , and conversed there with Etearchus king of the Ammonians , and
 that from other subjects the conversation turned to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 , how no one knows the source of it. Then Etearchus told them that once he had been visited by some Nasamonians .

These are a Libyan people, inhabiting the country
 of the Golfe de Gabes
 [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa 
 Syrtis 
 and a little way to the east of the Golfe de Gabes [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis,
 Africa 
 Syrtis 
 .

When these Nasamonians were asked on their
 arrival if they brought any news concerning the Libyan desert, they told Etearchus that
 some sons of their leading men, proud and violent youths, when they came to
 manhood, besides planning other wild adventures, had chosen by lot five of
 their company to visit the deserts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and see whether they could see any farther than those who had seen
 the farthest.

It must be known that the whole northern seacoast of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , from Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 as far as the promontory of +Soloeis [13.5167,38.0833] (Perseus) 
 Soloeis 
 , which is the end of Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , is inhabited throughout its length by Libyans , many tribes of them, except the part held by Greeks and Phoenicians ;
 the region of Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 that is above the sea and the inhabitants of the coast is infested
 by wild beasts; and farther inland than the wild-beast country everything is
 sand, waterless and desolate.

When the young men left their companions, being well supplied with water and
 provisions, they journeyed first through the inhabited country, and after
 passing this they came to the region of wild beasts.

After this, they travelled over the desert, towards the west, and crossed a
 wide sandy region, until after many days they saw trees growing in a plain;
 when they came to these and were picking the fruit of the trees, they were
 met by little men of less than common stature, who took them and led them
 away. The Nasamonians did not know these men's
 language nor did the escort know the language of the Nasamonians .

The men led them across great marshes, after crossing which they came to a
 city where all the people were of a stature like that of the guides, and
 black. A great river ran past this city, from the west towards the rising
 sun; crocodiles could be seen in it.

This is enough of the story told by Etearchus the Ammonian ;
 except he said that the Nasamonians returned, as
 the men of Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 told me, and that the people to whose country they came were all
 wizards;

as to the river that ran past the city, Etearchus 
 guessed it to be the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 ; and reason proves as much. For the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 flows from Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , right through the middle of it; and as I guess, reasoning about
 things unknown from visible signs, it rises proportionally as far away as
 does the Ister .

For the Ister flows from the land of the Celts and the city of Pyrene through the very middle of Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 ; now the Celts live beyond the Pillars of
 Heracles , being neighbors of the Cynesii , who are the westernmost of all the peoples
 inhabiting Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 .

The Ister , then, flows clean across Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 and ends its course in the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Euxine sea 
 , at +Istra [14,45.25]
 (region (general)), Croatia, Europe 
 Istria 
 , which is inhabited by Milesian 
 colonists.

The Ister , since it flows
 through inhabited country, is known from many reports; but no one can speak
 of the source of the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 ; for Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , though which it runs, is uninhabited and desert. Regarding its
 course, I have related everything that I could learn by inquiry; and it
 issues into Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Now Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 lies about opposite to the mountainous part of Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cilicia 
 ;

from there, it is a straight five days' journey for an unencumbered man to
 +Sinope [35.15,42.0167]
 (Perseus) 
 Sinope 
 on the +Black Sea [38,42]
 (sea) 
 Euxine 
 ; and +Sinope
 [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) 
 Sinope 
 lies opposite the place where the Ister 
 falls into the sea. Thus I suppose the course of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 in its passage through Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 to be like the course of the Ister .

It is sufficient to say this much concerning the
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 . But concerning Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , I am going to speak at length, because it has the most wonders, and
 everywhere presents works beyond description; therefore, I shall say the
 more concerning Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Just as the Egyptians 
 have a climate peculiar to themselves, and their river is different in its
 nature from all other rivers, so, too, have they instituted customs and laws
 contrary for the most part to those of the rest of mankind. Among them, the
 women buy and sell, the men stay at home and weave; and whereas in weaving
 all others push the woof upwards, the Egyptians 
 push it downwards.

Men carry burdens on their heads, women on their shoulders. Women pass water
 standing, men sitting. They ease their bowels indoors, and eat out of doors
 in the streets, explaining that things unseemly but necessary should be done
 alone in private, things not unseemly should be done openly.

No woman is dedicated to the service of any god or goddess; men are
 dedicated to all deities male or female. Sons are not compelled against
 their will to support their parents, but daughters must do so though they be
 unwilling.

Everywhere else, priests of the gods wear their hair
 long; in Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , they are shaven. For all other men, the rule in mourning for the
 dead is that those most nearly concerned have their heads shaven; Egyptians are shaven at other times, but after a
 death they let their hair and beard grow.

The Egyptians are the only people who keep their
 animals with them in the house. Whereas all others live on wheat and barley,
 it is the greatest disgrace for an Egyptian to
 live so; they make food from a coarse grain which some call spelt.

They knead dough with their feet, and gather mud and dung with their hands.
 The Egyptians and those who have learned it from
 them are the only people who practise circumcision. Every man has two
 garments, every woman only one.

The rings and sheets of sails are made fast outside the boat elsewhere, but
 inside it in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . The Greeks write and calculate from left
 to right; the Egyptians do the opposite; yet they
 say that their way of writing is towards the right, and the Greek way towards the left. They employ two kinds of
 writing; one is called sacred, the other demotic .

They are religious beyond measure, more than any
 other people; and the following are among their customs. They drink from
 cups of bronze, which they clean out daily; this is done not by some but by
 all.

They are especially careful always to wear newly-washed linen. They practise
 circumcision for cleanliness' sake; for they would rather be clean than more
 becoming. Their priests shave the whole body every other day, so that no
 lice or anything else foul may infest them as they attend upon the gods.

The priests wear a single linen garment and sandals of papyrus: they may have no other kind of clothing or
 footwear. Twice a day and twice every night they wash in cold water. Their
 religious observances are, one may say, innumerable.

But also they receive many benefits: they do not consume or spend anything
 of their own; sacred food is cooked for them, beef and goose are brought in
 great abundance to each man every day, and wine of grapes is given to them,
 too. They may not eat fish.

The Egyptians sow no beans in their country; if
 any grow, they will not eat them either raw or cooked; the priests cannot
 endure even to see them, considering beans an unclean kind of legume. Many
 (not only one) are dedicated to the service of each god. One of these is the
 high priest; and when a high priest dies, his son succeeds to his office.

They believe that bulls belong to Epaphus , and for this reason scrutinize them as follows; if
 they see even one black hair on them, the bull is considered impure.

One of the priests, appointed to the task, examines the beast, making it
 stand and lie, and drawing out its tongue, to determine whether it is clean
 of the stated signs which I shall indicate hereafter. He looks also to the hairs of the tail, to see if they grow
 naturally.

If it is clean in all these respects, the priest marks it by wrapping
 papyrus around the horns, then smears it with sealing-earth and stamps it
 with his ring; and after this they lead the bull away. But the penalty is
 death for sacrificing a bull that the priest has not marked. Such is the
 manner of approving the beast; I will now describe how it is sacrificed.

After leading the marked beast to the altar where
 they will sacrifice it, they kindle a fire; then they pour wine on the altar
 over the victim and call upon the god; then they cut its throat, and having
 done so sever the head from the body.

They flay the carcass of the victim, then invoke many curses on its head,
 which they carry away. Where there is a market, and Greek traders in it, the head is taken to the market and sold;
 where there are no Greeks , it is thrown into the
 river.

The imprecation which they utter over the heads is that whatever ill
 threatens those who sacrifice, or the whole of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , fall upon that head.

In respect of the heads of sacrificed beasts and the libation of wine, the
 practice of all Egyptians is the same in all
 sacrifices; and from this ordinance no Egyptian 
 will taste of the head of anything that had life.

But in regard to the disembowelling and burning of
 the victims, there is a different way for each sacrifice. I shall now,
 however, speak of that goddess whom they consider the greatest, and in whose
 honor they keep highest festival.

After praying in the foregoing way, they take the whole stomach out of the
 flayed bull, leaving the entrails and the fat in the carcass, and cut off
 the legs, the end of the loin, the shoulders, and the neck.

Having done this, they fill what remains of the carcass with pure bread,
 honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other kinds of incense, and
 then burn it, pouring a lot of oil on it.

They fast before the sacrifice, and while it is burning, they all make
 lamentation; and when their lamentation is over, they set out a meal of what
 is left of the victim.

All Egyptians sacrifice
 unblemished bulls and bull-calves; they may not sacrifice cows: these are
 sacred to Isis .

For the images of Isis are in woman's form, horned
 like a cow, exactly as the Greeks picture Io , and cows are held by far the most sacred of all
 beasts of the herd by all Egyptians alike.

For this reason, no Egyptian man or woman will
 kiss a Greek man, or use a knife, or a spit, or a
 cauldron belonging to a Greek , or taste the flesh
 of an unblemished bull that has been cut up with a Greek knife.

Cattle that die are dealt with in the following way. Cows are cast into the
 river, bulls are buried by each city in its suburbs, with one or both horns
 uncovered for a sign; then, when the carcass is decomposed, and the time
 appointed is at hand, a boat comes to each city from the island called Prosopitis ,

an island in the Delta, nine schoeni in circumference. There are many other
 towns on Prosopitis ; the one from which the boats
 come to gather the bones of the bulls is called Atarbekhis ; a
 temple of Aphrodite stands in it of great sanctity.

From this town many go out, some to one town and some to another, to dig up
 the bones, which they then carry away and all bury in one place. As they
 bury the cattle, so do they all other beasts at death. Such is their
 ordinance respecting these also; for they, too, may not be killed.

All that have a temple of Zeus of Thebes
 [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Thebes 
 or are of the Theban district sacrifice
 goats, but will not touch sheep.

For no gods are worshipped by all Egyptians in
 common except Isis and Osiris , who they say is Dionysus ; these
 are worshipped by all alike. Those who have a temple of Mendes 
 or are of the Mendesian
 district sacrifice sheep, but will not touch goats.

The Thebans , and those who by the Theban example will not touch sheep, give the
 following reason for their ordinance: they say that Heracles wanted very much to see Zeus 
 and that Zeus did not want to be seen by him, but
 that finally, when Heracles prayed, Zeus contrived

to show himself displaying the head and wearing the fleece of a ram which
 he had flayed and beheaded. It is from this that the Egyptian images of Zeus have a ram's
 head; and in this, the Egyptians are imitated by
 the Ammonians , who are colonists from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and Ethiopia [39,8]
 (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 and speak a language compounded of the tongues of both countries.

It was from this, I think, that the Ammonians got
 their name, too; for the Egyptians call Zeus “ Amon ”. The Thebans , then, consider rams sacred for this reason,
 and do not sacrifice them.

But one day a year, at the festival of Zeus , they
 cut in pieces and flay a single ram and put the fleece on the image of Zeus , as in the story; then they bring an image of
 Heracles near it. Having done this, all that are
 at the temple mourn for the ram, and then bury it in a sacred coffin.

Concerning Heracles , I
 heard it said that he was one of the twelve gods. But nowhere in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 could I hear anything about the other Heracles , whom the Greeks know.

I have indeed a lot of other evidence that the name of Heracles did not come from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 to Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , but from Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 (and in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 to those Greeks who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon ), besides this: that Amphitryon and Alcmene , the parents of
 this Heracles , were both Egyptian by descent ; and that the Egyptians deny knowing the names Poseidon and the Dioscuri , nor are these
 gods reckoned among the gods of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Yet if they got the name of any deity from the Greeks , of these not least but in particular would they preserve
 a recollection, if indeed they were already making sea voyages and some
 Greeks , too, were seafaring men, as I expect
 and judge; so that the names of these gods would have been even better known
 to the Egyptians than the name of Heracles .

But Heracles is a very ancient god in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; as the Egyptians themselves say, the
 change of the eight gods to the twelve, one of whom they acknowledge Heracles to be, was made seventeen thousand years
 before the reign of Amasis .

Moreover, wishing to get clear information about
 this matter where it was possible so to do, I took ship for +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited
 place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 in +Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 , where I had learned by inquiry that there was a holy temple of
 Heracles .

There I saw it, richly equipped with many other offerings, besides two
 pillars, one of refined gold, one of emerald: a great pillar that shone at
 night; and in conversation with the priests, I asked how long it was since
 their temple was built.

I found that their account did not tally with the belief of the Greeks , either; for they said that the temple of the
 god was founded when Tyre
 [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 first became a city, and that was two thousand three hundred years
 ago. At +Tyre [35.183,33.266]
 (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 I saw yet another temple of the so-called Thasian
 Heracles .

Then I went to Thasos (island),
 Kavalla, Macedonia, Greece, Europe 
 Thasos 
 , too, where I found a temple of Heracles 
 built by the Phoenicians , who made a settlement
 there when they voyaged in search of Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 ; now they did so as much as five generations before the birth of
 Heracles the son of Amphitryon in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 .

Therefore, what I have discovered by inquiry plainly shows that Heracles is an ancient god. And furthermore, those
 Greeks , I think, are most in the right, who
 have established and practise two worships of Heracles , sacrificing to one Heracles as
 to an immortal, and calling him the Olympian , but
 to the other bringing offerings as to a dead hero .

And the Greeks say many
 other ill-considered things, too; among them, this is a silly story which
 they tell about Heracles : that when he came to
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the Egyptians crowned him and led him
 out in a procession to sacrifice him to Zeus ; and
 for a while (they say) he followed quietly, but when they started in on him
 at the altar, he resisted and killed them all.

Now it seems to me that by this story the Greeks 
 show themselves altogether ignorant of the character and customs of the
 Egyptians ; for how should they sacrifice men
 when they are forbidden to sacrifice even beasts, except swine and bulls and
 bull-calves, if they are unblemished, and geese?

And furthermore, as Heracles was alone, and, still,
 only a man, as they say, how is it natural that he should kill many myriads?
 In talking so much about this, may I keep the goodwill of gods and heroes!

This is why the Egyptians 
 of whom I have spoken sacrifice no goats, male or female: the Mendesians reckon Pan among the eight gods who, they
 say, were before the twelve gods.

Now in their painting and sculpture, the image of Pan is made with the head
 and the legs of a goat, as among the Greeks ; not
 that he is thought to be in fact such, or unlike other gods; but why they
 represent him so, I have no wish to say.

The Mendesians consider all goats sacred, the
 male even more than the female, and goatherds are held in special
 estimation: one he-goat is most sacred of all; when he dies, it is ordained
 that there should be great mourning in all the Mendesian
 district .

In the Egyptian language Mendes is the name both for the he-goat and for Pan . In my lifetime a strange thing occurred in this district: a
 he-goat had intercourse openly with a woman. This came to be publicly known.

Swine are held by the Egyptians to be unclean beasts. In the first place, if an Egyptian touches a hog in passing, he goes to the
 river and dips himself in it, clothed as he is; and in the second place,
 swineherds, though native born Egyptians , are
 alone of all men forbidden to enter any Egyptian 
 temple; nor will any give a swineherd his daughter in marriage, nor take a
 wife from their women; but swineherds intermarry among themselves.

Nor do the Egyptians think it right to sacrifice
 swine to any god except the Moon and Dionysus ; to
 these, they sacrifice their swine at the same time, in the same season of
 full moon; then they eat the meat. The Egyptians 
 have an explanation of why they sacrifice swine at this festival, yet
 abominate them at others; I know it, but it is not fitting that I relate it.

But this is how they sacrifice swine to the Moon: the sacrificer lays the
 end of the tail and the spleen and the caul together and covers them up with
 all the fat that he finds around the belly, then consigns it all to the
 fire; as for the rest of the flesh, they eat it at the time of full moon
 when they sacrifice the victim; but they will not taste it on any other day.
 Poor men, with but slender means, mold swine out of dough, which they then
 take and sacrifice.

To Dionysus , on the evening
 of his festival, everyone offers a piglet which he kills before his door and
 then gives to the swineherd who has sold it, for him to take away.

The rest of the festival of Dionysus is observed by
 the Egyptians much as it is by the Greeks , except for the dances; but in place of the
 phallus, they have invented the use of puppets two feet high moved by
 strings, the male member nodding and nearly as big as the rest of the body,
 which are carried about the villages by women; a flute-player goes ahead,
 the women follow behind singing of Dionysus .

Why the male member is so large and is the only part of the body that moves,
 there is a sacred legend that explains.

Now then, it seems to me that Melampus son of Amytheon was not
 ignorant of but was familiar with this sacrifice. For Melampus was the one who taught the Greeks the name of Dionysus and the way
 of sacrificing to him and the phallic procession; he did not exactly unveil
 the subject taking all its details into consideration, for the teachers who
 came after him made a fuller revelation; but it was from him that the Greeks learned to bear the phallus along in honor of
 Dionysus , and they got their present practice
 from his teaching.

I say, then, that Melampus acquired the prophetic
 art, being a discerning man, and that, besides many other things which he
 learned from Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , he also taught the Greeks things
 concerning Dionysus , altering few of them; for I
 will not say that what is done in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 in connection with the god and what is done among the Greeks originated independently: for they would then
 be of an Hellenic character and not recently
 introduced.

Nor again will I say that the Egyptians took
 either this or any other custom from the Greeks .
 But I believe that Melampus learned the worship of
 Dionysus chiefly from Cadmus of +Tyre
 [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 and those who came with Cadmus from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 to the land now called Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Boeotia 
 .

In fact, the names of nearly all the gods came to
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe 
 Hellas 
 from Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . For I am convinced by inquiry that they have come from foreign
 parts, and I believe that they came chiefly from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Except the names of Poseidon and the Dioscuri , as I have already said, and Hera , and Hestia , and Themis , and the Graces, and the Nereids , the names of all the gods have always existed in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . I only say what the Egyptians themselves
 say. The gods whose names they say they do not know were, as I think, named
 by the Pelasgians , except Poseidon , the knowledge of whom they learned from the Libyans .

Alone of all nations the Libyans have had among
 them the name of Poseidon from the beginning, and
 they have always honored this god. The Egyptians ,
 however, are not accustomed to pay any honors to heroes.

These customs, then, and others besides, which I
 shall indicate, were taken by the Greeks from the
 Egyptians . It was not so with the ithyphallic
 images of Hermes ; the production of these came from
 the Pelasgians , from whom the Athenians were the first Greeks to
 take it, and then handed it on to others.

For the Athenians were then already counted as
 Greeks when the Pelasgians came to live in the land with them and thereby began
 to be considered as Greeks . Whoever has been
 initiated into the rites of the Cabeiri , which
 the Samothracians learned from the Pelasgians and now practice, understands what my
 meaning is.

+Samothrace (island), Nomos
 Evrou, Western Thrace, Greece, Europe 
 Samothrace 
 was formerly inhabited by those Pelasgians who came to live among the Athenians , and it is from them that the Samothracians take their rites.

The Athenians , then, were the first Greeks to make ithyphallic images of Hermes , and they did this because the Pelasgians taught them. The Pelasgians told a certain sacred tale about this, which is set
 forth in the Samothracian mysteries.

Formerly, in all their sacrifices, the Pelasgians called upon gods without giving name or
 appellation to any (I know this, because I was told at Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 ); for as yet they had not heard of such. They called them gods from the fact
 that, besides setting everything in order, they maintained all the
 dispositions.

Then, after a long while, first they learned the names of the rest of the
 gods, which came to them from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and, much later, the name of Dionysus ; and
 presently they asked the oracle at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 about the names; for this place of divination, held to be the most
 ancient in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , was at that time the only one.

When the Pelasgians , then, asked at Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 whether they should adopt the names that had come from foreign
 parts, the oracle told them to use the names. From that time onwards they
 used the names of the gods in their sacrifices; and the Greeks received these later from the Pelasgians .

But whence each of the gods came to be, or whether
 all had always been, and how they appeared in form, they did not know until
 yesterday or the day before, so to speak;

for I suppose Hesiod and Homer flourished not more
 than four hundred years earlier than I; and these are the ones who taught
 the Greeks the descent of the gods, and gave the
 gods their names, and determined their spheres and functions, and described
 their outward forms.

But the poets who are said to have been earlier than these men were, in my
 opinion, later. The earlier part of all this is what the priestesses of
 Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 tell; the later, that which concerns Hesiod 
 and Homer, is what I myself say.

But about the oracles in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , and that one which is in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , the Egyptians give the following
 account. The priests of Zeus of Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 told me that two priestesses had been carried away from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 by Phoenicians ; one, they said they had
 heard was taken away and sold in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , the other in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 ; these women, they said, were the first founders of places of
 divination in the aforesaid countries.

When I asked them how it was that they could speak with such certain
 knowledge, they said in reply that their people had sought diligently for
 these women, and had never been able to find them, but had learned later the
 story which they were telling me.

That, then, I heard from the Theban priests; and what follows, the prophetesses of Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 say: that two black doves had come flying from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 in Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , one to Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and one to Dodona
 [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 ;

the latter settled on an oak tree, and there uttered human speech,
 declaring that a place of divination from Zeus must
 be made there; the people of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 understood that the message was divine, and therefore established
 the oracular shrine.

The dove which came to Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 told the Libyans (they say) to make an
 oracle of Ammon ; this also is sacred to Zeus . Such was the story told by the Dodonaean priestesses, the eldest of whom was Promeneia and the next Timarete and the youngest Nicandra ; and
 the rest of the servants of the temple at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 similarly held it true.

But my own belief about it is this. If the Phoenicians did in fact carry away the sacred women
 and sell one in Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 and one in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , then, in my opinion, the place where this woman was sold in what is
 now Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe 
 Hellas 
 , but was formerly called Pelasgia , was
 +Nomo Thesprotias
 [20.333,39.5] (department), Epirus, Greece, Europe 
 Thesprotia 
 ;

and then, being a slave there, she established a shrine of Zeus under an oak that was growing there; for it was
 reasonable that, as she had been a handmaid of the temple of Zeus at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 , she would remember that temple in the land to which she had come.

After this, as soon as she understood the Greek 
 language, she taught divination; and she said that her sister had been sold
 in Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa 
 Libya 
 by the same Phoenicians who sold her.

I expect that these women were called “doves” by the
 people of Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 because they spoke a strange language, and the people thought it
 like the cries of birds;

then the woman spoke what they could understand, and that is why they say
 that the dove uttered human speech; as long as she spoke in a foreign
 tongue, they thought her voice was like the voice of a bird. For how could a
 dove utter the speech of men? The tale that the dove was black signifies
 that the woman was Egyptian 
 .

The fashions of divination at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 of Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 and at Dodona
 [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) 
 Dodona 
 are like one another; moreover, the practice of divining from the
 sacrificed victim has also come from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

It would seem, too, that the Egyptians were the
 first people to establish solemn assemblies, and processions, and services;
 the Greeks learned all that from them. I consider
 this proved, because the Egyptian ceremonies are
 manifestly very ancient, and the Greek are of
 recent origin.

The Egyptians hold solemn
 assemblies not once a year, but often. The principal one of these and the
 most enthusiastically celebrated is that in honor of Artemis at the town of 
 +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah,
 Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 
 , and the next is that in
 honor of Isis at Busiris .

This town is in the middle of the Egyptian Delta ,
 and there is in it a very great temple of Isis , who
 is Demeter in the Greek 
 language.

The third greatest festival is at Saïs in honor of
 Athena ; the fourth is the festival of the sun at
 +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1]
 (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 , the fifth of Leto at +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , and the sixth of Ares at Papremis .

When the people are on their way to +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566]
 (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , they go by river, a great number in every boat, men and women
 together. Some of the women make a noise with rattles, others play flutes
 all the way, while the rest of the women, and the men, sing and clap their
 hands.

As they travel by river to +Tall
 Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , whenever they come near any other town they bring their boat near
 the bank; then some of the women do as I have said, while some shout mockery
 of the women of the town; others dance, and others stand up and lift their
 skirts. They do this whenever they come alongside any riverside town.

But when they have reached +Tall
 Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , they make a festival with great sacrifices, and more wine is drunk
 at this feast than in the whole year besides. It is customary for men and
 women (but not children) to assemble there to the number of seven hundred
 thousand, as the people of the place say.

This is what they do there; I have already described
 how they keep the feast of Isis at Busiris . There, after the sacrifice, all the men and
 women lament, in countless numbers; but it is not pious for me to say who it
 is for whom they lament.

Carians who live in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 do even more than this, inasmuch as they cut their foreheads with
 knives; and by this they show that they are foreigners and not Egyptians .

When they assemble at Saïs 
 on the night of the sacrifice, they keep lamps burning outside around their
 houses. These lamps are saucers full of salt and oil on which the wick
 floats, and they burn all night. This is called the Feast of Lamps.

Egyptians who do not come to this are mindful on
 the night of sacrifice to keep their own lamps burning, and so they are
 alight not only at Saïs but throughout Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . A sacred tale is told showing why this night is lit up thus and
 honored.

When the people go to +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement),
 Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 and +Kawm al-Farain
 [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , they offer sacrifice only. At Papremis 
 sacrifice is offered and rites performed just as elsewhere; but when the sun
 is setting, a few of the priests hover about the image, while most of them
 go and stand in the entrance to the temple with clubs of wood in their
 hands; others, more than a thousand men fulfilling vows, who also carry
 wooden clubs, stand in a mass opposite.

The image of the god, in a little gilded wooden shrine, they carry away on
 the day before this to another sacred building. The few who are left with
 the image draw a four-wheeled wagon conveying the shrine and the image that
 is in the shrine; the others stand in the space before the doors and do not
 let them enter, while the vow-keepers, taking the side of the god, strike
 them, who defend themselves.

A fierce fight with clubs breaks out there, and they are hit on their heads,
 and many, I expect, even die from their wounds; although the Egyptians said that nobody dies.

The natives say that they made this assembly a custom from the following
 incident: the mother of Ares lived in this temple;
 Ares had been raised apart from her and came,
 when he grew up, wishing to visit his mother; but as her attendants kept him
 out and would not let him pass, never having seen him before, Ares brought men from another town, manhandled the
 attendants, and went in to his mother. From this, they say, this hitting for
 Ares became a custom in the festival .

Furthermore, it was the Egyptians who first made it a matter of religious observance not
 to have intercourse with women in temples or to enter a temple after such
 intercourse without washing. Nearly all other peoples are less careful in
 this matter than are the Egyptians and Greeks , and consider a man to be like any other
 animal;

for beasts and birds (they say) are seen to mate both in the temples and in
 the sacred precincts; now were this displeasing to the god, the beasts would
 not do so. This is the reason given by others for practices which I, for my
 part, dislike;

but the Egyptians in this and in all other
 matters are exceedingly strict against desecration of their temples.

Although Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 has Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 on its borders, it is not a country of many animals. All of them are
 held sacred; some of these are part of men's households and some not; but if
 I were to say why they are left alone as sacred, I should end up talking of
 matters of divinity, which I am especially averse to treating; I have never
 touched upon such except where necessity has compelled me.

But I will indicate how it is customary to deal with the animals. Men and
 women are appointed guardians to provide nourishment for each kind
 respectively; a son inherits this office from his father.

Townsfolk in each place, when they pay their vows, pray to the god to whom
 the animal is dedicated, shaving all or one half or one third of their
 children's heads, and weighing the hair in a balance against a sum of
 silver; then the weight in silver of the hair is given to the female
 guardian of the creatures, who buys fish with it and feeds them.

Thus, food is provided for them. Whoever kills one of these creatures
 intentionally is punished with death; if he kills accidentally, he pays
 whatever penalty the priests appoint. Whoever kills an ibis or a hawk,
 intentionally or not, must die for it.

There are many household animals; and there would be
 many more, were it not for what happens among the cats. When the females
 have a litter, they are no longer receptive to the males; those that seek to
 have intercourse with them cannot;

so their recourse is to steal and carry off and kill the kittens (but they
 do not eat what they have killed). The mothers, deprived of their young and
 desiring to have more, will then approach the males; for they are creatures
 that love offspring.

And when a fire breaks out, very strange things happen among the cats. The
 Egyptians stand around in a broken line,
 thinking more of the cats than of quenching the burning; but the cats slip
 through or leap over the men and spring into the fire.

When this happens, there is great mourning in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . The occupants of a house where a cat has died a natural death shave
 their eyebrows and no more; where a dog has died, the head and the whole
 body are shaven.

Dead cats are taken away to sacred buildings in the
 town of +Tall Bastah
 [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , where they are embalmed and buried; female dogs are buried by the
 townsfolk in their own towns in sacred coffins; and the like is done with
 mongooses. Shrewmice and hawks are taken away to +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement),
 Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , ibises to the city of Hermes .

There are few bears, and the wolves are little bigger than foxes; both these
 are buried wherever they are found lying.

The nature of crocodiles is as follows. For the four
 winter months, it eats nothing. It has four feet, and lives both on land and
 in the water, for it lays eggs and hatches them out on land and spends the
 greater part of the day on dry ground, and the night in the river, the water
 being warmer than the air and dew.

No mortal creature of all which we know grows from so small a beginning to
 such greatness; for its eggs are not much bigger than goose eggs, and the
 young crocodile is of a proportional size, but it grows to a length of
 twenty-eight feet and more.

It has eyes like pigs' eyes, and long, protruding teeth. It is the only
 animal that has no tongue. It does not move the lower jaw, but brings the
 upper jaw down upon the lower, uniquely among beasts.

It also has strong claws, and a scaly, impenetrable hide on its back. It is
 blind in the water, but very keen of sight in the air. Since it lives in the
 water, its mouth is all full of leeches. All birds and beasts flee from it,
 except the sandpiper , with which it is at peace because this bird does the
 crocodile a service;

for whenever the crocodile comes ashore out of the water and then opens its
 mouth (and it does this mostly to catch the west wind), the sandpiper goes
 into its mouth and eats the leeches; the crocodile is pleased by this
 service and does the sandpiper no harm.

Some of the Egyptians 
 consider crocodiles sacred; others do not, but treat them as enemies. Those
 who live near Thebes
 [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Thebes 
 and Birkat Qarun
 [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 consider them very sacred.

Every household raises one crocodile, trained to be tame; they put ornaments
 of glass and gold on its ears and bracelets on its forefeet, provide special
 food and offerings for it, and give the creatures the best of treatment
 while they live; after death, the crocodiles are embalmed and buried in
 sacred coffins.

But around Elephantine they are not held sacred,
 and are even eaten. The Egyptians do not call
 them crocodiles, but khampsae. The Ionians named
 them crocodiles, from their resemblance to the lizards which they have in
 their walls .

There are many different ways of crocodile hunting;
 I will write of the way that I think most worth mentioning. The hunter baits
 a hook with a hog's back, and lets it float into the midst of the river; he
 himself stays on the bank with a young live pig, which he beats.

Hearing the squeals of the pig, the crocodile goes after the sound, and
 meets the bait, which it swallows; then the hunters pull the line. When the
 crocodile is drawn ashore, first of all the hunter smears its eyes over with
 mud; when this is done, the quarry is very easily mastered—no light matter,
 without that.

Hippopotamuses are sacred in the district of Papremis , but not elsewhere in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . They present the following appearance: four-footed, with cloven
 hooves like cattle; blunt-nosed; with a horse's mane, visible tusks, a
 horse's tail and voice; big as the biggest bull. Their hide is so thick
 that, when it is dried, spearshafts are made of it.

Otters are found in the river, too, which the Egyptians consider sacred; and they consider sacred
 that fish, too, which is called the scale-fish, and the eel. These, and the
 fox-goose among birds, are said to be sacred
 to the god of the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile .

There is another sacred bird, too, whose name is
 phoenix. I myself have never seen it, only pictures of it; for the bird
 seldom comes into Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 : once in five hundred years, as the people of +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted
 settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Heliopolis 
 say.

It is said that the phoenix comes when his father dies. If the picture truly
 shows his size and appearance, his plumage is partly golden and partly red.
 He is most like an eagle in shape and size.

What they say this bird manages to do is incredible to me. Flying from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 to the temple of the sun, they say, he conveys his father encased in
 myrrh and buries him at the temple of the Sun.

This is how he conveys him: he first molds an egg of myrrh as heavy as he
 can carry, then tries lifting it, and when he has tried it, he then hollows
 out the egg and puts his father into it, and plasters over with more myrrh
 the hollow of the egg into which he has put his father, which is the same in
 weight with his father lying in it, and he conveys him encased to the temple
 of the Sun in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . This is what they say this bird does.

Near Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 there are sacred snakes, harmless to men, small in size, and bearing
 two horns on the top of their heads. These, when they die, are buried in the
 temple of Zeus , to whom they are said to be sacred.

There is a place in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Arabia 
 not far from the town of 
 +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh,
 Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 where I went to learn about the winged serpents. When I arrived
 there, I saw innumerable bones and backbones of serpents: many heaps of
 backbones, great and small and even smaller.

This place, where the backbones lay scattered, is where a narrow mountain
 pass opens into a great plain, which adjoins the plain of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Winged serpents are said to fly from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 at the beginning of spring, making for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; but the ibis birds encounter the invaders in this pass and kill
 them.

The Arabians say that the ibis is greatly honored
 by the Egyptians for this service, and the Egyptians give the same reason for honoring these
 birds.

Now this is the appearance of the ibis. It is all
 quite black, with the legs of a crane, and a beak sharply hooked, and is as
 big as a landrail. Such is the appearance of the ibis which fights with the
 serpents. Those that most associate with men (for there are two kinds of
 ibis )

have the whole head and neck bare of feathers; their plumage is white,
 except the head and neck and wingtips and tail (these being quite black);
 the legs and beak of the bird are like those of the other ibis. The serpents
 are like water-snakes.

Their wings are not feathered but very like the wings of a bat. I have now said enough concerning creatures that are sacred.

Among the Egyptians 
 themselves, those who live in the cultivated country are the most assiduous
 of all men at preserving the memory of the past, and none whom I have
 questioned are so skilled in history.

They practice the following way of life. For three consecutive days in every
 month they purge themselves, pursuing health by means of emetics and
 drenches; for they think that it is from the food they eat that all
 sicknesses come to men.

Even without this, the Egyptians are the
 healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans ; the
 explanation of which, in my opinion, is that the climate in all seasons is
 the same: for change is the great cause of men's falling sick, more
 especially changes of seasons.

They eat bread, making loaves which they call “cyllestis,” 
 of coarse grain. For wine, they use a drink made from barley, for they have
 no vines in their country. They eat fish either raw and sun-dried, or
 preserved with brine.

Quails and ducks and small birds are salted and eaten raw; all other kinds
 of birds, as well as fish (except those that the Egyptians consider sacred) are eaten roasted or boiled.

After rich men's repasts, a man carries around an
 image in a coffin, painted and carved in exact imitation of a corpse two or
 four feet long. This he shows to each of the company, saying “While you
 drink and enjoy, look on this; for to this state you must come when you
 die.” Such is the custom at their symposia.

They keep the customs of their fathers, adding none
 to them. Among other notable customs of theirs is this, that they have one
 song, the Linus-song, which is sung in +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 and Cyprus [33,35]
 (island), Asia 
 Cyprus 
 and elsewhere; each nation has a name of its own for this,

but it happens to be the same song that the Greeks sing, and call Linus ; so that of
 many things in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 that amaze me, one is: where did the Egyptians get Linus ? Plainly they have
 always sung this song; but in Egyptian Linus is
 called Maneros .

The Egyptians told me that Maneros was the only son of their first king, who died
 prematurely, and this dirge was sung by the Egyptians in his honor; and this, they said, was their earliest
 and their only chant.

There is a custom, too, which no Greeks except the Lacedaemonians have
 in common with the Egyptians : younger men,
 encountering their elders, yield the way and stand aside, and rise from
 their seats for them when they approach.

But they are like none of the Greeks in this:
 passers-by do not address each other, but salute by lowering the hand to the
 knee.

They wear linen tunics with fringes hanging about
 the legs, called “calasiris,” and loose white woolen mantles over these. But
 nothing woolen is brought into temples, or buried with them: that is
 impious.

They agree in this with practices called Orphic and Bacchic, but in fact
 Egyptian and Pythagorean: for it is impious,
 too, for one partaking of these rites to be buried in woolen wrappings.
 There is a sacred legend about this.

Other things originating with the Egyptians are these. Each month and day belong to
 one of the gods, and according to the day of one's birth are determined how
 one will fare and how one will end and what one will be like; those Greeks occupied with poetry exploit this.

More portents have been discovered by them than by all other peoples; when a
 portent occurs, they take note of the outcome and write it down; and if
 something of a like kind happens again, they think it will have a like
 result.

As to the art of divination among them, it belongs
 to no man, but to some of the gods; there are in their country oracles of
 Heracles , Apollo , Athena , Artemis , Ares , and Zeus , and of Leto (the most honored of all) in the town of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 . Nevertheless, they have several ways of divination, not just one.

The practice of medicine is so specialized among
 them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more. All the
 country is full of physicians, some of the eye, some of the teeth, some of
 what pertains to the belly, and some of internal diseases.

They mourn and bury the dead like this: whenever a
 man of note is lost to his house by death, all the women of the house daub
 their faces or heads with mud; then they leave the corpse in the house and
 roam about the city lamenting, with their garments girt around them and
 their breasts showing, and with them all the women of their relatives;

elsewhere, the men lament, with garments girt likewise. When this is done,
 they take the dead body to be embalmed.

There are men whose sole business this is and who
 have this special craft.

When a dead body is brought to them, they show those who brought it wooden
 models of corpses, painted likenesses; the most perfect way of embalming
 belongs, they say, to One whose name it would be impious for me to mention
 in treating such a matter; the second way, which they show, is less perfect
 than the first, and cheaper; and the third is the least costly of all.
 Having shown these, they ask those who brought the body in which way they
 desire to have it prepared.

Having agreed on a price, the bearers go away, and the workmen, left alone
 in their place, embalm the body. If they do this in the most perfect way,
 they first draw out part of the brain through the nostrils with an iron
 hook, and inject certain drugs into the rest.

Then, making a cut near the flank with a sharp knife of Ethiopian stone, they take out all the intestines, and clean the
 belly, rinsing it with palm wine and bruised spices;

they sew it up again after filling the belly with pure ground myrrh and
 casia and any other spices, except frankincense. After doing this, they
 conceal the body for seventy days, embalmed in saltpetre; no longer time is
 allowed for the embalming;

and when the seventy days have passed, they wash the body and wrap the
 whole of it in bandages of fine linen cloth, anointed with gum, which the
 Egyptians mostly use instead of glue;

then they give the dead man back to his friends. These make a hollow wooden
 figure like a man, in which they enclose the corpse, shut it up, and keep it
 safe in a coffin-chamber, placed erect against a wall.

That is how they prepare the dead in the most costly
 way; those who want the middle way and shun the costly, they prepare as
 follows.

The embalmers charge their syringes with cedar oil and fill the belly of the
 dead man with it, without making a cut or removing the intestines, but
 injecting the fluid through the anus and preventing it from running out;
 then they embalm the body for the appointed days; on the last day they drain
 the belly of the cedar oil which they put in before.

It has such great power as to bring out with it the internal organs and
 intestines all dissolved; meanwhile, the flesh is eaten away by the
 saltpetre, and in the end nothing is left of the body but hide and bones.
 Then the embalmers give back the dead body with no more ado.

The third manner of embalming, the preparation of
 the poorer dead, is this: they cleanse the belly with a purge, embalm the
 body for the seventy days and then give it back to be taken away.

Wives of notable men, and women of great beauty and
 reputation, are not at once given to the embalmers, but only after they have
 been dead for three or four days;

this is done to deter the embalmers from having intercourse with the women.
 For it is said that one was caught having intercourse with the fresh corpse
 of a woman, and was denounced by his fellow-workman.

Anyone, Egyptian or
 foreigner, known to have been carried off by a crocodile or drowned by the
 river itself, must by all means be embalmed and wrapped as attractively as
 possible and buried in a sacred coffin by the people of the place where he
 is cast ashore;

none of his relatives or friends may touch him, but his body is considered
 something more than human, and is handled and buried by the priests of the
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 themselves.

The Egyptians shun using
 Greek customs, and (generally speaking) the
 customs of all other peoples as well. Yet, though the rest are wary of this,
 there is a great city called 
 +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Khemmis 
 , in the Theban district, near the New City .

In this city is a square temple of Perseus son of
 Danae , in a grove of palm trees. Before this
 temple stand great stone columns; and at the entrance, two great stone
 statues. In the outer court there is a shrine with an image of Perseus standing in it.

The people of this +Akhmim
 [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Khemmis 
 say that Perseus is seen often up and down
 this land, and often within the temple, and that the sandal he wears, which
 is four feet long, keeps turning up, and that when it does turn up, all
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 prospers.

This is what they say; and their doings in honor of Perseus are Greek , inasmuch as they
 celebrate games that include every form of contest, and offer animals and
 cloaks and skins as prizes.

When I asked why Perseus appeared only to them, and
 why, unlike all other Egyptians , they celebrate
 games, they told me that Perseus was by lineage of
 their city; for Danaus and Lynceus , who travelled to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 , were of +Akhmim
 [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Khemmis 
 ; and they traced descent from these down to Perseus .

They told how he came to +Akhmim
 [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Khemmis 
 , too, when he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 for the reason alleged by the Greeks as
 well—namely, to bring the Gorgon 's head from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 —and recognized all his relatives; and how he had heard the name of
 +Akhmim [31.733,26.566]
 (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Khemmis 
 from his mother before he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . It was at his bidding, they said, that they celebrated the games.

All these are the customs of Egyptians who live above the marsh country. Those who inhabit the
 marshes have the same customs as the rest of Egyptians , even that each man has one wife just like Greeks . They have, besides, devised means to make
 their food less costly.

When the river is in flood and flows over the plains, many lilies, which the
 Egyptians call lotus, grow in the water. They
 gather these and dry them in the sun; then they crush the poppy-like center
 of the plant and bake loaves of it.

The root of this lotus is edible also, and of a sweetish taste; it is round,
 and the size of an apple.

Other lilies grow in the river, too, that are like roses; the fruit of these
 is found in a calyx springing from the root by a separate stalk, and is most
 like a comb made by wasps; this produces many edible seeds as big as olive
 pits, which are eaten both fresh and dried.

They also use the byblus which grows annually: it is gathered from the
 marshes, the top of it cut off and put to other uses, and the lower part,
 about twenty inches long, eaten or sold. Those who wish to use the byblus at
 its very best, roast it before eating in a red-hot oven. Some live on fish
 alone. They catch the fish, take out the intestines, then dry them in the
 sun and eat them dried.

Fish that go in schools are seldom born in rivers;
 they are raised in the lakes, and this is how they behave: when the desire
 of spawning comes on them, they swim out to sea in schools, the males
 leading, and throwing out their milt, while the females come after and
 swallow and conceive from it.

When the females have grown heavy in the sea, then all the fish swim back to
 their own haunts. But the same no longer lead; now the leadership goes to
 the females. They go before in a school as the males had, and now and then
 throw off some of their eggs (which are like millet-seeds), which the males
 devour as they follow. These millet-seeds, or eggs, are fish.

The fish that are reared come from the eggs that survive and are not
 devoured. Those fish that are caught while swimming seawards show bruises on
 the left side of their heads; those that are caught returning, on the right
 side.

This happens because they keep close to the left bank as they swim seawards,
 and keep to the same bank also on their return, grazing it and keeping in
 contact with it as well as they can, I suppose lest the current make them
 miss their way.

When the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 begins to rise, hollow and marshy places near the river are the
 first to begin to fill, the water trickling through from the river, and as
 soon as they are flooded, they are suddenly full of little fishes.

Where these probably come from, I believe that I can guess. When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 falls, the fish have dropped their eggs into the mud before they
 leave with the last of the water; and when in the course of time the flood
 comes again in the following year, from these eggs at once come the fish.

So much, then, for the fish. The Egyptians who live around the marshes use an oil drawn from the
 castor-berry, which they call kiki. They sow this plant, which grows wild in
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe 
 Hellas 
 , on the banks of the rivers and lakes;

sown in Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , it produces abundant fruit, though malodorous; when they gather
 this, some bruise and press it, others boil after roasting it, and collect
 the liquid that comes from it. This is thick and useful as oil for lamps,
 and gives off a strong smell.

Against the mosquitos that abound, the following
 have been devised by them: those who dwell higher up than the marshy country
 are well served by the towers where they ascend to sleep, for the winds
 prevent the mosquitos from flying aloft;

those living about the marshes have a different recourse, instead of the
 towers. Every one of them has a net, with which he catches fish by day, and
 at night he sets it around the bed where he rests, then creeps under it and
 sleeps.

If he sleeps wrapped in a garment or cloth, the mosquitos bite through it;
 but through the net they absolutely do not even venture.

The boats in which they carry cargo are made of the
 acacia, which is most like the lotus of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 in form, and its sap is gum. Of this tree they cut logs of four feet
 long and lay them like courses of bricks, and build the boat

by fastening these four foot logs to long and close-set stakes; and having
 done so, they set crossbeams athwart and on the logs. They use no ribs. They
 caulk the seams within with byblus.

There is one rudder, passing through a hole in the boat's keel. The mast is
 of acacia-wood and the sails of byblus. These boats cannot move upstream
 unless a brisk breeze continues; they are towed from the bank; but
 downstream they are managed thus:

they have a raft made of tamarisk wood, fastened together with matting of
 reeds, and a pierced stone of about two talents' weight; the raft is let go
 to float down ahead of the boat, connected to it by a rope, and the stone is
 connected by a rope to the after part of the boat.

So, driven by the current, the raft floats swiftly and tows the “baris”
 (which is the name of these boats,) and the stone dragging behind on the
 river bottom keeps the boat's course straight. There are many of these
 boats; some are of many thousand talents' burden.

When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 overflows the land, only the towns are seen high and dry above the
 water, very like the islands in the +Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea) 
 Aegean sea 
 . These alone stand out, the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 being a sheet of water. So when this happens, folk are not ferried,
 as usual, in the course of the stream, but clean over the plain.

Indeed, the boat going up from Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Naucratis 
 to Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 passes close by the pyramids themselves, though the course does not
 go by here, but by the Delta's point and the town Cercasorus ; but your voyage from the sea and +Canopus [30.5,31.316] (deserted
 settlement), Al-Iskandariyah, Urban, Egypt, Africa 
 Canobus 
 to Kawm Juayf
 [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Naucratis 
 will take you over the plain near the town of Anthylla and that which is called Arkhandrus ' town.

Anthylla is a town of some reputation, and is
 especially assigned to the consort of the reigning king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , to provide her shoes. This has been done since Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 has been under Persian dominion.

The other town, I think, is named after Arkhandrus 
 son of Phthius the Achaean , and son-in-law of Danaus ; for
 it is called Arkhandrus ' town. It may be that there
 was another Arkhandrus ; but the name is not Egyptian .

So far, all I have said is the record of my own
 autopsy and judgment and inquiry. Henceforth I will record Egyptian chronicles, according to what I have heard,
 adding something of what I myself have seen.

The priests told me that Min was the first king of
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and that first he separated Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 from the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 by a dam. All the river had flowed close under the sandy mountains
 on the Libyan side, but Min made the southern bend of it, which begins about twelve and
 one half miles above Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 , by damming the stream, thereby drying up the ancient channel, and
 carried the river by a channel so that it flowed midway between the hills.

And to this day the Persians keep careful watch
 on this bend of the river, strengthening its dam every year to keep the
 current in; for were the Nahr an-
 Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 to burst its dikes and overflow here, all Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 would be in danger of flooding.

Then, when this first king Min had made dry land of
 what he thus cut off, he first founded in it that city which is now called
 Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 (for even Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 lies in the narrow part of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ), and outside of it he dug a lake from the river to its north and
 west (for the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 itself bounds it on the east); and secondly, he built in it the
 great and most noteworthy temple of Hephaestus .

After him came three hundred and thirty kings, whose
 names the priests recited from a papyrus roll. In all these many generations
 there were eighteen Ethiopian kings, and one queen,
 native to the country; the rest were all Egyptian 
 men.

The name of the queen was the same as that of the Babylonian princess, Nitocris . She, to
 avenge her brother (he was king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and was slain by his subjects, who then gave Nitocris the sovereignty) put many of the Egyptians to death by treachery.

She built a spacious underground chamber; then, with the pretence of
 inaugurating it, but with quite another intent in her mind, she gave a great
 feast, inviting to it those Egyptians whom she
 knew to have had the most complicity in her brother's murder; and while they
 feasted, she let the river in upon them by a vast secret channel.

This was all that the priests told of her, except that when she had done
 this she cast herself into a chamber full of hot ashes, to escape vengeance.

But of the other kings they related no achievement
 or act of great note, except of Moeris , the last of
 them.

This Moeris was remembered as having built the
 northern forecourt of the temple of Hephaestus , and
 dug a lake, of as great a circumference as I shall later indicate; and built
 pyramids there also, the size of which I will mention when I speak of the
 lake. All this was Moeris ' work, they said; of none
 of the rest had they anything to record.

Leaving the latter aside, then, I shall speak of the
 king who came after them, whose name was Sesostris 
 .

This king, the priests said, set out with a fleet of long ships from the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf),
 Asia 
 Arabian Gulf 
 and subjugated all those living by the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 , until he came to a sea which was too shallow for his vessels.

After returning from there back to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , he gathered a great army (according to the account of the priests)
 and marched over the mainland, subjugating every nation to which he came.

When those that he met were valiant men and strove hard for freedom, he set
 up pillars in their land, the inscription on which showed his own name and
 his country's, and how he had overcome them with his own power;

but when the cities had made no resistance and been easily taken, then he
 put an inscription on the pillars just as he had done where the nations were
 brave; but he also drew on them the private parts of a woman, wishing to
 show clearly that the people were cowardly.

He marched over the country doing this until he had
 crossed over from Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 to Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 and defeated the Scythians and Thracians . Thus far and no farther, I think, the
 Egyptian army went; for the pillars can be
 seen standing in their country, but in none beyond it.

From there, he turned around and went back home; and when he came to the
 
 Phasis river , that King,
 Sesostris , may have detached some part of his
 army and left it there to live in the country (for I cannot speak with exact
 knowledge), or it may be that some of his soldiers grew weary of his
 wanderings, and stayed by the 
 +Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican
 jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis .

For it is plain to see that the Colchians are Egyptians ; and what I
 say, I myself noted before I heard it from others. When it occurred to me, I
 inquired of both peoples; and the Colchians 
 remembered the Egyptians better than the Egyptians remembered the Colchians ;

the Egyptians said that they considered the
 Colchians part of Sesostris ' army. I myself guessed it, partly because they are
 dark-skinned and woolly-haired; though that indeed counts for nothing, since
 other peoples are, too; but my better proof was that the Colchians and Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only nations that have from the
 first practised circumcision.

The Phoenicians and the Syrians of +Palestine
 [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia 
 Palestine 
 acknowledge that they learned the custom from the Egyptians , and the Syrians of the valleys of the Thermodon 
 and the Parthenius , as well as their neighbors the
 Macrones , say that they learned it lately from
 the Colchians . These are the only nations that
 circumcise, and it is seen that they do just as the Egyptians .

But as to the Egyptians and Ethiopians themselves, I cannot say which nation learned it from
 the other; for it is evidently a very ancient custom. That the others
 learned it through traffic with Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , I consider clearly proved by this: that Phoenicians who traffic with Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 cease to imitate the Egyptians in this
 matter and do not circumcise their children.

Listen to something else about the Colchians , in which they are like the Egyptians : they and the Egyptians alone work linen and have the same way of working it, a
 way peculiar to themselves; and they are alike in all their way of life, and
 in their speech. Linen has two names: the Colchian kind is called by the Greeks
 Sardonian 
 ; that which comes from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is called Egyptian .

As to the pillars that Sesostris , king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , set up in the countries, most of them are no longer to be seen. But
 I myself saw them in the 
 +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia 
 Palestine 
 district of +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 , with the aforesaid writing and the women's private parts on them.

Also, there are in Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 two figures of this man carved in rock, one on the road from +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted
 settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 to +Foca [26.75,38.666]
 (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , and the other on that from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 to +Smyrna
 [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) 
 Smyrna 
 .

In both places, the figure is over twenty feet high, with a spear in his
 right hand and a bow in his left, and the rest of his equipment
 proportional; for it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian ;

and right across the breast from one shoulder to the other a text is cut in
 the Egyptian sacred characters, saying: “I myself
 won this land with the strength of my shoulders.” There is nothing here to
 show who he is and whence he comes, but it is shown elsewhere.

Some of those who have seen these figures guess they are Memnon , but they are far indeed from the truth.

Now when this Egyptian 
 Sesostris (so the priests said) reached +Daphnae [32.183,30.866] (deserted
 settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Daphnae 
 of +Pelusium (deserted
 settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa 
 Pelusium 
 on his way home, leading many captives from the peoples whose lands
 he had subjugated, his brother, whom he had left in charge in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , invited him and his sons to a banquet and then piled wood around
 the house and set it on fire.

When Sesostris was aware of this, he at once
 consulted his wife, whom (it was said) he had with him; and she advised him
 to lay two of his six sons on the fire and make a bridge over the burning so
 that they could walk over the bodies of the two and escape. This Sesostris did; two of his sons were thus burnt but the
 rest escaped alive with their father.

After returning to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and avenging himself on his brother, Sesostris found work for the multitude which he brought with him
 from the countries which he had subdued.

It was these who dragged the great and long blocks of stone which were
 brought in this king's reign to the temple of Hephaestus ; and it was they who were compelled to dig all the
 canals which are now in Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and involuntarily made what had been a land of horses and carts
 empty of these.

For from this time Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , although a level land, could use no horses or carts, because there
 were so many canals going every which way. The reason why the king thus
 intersected the country was this:

those Egyptians whose towns were not on the
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , but inland from it, lacked water whenever the flood left their
 land, and drank only brackish water from wells.

For this reason Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 was intersected. This king also (they said) divided the country
 among all the Egyptians by giving each an equal
 parcel of land, and made this his source of revenue, assessing the payment
 of a yearly tax.

And any man who was robbed by the river of part of his land could come to
 Sesostris and declare what had happened; then
 the king would send men to look into it and calculate the part by which the
 land was diminished, so that thereafter it should pay in proportion to the
 tax originally imposed.

From this, in my opinion, the Greeks learned the
 art of measuring land; the sunclock and the sundial, and the twelve
 divisions of the day, came to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 from +Babylonia (region
 (general)), Iraq, Asia 
 Babylonia 
 and not from Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Sesostris was the only Egyptian king who also ruled Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 . To commemorate his name, he set before the temple of Hephaestus two stone statues, of himself and of his
 wife, each fifty feet high, and statues of his four sons, each thirty-three
 feet.

Long afterwards, Darius the Persian would have set up his statue before these; but the priest
 of Hephaestus forbade him, saying that he had
 achieved nothing equal to the deeds of Sesostris 
 the Egyptian ; for Sesostris (he said) had subjugated the Scythians , besides as many nations as Darius had conquered, and Darius had not
 been able to overcome the Scythians ;

therefore, it was not just that Darius should set
 his statue before the statues of Sesostris , whose
 achievements he had not equalled. Darius , it is
 said, let the priest have his way.

When Sesostris died, he was
 succeeded in the kingship (the priests said) by his son Pheros 
 . This king waged no wars, and chanced to become
 blind, for the following reason: the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 came down in such a flood as there had never been, rising to a
 height of thirty feet, and the water that flowed over the fields was
 roughened by a strong wind;

then, it is said, the king was so audacious as to seize a spear and hurl it
 into the midst of the river eddies. Right after this, he came down with a
 disease of the eyes, and became blind. When he had been blind for ten years,
 an oracle from the city of +Kawm
 al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 declared to him that the term of his punishment was drawing to an
 end, and that he would regain his sight by washing his eyes with the urine
 of a woman who had never had intercourse with any man but her own husband.

Pheros tried his own wife first; and, as he
 remained blind, all women, one after another. When he at last recovered his
 sight, he took all the women whom he had tried, except the one who had made
 him see again, and gathered them into one town, the one which is now called
 “ Red Clay ”; having concentrated them together
 there, he burnt them and the town;

but the woman by whose means he had recovered his sight, he married. Most
 worthy of mention among the many offerings which he dedicated in all the
 noteworthy temples for his deliverance from blindness are the two marvellous
 stone obelisks which he set up in the temple of the Sun. Each of these is
 made of a single block, and is over one hundred and sixty-six feet high and
 thirteen feet thick.

Pheros was succeeded (they said) by a man of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , whose name in the Greek tongue was Proteus . This Proteus has a
 very attractive and well-appointed temple precinct at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , south of the temple of Hephaestus .

Around the precinct live Phoenicians of +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited
 place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 , and the whole place is called the Camp of the Tyrians . There is in the precinct of Proteus a temple called the temple of the Stranger Aphrodite ; I guess this is a temple of Helen , daughter of Tyndarus ,
 partly because I have heard the story of Helen 's
 abiding with Proteus , and partly because it bears
 the name of the Foreign Aphrodite : for no other of
 Aphrodite 's temples is called by that name.

When I inquired of the priests, they told me that
 this was the story of Helen . After carrying off
 Helen from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , Alexandrus sailed away for his own
 country; violent winds caught him in the +Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea) 
 Aegean 
 and drove him into the Egyptian sea ; and
 from there (as the wind did not let up) he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , to the mouth of the Nahr
 an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 called the Canopic mouth , and to the
 Salters'.

Now there was (and still is) on the coast a temple of Heracles ; if a servant of any man takes refuge there and is
 branded with certain sacred marks, delivering himself to the god, he may not
 be touched. This law continues today the same as it has always been from the
 first.

Hearing of the temple law, some of Alexandrus '
 servants ran away from him, threw themselves on the mercy of the god, and
 brought an accusation against Alexandrus meaning to
 injure him, telling the whole story of Helen and
 the wrong done Menelaus . They laid this accusation
 before the priests and the warden of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 mouth, whose name was Thonis .

When Thonis heard it, he
 sent this message the quickest way to Proteus at
 Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 :

“A stranger has come, a Trojan , who has
 committed an impiety in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 . After defrauding his guest-friend, he has come bringing the man's
 wife and a very great deal of wealth, driven to your country by the wind.
 Are we to let him sail away untouched, or are we to take away what he has
 come with?”

Proteus sent back this message: “Whoever this is
 who has acted impiously against his guest-friend, seize him and bring him to
 me, that I may know what he will say.”

Hearing this, Thonis seized
 Alexandrus and detained his ships there, and
 then brought him with Helen and all the wealth, and
 the suppliants too, to Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 .

When all had arrived, Proteus asked Alexandrus who he was and whence he sailed; Alexandrus told him his lineage and the name of his
 country, and about his voyage, whence he sailed.

Then Proteus asked him where he had got Helen ; when Alexandrus was
 evasive in his story and did not tell the truth, the men who had taken
 refuge with the temple confuted him, and related the whole story of the
 wrong.

Finally, Proteus declared the following judgment to
 them, saying, “If I did not make it a point never to kill a stranger who has
 been caught by the wind and driven to my coasts, I would have punished you
 on behalf of the Greek , you most vile man. You
 committed the gravest impiety after you had had your guest-friend's
 hospitality: you had your guest-friend's wife.

And as if this were not enough, you got her to fly with you and went off
 with her. And not just with her, either, but you plundered your
 guest-friend's wealth and brought it, too.

Now, then, since I make it a point not to kill strangers, I shall not let
 you take away this woman and the wealth, but I shall watch them for the
 Greek stranger, until he come and take them
 away; but as for you and your sailors, I warn you to leave my country for
 another within three days, and if you do not, I will declare war on you.”

This, the priests said, was how Helen came to Proteus . And, in my
 opinion, Homer knew this story, too; but seeing that it was not so well
 suited to epic poetry as the tale of which he made use, he rejected it,
 showing that he knew it.

This is apparent from the passage in the Iliad (and nowhere
 else does he return to the story) where he relates the wanderings of Alexander , and shows how he and Helen were carried off course, and wandered to, among other
 places, +Sidon [35.366,33.55]
 (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Sidon 
 in +Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 .

This is in the story of the Prowess of Diomedes ,
 where the verses run as follows: 
 
 There were the robes, all embroidered, 
 The work of women of 
 +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon,
 Asia 
 Sidon 
 , whom godlike Alexandrus 
 himself 
 Brought from +Sidon
 [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Sidon 
 , crossing the broad sea, 
 The same voyage on which he brought back Helen of noble descent. 
 
 Hom. Il. 6.289-92

[He mentions it in the Odyssey also: 
 
 The daughter of Zeus had such
 ingenious drugs, 
 Good ones, which she had from Thon 's wife,
 Polydamna , an Egyptian , 
 Whose country's fertile plains bear the most drugs, 
 Many mixed for good, many for harm: 
 
 Hom. Od. 4.227-30 
 ]

and again Menelaus says to Telemachus : 
 
 I was eager to return here, but the gods still held me
 in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , 
 Since I had not sacrificed entire hecatombs to them. 
 
 Hom. Od. 4. 351-2

In these verses the poet shows that he knew of Alexander 's wanderings to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; for +Syria [38,35]
 (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 borders on Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and the Phoenicians , to whom +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited
 place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Sidon 
 belongs, dwell in +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 .

These verses and this passage prove most clearly
 that the Cyprian poems are not the work of Homer
 but of someone else. For the Cyprian poems relate
 that Alexandrus reached +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Ilion 
 with Helen in three days from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Sparta 
 , having a fair wind and a smooth sea; but according to the
 Iliad , he wandered from his course in bringing her.

Enough, then, of Homer and the Cyprian poems. But, when I asked the priests whether the Greek account of what happened at +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) 
 Troy 
 were idle or not, they gave me the following answer, saying that
 they had inquired and knew from Menelaus himself.

After the rape of Helen , a great force of Greeks came to the Trojan 
 land on Menelaus ' behalf. After disembarking and
 disposing their forces, they sent messengers to +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Ilion 
 , one of whom was Menelaus himself.

When these were let inside the city walls, they demanded the restitution of
 Helen and of the property which Alexandrus had stolen from Menelaus and carried off, and they demanded reparation for the
 wrongs; but the Trojans gave the same testimony
 then and later, sworn and unsworn: that they did not have Helen or the property claimed, but all of that was in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and they could not justly make reparation for what Proteus the Egyptian had.

But the Greeks , thinking that the Trojans were mocking them, laid siege to the city,
 until they took it; but there was no Helen there
 when they breached the wall, but they heard the same account as before; so,
 crediting the original testimony, they sent Menelaus himself to Proteus .

Menelaus then went to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and up the river to Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; there, relating the truth of the matter, he met with great
 hospitality and got back Helen , who had not been
 harmed, and also all his wealth, besides.

Yet, although getting this, Menelaus was guilty of
 injustice toward the Egyptians . For adverse
 weather detained him when he tried to sail away; after this continued for
 some time, he carried out something impious,

taking two native children and sacrificing them. When it became known that
 he had done this, he fled with his ships straight to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , hated and hunted; and where he went from there, the Egyptians could not say. The priests told me that
 they had learned some of this by inquiry, but that they were sure of what
 had happened in their own country.

The Egyptians ' priests
 said this, and I myself believe their story about Helen , for I reason thus: had Helen been
 in +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Ilion 
 , then with or without the will of Alexandrus she would have been given back to the Greeks .

For surely Priam was not so mad, or those nearest
 to him, as to consent to risk their own persons and their children and their
 city so that Alexandrus might cohabit with Helen .

Even if it were conceded that they were so inclined in the first days, yet
 when not only many of the Trojans were slain in
 fighting against the Greeks , but Priam himself lost to death two or three or even more
 of his sons in every battle (if the poets are to be believed), in this turn
 of events, had Helen been Priam 's own wife, I cannot but think that he would have restored
 her to the Greeks , if by so doing he could escape
 from the evils besetting him.

Alexandrus was not even heir to the throne, in
 which case matters might have been in his hands since Priam was old, but Hector , who was an
 older and a better man than Alexandrus , was going
 to receive the royal power at Priam 's death, and
 ought not have acquiesced in his brother's wrongdoing, especially when that
 brother was the cause of great calamity to Hector 
 himself and all the rest of the Trojans .

But since they did not have Helen there to give
 back, and since the Greeks would not believe them
 although they spoke the truth—I am convinced and declare—the divine powers
 provided that the Trojans , perishing in utter
 destruction, should make this clear to all mankind: that retribution from
 the gods for terrible wrongdoing is also terrible. This is what I think, and
 I state it.

The next to reign after Proteus (they said) was Rhampsinitus .
 The memorial of his name left by him was the western forecourt of the temple
 of Hephaestus ; he set two statues here forty-one
 feet high; the northernmost of these the Egyptians call Summer, and the southernmost Winter; the one that
 they call Summer they worship and treat well, but do the opposite to the
 statue called Winter.

This king (they told me) had great wealth in silver, so great that none of
 the succeeding kings could surpass or come near it. To store his treasure
 safely, he had a stone chamber built, one of its walls abutting on the outer
 side of his palace. But the builder of it shrewdly provided that one stone
 be so placed as to be easily removed by two men or even by one.

So when the chamber was finished, the king stored his treasure in it, and as
 time went on, the builder, drawing near the end of his life, summoned his
 sons (he had two) and told them how he had provided for them, that they have
 an ample livelihood, by the art with which he had built the king's
 treasure-house; explaining clearly to them how to remove the stone, he gave
 the coordinates of it, and told them that if they kept these in mind, they
 would be the custodians of the king's riches.

So when he was dead, his sons got to work at once: coming to the palace by
 night, they readily found and managed the stone in the building, and took
 away much of the treasure.

When the king opened the building, he was amazed to see the containers
 lacking their treasure; yet he did not know whom to accuse, seeing that the
 seals were unbroken and the building shut fast. But when less treasure
 appeared the second and third times he opened the building (for the thieves
 did not stop plundering), he had traps made and placed around the containers
 in which his riches were stored.

The thieves came just as before, and one of them crept in; when he came near
 the container, right away he was caught in the trap. When he saw the trouble
 he was in, he called to his brother right away and explained to him the
 problem, and told him to come in quickly and cut off his head, lest he be
 seen and recognized and destroy him, too. He seemed to have spoken rightly
 to the other, who did as he was persuaded and then, replacing the stone,
 went home, carrying his brother's head.

When day came, the king went to the building, and was amazed to see in the
 trap the thief's body without a head, yet the building intact, with no way
 in or out. At a loss, he did as follows: he suspended the thief's body from
 the wall and set guards over it, instructing them to seize and bring to him
 any whom they saw weeping or making lamentation.

But the thief's mother, when the body had been hung
 up, was terribly stricken: she had words with her surviving son, and told
 him that he was somehow to think of some way to cut loose and bring her his
 brother's body, and if he did not obey, she threatened to go to the king and
 denounce him as having the treasure.

So when his mother bitterly reproached the surviving son and for all that he
 said he could not dissuade her, he devised a plan: he harnessed asses and
 put skins full of wine on the asses, then set out driving them; and when he
 was near those who were guarding the hanging body, he pulled at the feet of
 two or three of the skins and loosed their fastenings;

and as the wine ran out, he beat his head and cried aloud like one who did
 not know to which ass he should turn first, while the guards, when they saw
 the wine flowing freely, ran out into the road with cups and caught what was
 pouring out, thinking themselves in luck;

feigning anger, the man cursed all; but as the guards addressed him
 peaceably, he pretended to be soothed and to relent in his anger, and
 finally drove his asses out of the road and put his harness in order.

And after more words passed and one joked with him and got him to laugh, he
 gave them one of the skins: and they lay down there just as they were,
 disposed to drink, and included him and told him to stay and drink with
 them; and he consented and stayed.

When they cheerily saluted him in their drinking, he gave them yet another
 of the skins; and the guards grew very drunk with the abundance of liquor,
 and lay down right there where they were drinking, overpowered by sleep;

but he, when it was late at night, cut down the body of his brother and
 shaved the right cheek of each of the guards for the indignity, and loading
 the body on his asses, drove home, fulfilling his mother's commands.

When the king learned that the body of the thief had
 been taken, he was beside himself and, obsessed with finding who it was who
 had managed this, did as follows—they say, but I do not believe it.

He put his own daughter in a brothel, instructing her to accept all alike
 and, before having intercourse, to make each tell her the shrewdest and most
 impious thing he had done in his life; whoever told her the story of the
 thief, she was to seize and not let get out.

The girl did as her father told her, and the thief, learning why she was
 doing this, did as follows, wanting to get the better of the king by craft.

He cut the arm off a fresh corpse at the shoulder, and went to the king's
 daughter, carrying it under his cloak, and when asked the same question as
 the rest, he said that his most impious act had been when he had cut the
 head off his brother who was caught in a trap in the king's treasury; and
 his shrewdest, that after making the guards drunk he had cut down his
 brother's hanging body.

When she heard this, the princess grabbed for him; but in the darkness the
 thief let her have the arm of the corpse; and clutching it, she held on,
 believing that she had the arm of the other; but the thief, after giving it
 to her, was gone in a flash out the door.

When this also came to the king's ears, he was
 astonished at the man's ingenuity and daring, and in the end, he sent a
 proclamation to every town, promising the thief immunity and a great reward
 if he would come into the king's presence.

The thief trusted the king and came before him; Rhampsinitus was very admiring and gave him his daughter to marry
 on the grounds that he was the cleverest of men; for as the Egyptians (he said) surpassed all others in craft,
 so he surpassed the Egyptians .

They said that later this king went down alive to
 what the Greeks call Hades and there played dice with Demeter , and after winning some and losing some, came back with a
 gift from her of a golden hand towel.

From the descent of Rhampsinitus , when he came
 back, they said that the Egyptians celebrate a
 festival, which I know that they celebrate to this day, but whether this is
 why they celebrate, I cannot say.

On the day of the festival, the priests weave a cloth and bind it as a
 headband on the eyes of one of their number, whom they then lead, wearing
 the cloth, into a road that goes to the temple of Demeter ; they themselves go back, but this priest with his eyes
 bandaged is guided (they say) by two wolves to Demeter 's temple, a distance of
 three miles from the city, and led back again from the temple by the wolves
 to the same place.

These Egyptian stories
 are for the benefit of whoever believes such tales: my rule in this history
 is that I record what is said by all as I have heard it. The Egyptians say that Demeter 
 and Dionysus are the rulers of the lower
 world.

The Egyptians were the first who maintained the
 following doctrine, too, that the human soul is immortal, and at the death
 of the body enters into some other living thing then coming to birth; and
 after passing through all creatures of land, sea, and air, it enters once
 more into a human body at birth, a cycle which it completes in three
 thousand years.

There are Greeks who have used this doctrine,
 some earlier and some later, as if it were their own; I know their names,
 but do not record them.

They said that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 until the time of King Rhampsinitus was
 altogether well-governed and prospered greatly, but that Kheops , who was the next king, brought the people to utter
 misery. For first he closed all the temples, so that no one could sacrifice
 there; and next, he compelled all the Egyptians 
 to work for him.

To some, he assigned the task of dragging stones from the quarries in the
 Arabian mountains to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 ; and after the stones were ferried across the river in boats, he
 organized others to receive and drag them to the mountains called Libyan .

They worked in gangs of a hundred thousand men, each gang for three months.
 For ten years the people wore themselves out building the road over which
 the stones were dragged, work which was in my opinion not much lighter at
 all than the building of the pyramid

(for the road is nearly a mile long and twenty yards wide, and elevated at
 its highest to a height of sixteen yards, and it is all of stone polished
 and carved with figures). The aforesaid ten years went to the building of
 this road and of the underground chambers in the hill where the pyramids
 stand; these, the king meant to be burial-places for himself, and surrounded
 them with water, bringing in a channel from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 .

The pyramid itself was twenty years in the making. Its base is square, each
 side eight hundred feet long, and its height is the same; the whole is of
 stone polished and most exactly fitted; there is no block of less than
 thirty feet in length.

This pyramid was made like stairs, which some call
 steps and others, tiers.

When this, its first form, was completed, the workmen used short wooden logs
 as levers to raise the rest of the stones ; they heaved up the blocks from the ground onto the
 first tier of steps;

when the stone had been raised, it was set on another lever that stood on
 the first tier, and the lever again used to lift it from this tier to the
 next.

It may be that there was a new lever on each tier of steps, or perhaps there
 was only one lever, quite portable, which they carried up to each tier in
 turn; I leave this uncertain, as both possibilities were mentioned.

But this is certain, that the upper part of the pyramid was finished off
 first, then the next below it, and last of all the base and the lowest part.

There are writings on the
 pyramid in Egyptian characters indicating how
 much was spent on radishes and onions and garlic for the workmen; and I am
 sure that, when he read me the writing, the interpreter said that sixteen
 hundred talents of silver had been paid.

Now if that is so, how much must have been spent on the iron with which they
 worked, and the workmen's food and clothing, considering that the time
 aforesaid was spent in building, while hewing and carrying the stone and
 digging out the underground parts was, as I suppose, a business of long
 duration.

And so evil a man was Kheops that, needing money, he put his own daughter in a brothel
 and made her charge a fee (how much, they did not say). She did as her
 father told her, but was disposed to leave a memorial of her own, and asked
 of each coming to her that he give one stone;

and of these stones they said the pyramid was built that stands midmost of
 the three, over against the great pyramid; each side of it measures one
 hundred and fifty feet.

The Egyptians said that
 this Kheops reigned for fifty years; at his death
 he was succeeded by his brother Khephren , who was
 in all respects like Kheops . Khephren also built a pyramid, smaller than his brother's. I have
 measured it myself.

It has no underground chambers, nor is it entered like the other by a canal
 from the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , but the river comes in through a built passage and encircles an
 island, in which, they say, Kheops himself lies.

This pyramid was built on the same scale as the other, except that it falls
 forty feet short of it in height; it stands near the great pyramid; the
 lowest layer of it is of variegated Ethiopian 
 stone. Both of them stand on the same ridge, which is about a hundred feet
 high. Khephren , they said, reigned for fifty-six
 years.

Thus, they reckon that for a hundred and six years
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 was in great misery and the temples so long shut were never opened.
 The people hate the memory of these two kings so much that they do not much
 wish to name them, and call the pyramids after the shepherd Philitis , who then pastured his flocks in this
 place .

The next king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , they said, was Kheops ' son Mycerinus . Disliking his father's doings, he opened
 the temples and let the people, ground down to the depth of misery, go to
 their business and their sacrifices; and he was the most just judge among
 all the kings.

This is why he is praised above all the rulers of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; for not only were his judgments just, but Mycerinus would give any who were not satisfied with the judgment
 a present out of his own estate to compensate him for his loss.

Though mild toward his people and conducting himself as he did, yet he
 suffered calamities, the first of which was the death of his daughter, the
 only child of his household. Deeply grieved over this misfortune, he wanted
 to give her a burial somewhat more sumptuous than ordinary; he therefore
 made a hollow cow's image of gilded wood and placed the body of his dead
 daughter therein.

This cow was not buried in the earth but was to be
 seen even in my time, in the town of Saïs , where
 it stood in a furnished room of the palace; incense of all kinds is offered
 daily before it, and a lamp burns by it all through every night.

Near this cow in another chamber statues of Mycerinus ' concubines stand, so the priests of Saïs said; and in fact there are about twenty colossal wooden
 figures there, made like naked women; but except what I was told, I cannot
 tell who these are.

But some tell the following story about the cow and
 the statues: that Mycerinus conceived a passion for
 his own daughter and then had intercourse with her against her will;

and they say that afterwards the girl strangled herself for grief, and that
 he buried her in this cow, but that her mother cut off the hands of the
 attendants who had betrayed the daughter to her father, and that now their
 statues are in the same condition as the living women were.

But this I believe to be a silly story, especially about the hands of the
 figures. For in fact we ourselves saw that the hands have fallen off through
 age, and were lying at their feet even in my day.

As for the cow, it is covered with a purple robe,
 only the head and neck exposed, encrusted with a very thick layer of gold.
 Between the horns is the golden figure of the sun's orb.

It does not stand, but kneels; it is as big as a live cow of great size.
 This image is carried out of the chamber once every year, whenever the Egyptians mourn the god whose name I omit in
 speaking of these matters:

then the cow is brought out into the light; for they say that before she
 died she asked her father, Mycerinus , that she see
 the sun once a year .

After what happened to his daughter, the following
 happened next to this king: an oracle came to him from the city of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , announcing that he had just six years to live and was to die in the
 seventh.

The king took this badly, and sent back to the oracle a message of reproach,
 blaming the god that his father and his uncle, though they had shut up the
 temples, and disregarded the gods, and destroyed men, had lived for a long
 time, but that he who was pious was going to die so soon.

But a second oracle came announcing that for this very reason his life was
 hastening to a close: he had done what was contrary to fate; Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 should have been afflicted for a hundred and fifty years, and the
 two kings before him knew this, but not he.

Hearing this, Mycerinus knew that his doom was
 fixed. Therefore, he had many lamps made, and would light these at nightfall
 and drink and enjoy himself, not letting up day or night, roaming to the
 marsh country and the groves and wherever he heard of the likeliest places
 of pleasure.

This was his recourse, so that by turning night into day he might make his
 six years into twelve and so prove the oracle false.

This king, too, left a pyramid, but far smaller than
 his father's, each side twenty feet short of three hundred feet long, square
 at the base, and as much as half its height of Ethiopian stone. Some Greeks say that
 it was built by Rhodopis , the courtesan, but they
 are wrong;

indeed, it is clear to me that they say this without even knowing who Rhodopis was (otherwise, they would never have
 credited her with the building of a pyramid on which what I may call an
 uncountable sum of money was spent), or that Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis , not of Mycerinus ;

for very many years later than these kings who left the pyramids came Rhodopis , who was Thracian 
 by birth, and a slave of Iadmon son of Hephaestopolis the Samian ,
 and a fellow-slave of Aesop the story-writer. For
 he was owned by Iadmon , too, as the following made
 crystal clear:

when the Delphians , obeying an oracle, issued
 many proclamations summoning anyone who wanted it to accept compensation for
 the killing of Aesop , no one accepted it except the
 son of Iadmon 's son, another Iadmon ; hence Aesop , too, was Iadmon 's.

Rhodopis came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to work, brought by Xanthes of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , but upon her arrival was freed for a lot of money by Kharaxus of Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 , son of Scamandronymus and brother of Sappho the poetess.

Thus Rhodopis lived as a free woman in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , where, as she was very alluring, she acquired a lot of
 money—sufficient for such a Rhodopis , so to speak,
 but not for such a pyramid.

Seeing that to this day anyone who likes can calculate what one tenth of her
 worth was, she cannot be credited with great wealth. For Rhodopis desired to leave a memorial of herself in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 , by having something made which no one else had thought of or
 dedicated in a temple and presenting this at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 to preserve her memory;

so she spent one tenth of her substance on the manufacture of a great
 number of iron beef spits, as many as the tenth would pay for, and sent them
 to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 ; these lie in a heap to this day, behind the altar set up by the
 Chians and in front of the shrine itself.

The courtesans of Kawm Juayf
 [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Naucratis 
 seem to be peculiarly alluring, for the woman of whom this story is
 told became so famous that every Greek knew the
 name of Rhodopis , and later on a certain Archidice was the theme of song throughout Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 , although less celebrated than the other.

Kharaxus , after giving Rhodopis her freedom, returned to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 . He is bitterly attacked by Sappho in one
 of her poems. This is enough about Rhodopis .

After Mycerinus , the
 priests said, Asukhis became king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . He built the eastern outer court of Hephaestus ' temple; this is by far the finest and grandest of all
 the courts, for while all have carved figures and innumerable felicities of
 architecture, this court has far more than any.

As not much money was in circulation during this king's reign, they told me,
 a law was made for the Egyptians allowing a man
 to borrow on the security of his father's corpse; and the law also provided
 that the lender become master of the entire burial-vault of the borrower,
 and that the penalty for one giving this security, should he fail to repay
 the loan, was that he was not to be buried at his death either in that tomb
 of his fathers or in any other, nor was he to bury any relative of his
 there.

Furthermore, in his desire to excel all who ruled Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 before him, this king left a pyramid of brick to commemorate his
 name, on which is this writing, cut on a stone:

“Do not think me less than pyramids of stone; for I excel them as much as
 Zeus does other gods; for they stuck a pole down
 into a marsh and collected what mud clung to the pole, made bricks of it,
 and thus built me.” These were the acts of Asukhis .

After him reigned a blind man called Anysis , of the town of that name. In his reign Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 was invaded by Sabacos king of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation),
 Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 and a great army of Ethiopians .

The blind man fled to the marshes, and the Ethiopian ruled Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 for fifty years, during which he distinguished himself for the
 following:

he would never put to death any Egyptian 
 wrongdoer but sentenced all, according to the severity of their offenses, to
 raise embankments in their native towns. Thus the towns came to stand yet
 higher than before;

for after first being built on embankments made by the excavators of the
 canals in the reign of Sesostris , they were yet
 further raised in the reign of the Ethiopian .

Of the towns in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 that were raised, in my opinion, +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement),
 Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 is especially prominent, where there is also a temple of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566]
 (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , a building most worthy of note. Other temples are greater and more
 costly, but none more pleasing to the eye than this. +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement),
 Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 is, in the Greek language, Artemis .

Her temple is of this description: except for the
 entrance, it stands on an island; for two channels approach it from the
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 without mixing with one another, running as far as the entryway of
 the temple, the one and the other flowing around it, each a hundred feet
 wide and shaded by trees.

The outer court is sixty feet high, adorned with notable figures ten feet
 high. The whole circumference of the city commands a view down into the
 temple in its midst; for the city's level has been raised, but that of the
 temple has been left as it was from the first, so that it can be seen into
 from above.

A stone wall, cut with figures, runs around it; within is a grove of very
 tall trees growing around a great shrine where the image of the goddess is;
 the temple is a square, each side measuring an eighth of a mile.

A road, paved with stone, about three eighths of a mile long leads to the
 entrance, running eastward through the marketplace, towards the temple of
 Hermes ; this road is about four hundred feet
 wide, and bordered by trees reaching to heaven. Such is this temple.

Now the departure of the Ethiopian (they said) came about in this way. After seeing in a
 dream one who stood over him and urged him to gather together all the
 Priests in Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 and cut them in half, he fled from the country.

Seeing this vision, he said, he supposed it to be a manifestation sent to
 him by the gods, so that he might commit sacrilege and so be punished by
 gods or men; he would not (he said) do so, but otherwise, for the time
 foretold for his rule over Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 was now fulfilled, after which he was to depart:

for when he was still in Ethiopia
 [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , the oracles that are consulted by the people of that country told
 him that he was fated to reign fifty years over Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Seeing that this time was now completed and that he was troubled by
 what he saw in his dream, Sabacos departed from
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 of his own volition.

When the Ethiopian left
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the blind man (it is said) was king once more, returning from the
 marshes where he had lived for fifty years on an island that he built of
 ashes and earth; for the Egyptians who were to
 bring him food without the Ethiopian 's knowledge
 were instructed by the king to bring ashes whenever they came, to add to
 their gift.

This island was never discovered before the time of Amyrtaeus ; all the kings before him sought it in vain for more
 than seven hundred years. The name of it is Elbo ,
 and it is over a mile long and of an equal breadth.

The next king was the priest of Hephaestus whose name was Sethos . He
 despised and had no regard for the warrior Egyptians , thinking he would never need them; besides otherwise
 dishonoring them, he took away the chosen lands which had been given to
 them, twelve fields to each man, in the reign of former kings.

So when presently king Sanacharib 
 came against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , with a great force of Arabians and Assyrians , the warrior Egyptians would not march against him.

The priest, in this quandary, went into the temple shrine and there before
 the god's image bitterly lamented over what he expected to suffer. Sleep
 came on him while he was lamenting, and it seemed to him the god stood over
 him and told him to take heart, that he would come to no harm encountering
 the power of Arabian Peninsula
 [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 : “I shall send you champions,” said the god.

So he trusted the vision, and together with those Egyptians who would follow him camped at +Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Pelusium 
 , where the road comes into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; and none of the warriors would go with him, but only merchants and
 craftsmen and traders.

Their enemies came there, too, and during the night were overrun by a horde
 of field mice that gnawed quivers and bows and the handles of shields,
 with the result that many were killed fleeing unarmed the next day.

And to this day a stone statue of the Egyptian 
 king stands in Hephaestus ' temple, with a mouse in
 his hand, and an inscription to this effect: “Look at me, and believe.”

Thus far went the record given by the Egyptians and their priests; and they showed me that
 the time from the first king to that priest of Hephaestus , who was the last, covered three hundred and forty-one
 generations, and that in this time this also had been the number of their
 kings, and of their high priests.

Now three hundred generations are ten thousand years, three generations
 being equal to a hundred. And over and above the three hundred, the
 remaining forty-one cover thirteen hundred and forty years.

Thus the whole period is eleven thousand three hundred and forty years; in
 all of which time (they said) they had had no king who was a god in human
 form, nor had there been any such either before or after those years among
 the rest of the kings of Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Four times in this period (so they told me) the sun rose contrary to
 experience; twice he came up where he now goes down, and twice went down
 where he now comes up; yet Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 at these times underwent no change, either in the produce of the
 river and the land, or in the matter of sickness and death.

Hecataeus 
 the historian was once at
 Thebes [32.666,25.683]
 (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 , where he made a genealogy for himself that had him descended from
 a god in the sixteenth generation. But the priests of Zeus did with him as they also did with me (who had not traced my
 own lineage).

They brought me into the great inner court of the temple and showed me
 wooden figures there which they counted to the total they had already given,
 for every high priest sets up a statue of himself there during his lifetime;

pointing to these and counting, the priests showed me that each succeeded
 his father; they went through the whole line of figures, back to the
 earliest from that of the man who had most recently died.

Thus, when Hecataeus had traced his descent and
 claimed that his sixteenth forefather was a god, the priests too traced a
 line of descent according to the method of their counting; for they would
 not be persuaded by him that a man could be descended from a god; they
 traced descent through the whole line of three hundred and forty-five
 figures, not connecting it with any ancestral god or hero, but declaring
 each figure to be a “Piromis” the son of a “Piromis”; in Greek , one who is in all respects a good man.

Thus they showed that all those whose statues stood
 there had been good men, but quite unlike gods.

Before these men, they said, the rulers of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 were gods, but none had been contemporary with the human priests. Of
 these gods one or another had in succession been supreme; the last of them
 to rule the country was Osiris ' son Horus , whom the Greeks call
 Apollo ; he deposed Typhon , and was the
 last divine king of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Osiris is, in the Greek language, Dionysus .

Among the Greeks , Heracles , Dionysus , and Pan
 are held to be the youngest of the gods. But in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , Pan is the most ancient of these and is
 one of the eight gods who are said to be the earliest of all; Heracles belongs to the second dynasty (that of the
 so-called twelve gods); and Dionysus to the third,
 which came after the twelve.

How many years there were between Heracles and the
 reign of Amasis , I have already shown; Pan is said
 to be earlier still; the years between Dionysus and
 Amasis are the fewest, and they are reckoned by
 the Egyptians at fifteen thousand.

The Egyptians claim to be sure of all this, since
 they have reckoned the years and chronicled them in writing.

Now the Dionysus who was called the son of Semele , daughter of Cadmus ,
 was about sixteen hundred years before my time, and Heracles son of Alcmene about nine
 hundred years; and Pan the son of Penelope (for
 according to the Greeks 
 Penelope and Hermes were
 the parents of Pan) was about eight hundred years before me, and thus of a
 later date than the Trojan war.

With regard to these two, Pan and Dionysus , one may follow whatever story one thinks most credible;
 but I give my own opinion concerning them here. Had Dionysus son of Semele and Pan son of
 Penelope appeared in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 and lived there to old age, like Heracles 
 the son of Amphitryon , it might have been said that
 they too (like Heracles ) were but men, named after
 the older Pan and Dionysus , the gods of antiquity;

but as it is, the Greek story has it that no
 sooner was Dionysus born than Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him away to +Nysa [28.1667,37.8667] (Perseus) 
 Nysa 
 in Ethiopia [39,8]
 (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 beyond Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; and as for Pan, the Greeks do not know
 what became of him after his birth. It is therefore plain to me that the
 Greeks learned the names of these two gods
 later than the names of all the others, and trace the birth of both to the
 time when they gained the knowledge.

So far I have recorded what the Egyptians themselves say. I shall now relate what is recorded
 alike by Egyptians and foreigners, and shall add
 something of what I myself have seen.

After the reign of the priest of Hephaestus the Egyptians were made
 free. But they could never live without a king, so they divided Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 into twelve districts and set up twelve kings.

These kings intermarried, and agreed to be close friends, no one deposing
 another or seeking to possess more than another.

The reason for this agreement, which they scrupulously kept, was this: no
 sooner were they established in their districts than an oracle was given
 them that whichever of them poured a libation from a bronze vessel in the
 temple of Hephaestus (where, as in all the temples,
 they used to assemble) would be king of all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Moreover, they decided to preserve the memory of
 their names by a common memorial, and so they made a labyrinth a little way beyond
 Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466]
 (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 and near the place called the Kiman Faris [30.833,29.316] (deserted settlement), Al-Fayyum,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 City of Crocodiles 
 . I have seen it myself, and indeed words cannot describe it;

if one were to collect the walls and evidence of other efforts of the Greeks , the sum would not amount to the labor and
 cost of this labyrinth. And yet the temple at +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Ephesus 
 and the one on Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 are noteworthy.

Though the pyramids beggar description and each one of them is a match for
 many great monuments built by Greeks , this maze
 surpasses even the pyramids.

It has twelve roofed courts with doors facing each other: six face north and
 six south, in two continuous lines, all within one outer wall. There are
 also double sets of chambers, three thousand altogether, fifteen hundred
 above and the same number under ground.

We ourselves viewed those that are above ground, and speak of what we have
 seen, but we learned through conversation about the underground chambers;
 the Egyptian caretakers would by no means show
 them, as they were, they said, the burial vaults of the kings who first
 built this labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles.

Thus we can only speak from hearsay of the lower chambers; the upper we saw
 for ourselves, and they are creations greater than human. The exits of the
 chambers and the mazy passages hither and thither through the courts were an
 unending marvel to us as we passed from court to apartment and from
 apartment to colonnade, from colonnades again to more chambers and then into
 yet more courts.

Over all this is a roof, made of stone like the walls, and the walls are
 covered with cut figures, and every court is set around with pillars of
 white stone very precisely fitted together. Near the corner where the
 labyrinth ends stands a pyramid two hundred and forty feet high, on which
 great figures are cut. A passage to this has been made underground.

Such is this labyrinth; and still more marvellous is
 Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466]
 (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 , on which it stands. This lake has a circumference of four hundred
 and fifty miles, or sixty schoeni: as much as the whole seaboard of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Its length is from north to south; the deepest part has a depth of
 fifty fathoms.

That it has been dug out and made by men's hands the lake shows for itself;
 for almost in the middle of it stand two pyramids, so built that fifty
 fathoms of each are below and fifty above the water; atop each is a colossal
 stone figure seated on a throne.

Thus these pyramids are a hundred fathoms high; and a hundred fathoms equal
 a furlong of six hundred feet, the fathom measuring six feet or four cubits,
 the foot four spans and the cubit six spans.

The water of the lake is not natural (for the country here is exceedingly
 arid) but brought by a channel from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 ; six months it flows into the lake, and six back into the river.

For the six months that it flows out of the lake, the daily take of fish
 brings a silver talent into the royal treasury, and twenty minae for each
 day of the flow into the lake.

Furthermore, the natives said that this lake drains
 underground into the Golfe de
 Gabes [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa 
 Libyan Syrtis 
 , and extends under the mountains that are above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , having the inland country on its west.

When I could not see anywhere the earth taken from the digging of this lake,
 since this was curious to me, I asked those who live nearest the lake where
 the stuff was that had been dug out. They told me where it had been carried,
 and I readily believed them, for I had heard of a similar thing happening in
 the Assyrian city of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 .

Sardanapallus king of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 had great wealth, which he kept in an underground treasury. Some
 thieves plotted to carry it off; they surveyed their course and dug an
 underground way from their own house to the palace, carrying the earth taken
 out of the passage dug by night to the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia 
 Tigris 
 , which runs past Nineveh
 (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia 
 Ninus 
 , until at last they accomplished their end.

This, I was told, had happened when the Egyptian
 lake was dug, except that the work went on not by night but by
 day. The Egyptians bore the earth dug out by them
 to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , to be caught and scattered (as was to be expected) by the river.
 Thus is this lake said to have been dug.

Now the twelve kings were just, and in time came to
 sacrifice in Hephaestus ' temple. On the last day of
 the feast, as they were about to pour libations, the high priest brought out
 the golden vessels which they commonly used for this; but he counted wrongly
 and had only eleven for the twelve.

So the last in line, Psammetichus , as he had no
 vessel, took off his bronze helmet and held it out and poured the libation
 with it. All the kings were accustomed to wear helmets, and were then
 helmeted;

it was not in guile, then, that Psammetichus held
 out his headgear; but the rest perceived what Psammetichus had done, and remembered the oracle that promised
 the sovereignty of all Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to whoever poured a libation from a vessel of bronze; therefore,
 though they considered Psammetichus not deserving
 of death (for they examined him and found that he had acted without intent),
 they decided to strip him of most of his power and to chase him away into
 the marshes, and that he was not to concern himself with the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

This Psammetichus had
 formerly been in exile in +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 , where he had fled from Sabacos the Ethiopian , who killed his father Necos ; then, when the Ethiopian departed
 because of what he saw in a dream, the Egyptians 
 of the district of Saïs brought him back from
 +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 .

Psammetichus was king for the second time when he
 found himself driven away into the marshes by the eleven kings because of
 the helmet.

Believing, therefore, that he had been abused by them, he meant to be
 avenged on those who had expelled him. He sent to inquire in the town of
 +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , where the most infallible oracle in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is; the oracle answered that he would have vengeance when he saw men
 of bronze coming from the sea.

Psammetichus did not in the least believe that men
 of bronze would come to aid him. But after a short time, Ionians and Carians , voyaging for
 plunder, were forced to put in on the coast of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , where they disembarked in their armor of bronze; and an Egyptian came into the marsh country and brought
 news to Psammetichus (for he had never before seen
 armored men) that men of bronze had come from the sea and were foraging in
 the plain.

Psammetichus saw in this the fulfillment of the
 oracle; he made friends with the Ionians and
 Carians , and promised them great rewards if
 they would join him and, having won them over, deposed the eleven kings with
 these allies and those Egyptians who volunteered.

Having made himself master of all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , he made the southern outer court of Hephaestus ' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , and built facing this a court for Apis ,
 where Apis is kept and fed whenever he appears;
 this court has an inner colonnade all around it and many cut figures; the
 roof is held up by great statues twenty feet high for pillars. Apis in Greek is Epaphus .

To the Ionians and Carians who had helped him, Psammetichus gave places to live in called The
 Camps , opposite each other on either side of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa 
 Nile 
 ; and besides this, he paid them all that he had promised.

Moreover, he put Egyptian boys in their hands to
 be taught Greek , and from these, who learned the
 language, are descended the present-day Egyptian 
 interpreters.

The Ionians and Carians lived for a long time in these places, which are near the
 sea, on the arm of the Nahr an-
 Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 called the Pelusian , a little way below
 the town of +Tall Bastah
 [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 . Long afterwards, king Amasis removed them
 and settled them at Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 to be his guard against the Egyptians .

It is a result of our communication with these settlers in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 (the first of foreign speech to settle in that country) that we
 Greeks have exact knowledge of the history of
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 from the reign of Psammetichus onwards.

There still remained in my day, in the places out of which the Ionians and Carians were
 turned, the winches for their ships and the ruins of their
 houses. This is how Psammetichus got Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

I have often mentioned the Egyptian oracle, and shall give an account of this, as it
 deserves. This oracle is sacred to Leto , and is
 situated in a great city by the Sebennytic arm of
 the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , on the way up from the sea.

+Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 is the name of the city where this oracle is; I have already
 mentioned it. In +Kawm al-Farain
 [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 there is a temple of Apollo and Artemis . The shrine of Leto 
 where the oracle is, is itself very great, and its outer court is sixty feet
 high.

But what caused me the most wonder among the things apparent there I shall
 mention. In this precinct is the shrine of Leto ,
 the height and length of whose walls is all made of a single stone slab;
 each wall has an equal length and height; namely, seventy feet. Another slab
 makes the surface of the roof, the cornice of which is seven feet broad.

Thus, then, the shrine is the most marvellous of all
 the things that I saw in this temple; but of things of second rank, the most
 wondrous is the island called 
 +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Khemmis 
 .

This lies in a deep and wide lake near the temple at +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement),
 Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , and the Egyptians say that it floats. I
 never saw it float, or move at all, and I thought it a marvellous tale, that
 an island should truly float.

However that may be, there is a great shrine of Apollo on it, and three altars stand there; many palm trees grow
 on the island, and other trees too, some yielding fruit and some not.

This is the story that the Egyptians tell to
 explain why the island moves: that on this island that did not move before,
 Leto , one of the eight gods who first came to
 be, who was living at +Kawm
 al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 where this oracle of hers is, taking charge of Apollo from Isis , hid him for safety in
 this island which is now said to float, when Typhon 
 came hunting through the world, keen to find the son of Osiris .

Apollo and Artemis were
 (they say) children of Dionysus and Isis , and Leto was made their
 nurse and preserver; in Egyptian , Apollo is Horus , Demeter 
 Isis , Artemis 
 Bubastis .

It was from this legend and no other that Aeschylus 
 son of Euphorion took a notion which is in no poet
 before him: that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter . For this reason the island was made to float.
 So they say.

Psammetichus ruled Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 for fifty-three years, twenty-nine of which he spent before +Ashdod (deserted settlement), Mehoz
 HaDarom, Israel, Asia 
 Azotus 
 , a great city in +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 , besieging it until he took it. +Ashdod (deserted settlement), Mehoz HaDarom, Israel, Asia 
 Azotus 
 held out against a siege longer than any city of which we know.

Psammetichus had a son, Necos , who became king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . It was he who began building the canal into the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 , which was
 finished by Darius the Persian . This is four days' voyage in length, and it was dug wide
 enough for two triremes to move in it rowed abreast.

It is fed by the Nahr an- Nil
 [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 , and is carried from a little above +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement),
 Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 by the Arabian town of Patumus ; it issues into the 
 Red Sea 
 . Digging began in the part of the Egyptian plain nearest to Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 ; the mountains that extend to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 (the mountains where the stone quarries are) come close to this
 plain;

the canal is led along the foothills of these mountains in a long reach
 from west to east; passing then into a ravine, it bears southward out of the
 hill country towards the Persian
 Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia 
 Arabian Gulf 
 .

Now the shortest and most direct passage from the northern to the southern
 or +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 is from the Casian promontory, the
 boundary between Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and +Syria [38,35]
 (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 , to the Persian Gulf
 [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia 
 Arabian Gulf 
 , and this is a distance of one hundred and twenty five miles,
 neither more nor less;

this is the most direct route, but the canal is far longer, inasmuch as it
 is more crooked. In Necos ' reign, a hundred and
 twenty thousand Egyptians died digging it. Necos stopped work, stayed by a prophetic utterance
 that he was toiling beforehand for the barbarian. The Egyptians call all men of other languages barbarians.

Necos , then, stopped work on the canal and engaged
 in preparations for war; some of his ships of war were built on the northern
 sea, and some in the Persian Gulf
 [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia 
 Arabian Gulf 
 , by the +Red Sea [42,15]
 (sea) 
 Red Sea 
 coast: the winches for landing these can still be seen.

He used these ships when needed, and with his land army met and defeated the
 Syrians at Magdolus , taking the great Syrian city of Cadytis 
 after the battle.

He sent to +Didyma [27.233,37.35]
 (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Branchidae 
 of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) 
 Miletus 
 and dedicated there to Apollo the garments
 in which he won these victories. Then he died after a reign of sixteen
 years, and his son Psammis reigned in his place.

While this Psammis was king
 of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , he was visited by ambassadors from +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) 
 Elis 
 , the Eleans boasting that they had
 arranged the Olympic games with all the justice
 and fairness in the world, and claiming that even the Egyptians , although the wisest of all men, could not do better.

When the Eleans came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and announced why they had come, Psammis 
 assembled the Egyptians reputed to be wisest.
 These assembled and learned all that the Eleans 
 were to do regarding the games; after explaining this, the Eleans said that they had come to learn whether the
 Egyptians could discover any juster way.

The Egyptians deliberated, and then asked the
 Eleans if their own citizens took part in the
 contests. The Eleans answered that they did: all
 Greeks from +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) 
 Elis 
 or elsewhere might contend.

Then the Egyptians said that in establishing this
 rule they fell short of complete fairness: “For there is no way that you
 will not favor your own townsfolk in the contest and wrong the stranger; if
 you wish in fact to make just rules and have come to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 for that reason, you should admit only strangers to the contest, and
 not Eleans .” Such was the counsel of the Egyptians to the Eleans .

Psammis reigned over Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 for only six years; he invaded Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , and immediately thereafter died, and Apries 
 the son of Psammis reigned in his place.

He was more fortunate than any former king (except his great-grandfather
 Psammetichus ) during his rule of twenty-five
 years, during which he sent an army against +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub,
 Lebanon, Asia 
 Sidon 
 and fought at sea with the king of +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub,
 Lebanon, Asia 
 Tyre 
 .

But when it was fated that evil should overtake him, the cause of it was
 something that I will now deal with briefly, and at greater length in the
 Libyan part of this history.

Apries sent a great force against Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 and suffered a great defeat. The Egyptians blamed him for this and rebelled against him; for they
 thought that Apries had knowingly sent his men to
 their doom, so that after their perishing in this way he might be the more
 secure in his rule over the rest of the Egyptians . Bitterly angered by this, those who returned home and the
 friends of the slain openly revolted.

Hearing of this, Apries 
 sent Amasis to dissuade them. When Amasis came up with the Egyptians , he exhorted them to desist; but as he spoke an Egyptian came behind him and put a helmet on his
 head, saying it was the token of royalty.

And Amasis showed that this was not displeasing to
 him, for after being made king by the rebel Egyptians he prepared to march against Apries .

When Apries heard of it, he sent against Amasis an esteemed Egyptian 
 named Patarbemis , one of his own court, instructing
 him to take the rebel alive and bring him into his presence. When Patarbemis came and summoned Amasis , Amasis (who was on horseback)
 rose up and farted, telling the messenger to take that back to Apries .

But when in spite of this Patarbemis insisted that
 Amasis obey the king's summons and go to him,
 Amasis answered that he had long been preparing
 to do just that, and Apries would find him above
 reproach, for he would present himself, and bring others.

Hearing this, Patarbemis could not mistake Amasis ; he saw his preparations and hastened to
 depart, the more quickly to make known to the king what was going on. When
 Apries saw him return without Amasis , he did not stop to reflect, but in his rage and fury had
 Patarbemis ' ears and nose cut off.

The rest of the Egyptians , who were until now
 Apries ' friends, seeing this outrage done to the
 man who was most prominent among them, changed sides without delay and
 offered themselves to Amasis .

Learning of this, too, Apries armed his guard and marched against the Egyptians ; he had a bodyguard of Carians and Ionians , thirty thousand
 of them, and his royal palace was in the city of Saïs , a great and marvellous palace.

Apries ' men marched against the Egyptians , and so did Amasis ' men
 against the foreigners. So they both came to Momemphis and were going to make trial of one another.

The Egyptians are divided
 into seven classes: priests, warriors, cowherds, swineherds, merchants,
 interpreters, and pilots. There are this many classes, each named after its
 occupation.

The warriors are divided into Kalasiries and
 Hermotubies , and they belong to the following
 districts (for all divisions in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 are made according to districts).

The Hermotubies are from
 the districts of Busiris , Saïs , +Akhmim
 [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Khemmis 
 , and Papremis , the island called Prosopitis , and half of Natho —from all of these; their number, at its greatest, attained
 to a hundred and sixty thousand. None of these has learned any common trade;
 they are free to follow the profession of arms alone.

The Kalasiries are from
 the districts of Thebes
 [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Thebes 
 , +Tall Bastah
 [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 , Aphthis , +San al-Hajar al-Qibliyah [31.866,30.966] (deserted
 settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Tanis 
 , Mendes , Sebennys , +Wannina
 (inhabited place), Al Qalyubiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Athribis 
 , Pharbaïthis , Thmuis , Onuphis , Anytis , Myecphoris (this last is in an
 island opposite the city of +Tall
 Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Bubastis 
 )—

from all of these; their number, at its greatest, attained to two hundred
 and fifty thousand men. These too may practise no trade but war, which is
 their hereditary calling.

Now whether this, too, the Greeks have learned from the Egyptians , I cannot confidently judge. I know that in Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe 
 Thrace 
 and Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Scythia 
 and Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 and Lydia [27.516,38.683]
 (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Lydia 
 and nearly all foreign countries, those who learn trades are held in
 less esteem than the rest of the people, and those who have least to do with
 artisans' work, especially men who are free to practise the art of war, are
 highly honored.

This much is certain: that this opinion, which is held by all Greeks and particularly by the Lacedaemonians , is of foreign origin. It is in Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 that artisans are held in least contempt.

The warriors were the only Egyptians , except the priests, who had special privileges: for
 each of them an untaxed plot of twelve acres was set apart. This acre is a
 square of a hundred Egyptian cubits each way, the
 Egyptian cubit being equal to the Samian .

These lands were set apart for all; it was never the same men who cultivated
 them, but each in turn. A
 thousand Kalasiries and as many Hermotubies were the king's annual bodyguard. These
 men, besides their lands, each received a daily provision of five minae's
 weight of roast grain, two minae of beef, and four cups of wine. These were
 the gifts received by each bodyguard.

When Apries with his guards
 and Amasis with the whole force of Egyptians came to the town of Momemphis , they engaged; and though the foreigners fought well,
 they were vastly outnumbered, and therefore were beaten.

Apries , they say, supposed that not even a god
 could depose him from his throne, so firmly did he think he was established;
 and now, defeated in battle and taken captive, he was brought to Saïs , to the royal dwelling which belonged to him
 once but now belonged to Amasis .

There, he was kept alive for a while in the palace and well treated by Amasis . But presently the Egyptians complained that there was no justice in keeping alive
 one who was their own and their king's bitterest enemy; whereupon Amasis gave Apries up to
 them, and they strangled him and then buried him in the burial-place of his
 fathers.

This is in the temple of Athena , very near to the
 sanctuary, on the left of the entrance. The people of Saïs buried within the temple precinct all kings who were natives
 of their district.

The tomb of Amasis is farther from the sanctuary
 than the tomb of Apries and his ancestors; yet it,
 too, is within the temple court; it is a great colonnade of stone, richly
 adorned, the pillars made in the form of palm trees. In this colonnade are
 two portals, and the place where the coffin lies is within their doors.

There is also at Saïs the
 burial-place of one whose name I think it impious to mention in speaking of
 such a matter; it is in the temple of Athena ,
 behind and close to the length of the wall of the shrine.

Moreover, great stone obelisks stand in the precinct; and there is a lake
 nearby, adorned with a stone margin and made in a complete circle; it is, as
 it seemed to me, the size of the lake at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) 
 Delos 
 which they call the Round Pond .

On this lake they enact by night the story of the
 god's sufferings, a rite which the Egyptians call
 the Mysteries. I could say more about this, for I know the truth, but let me
 preserve a discreet silence.

Let me preserve a discreet silence, too, concerning that rite of Demeter which the Greeks 
 call Thesmophoria 
 , except as much of it as I
 am not forbidden to mention.

The daughters of Danaus were those who brought this
 rite out of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and taught it to the Pelasgian women;
 afterwards, when the people of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnese 
 were driven out by the Dorians , it was
 lost, except in so far as it was preserved by the Arcadians , the Peloponnesian people
 which was not driven out but left in its home.

After Apries was deposed,
 Amasis became king; he was from a town called
 Siuph in the district of Saïs .

Now at first he was scorned and held in low regard by the Egyptians on the ground that he was a common man and
 of no high family; but presently he won them over by being shrewd and not
 arrogant.

He had among his countless treasures a golden washbowl, in which he and all
 those who ate with him were accustomed to clean their feet. This he broke in
 pieces and out of it made a god's image, which he set in a most conspicuous
 spot in the city; and the Egyptians came
 frequently to this image and held it in great reverence.

When Amasis learned what the townsfolk were doing,
 he called the Egyptians together and told them
 that the image had been made out of the washbowl, in which Egyptians had once vomited and urinated and cleaned
 their feet, but which now they greatly revered.

“Now then,” he said, “I have fared like the washbowl, since if before I was
 a common man, still, I am your king now.” And he told them to honor and show
 respect for him.

The following was how he scheduled his affairs: in
 the morning, until the the hour when the marketplace filled, he readily
 conducted whatever business was brought to him; the rest of the day, he
 drank and joked at the expense of his companions and was idle and playful.

But this displeased his friends, who admonished him thus: “O King, you do
 not conduct yourself well by indulging too much in vulgarity. You, a
 celebrated man, ought to conduct your business throughout the day, sitting
 on a celebrated throne; and thus the Egyptians 
 would know that they are governed by a great man, and you would be better
 spoken of; as it is, what you do is by no means kingly.”

But he answered them like this: “Men that have bows string them when they
 must use them, and unstring them when they have used them; were bows kept
 strung forever, they would break, and so could not be used when needed.

Such, too, is the nature of man. Were one to be always at serious work and
 not permit oneself a bit of relaxation, he would go mad or idiotic before he
 knew it; I am well aware of that, and give each of the two its turn.” Such
 was his answer to his friends.

It is said that even when Amasis was a private man he was fond of drinking and joking and
 was not at all a sober man; and that when his drinking and pleasure-seeking
 cost him the bare necessities, he would go around stealing. Then when he
 contradicted those who said that he had their possessions, they would bring
 him to whatever place of divination was nearby, and sometimes the oracles
 declared him guilty and sometimes they acquitted him.

When he became king, he did not take care of the shrines of the gods who had
 acquitted him of theft, or give them anything for maintenance, or make it
 his practice to sacrifice there, for he knew them to be worthless and their
 oracles false; but he took scrupulous care of the gods who had declared his
 guilt, considering them to be gods in very deed and their oracles
 infallible.

Amasis made a marvellous outer court for the temple
 of Athena 
 at Saïs , far surpassing all in its height and size, and in the size
 and quality of the stone blocks; moreover, he set up huge images and vast
 man-headed sphinxes, and brought enormous blocks of stone besides for the
 building.

Some of these he brought from the stone quarries of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper
 Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; the largest came from the city of Elephantine , twenty days' journey
 distant by river from Saïs .

But what I admire most of his works is this: he brought from Elephantine a shrine made of one single block of
 stone; its transport took three years and two thousand men had the carriage
 of it, all of them pilots. This chamber is thirty-five feet long,
 twenty-three feet wide, thirteen feet high.

These are the external dimensions of the chamber which is made of one block;
 its internal dimensions are: thirty-one feet long, twenty feet wide, eight
 feet high. It stands at the entrance of the temple;

it was not dragged within (so they say) because while it was being drawn
 the chief builder complained aloud of the great expense of time and his
 loathing of the work, and Amasis taking this to
 heart would not let it be drawn further. Some also say that a man, one of
 those who heaved up the shrine, was crushed by it, and therefore it was not
 dragged within.

Furthermore, Amasis 
 dedicated, besides monuments of marvellous size in all the other temples of
 note, the huge image that lies supine before Hephaestus ' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; this image is seventy-five feet in length; there stand on the same
 base, on either side of the great image, two huge statues hewn from the same
 block, each of them twenty feet high.

There is at Saïs another stone figure of like
 size, supine as is the figure at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 . It was Amasis , too, who built the great
 and most marvellous temple of Isis at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 .

It is said that in the reign of Amasis 
 
 Egypt 
 attained to its greatest prosperity, in respect of what the river
 did for the land and the land for its people: and that the number of
 inhabited cities in the country was twenty thousand.

It was Amasis also who made the law that every
 Egyptian declare his means of livelihood to
 the ruler of his district annually, and that omitting to do so or to prove
 that one had a legitimate livelihood be punishable with death. Solon the Athenian got this
 law from Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 and established it among his people; may they always have it, for it
 is a perfect law.

Amasis became a philhellene, and besides other
 services which he did for some of the Greeks , he
 gave those who came to Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 the city of Kawm Juayf
 [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Naucratis 
 to live in; and to those who travelled to the country without
 wanting to settle there, he gave lands where they might set up altars and
 make holy places for their gods.

Of these the greatest and most famous and most visited precinct is that
 which is called the Hellenion , founded jointly by
 the Ionian cities of +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios,
 Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Chios 
 , +Teos [26.8,38.1667]
 (Perseus) 
 Teos 
 , +Foca [26.75,38.666]
 (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Phocaea 
 , and Klazomenai
 [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) 
 Clazomenae 
 , the Dorian cities of +Rhodes [28.216,36.433] (inhabited
 place), Rhodes, Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Rhodes 
 , +Cnidus Nova
 [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Cnidus 
 , Bodrum [27.466,37.5]
 (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 , and Phaselis, and one Aeolian city,
 Mytilene [26.55,39.1]
 (Perseus) 
 Mytilene 
 .

It is to these that the precinct belongs, and these are the cities that
 furnish overseers of the trading port; if any other cities advance claims,
 they claim what does not belong to them. The Aeginetans made a precinct of their own, sacred to Zeus ; and so did the Samians for Hera and the Milesians for Apollo .

Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9]
 (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Naucratis 
 was in the past the only trading port in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Whoever came to any other mouth of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 had to swear that he had not come intentionally, and had then to
 take his ship and sail to the Canobic mouth ; or if
 he could not sail against contrary winds, he had to carry his cargo in
 barges around the Delta until he came to Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al
 Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Naucratis 
 . In such esteem was Kawm
 Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Naucratis 
 held.

When the Amphictyons paid
 three hundred talents to have the temple that now stands at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 finished (as that which was formerly there burnt down by accident),
 it was the Delphians ' lot to pay a fourth of the
 cost.

They went about from city to city collecting gifts, and got most from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; for Amasis gave them a thousand talents'
 weight of astringent earth, and the Greek settlers in
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 twenty minae.

Amasis made friends and allies of the people of
 Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 . And he decided to marry from there, either because he had his heart
 set on a Greek wife, or for the sake of the Corcyreans ' friendship;

in any case, he married a certain Ladice , said by
 some to be the daughter of Battus , of Arcesilaus by others, and by others again of Critobulus , an esteemed citizen of the place. But
 whenever Amasis lay with her, he became unable to
 have intercourse, though he managed with every other woman;

and when this happened repeatedly, Amasis said to
 the woman called Ladice , “Woman, you have cast a
 spell on me, and there is no way that you shall avoid perishing the most
 wretchedly of all women.”

So Ladice , when the king did not relent at all
 although she denied it, vowed in her heart to Aphrodite that, if Amasis could have
 intercourse with her that night, since that would remedy the problem, she
 would send a statue to Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa 
 Cyrene 
 to her. And after the prayer, immediately, Amasis did have intercourse with her. And whenever Amasis came to her thereafter, he had intercourse, and
 he was very fond of her after this.

Ladice paid her vow to the goddess; she had an
 image made and sent it to Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa 
 Cyrene 
 , where it stood safe until my time, facing outside the city. Cambyses , when he had conquered Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and learned who Ladice was, sent her away
 to Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 unharmed.

Moreover, Amasis dedicated
 offerings in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 . He gave to Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa 
 Cyrene 
 a gilt image of Athena and a painted
 picture of himself; to Athena of Lindos [28.1083,36.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Lindus 
 , two stone images and a marvellous linen breast-plate; and to Hera in Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , two wooden statues of himself that were still standing in my time
 behind the doors in the great shrine.

The offerings in Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 were dedicated because of the friendship between Amasis and Polycrates , son of Aeaces ; what he
 gave to Lindos
 [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) 
 Lindus 
 was not out of friendship for anyone, but because the temple of
 Athena in Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) 
 Lindus 
 is said to have been founded by the daughters of Danaus , when they landed there in their flight from the sons of
 Egyptus . Such were Amasis ' offerings. Moreover, he was the first conqueror of Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia 
 Cyprus 
 , which he made tributary to himself.

Cyrus ' son Cambyses was
 leading an army of his subjects, Ionian and Aeolian Greeks among them, 
 against this Amasis for the following reason. Cambyses had sent a herald to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 asking Amasis for his daughter; he asked on
 the advice of an Egyptian , who advised it out of
 resentment against Amasis , that out of all the
 Egyptian physicians Amasis had dragged him away from his wife and children and sent
 him up to Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 when Cyrus sent to Amasis asking for the best eye-doctor in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Out of resentment, the Egyptian by his advice
 induced Cambyses to ask Amasis for his daughter, so that Amasis 
 would either be wretched if he gave her, or hated by Cambyses if he did not. Amasis ,
 intimidated by the power of Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 and frightened, could neither give his daughter nor refuse her; for
 he knew well that Cambyses was not going to take
 her as his wife but as his concubine.

After considering the matter, he did as follows. There was a daughter of the
 former king Apries , all that was left of that
 family, quite tall and pretty, and her name was Nitetis ; this girl Amasis adorned with
 clothes and gold and sent to Cambyses as his own
 daughter.

But after a time, as he embraced her addressing her as the daughter of Amasis , the girl said to him, “O King, you do not
 understand how you have been made a fool of by Amasis , who dressed me in finery and sent me to you as his own
 daughter, when I am in fact the daughter of Apries ,
 the ruler Amasis revolted from with the Egyptians and killed.”

This speech and this crime that occurred turned Cyrus ' son Cambyses , furiously angry,
 against Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 . So the Persians say.

But the Egyptians , who
 say that Cambyses was the son of this daughter of
 Apries , claim him as one of theirs; they say
 that it was Cyrus who asked Amasis for his daughter, and not Cambyses .

But what they say is false. They are certainly not unaware (for if any
 understand the customs of the Persians the Egyptians do) firstly, that it is not their custom
 for illegitimate offspring to rule when there are legitimate offspring; and
 secondly, that Cambyses was the son of Cassandane , the daughter of Pharnaspes , who was an Achaemenid , and
 not of the Egyptian woman. But they falsify the
 story, pretending to be related to the house of Cyrus . That is the truth of the matter.

The following story, incredible to me, is also told:
 that one of the Persian women who came to visit
 Cyrus ' wives, and saw the tall and attractive
 children who stood by Cassandane , expressed her
 admiration in extravagant terms. Then Cassandane ,
 Cyrus ' wife, said,

“Although I am the mother of such children, Cyrus 
 dishonors me and honors his new woman from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .” So she spoke in her bitterness against Nitetis ; and Cambyses , the eldest of her
 sons, said,

“Then, mother, when I am grown up, I will turn all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 upside down.” When he said this, he was about ten years old, and the
 women were amazed; but he kept it in mind, and it was thus that when he grew
 up and became king, he made the campaign against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

It so happened, too, that something else occurred
 contributing to this campaign. There was among Amasis ' mercenaries a man who was a Halicarnassian by birth, a clever man and a good soldier, whose
 name was Phanes .

This Phanes had some grudge against Amasis , and fled from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 aboard ship, hoping to talk to Cambyses .
 Since he was a man much admired among the mercenaries and had an exact
 knowledge of all Egyptian matters, Amasis was anxious to catch him, and sent a trireme
 with his most trusted eunuch to pursue him. This eunuch caught him in +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia 
 Lycia 
 but never brought him back to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , for Phanes was too clever for him.

He made his guards drunk and so escaped to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 . There he found Cambyses prepared to set
 out against Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , but in doubt as to his march, how he should cross the waterless
 desert; so Phanes showed him what was Amasis ' condition and how he should march; as to this,
 he advised Cambyses to send and ask the king of the
 Arabians for a safe passage.

Now the only apparent way of entry into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 is this. The road runs from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 as far as the borders of the city of Cadytis , which belongs to the so-called Syrians of +Palestine
 [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia 
 Palestine 
 .

From Cadytis (which, as I judge, is a city not
 much smaller than Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 ) to the city of Ienysus the seaports
 belong to the Arabians ; then they are Syrian again from Ienysus 
 as far as the Serbonian marsh, beside which the
 Casian promontory stretches seawards;

from this Serbonian marsh, where Typho is supposed to have been hidden, the country is Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Now between Ienysus and the Casian mountain and the Serbonian marsh there lies a wide territory for as much as three
 days' journey, terribly arid.

I am going to mention something now which few of
 those who sail to Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 know. Earthen jars full of wine are brought into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 twice a year from all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 and +Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 besides: yet one might safely say there is not a single empty wine
 jar anywhere in the country.

What then (one may ask) becomes of them? I shall explain this too. Each
 governor of a district must gather in all the earthen pots from his own
 township and take them to Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 , and the people of Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 must fill them with water and carry them to those arid lands of
 +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 ; so the earthen pottery that is brought to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and unloaded or emptied there is carried to +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 to join the stock that has already been taken there.

Now as soon as the Persians took possession of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , they became the caretakers of the entryway into it, having it
 provisioned with water in the way I have described.

But at this time there was as yet no ready supply of water; and so Cambyses , hearing what was said by the stranger from
 Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited
 place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Halicarnassus 
 , sent messengers to the Arabian and asked
 and obtained safe conduct, giving to him and receiving from him pledges.

There are no men who respect pledges more than the
 Arabians . This is how they give them: a man
 stands between the two pledging parties, and with a sharp stone cuts the
 palms of their hands, near the thumb; then he takes a piece of wood from the
 cloak of each and smears with their blood seven stones that lie between
 them, meanwhile calling on Dionysus and the
 Heavenly Aphrodite ;

after this is done, the one who has given his pledge commends the stranger
 (or his countryman if the other be one) to his friends, and his friends hold
 themselves bound to honor the pledge.

They believe in no other gods except Dionysus and
 the Heavenly Aphrodite ; and they say that they wear
 their hair as Dionysus does his, cutting it round
 the head and shaving the temples. They call Dionysus , Orotalt ; and Aphrodite , Alilat .

When, then, the Arabian 
 had made the pledge to the messengers who had come from Cambyses , he devised the following expedient: he filled
 camel-skins with water and loaded all his camels with these; then he drove
 them into the waterless land and there awaited Cambyses ' army.

This is the most credible of the stories told; but I must relate the less
 credible tale also, since they tell it. There is a great river in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 called Corys , emptying into the sea called
 Red.

From this river (it is said) the king of the Arabians brought water by an aqueduct made of sewn oxhides and
 other hides and extensive enough to reach to the dry country; and he had
 great tanks dug in that country to try to receive and keep the water.

It is a twelve days' journey from the river to that desert. By three
 aqueducts (they say) he brought the water to three different places.

Psammenitus , son of Amasis , was encamped by the mouth of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa 
 Nile 
 called Pelusian , awaiting Cambyses .

For when Cambyses marched against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , he found Amasis no longer alive; he had
 died after reigning forty-four years, during which he had suffered no great
 misfortune; and being dead he was embalmed and laid in the burial-place
 built for him in the temple.

While his son Psammenitus was king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the people saw an extraordinary thing, namely, rain at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 of Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa 
 Egypt 
 , where, as the Thebans themselves say,
 there had never been rain before, nor since to my lifetime; for indeed there
 is no rain at all in the upper parts of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; but at that time a drizzle of rain fell at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 .

When the Persians had
 crossed the waterless country and encamped near the Egyptians intending to engage them, the Egyptian mercenaries, Greeks and Carians , devised a plan to punish Phanes , angered at him for leading a foreign army into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Phanes had left sons in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; these they brought to the camp, into their father's sight, and set
 a great bowl between the two armies; then they brought the sons one by one
 and cut their throats over the bowl.

When all the sons had been slaughtered, they poured wine and water into the
 bowl, and the mercenaries drank this and then gave battle. The fighting was
 fierce, and many of both armies fell; but at last the Egyptians were routed.

I saw a strange thing on the site of the battle, of
 which the people of the country had told me. The bones of those killed on
 either side in this fight lying scattered separately (for the Persian bones lay in one place and the Egyptian in another, where the armies had first
 separately stood), the skulls of the Persians are
 so brittle that if you throw no more than a pebble it will pierce them, but
 the Egyptian skulls are so strong that a blow of
 a stone will hardly crack them.

And this, the people said (which for my own part I readily believed), is the
 explanation of it: the Egyptians shave their
 heads from childhood, and the bone thickens by exposure to the sun.

This also is the reason why they do not grow bald; for nowhere can one see
 so few bald heads as in Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

Their skulls then are strong for this reason; while the Persian skulls are weak because they cover their heads throughout
 their lives with the felt hats (called tiaras) which they wear. Such is the
 truth of the matter. I saw too the skulls of those Persians at Papremis who were killed
 with Darius ' son Achaemenes by Inaros the Libyan , and they were like the others.

After their rout in the battle the Egyptians fled in disorder; and when they had been
 overtaken in Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 , Cambyses sent a Persian herald up the river aboard a Mytilenean boat to invite the Egyptians to an accord.

But when they saw the boat coming to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , they sallied out all together from their walls, destroyed the boat,
 dismembered the crew (like butchers) and carried them within the walls.

So the Egyptians were besieged, and after a long
 while surrendered; but the neighboring Libyans ,
 frightened by what had happened in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , surrendered without a fight, laying tribute on themselves and
 sending gifts; and so too did the people of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 and +Al Marj
 [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Barca 
 , frightened like the Libyans .

Cambyses received in all kindness the gifts of the
 Libyans ; but he seized what came from Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 and, displeased, I think, because it was so little—for the Cyrenaeans had sent five hundred silver minae—cast
 it with his own hands among his army.

On the tenth day after the surrender of the walled
 city of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , Cambyses took Psammenitus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , who had reigned for six months, and confined him in the outer part
 of the city with other Egyptians , to insult him;
 having confined him there, he tried Psammenitus '
 spirit, as I shall show.

He dressed the daughter of the king as a slave and sent her out with a
 pitcher to fetch water, together with other girls from the families of the
 leading men, dressed like the daughter of the king.

So when the girls went out before their fathers' eyes crying and lamenting,
 all the rest answered with cries and weeping, seeing their children abused;
 but Psammenitus , having seen with his own eyes and
 learned all, bowed himself to the ground.

After the water-carriers had passed by, Cambyses 
 next made Psammenitus ' son go out before him with
 two thousand Egyptians of the same age, all with
 ropes bound round their necks and bridle-bits in their mouths;

they were led out to be punished for those Mytileneans who had perished with their boat at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; for such was the judgment of the royal judges, that every man's
 death be paid for by the deaths of ten noble Egyptians .

When Psammenitus saw them passing and perceived
 that his son was being led out to die, and all the Egyptians who sat with him wept and showed their affliction, he
 did as he had done at the sight of his daughter.

After these too had gone out, it happened that there was one of his
 companions, a man past his prime, who had lost all his possessions, and had
 only what a poor man might have, and begged of the army; this man now went
 out before Psammenitus son of Amasis and the Egyptians confined in
 the outer part of the city. When Psammenitus saw
 him, he broke into loud weeping, striking his head and calling on his
 companion by name.

Now there were men set to watch Psammenitus , who
 told Cambyses all that he did as each went forth.
 Wondering at what the king did, Cambyses made this
 inquiry of him by a messenger:

“ Psammenitus , Lord
 Cambyses wants to know why, seeing your daughter abused and your
 son going to his death, you did not cry out or weep, yet you showed such
 feeling for the beggar, who (as Cambyses learns
 from others) is not one of your kindred?” So the messenger inquired. Psammenitus answered:

“Son of Cyrus , my private grief was too great for
 weeping; but the unhappiness of my companion deserves tears—a man fallen
 from abundance and prosperity to beggary come to the threshold of old age.”
 When the messenger reported this, Cambyses and his
 court, it is said, thought the answer good.

And, the Egyptians say, Croesus wept (for it happened that he too had come with Cambyses to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ) and the Persians that were there wept;
 Cambyses himself felt some pity, and he ordered
 that Psammenitus ' son be spared from those that
 were to be executed, and that Psammenitus himself
 be brought in from the outer part of the city and brought before him.

Those that went for him found that the son was no
 longer alive, but had been the first to be slaughtered; but they brought
 Psammenitus up and led him to Cambyses ; and there he lived, and no violence was done him for
 the rest of his life.

And if he had known how to mind his own business, he would have regained
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to govern; for the Persians are inclined
 to honor kings' sons; even though kings revolt from them, they give back to
 their sons the sovereign power.

There are many instances showing that it is their custom so to do, and
 notably the giving back of his father's sovereign power to Thannyras son of Inaros , and also to
 Pausiris son of Amyrtaeus ; yet none ever did the Persians more harm than Inaros and Amyrtaeus .

But as it was, Psammenitus plotted evil and got his
 reward; for he was caught raising a revolt among the Egyptians ; and when Cambyses heard of
 it, Psammenitus drank bull's blood and died. Such was his end.

From Mit
 Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 
 Cambyses went to the city Sais, anxious to do
 exactly what he did do. Entering the house of Amasis , he had the body of Amasis 
 carried outside from its place of burial; and when this had been done, he
 gave orders to scourge it and pull out the hair and pierce it with goads,
 and to desecrate it in every way.

When they were weary of doing this (for the body, being embalmed, remained
 whole and did not fall to pieces), Cambyses gave
 orders to burn it, a sacrilegious command; for the Persians hold fire to be a god;

therefore neither nation thinks it right to burn the dead, the Persians for the reason given, as they say it is
 wrong to give the dead body of a man to a god; while the Egyptians believe fire to be a living beast that devours all that
 it catches, and when sated with its meal dies together with that on which it
 feeds.

Now it is by no means their custom to give the dead to beasts; and this is
 why they embalm the corpse, that it may not lie and feed worms. Thus what
 Cambyses commanded was contrary to the custom of
 both peoples.

The Egyptians say, however, that it was not Amasis to whom this was done, but another Egyptian of the same age as Amasis , whom the Persians abused
 thinking that they were abusing Amasis .

For their story is that Amasis learned from an
 oracle what was to be done to him after his death, and so to escape this
 fate buried this dead man, the one that was scourged, near the door inside
 his own vault, and ordered his son that he himself should be laid in the
 farthest corner of the vault.

I think that these commands of Amasis , regarding
 the burial-place and the man, were never given at all, and that the Egyptians believe in them in vain.

After this Cambyses planned
 three expeditions, against the Carchedonians , against the Ammonians , and against the “long-lived” 
 Ethiopians , who inhabit that part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 that is on the southern sea.

He decided after consideration to send his fleet against the Carthaginians and a part of his land army against
 the Ammonians ; to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 he would first send spies, to see what truth there was in the story
 of a Table of the Sun in that country, and to spy out all else besides,
 under the pretext of bringing gifts for the Ethiopian king.

Now the Table of the Sun is said to be something of
 this kind: there is a meadow outside the
 city, filled with the boiled flesh of all four-footed things; here during
 the night the men of authority among the townsmen are careful to set out the
 meat, and all day whoever wishes comes and feasts on it. These meats, say
 the people of the country, are ever produced by the earth of itself. Such is
 the story of the Sun's Table.

When Cambyses determined to
 send the spies, he sent for those Fish-eaters 
 from the city of Elephantine who understood the
 Ethiopian language.

While they were fetching them, he ordered his fleet to sail against +Carthage [10.3333,36.8667]
 (Perseus) 
 Carthage 
 . But the Phoenicians said they would not
 do it; for they were bound, they said, by strong oaths, and if they sailed
 against their own progeny they would be doing an impious thing; and the
 Phoenicians being unwilling, the rest were
 inadequate fighters.

Thus the Carthaginians escaped being enslaved by
 the Persians ; for Cambyses would not use force with the Phoenicians , seeing that they had willingly surrendered to the
 Persians , and the whole fleet drew its
 strength from them. The Cyprians too had come of
 their own accord to aid the Persians against
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 .

When the Fish-eaters 
 arrived from Elephantine at Cambyses ' summons, he sent them to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 , with orders what to say, and bearing as gifts a red cloak and a
 twisted gold necklace and bracelets and an alabaster box of incense and an
 earthenware jar of palm wine. These Ethiopians ,
 to whom Cambyses sent them, are said to be the
 tallest and most handsome of all men.

Their way of choosing kings is different from that of all others, as (it is
 said) are all their laws; they consider that man worthy to be their king
 whom they judge to be tallest and to have strength proportional to his
 stature.

When the Fish-eaters 
 arrived among these men, they gave the gifts to their king and said: “ Cambyses , the king of the Persians , wishing to become your friend and ally, sent us with
 orders to address ourselves to you; and he offers you as gifts these things
 which he enjoys using himself.”

But the Ethiopian , perceiving that they had come as
 spies, spoke thus to them: “It is not because he values my friendship that
 the Persian King sends you with gifts, nor do you
 speak the truth (for you have come to spy on my realm), nor is that man
 just; for were he just, he would not have coveted a land other than his own,
 nor would he try to lead into slavery men by whom he has not been injured.
 Now, give him this bow, and this message:

‘The King of the Ethiopians advises the King of
 the Persians to bring overwhelming odds to attack
 the long-lived Ethiopians when the Persians can draw a bow of this length as easily as
 I do; but until then, to thank the gods who do not incite the sons of the
 Ethiopians to add other land to their own.’”

So speaking he unstrung the bow and gave it to the
 men who had come. Then, taking the red cloak, he asked what it was and how
 it was made; and when the Fish-eaters told him
 the truth about the color and the process of dyeing, he said that both the
 men and their garments were full of deceit.

Next he inquired about the twisted gold necklace and the bracelets; and when
 the Fish-eaters told him how they were made, the
 king smiled, and, thinking them to be fetters, said: “We have stronger
 chains than these.”

Thirdly he inquired about the incense; and when they described making and
 applying it, he made the same reply as about the cloak. But when he came to
 the wine and asked about its making, he was vastly pleased with the drink,
 and asked further what food their king ate, and what was the greatest age to
 which a Persian lived.

They told him their king ate bread, showing him how wheat grew; and said
 that the full age to which a man might hope to live was eighty years. Then,
 said the Ethiopian , it was no wonder that they
 lived so few years, if they ate dung; they would not even have been
 able to live that many unless they were refreshed by the drink—signifying to
 the Fish-eaters the wine—for in this, he said,
 the Persians excelled the Ethiopians .

The Fish-eaters then in
 turn asking of the Ethiopian length of life and
 diet, he said that most of them attained to a hundred and twenty years, and
 some even to more; their food was boiled meat and their drink milk.

The spies showed wonder at the tale of years; whereupon he led them, it is
 said, to a spring, by washing in which they grew sleeker, as though it were
 of oil; and it smelled of violets.

So light, the spies said, was this water, that nothing would float on it,
 neither wood nor anything lighter than wood, but all sank to the bottom. If
 this water is truly such as they say, it is likely that their constant use
 of it makes the people long-lived.

When they left the spring, the king led them to a prison where all the men
 were bound with fetters of gold. Among these Ethiopians there is nothing so scarce and so precious as bronze.
 Then, having seen the prison, they saw what is called the Table of the Sun.

Last after this they viewed the Ethiopian coffins;
 these are said to be made of alabaster, as I shall describe:

they cause the dead body to shrink, either as the Egyptians do or in some other way, then cover it with gypsum and
 paint it all as far as possible in the likeness of the living man;

then they set it within a hollow pillar of alabaster, which they dig in
 abundance from the ground, and it is easily worked; the body can be seen in
 the pillar through the alabaster, no evil stench nor anything unpleasant
 proceeding from it, and showing clearly all its parts, as if it were the man
 himself.

The nearest of kin keep the pillar in their house for a year, giving it of
 the first-fruits and offering it sacrifices; after which they bring the
 pillars out and set them round about the city.

Having seen everything, the spies departed again.
 When they reported all this, Cambyses was angry,
 and marched at once against the Ethiopians ,
 neither giving directions for any provision of food nor considering that he
 was about to lead his army to the ends of the earth;

being not in his right mind but mad, however, he marched at once on hearing
 from the Fish-eaters , ordering the Greeks who were with him to await him where they
 were, and taking with him all his land army.

When he came in his march to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 , he detached about fifty thousand men from his army, and directed
 them to enslave the Ammonians and burn the oracle
 of Zeus ; and he himself went on towards Ethiopia [39,8] (nation),
 Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 with the rest of his host.

But before his army had accomplished the fifth part of their journey they
 had come to an end of all there was in the way of provision, and after the
 food was gone, they ate the beasts of burden until there was none of these
 left either.

Now had Cambyses , when he perceived this, changed
 his mind and led his army back again, he would have been a wise man at last
 after his first fault; but as it was, he went ever forward, taking account
 of nothing.

While his soldiers could get anything from the earth, they kept themselves
 alive by eating grass; but when they came to the sandy desert, some did a
 terrible thing, taking by lot one man out of ten and eating him.

Hearing this, Cambyses feared their becoming
 cannibals, and so gave up his expedition against the Ethiopians and marched back to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 , with the loss of many of his army; from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 he came down to Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 , and sent the Greeks to sail away.

So fared the expedition against Ethiopia [39,8] (nation),
 Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 . As for those who were sent to march against the Ammonians , they set out and journeyed from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted
 settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 with guides; and it is known that they came to the city of
 Oasis, inhabited by Samians said to be of the Aeschrionian 
 tribe, seven days' march from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Thebes 
 across sandy desert; this place is called, in the Greek language, Islands of the
 Blest .

Thus far, it is said, the army came; after that, except for the Ammonians themselves and those who heard from them,
 no man can say anything of them; for they neither reached the Ammonians nor returned back.

But this is what the Ammonians themselves say:
 when the Persians were crossing the sand from
 Oasis to attack them, and were about midway between their country and Oasis,
 while they were breakfasting a great and violent south wind arose, which
 buried them in the masses of sand which it bore; and so they disappeared
 from sight. Such is the Ammonian tale about this
 army.

When Cambyses was back at
 Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , there appeared in Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 that Apis 
 whom the Greeks call Epaphus ; at whose epiphany the Egyptians put on their best clothing and held a festival.

Seeing the Egyptians so doing, Cambyses was fully persuaded that these signs of joy were for his
 misfortunes, and summoned the rulers of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 ; when they came before him, he asked them why the Egyptians behaved so at the moment he returned with
 so many of his army lost, though they had done nothing like it when he was
 before at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85]
 (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 .

The rulers told him that a god, wont to appear after long intervals of time,
 had now appeared to them; and that all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 rejoiced and made holiday whenever he so appeared. At this Cambyses said that they lied, and he punished them
 with death for their lie.

Having put them to death, he next summoned the
 priests before him. When they gave him the same account, he said that if a
 tame god had come to the Egyptians he would know
 it; and with no more words he bade the priests bring Apis . So they went to fetch and bring him.

This Apis , or Epaphus , is
 a calf born of a cow that can never conceive again. By what the Egyptians say, the cow is made pregnant by a light
 from heaven, and thereafter gives birth to Apis .

The marks of this calf called Apis are these: he is
 black, and has on his forehead a three-cornered white spot, and the likeness
 of an eagle on his back; the hairs of the tail are double, and there is a
 knot under the tongue.

When the priests led Apis 
 in, Cambyses —for he was all but mad—drew his dagger
 and, meaning to stab the calf in the belly, stuck the thigh; then laughing
 he said to the priests:

“Simpletons, are these your gods, creatures of flesh and blood that can
 feel weapons of iron? That is a god worthy of the Egyptians . But for you, you shall suffer for making me your
 laughing-stock.” So saying he bade those, whose business it was, to scourge
 the priests well, and to kill any other Egyptian 
 whom they found holiday-making.

So the Egyptian festival ended, and the priests
 were punished, and Apis lay in the temple and died
 of the wound in the thigh. When he was dead of the wound, the priests buried
 him without Cambyses ' knowledge.

But Cambyses , the Egyptians say, owing to this wrongful act
 immediately went mad, although even before he had not been sensible. His
 first evil act was to destroy his full brother Smerdis , whom he had sent away from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 to Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 out of jealousy, because Smerdis alone
 could draw the bow brought from the Ethiopian by
 the Fish-eaters as far as two fingerbreadths, but
 no other Persian could draw it.

Smerdis having gone to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , Cambyses saw in a dream a vision, in which
 it seemed to him that a messenger came from Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 and told him that Smerdis sitting on the
 royal throne touched heaven with his head.

Fearing therefore for himself, lest his brother might slay him and so be
 king, he sent Prexaspes , the most trusted of his
 Persians , to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 to kill him. Prexaspes went up to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 and killed Smerdis ; some say that he took
 Smerdis out hunting, others that he brought him
 to the Red Sea and there drowned him.

This, they say, was the first of Cambyses ' evil acts; next, he destroyed his full sister, who had
 come with him to Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and whom he had taken to wife.

He married her in this way (for before this, it had by no means been
 customary for Persians to marry their sisters):
 Cambyses was infatuated with one of his sisters
 and when he wanted to marry her, because his intention was contrary to
 usage, he summoned the royal judges and inquired whether there were any law enjoining
 one, that so desired, to marry his sister.

These royal judges are men chosen out from the Persians to function until they die or are detected in some
 injustice; it is they who decide suits in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 and interpret the laws of the land; all matters are referred to
 them.

These then replied to Cambyses with an answer which
 was both just and prudent, namely, that they could find no law enjoining a
 brother to marry his sister; but that they had found a law permitting the
 King of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 to do whatever he liked.

Thus, although they feared Cambyses they did not
 break the law, and, to save themselves from death for keeping it, they found
 another law abetting one who wished to marry sisters.

So Cambyses married the object of his desire; yet
 not long afterwards he took another sister as well. It was the younger of
 these who had come with him to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , and whom he now killed.

There are two tales of her death, as there are of
 the death of Smerdis . The Greeks say that Cambyses had set a lion
 cub to fight a puppy, and that this woman was watching too; and that as the
 puppy was losing, its brother broke its leash and came to help, and the two
 dogs together got the better of the cub.

Cambyses , they say, was pleased with the sight, but
 the woman wept as she sat by. Cambyses perceiving
 it asked why she wept, and she said that when she saw the puppy help its
 brother she had wept, recalling Smerdis and knowing
 that there would be no avenger for him.

For saying this, according to the Greek story,
 she was killed by Cambyses . But the Egyptian tale is that as the two sat at table the
 woman took a lettuce and plucked off the leaves, then asked her husband
 whether he preferred the look of it with or without leaves. “With the
 leaves,” he said; whereupon she answered:

“Yet you have stripped Cyrus ' house as bare as
 this lettuce.” Angered at this, they say, he sprang upon her, who was great
 with child, and she miscarried and died of the hurt he gave her.

Such were Cambyses ' mad
 acts to his own household, whether they were done because of Apis or grew from some of the many troubles that are
 wont to beset men; for indeed he is said to have been afflicted from his
 birth with that grievous disease which some call “sacred.” It is not unlikely then that
 when his body was grievously afflicted his mind too should be diseased.

I will now relate his mad dealings with the rest of
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 . He said, as they report, to Prexaspes —whom
 he held in particular honor, who brought him all his messages, whose son
 held the very honorable office of Cambyses '
 cup-bearer—thus, I say, he spoke to Prexaspes :

“What manner of man, Prexaspes , do the Persians think me to be, and how do they speak of
 me?” “Sire,” said Prexaspes , “for all else they
 greatly praise you, but they say that you love wine too well.”

So he reported of the Persians . The king angrily
 replied: “If the Persians now say that it is my
 fondness for wine that drives me to frenzy and madness, then it would seem
 that their former saying also was a lie.”

For it is said that before this, while some Persians and Croesus were sitting with
 him, Cambyses asked what manner of man they thought
 him to be in comparison with Cyrus his father; and
 they answered, “ Cambyses was the better man; for he
 had all of Cyrus ' possessions and had won Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and the sea besides.”

So said the Persians ; but Croesus , who was present, and was dissatisfied with their
 judgment, spoke thus to Cambyses : “To me, son of
 Cyrus , you do not seem to be the equal of your
 father; for you have as yet no son such as he left after him in you.” This
 pleased Cambyses , and he praised Croesus ' judgment.

Remembering this, then, he said to Prexaspes in his anger: “Judge then if the Persians speak the truth, or rather are themselves out of their
 minds when they speak of me so.

Yonder stands your son in the porch; now if I shoot and pierce his heart,
 that will prove the Persians to be wrong; if I
 miss, then say that they are right and that I am out of my senses.”

So saying, he strung his bow and hit the boy, and gave orders to open the
 fallen body and examine the wound: and the arrow being found in the heart,
 Cambyses laughed in great glee and said to the
 boy's father:

“It is plain, Prexaspes , that I am in my right
 mind and the Persians mad; now tell me: what man
 in the world did you ever see that shot so true to the mark?” Prexaspes , it is said, replied (for he saw that Cambyses was mad, and he feared for his own life),
 “Master, I think that not even the god himself could shoot so true.”

Thus did Cambyses then; at another time he took
 twelve Persians , equal to the noblest in the
 land, convicted them of some minor offense, and buried them alive up to the
 neck.

For these acts Croesus the
 Lydian thought fit to take him to task, and
 addressed him thus: “Sire, do not sacrifice everything to youth and temper,
 but restrain and control yourself; prudence is a good thing, forethought is
 wise. But you kill men of your own country whom you have convicted of some
 minor offense, and you kill boys.

If you do so often, beware lest the Persians 
 revolt from you. As for me, your father Cyrus 
 earnestly begged me to counsel you and to give you such advice as I think to
 be good.” Croesus gave him this counsel out of
 goodwill; but Cambyses answered:

“It is very well that you should even dare to counsel me; you, who governed
 your own country so well, and gave fine advice to my father—telling him,
 when the Massagetae were willing to cross over
 into our lands, to pass the Araxes and attack
 them; thus you worked your own ruin by misgoverning your country and Cyrus ', who trusted you. But you shall regret it; I
 have long waited for an occasion to deal with you.”

With that Cambyses took his bow to shoot him dead;
 but Croesus leapt up and ran out; and Cambyses , being unable to shoot him, ordered his
 attendants to catch and kill him.

They, knowing Cambyses ' mood, hid Croesus ; intending to reveal him and receive gifts for saving his
 life, if Cambyses should repent and ask for Croesus , but if he should not repent nor wish Croesus back, then to kill the Lydian .

Not long after this Cambyses did wish Croesus back, and the attendants, understanding this,
 told him that Croesus was alive still. Cambyses said that he was glad of it; but that they,
 who had saved Croesus , should not escape with
 impunity, but be killed; and this was done.

Cambyses committed many such mad acts against the
 Persians and his allies; he stayed at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 , and there opened ancient coffins and examined the dead bodies.

Thus too he entered the temple of Hephaestus and
 jeered at the image there. This image of Hephaestus 
 is most like the Phoenician 
 Pataici , 
 which the Phoenicians carry on the prows of their
 triremes. I will describe it for anyone who has not seen these figures: it
 is the likeness of a dwarf.

Also he entered the temple of the Cabeiri , into
 which no one may enter save the priest; the images here he even burnt, with
 bitter mockery. These also are like the images of Hephaestus , and are said to be his sons.

I hold it then in every way proved that Cambyses was quite insane; or he would never have set
 himself to deride religion and custom. For if it were proposed to all
 nations to choose which seemed best of all customs, each, after examination,
 would place its own first; so well is each convinced that its own are by far
 the best.

It is not therefore to be supposed that anyone, except a madman, would turn
 such things to ridicule. I will give this one proof among many from which it
 may be inferred that all men hold this belief about their customs.

When Darius was king, he summoned the Greeks who were with him and asked them for what
 price they would eat their fathers' dead bodies. They answered that there
 was no price for which they would do it.

Then Darius summoned those Indians who are called Callatiae , who
 eat their parents, and asked them (the Greeks 
 being present and understanding through interpreters what was said) what
 would make them willing to burn their fathers at death. The Indians cried aloud, that he should not speak of so
 horrid an act. So firmly rooted are these beliefs; and it is, I think,
 rightly said in Pindar 's poem that custom is lord
 of all.

While Cambyses was attacking Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , the Lacedaemonians too were making war
 upon Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 and upon Aeaces ' son Polycrates , who had revolted and won Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 .

And first, dividing the city into three parts, he gave a share in the
 government to his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson ; but presently he put one of them to death,
 banished the younger, Syloson , and so made himself
 lord of all Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ; then he made a treaty with Amasis king of
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , sending to him and receiving from him gifts.

Very soon after this, Polycrates grew to such power
 that he was famous in Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 and all other Greek lands; for all his
 military affairs succeeded. He had a hundred fifty-oared ships, and a
 thousand archers.

And he pillaged every place, indiscriminately; for he said that he would get
 more thanks if he gave a friend back what he had taken than if he never took
 it at all. He had taken many of the islands, and many of the mainland
 cities. Among others, he conquered the Lesbians ;
 they had brought all their force to aid the Milesians , and Polycrates defeated them
 in a sea-fight; it was they who, being his captives, dug all the trench
 around the acropolis of Samos
 [26.966,37.766] (inhabited place), Nisos Samos, Samos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 .

Now Amasis was somehow
 aware of Polycrates ' great good fortune; and as
 this continued to increase greatly, he wrote this letter and sent it to
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 : “ Amasis addresses Polycrates as follows.

It is pleasant to learn that a friend and ally is doing well. But I do not
 like these great successes of yours; for I know the gods, how jealous they
 are, and I desire somehow that both I and those for whom I care succeed in
 some affairs, fail in others, and thus pass life faring differently by
 turns, rather than succeed at everything.

For from all I have heard I know of no man whom continual good fortune did
 not bring in the end to evil, and utter destruction. Therefore if you will
 be ruled by me do this regarding your successes:

consider what you hold most precious and what you will be sorriest to lose,
 and cast it away so that it shall never again be seen among men; then, if
 after this the successes that come to you are not mixed with mischances,
 strive to mend the matter as I have counselled you.”

Reading this, and perceiving that Amasis ' advice was good, Polycrates 
 considered which of his treasures it would most grieve his soul to lose, and
 came to this conclusion: he wore a seal set in gold, an emerald, crafted by
 Theodorus son of Telecles of +Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ;

being resolved to cast this away, he embarked in a fifty-oared ship with
 its crew, and told them to put out to sea; and when he was far from the
 island, he took off the seal-ring in sight of all that were on the ship and
 cast it into the sea. This done, he sailed back and went to his house, where
 he grieved for the loss.

But on the fifth or sixth day from this it happened
 that a fisherman, who had taken a fine and great fish, and desired to make a
 gift of it to Polycrates , brought it to the door
 and said that he wished to see Polycrates . This
 being granted, he gave the fish, saying:

“O King, when I caught this fish, I thought best not to take it to market,
 although I am a man who lives by his hands, but it seemed to me worthy of
 you and your greatness; and so I bring and offer it to you.” Polycrates was pleased with what the fisherman said;
 “You have done very well,” he answered, “and I give you double thanks, for
 your words and for the gift; and I invite you to dine with me.”

Proud of this honor, the fisherman went home; but the servants, cutting up
 the fish, found in its belly Polycrates ' seal-ring.

As soon as they saw and seized it, they brought it with joy to Polycrates , and giving the ring to him told him how it
 had been found. Polycrates saw the hand of heaven
 in this matter; he wrote a letter and sent it to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , telling all that he had done, and what had happened to him.

When Amasis had read Polycrates ' letter, he perceived that no man could
 save another from his destiny, and that Polycrates ,
 being so continually fortunate that he even found what he cast away, must
 come to an evil end.

So he sent a herald to +Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 to renounce his friendship, determined that when some great and
 terrible mischance overtook Polycrates he himself
 might not have to sadden his heart for a friend.

It was against this ever-victorious Polycrates that the Lacedaemonians now made war, invited by the Samians who afterwards founded +Khania [24.33,35.516] (inhabited place), Canea,
 Crete, Greece, Europe 
 Cydonia 
 in +Crete [25,35.166]
 (region), Greece, Europe 
 Crete 
 . Polycrates had without the knowledge of
 his subjects sent a herald to Cambyses , son of
 Cyrus , then raising an army against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , inviting Cambyses to send to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 too and request men from him.

At this message Cambyses very readily sent to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , asking Polycrates to send a fleet to aid
 him against Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Polycrates chose those men whom he most
 suspected of planning a rebellion against him, and sent them in forty
 triremes, directing Cambyses not to send the men
 back.

Some say that these Samians who were sent never came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , but that when they had sailed as far as +Carpathos [27.166,35.666] (island), Sporades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Carpathus 
 discussed the matter among themselves and decided to sail no
 further; others say that they did come to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and there escaped from the guard that was set over them.

But as they sailed back to +Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , Polycrates ' ships met and engaged them;
 and the returning Samians were victorious and
 landed on the island, but were there beaten in a land battle, and so sailed
 to Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 .

There are those who say that the Samians from
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 defeated Polycrates ; but to my thinking
 this is untrue; for they need not have invited the Lacedaemonians if in fact they had been able to master Polycrates by themselves. Besides, it is not even
 reasonable to suppose that he, who had a great army of hired soldiers and
 bowmen of his own, was beaten by a few men like the returning Samians .

Polycrates took the children and wives of the
 townsmen who were subject to him and shut them up in the boathouses, with
 intent to burn them and the boathouses too if their men should desert to the
 returned Samians .

When the Samians who were
 expelled by Polycrates came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , they came before the ruling men and made a long speech to show the
 greatness of their need. But the Spartans at
 their first sitting answered that they had forgotten the beginning of the
 speech and could not understand its end.

After this the Samians came a second time with a
 sack, and said nothing but this: “The sack wants flour.” To this the Spartans replied that they were over-wordy with “the
 sack”; but they did
 resolve to help them.

The Lacedaemonians then
 equipped and sent an army to 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Samos 
 , returning a favor, as the Samians say,
 because they first sent a fleet to help the Lacedaemonians against 
 +Nomos Messinias [21.833,37.25] (department), Peloponnese, Greece,
 Europe 
 Messenia 
 ; but the Lacedaemonians say that they
 sent this army less to aid the Samians in their
 need than to avenge the robbery of the bowl which they had been carrying to
 Croesus and the breastplate which Amasis King of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 had sent them as a gift.

This breastplate had been stolen by the Samians 
 in the year before they took the bowl; it was of linen, decked with gold and
 cotton embroidery, and embroidered with many figures;

but what makes it worthy of wonder is that each thread of the breastplate,
 fine as each is, is made up of three hundred and sixty strands, each plainly
 seen. It is the exact counterpart of that one which Amasis dedicated to Athena in Lindos [28.1083,36.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Lindus 
 .

The Corinthians also
 enthusiastically helped to further the expedition against Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 . For an outrage had been done them by the Samians a generation before this expedition, about the time of
 the robbery of the bowl.

Periander son of Cypselus 
 sent to Alyattes at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 three hundred boys, sons of notable men in +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu,
 Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 , to be made eunuchs. The Corinthians who
 brought the boys put in at Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ; and when the Samians heard why the boys
 were brought, first they instructed them to take sanctuary in the temple of
 Artemis ,

then they would not allow the suppliants to be dragged from the temple; and
 when the Corinthians tried to starve the boys
 out, the Samians held a festival which they still
 celebrate in the same fashion; throughout the time that the boys were
 seeking asylum, they held nightly dances of young men and women to which it
 was made a custom to bring cakes of sesame and honey, so that the Corcyraean boys might snatch these and have food.

This continued to be done until the Corinthian 
 guards left their charge and departed; then the Samians took the boys back to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu,
 Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 .

If after the death of Periander , the Corinthians had been
 friendly towards the Corcyraeans , they would not
 have taken part in the expedition against Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 for this reason. But as it was, ever since the island was colonized,
 they have been at odds with each other, despite their kinship.

For these reasons then the Corinthians bore a
 grudge against the Samians . 
 Periander chose the sons of the notable Corcyraeans and sent them to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 to be made eunuchs as an act of vengeance; for the Corcyraeans had first begun the quarrel by
 committing a terrible crime against him.

For after killing his own wife +Melissa [17.0333,39.3]
 (Perseus) 
 Melissa 
 , Periander suffered yet another calamity on
 top of what he had already suffered. He had two sons by +Melissa [17.0333,39.3]
 (Perseus) 
 Melissa 
 , one seventeen and one eighteen years old.

Their mother's father, Procles , the sovereign of
 Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) 
 Epidaurus 
 , sent for the boys and treated them affectionately, as was natural,
 seeing that they were his own daughter's sons. When they left him, he said
 as he sent them forth:

“Do you know, boys, who killed your mother?” The elder of them paid no
 attention to these words; but the younger, whose name was Lycophron , was struck with such horror when he heard them that
 when he came to Corinth
 [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 he would not speak to his father, his mother's murderer, nor would
 he answer him when addressed nor reply to his questions. At last Periander was so angry that he drove the boy from his
 house.

Having driven this one away, he asked the elder son
 what their grandfather had said to them. The boy told him that Procles had treated them kindly, but did not mention
 what he had said at parting; for he had paid no attention. Periander said that by no means could Procles not have dropped some hint, and interrogated him
 persistently;

until the boy remembered, and told him. And Periander , comprehending, and wishing to show no weakness, sent a
 message to those with whom his banished son was living and forbade them to
 keep him.

So when the boy, driven out, would go to another house, he would be driven
 from this also, since Periander threatened all who
 received him and ordered them to shut him out; so when driven forth, he
 would go to some other house of his friends, and they, although he was the
 son of Periander , and although they were afraid,
 nonetheless took him in.

In the end Periander made a
 proclamation, that whoever sheltered the boy in his house or spoke to him,
 would owe a fine to Apollo , and he set the amount.

In view of this proclamation no one wished to address or receive the boy
 into his house; and besides, the boy himself did not think it right to
 attempt what was forbidden, but accepting it slept in the open.

On the fourth day, when Periander saw him starved
 and unwashed, he took pity on him, and his anger being softened, he came
 near and said: “My son, which is preferable—to follow your present way of
 life, or by being well-disposed toward your father to inherit my power and
 the goods which I now possess?

Though my son and a prince of prosperous Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 , you prefer the life of a vagrant, by opposing and being angry with
 me with whom you least ought to be. For if something has happened as a
 result of which you have a suspicion about me, it has happened to my
 disadvantage and I bear the brunt of it, inasmuch as I am the cause.

But bearing in mind how much better it is to be envied than to be pitied,
 and at the same time what sort of thing it is to be angry with your parents
 and with those that are stronger than you, come back to the house.”

With these words Periander tried to move his son,
 but he said nothing else to his father, only told him that because he had
 conversed with him he owed the fine to Apollo . When
 Periander saw that his son's stubbornness could
 not be got around or overcome, he sent him away out of his sight in a ship
 to +Corfu [19.916,39.633]
 (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 ; for +Corfu
 [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands,
 Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 too was subject to him.

And when he had sent him away, he sent an army against Procles his father-in-law, since he was most to blame for his
 present troubles; and he took Epidauros [23.0917,37.6] (Perseus) 
 Epidaurus 
 , captured Procles , and imprisoned him.

As time went on, Periander ,
 now grown past his prime and aware that he could no longer oversee and
 direct all his affairs, sent to 
 +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 inviting Lycophron to be sovereign; for he
 saw no hope in his eldest son, who seemed to him to be slow-witted.

Lycophron did not dignify the invitation with a
 reply. Then Periander , pressing the young man, sent
 to him (as the next best way) his daughter, the boy's sister, thinking that
 he would listen to her.

She came and said, “Child, would you want the power to fall to others, and
 our father's house destroyed, rather than to return and have it yourself?
 Come home and stop punishing yourself.

Pride is an unhappy possession. Do not cure evil by evil. Many place the
 more becoming thing before the just; and many pursuing their mother's
 business have lost their father's. Power is a slippery thing; many want it,
 and our father is now old and past his prime; do not lose what is yours to
 others.”

So she spoke communicating their father's inducements. But he answered that
 he would never come to Corinth
 [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 as long as he knew his father was alive.

When she brought this answer back, Periander sent a
 third messenger, through whom he proposed that he should go to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited
 place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 , and that the boy should return to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 and be the heir of his power.

The son consented to this; Periander got ready to
 go to +Corfu [19.916,39.633]
 (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Corcyra 
 and Lycophron to go to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) 
 Corinth 
 ; but when the Corcyraeans learned of all
 these matters, they put the young man to death so that Periander would not come to their country. It was for this that
 Periander desired vengeance on the Corcyraeans .

The Lacedaemonians then
 came with a great army, and besieged +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 . They advanced to the wall and entered the tower that stands by the
 seaside in the outer part of the city; but then Polycrates himself attacked them with a great force and drove
 them out.

The mercenaries and many of the Samians 
 themselves sallied out near the upper tower on the ridge of the hill and
 withstood the Lacedaemonian advance for a little
 while; then they fled back, with the Lacedaemonians pursuing and destroying them.

Had all the Lacedaemonians there that day been like Archias and Lycopas , +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 would have been taken. These two alone entered the fortress along
 with the fleeing crowd of Samians , and were cut
 off and killed in the city of 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Samos 
 .

I myself have met in his native town of Pitana 
 another Archias son
 of Samius , and grandson of the Archias mentioned above, who honored the Samians more than any other of his guest-friends, and told me
 that his father had borne the name Samius because
 he was the son of that Archias who was killed
 fighting bravely at +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 . The reason that he honored the Samians ,
 he said, was that they had given his grandfather a public funeral.

So when the Lacedaemonians had besieged +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 for forty days with no success, they went away to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnesus 
 .

There is a foolish tale abroad that Polycrates 
 bribed them to depart by making and giving them a great number of gilded
 lead coins, as a native currency. This was the first expedition to Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 made by Dorians of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 .

When the Lacedaemonians 
 were about to abandon them, the Samians who had
 brought an army against Polycrates sailed away too,
 and went to Siphnus ;

for they were in need of money; and the Siphnians were at this time very prosperous and the richest of
 the islanders, because of the gold and silver mines on the island. They were
 so wealthy that the treasure dedicated by them at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 , which is as rich as any there, was made from a tenth of their
 income; and they divided among themselves each year's income.

Now when they were putting together the treasure they inquired of the oracle
 if their present prosperity was likely to last long; whereupon the priestess
 gave them this answer:

“When the prytaneum on Siphnus 
 becomes white 
 And white-browed the market, then indeed a shrewd man is wanted 
 Beware a wooden force and a red herald.” 
 At this time the market-place and town-hall of Siphnus were adorned with Parian 
 marble.

They could not understand this oracle either when it was spoken or at the
 time of the Samians ' coming. As soon as the Samians put in at Siphnus ,
 they sent ambassadors to the town in one of their ships;

now in ancient times all ships were painted with vermilion; and this was what was meant by the warning
 given by the priestess to the Siphnians , to
 beware a wooden force and a red herald.

The messengers, then, demanded from the Siphnians 
 a loan of ten talents; when the Siphnians refused
 them, the Samians set about ravaging their lands.

Hearing this the Siphnians came out at once to
 drive them off, but they were defeated in battle, and many of them were cut
 off from their town by the Samians ; who presently
 exacted from them a hundred talents.

Then the Samians took
 from the men of +Hermione
 [23.2583,37.3833] (Perseus) 
 Hermione 
 , instead of money, the island Hydrea which
 is near to the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Peloponnesus 
 , and gave it to men of Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) 
 Troezen 
 for safekeeping; they themselves settled at +Khania [24.33,35.516] (inhabited place), Canea,
 Crete, Greece, Europe 
 Cydonia 
 in +Crete [25,35.166]
 (region), Greece, Europe 
 Crete 
 , though their voyage had been made with no such intent, but rather
 to drive Zacynthians out of the island.

Here they stayed and prospered for five years; indeed, the temples now at
 +Khania [24.33,35.516]
 (inhabited place), Canea, Crete, Greece, Europe 
 Cydonia 
 and the shrine of Dictyna are the Samians ' work;

but in the sixth year Aeginetans and Cretans came and defeated them in a sea-fight and
 made slaves of them; moreover they cut off the ships' prows, that were
 shaped like boars' heads, and dedicated them in the temple of Athena in 
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Aegina 
 .

The Aeginetans did this out of a grudge against
 the Samians ; for previously the Samians , in the days when Amphicrates was king of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , sailing in force against 
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Aegina 
 , had hurt the Aeginetans and been hurt by
 them. This was the cause.

I have written at such length of the Samians , because the three greatest works of all the
 Greeks were engineered by them. The first of
 these is the tunnel with a mouth at either end driven through the base of a
 hill nine hundred feet high;

the whole tunnel is forty-two hundred feet long, eight feet high and eight
 feet wide; and throughout the whole of its length there runs a channel
 thirty feet deep and three feet wide, through which the water coming from an
 abundant spring is carried by pipes to the city of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 .

The designer of this work was Eupalinus son of
 Naustrophus , a Megarian . This is one of the three works; the second is a
 breakwater in the sea enclosing the harbor, sunk one hundred and twenty
 feet, and more than twelve hundred feet in length.

The third Samian work is the temple, which is the
 greatest of all the temples of which we know; its first builder was Rhoecus son of Philes , a
 Samian . It is for this cause that I have
 expounded at more than ordinary length of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 .

Now after Cambyses , son of
 Cyrus , had lost his mind, while he was still in
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , two Magus brothers rebelled against
 him. One of
 them had been left by Cambyses as steward of his
 house; this man now revolted from him, perceiving that the death of Smerdis was kept secret, and that few knew of it, most
 believing him to be still alive.

Therefore he plotted to gain the royal power: he had a brother, his partner,
 as I said, in rebellion; this brother was in appearance very like Cyrus ' son Smerdis , whom
 Cambyses , his brother, had killed; nor was he
 like him in appearance only, but he bore the same name too, Smerdis .

Patizeithes the Magus 
 persuaded this man that he would manage everything for him; he brought his
 brother and set him on the royal throne; then he sent heralds to all parts,
 one of whom was to go to Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and proclaim to the army that henceforth they must obey not Cambyses but Smerdis , the son
 of Cyrus .

So this proclamation was made everywhere. The herald
 appointed to go to Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , finding Cambyses and his army at +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited
 place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 in +Syria [38,35]
 (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 , came out before them all and proclaimed the message given him by
 the Magus .

When Cambyses heard what the herald said, he
 supposed that it was the truth, and that Prexaspes ,
 when sent to kill Smerdis , had not done it but had
 played Cambyses false; and he said, fixing his eyes
 on Prexaspes , “Is it thus, Prexaspes , that you carried out my instructions?”

“No,” said Prexaspes , “this is not true, sire,
 that your brother Smerdis has rebelled against you;
 he cannot have any quarrel with you, small or great; I myself did as you
 instructed, and I buried him with my own hands.

If then the dead can rise, you may expect to see Astyages the Mede rise up against you;
 but if things are as usual, assuredly no harm to you will arise from Smerdis . Now then this is my opinion, that we pursue
 this herald and interrogate him, to learn from whom he comes with his
 proclamation that we must obey Smerdis as our
 king.”

Cambyses liked Prexaspes '
 advice; the herald was pursued at once and brought; and when he came, Prexaspes put this question to him: “Fellow, you say
 that your message is from Cyrus ' son Smerdis ; tell me this now, and you may go away
 unpunished: was it Smerdis who appeared to you and
 gave you this charge, or was it one of his servants?”

“Since King Cambyses marched to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ,” answered the herald, “I have never seen Smerdis the son of Cyrus ; the Magus whom Cambyses made
 overseer of his house gave me the message, saying that it was the will of
 Smerdis , son of Cyrus ,
 that I should make it known to you.”

So spoke the herald, telling the whole truth; and Cambyses said, “ Prexaspes , having done
 what you were told like a good man you are free of blame; but who can this
 Persian be who rebels against me and usurps
 the name of Smerdis ?”

Prexaspes replied, “I think, sire, that I
 understand what has been done here; the rebels are the Magi , Patizeithes whom you left steward
 of your house, and his brother Smerdis .”

The truth of the words and of a dream struck Cambyses the moment he heard the name Smerdis ; for he had dreamt that a message had come to
 him that Smerdis sitting on the royal throne
 touched heaven with his head;

and perceiving that he had killed his brother without cause, he wept
 bitterly for Smerdis . Having wept, and grieved by
 all his misfortune, he sprang upon his horse, with intent to march at once
 to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 against the Magus .

As he sprang upon his horse, the cap fell off the sheath of his sword, and
 the naked blade pierced his thigh, wounding him in the same place where he
 had once wounded the Egyptian god Apis ; and believing the wound to be mortal, Cambyses asked what was the name of the town where he
 was.

They told him it was +Hamadan
 [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 . Now a prophecy had before this come to him from +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2]
 (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Buto 
 , that he would end his life at +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 ; Cambyses supposed this to signify that he
 would die in old age at the Median +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 , his capital city; but as the event proved, the oracle prophesied
 his death at +Hamadan
 [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 of +Syria [38,35]
 (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 .

So when he now inquired and learned the name of the town, the shock of his
 wound, and of the misfortune that came to him from the Magus , brought him to his senses; he understood the prophecy and
 said: “Here Cambyses son of Cyrus is to die.”

At this time he said no more. But about twenty days
 later, he sent for the most prominent of the Persians that were about him, and thus addressed them: “ Persians , I have to make known to you something
 which I kept most strictly concealed.

When I was in Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 I had a dream, which I wish I had not had; it seemed to me that a
 messenger came from home to tell me that Smerdis 
 sitting on the royal throne touched heaven with his head.

Then I feared that my brother would take away my sovereignty from me, and I
 acted with more haste than wisdom; for it is not in the power of human
 nature to run away from what is to be; but I, blind as I was, sent Prexaspes to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia 
 Susa 
 to kill Smerdis . When that great wrong was
 done I lived without fear, for I never thought that when Smerdis was removed another man might rise against me.

But I mistook altogether what was to be; I have killed my brother when there
 was no need, and I have lost my kingdom none the less; for it was the Magus 
 Smerdis that the divinity forewarned in the dream
 would revolt.

Now he has been done for by me, and I would have you believe that Smerdis 
 Cyrus ' son no longer lives; the Magi rule the kingdom, the one that I left caretaker of my house,
 and his brother Smerdis . So then, the man is dead
 of an unholy destiny at the hands of his relations who ought to have been my
 avenger for the disgrace I have suffered from the Magi ;

and as he is no longer alive, necessity constrains me to charge you, men of
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 , in his place, with the last desire of my life. In the name of the
 gods of my royal house I charge all of you, but chiefly those Achaemenids that are here, not to let the sovereignty
 fall again into Median hands; if they have it after getting it by trickery,
 take it back through trickery of your own; if they have got it away by
 force, then by force all the stronger get it back.

And if you do this, may your land bring forth fruit, and your women and your
 flocks and herds be blessed with offspring, remaining free for all time; but
 if you do not get the kingdom back or attempt to get it back, then I pray
 things turn out the opposite for you, and on top of this, that every Persian meet an end such as mine.” With that Cambyses wept bitterly for all that had happened to
 him.

When the Persians saw
 their king weep, they all tore the clothing which they wore and wailed loud
 and long.

But when after this the bone rotted and the thigh rapidly putrefied, it
 carried off Cambyses son of Cyrus , who had reigned in all seven years and five months, but
 was altogether childless, without male or female issue.

To the Persians who were present it was quite
 incredible that the Magi were masters of the
 kingdom; they believed that Cambyses ' intent was to
 deceive them with his story of Smerdis ' death, so
 that all Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 might be embroiled in a war against him.

So they believed that it was Cyrus ' son Smerdis who had been made
 king. For Prexaspes stoutly denied that he had
 killed Smerdis , since now that Cambyses was dead, it was not safe for him to say that he had
 slain the son of Cyrus with his own hands.

Cambyses being dead, the Magus , pretending to be the Smerdis of
 like name, Cyrus ' son, reigned without fear for the
 seven months by which Cambyses had fallen short of
 reigning eight years.

In this time he benefitted all his subjects to such an extent that after his
 death all the Asiatics except the Persians wished him back; for he sent to every
 nation he ruled and proclaimed an exemption for three years from military
 service and from tribute.

Such was his proclamation at the beginning of his
 reign; but in the eighth month he was exposed in the following manner. There
 was one Otanes , son of Pharnaspes , as well-born and rich a man as any Persian .

This Otanes was the first to guess that the Magus was not Cyrus ' son
 Smerdis and who, in fact, he was; the reason
 was, that he never left the acropolis nor summoned any notable Persian into his presence. And having formed this
 suspicion Otanes did as follows:

Cambyses had taken his daughter, whose name was
 Phaedyme ; this same girl the Magus had now and he lived with her and with all Cambyses ' other wives. Otanes 
 sent to this daughter, asking at what man's side she lay, with Smerdis , Cyrus ' son, or with
 some other?

She sent back a message that she did not know; for (she said) she had never
 seen Cyrus ' son Smerdis ,
 nor did she know who her bedfellow was. Then Otanes 
 sent a second message, to this effect: “If you do not know Cyrus ' son Smerdis yourself, then find
 out from Atossa who it is that she and you are
 living with; for surely she knows her own brother.”

To this his daughter replied: “I cannot communicate with Atossa , nor can I see any other of the women of the household;
 for no sooner had this man, whoever he is, made himself king, than he sent
 us to live apart, each in her own appointed place.”

When Otanes heard that, he
 saw more clearly how the matter stood; and he sent her this third message:

“Daughter, your noble birth obliges you to run any risk that your father
 commands you to face. If this man is not Smerdis 
 son of Cyrus but who I think he is, then he must
 not get away with sleeping with you and sitting on the throne of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , but be punished.

Now, then, when he lies with you and you see that he is sleeping, feel his
 ears; if he has ears, rest assured that you are living with Smerdis son of Cyrus ; but if
 he has none, it is Smerdis the Magus .”

Phaedyme answered by messenger that she would run a
 very great risk by so doing; for if it should turn out that he had no ears,
 and she were caught feeling for them, he would surely kill her; nevertheless
 she would do it.

So she promised to do this for her father. Cyrus 
 son of Cambyses during his reign cut off the ears
 of this Magus 
 Smerdis for some grave reason.

So Phaedyme , daughter of Otanes , performed her promise to her father. When it was her turn
 to go to the Magus (for their wives go in
 sequence to the Persians ), she came to his bed
 and felt for the Magus ' ears while he slumbered
 deeply; and having with no great difficulty assured herself that he had no
 ears, she sent and told this to her father as soon as it was morning.

Otanes then took aside two Persians of the highest rank whom he thought worthiest of trust,
 Aspathines and Gobryas ,
 and told them the whole story. These, it would seem, had themselves
 suspected that it was so; and now they readily believed what Otanes revealed to them.

They resolved that each should take into his confidence that Persian whom he most trusted; Otanes brought in Intaphrenes , Gobryas brought Megabyzus ,
 and Aspathines 
 Hydarnes .

When they were six, Darius , whose father, Hystaspes , was a subordinate governor of the Persians , arrived at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia 
 Susa 
 . When he came, then, the six Persians 
 resolved to include Darius too.

The seven then met and gave each other tokens of
 good faith and spoke together; and when it was Darius ' turn to declare his mind, he spoke as follows:

“I thought that I alone knew that it was the Magus who was king and that Smerdis son
 of Cyrus was dead; and it was for this reason that
 I made haste to come, that I might effect the Magus ' death; but since it turns out that you know too and not
 only I, I think that we should act at once and not put it off.”

Otanes replied, “son of Hystaspes , you have a good father and seem likely yourself to be
 in no way inferior to your father; do not hurry this undertaking without
 thinking, but take it up more prudently; there must be more of us to try
 it.”

To this Darius answered: “You gentlemen who are
 here, if you do as Otanes says, know that you will
 die horribly; for someone will inform the Magus ,
 looking to enrich himself alone.

You ought to have done it by yourselves; but since you decided to confide in
 others and have included me, let us either act today or else understand that
 if the present day passes, nobody else will betray you before I do, for I
 shall myself betray you to the Magus .”

To this Otanes replied, seeing Darius ' vehemence, “Since you force us to hurry and will tolerate
 no delay, tell us now yourself how we shall pass into the palace and attack
 them. For you know yourself, I suppose, if not because you have seen them
 then you have heard, that guards are stationed all around; how shall we go
 past the guards?”

“ Otanes ,” answered Darius , “there are many things that cannot be described in words,
 but in deed; and there are other things that can be described in words, but
 nothing illustrious comes of them. You know well that the guards who are set
 are easy to go by.

There is no one who will not allow us to pass, from respect or from fear,
 because of who we are; and further, I have myself the best pretext for
 entering, for I shall say that I have just arrived from Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 and have a message for the king from my father.

When it is necessary to lie, lie. For we want the same thing, liars and
 those who tell the truth; some lie to win credence and advantage by lies,
 while others tell the truth in order to obtain some advantage by the truth
 and to be more trusted; thus we approach the same ends by different means.

If the hope of advantage were taken away, the truth-teller would be as ready
 to lie as the liar to tell the truth. Now if any of the watchmen willingly
 let us pass, it will be better for him later. But if any tries to withstand
 us, let us note him as an enemy, and so thrust ourselves in and begin our
 work.”

Then Gobryas said,
 “Friends, when shall we have a better chance to win back the kingship, or,
 if we cannot, to die, since we who are Persians 
 are ruled by a Mede , a Magus , and he a man that has no ears?

Those of you that were with Cambyses at his
 death-bed of course remember the curse which he pronounced as he died on the
 Persians if they should not try to get back
 the kingship, although we did not believe Cambyses 
 then, but thought that he spoke to deceive us.

Now therefore my vote is that we follow Darius '
 plan, and not quit this council to do anything else but attack the Magus at once.” So spoke Gobryas ; and they all consented to what he said.

While they were making these plans, by coincidence
 the following happened. The Magi had resolved
 after consideration to make a friend of Prexaspes ,
 because he had been wronged by Cambyses (who had
 killed his son with an arrow) and because he alone knew of the death of
 Cyrus ' son Smerdis ,
 having himself been the slayer; but besides this, because he was in great
 repute among the Persians .

For these reasons they summoned him and tried to make him a friend, having
 bound him by tokens of good faith and oaths to keep to himself and betray to
 no one their deception of the Persians , and
 promising to give him all things in great abundance.

When Prexaspes agreed to do this, since the Magi importuned him, the Magi made this second proposal to him, that they should call an
 assembly of all the Persians before the palace
 wall, and he should go up on to a tower and declare that it was Smerdis son of Cyrus and no
 other who was king of Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 .

They gave him this charge, because they thought him to be the man most
 trusted by the Persians , and because he had often
 asserted that Cyrus ' son Smerdis was alive, and had denied the murder.

When Prexaspes said that he
 was ready to do this too, the Magi summoned the
 Persians together, and brought him up on to a
 tower and bade him speak. Then, deliberately forgetting all the Magi 's instructions, he traced the lineage of Cyrus from Achaemenes 
 downwards; when he came at last to the name of Cyrus , he recounted all the good which that king had done to
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 ,

and after he had narrated this, he revealed the truth, saying that he had
 concealed it before, as it had not been safe for him to tell what had
 happened, but at the present time necessity forced him to reveal it: and he
 said that he himself, forced by Cambyses , had
 killed Smerdis son of Cyrus , and that the Magi were in
 power.

Then, invoking a terrible curse on the Persians 
 if they did not win back the throne and take vengeance on the Magi , he threw himself headlong down from the tower;
 so Prexaspes , a man who was always well thought of,
 perished in this way.

The seven Persians , when
 they had decided to attack the Magi at once and
 not delay, prayed to the gods and set forth, knowing nothing of what had
 happened to Prexaspes .

But when they had gone half way they learned what had happened to Prexaspes . Then they argued there, standing beside the
 road, Otanes ' party demanding that they delay and
 not attack while events were in flux, and Darius '
 party that they go directly and do what they had decided and not put it off.

While they were arguing, they saw seven pairs of hawks chase and slash and
 tear to bits two pairs of vultures. And seeing this all seven consented to
 Darius ' opinion, and went on to the palace,
 encouraged by the birds.

When they came to the gate, it turned out as Darius had expected; the guards, out of respect for
 the leading men in Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 and never suspecting that there would be trouble from them, allowed
 them to pass, who enjoyed divine guidance, and no one asked any questions.

And when they came to the court, they met the eunuchs that carry messages,
 who asked the seven why they had come; and while they were questioning
 these, they were threatening the watchmen for letting them pass, and
 restraining the seven who wanted to go on.

These gave each other the word, drew their knives, and stabbing the eunuchs
 who barred their way, went forward at a run to the men's apartment.

Both the Magi were
 within, deliberating about the consequences of Prexaspes ' act. Seeing the eunuchs in confusion and hearing their
 cries they both sprang up: and when they realized what was happening they
 turned to defending themselves.

One rushed to take down a bow, the other went for a spear. Then the fighting
 started. The one that had caught up the bow found it was no use to him, as
 the antagonists were close and jostling one another; but the other defended
 himself with his spear, wounding Aspathines in the
 thigh and Intaphrenes in the eye; Intaphrenes lost his eye from the wound but was not killed.

So one of the Magi wounded these; the other, as
 the bow was no use to him, fled into a chamber adjoining the men's apartment
 and would have shut its door.

Two of the seven flung into the room with him, Darius and Gobryas ; as Gobryas and the Magus wrestled
 together, Darius stood helpless in the darkness,
 afraid of stabbing Gobryas .

Gobryas , seeing Darius 
 stand helpless, asked why he did not lend a hand; and he said, “Because I am
 afraid for you, that I might stab you.” And Gobryas 
 answered, “Stick your sword even if it goes through us both.” So Darius complying stabbed with his knife and somehow
 stuck the Magus .

When they had killed the Magi and cut off their heads, they left their wounded there
 because of their infirmity and for the sake of guarding the acropolis, while
 five of them carrying the Magi 's heads ran
 outside with much shouting and commotion, calling all Persians to aid, telling what they had done and showing the
 heads; at the same time they killed every Magus 
 that came in their way.

The Persians , when they learned what had been
 done by the seven and how the Magi had tricked
 them, resolved to follow the example set, and drew their daggers and killed
 all the Magi they could find; and if nightfall
 had not stopped them they would not have left one Magus alive.

This day is the greatest holy day that all Persians alike keep; they celebrate a great festival on it, which
 they call the Massacre of the Magi ; while the
 festival lasts no Magus may go outdoors, but
 during this day the Magi remain in their houses.

After the tumult quieted down, and five days passed,
 the rebels against the Magi held a council on the
 whole state of affairs, at which sentiments were uttered which to some Greeks seem incredible, but there is no doubt that
 they were spoken.

Otanes was for turning the government over to the
 Persian people: “It seems to me,” he said,
 “that there can no longer be a single sovereign over us, for that is not
 pleasant or good. You saw the insolence of Cambyses , how far it went, and you had your share of the insolence
 of the Magus .

How can monarchy be a fit thing, when the ruler can do what he wants with
 impunity? Give this power to the best man on earth, and it would stir him to
 unaccustomed thoughts. Insolence is created in him by the good things to
 hand, while from birth envy is rooted in man.

Acquiring the two he possesses complete evil; for being satiated he does
 many reckless things, some from insolence, some from envy. And yet an
 absolute ruler ought to be free of envy, having all good things; but he
 becomes the opposite of this towards his citizens; he envies the best who
 thrive and live, and is pleased by the worst of his fellows; and he is the
 best confidant of slander.

Of all men he is the most inconsistent; for if you admire him modestly he is
 angry that you do not give him excessive attention, but if one gives him
 excessive attention he is angry because one is a flatter. But I have yet
 worse to say of him than that; he upsets the ancestral ways and rapes women
 and kills indiscriminately.

But the rule of the multitude has in the first place the loveliest name of
 all, equality, and does in the second place none of the things that a
 monarch does. It determines offices by lot, and holds power accountable, and
 conducts all deliberating publicly. Therefore I give my opinion that we make
 an end of monarchy and exalt the multitude, for all things are possible for
 the majority.”

Such was the judgment of Otanes : but Megabyzus urged that they
 resort to an oligarchy. “I agree,” said he, “with all that Otanes says against the rule of one; but when he tells you to
 give the power to the multitude, his judgment strays from the best. Nothing
 is more foolish and violent than a useless mob;

for men fleeing the insolence of a tyrant to fall victim to the insolence
 of the unguided populace is by no means to be tolerated. Whatever the one
 does, he does with knowledge, but for the other knowledge is impossible; how
 can they have knowledge who have not learned or seen for themselves what is
 best, but always rush headlong and drive blindly onward, like a river in
 flood?

Let those like democracy who wish ill to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 ; but let us choose a group of the best men and invest these with the
 power. For we ourselves shall be among them, and among the best men it is
 likely that there will be the best counsels.”

Such was the judgment of Megabyzus . Darius was the third to
 express his opinion. “It seems to me,” he said, “that Megabyzus speaks well concerning democracy but not concerning
 oligarchy. For if the three are proposed and all are at their best for the
 sake of argument, the best democracy and oligarchy and monarchy, I hold that
 monarchy is by far the most excellent.

One could describe nothing better than the rule of the one best man; using
 the best judgment, he will govern the multitude with perfect wisdom, and
 best conceal plans made for the defeat of enemies.

But in an oligarchy, the desire of many to do the state good service often
 produces bitter hate among them; for because each one wishes to be first and
 to make his opinions prevail, violent hate is the outcome, from which comes
 faction and from faction killing, and from killing it reverts to monarchy,
 and by this is shown how much better monarchy is.

Then again, when the people rule it is impossible that wickedness will not
 occur; and when wickedness towards the state occurs, hatred does not result
 among the wicked, but strong alliances; for those that want to do the state
 harm conspire to do it together. This goes on until one of the people rises
 to stop such men. He therefore becomes the people's idol, and being their
 idol is made their monarch; and thus he also proves that monarchy is best.

But (to conclude the whole matter in one word) tell me, where did freedom
 come from for us and who gave it, from the people or an oligarchy or a
 single ruler? I believe, therefore, that we who were liberated through one
 man should maintain such a government, and, besides this, that we should not
 alter our ancestral ways that are good; that would not be better.”

Having to choose between these three options, four
 of the seven men preferred the last. Then Otanes ,
 whose proposal to give the Persians equality was
 defeated, spoke thus among them all:

“Fellow partisans, it is plain that one of us must be made king (whether by
 lot, or entrusted with the office by the choice of the Persians , or in some other way), but I shall not compete with
 you; I desire neither to rule nor to be ruled; but if I waive my claim to be
 king, I make this condition, that neither I nor any of my descendants shall
 be subject to any one of you.”

To these terms the six others agreed; Otanes took
 no part in the contest but stood aside; and to this day his house (and no
 other in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 ) remains free, and is ruled only so far as it is willing to be, so
 long as it does not transgress Persian law.

The rest of the seven then considered what was the
 fairest way of making a king; and they decided that if another of the seven
 than Otanes should gain the royal power, that Otanes and his descendants should receive a yearly
 gift of Median clothing and everything else that the Persians hold most valuable. The reason for this decision was
 that it was he who had first planned the matter and assembled the
 conspirators.

For Otanes , then, they choose this particular
 honor; but with regard to all of them they decreed that any one of the seven
 should, if he wished, enter the king's palace unannounced, except when the
 king was sleeping with a woman; and that the king should be forbidden to
 take a wife except from the households of the conspirators.

As for the making of a king, they decided that he should be elected whose
 horse, after they were all in their saddles in the suburb of the city,
 should first be heard to neigh at sunrise.

Now Darius had a clever
 groom, whose name was Oebares . When the council
 broke up, Darius said to him: “ Oebares , we have resolved to do as follows about the kingship: he
 shall be elected whose horse, after we are all mounted on our horses in the
 suburb of the city, neighs first at sunrise. Now if you have any cunning,
 figure out how we and no one else can win this prize.”

“Master,” Oebares answered, “if this is to
 determine whether you become king or not, be confident for this reason and
 have an easy mind, for no one else shall be king before you, such are the
 tricks I have.” “Then,” said Darius , “if you have
 any trick such as you say, use it and don't put it off, for tomorrow is the
 day of decision.”

When Oebares heard that, he did as follows. At
 nightfall he brought one of the mares which Darius '
 horse particularly favored, and tethered her in the suburb of the city; then
 bringing Darius ' horse, he repeatedly led him near
 the horse, bumping against the mare, and at last let the horse mount.

At dawn of day the six came on horseback as they had
 agreed. As they rode out through the suburb and came to the place where the
 mare had been tethered in the past night, Darius '
 horse trotted forward and whinnied;

and as he so did there came lightning and thunder out of a clear sky. These
 signs given to Darius were thought to be
 foreordained and made his election perfect; his companions leapt from their
 horses and bowed to him.

Some say that this was Oebares ' plan; but there is another story in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 besides this: that he rubbed this mare's vulva with his hand, which
 he then kept inside his clothing until the six were about to let go their
 horses at sunrise, when he took his hand out and held it to the nostrils of
 Darius ' horse, which at once snorted and
 whinnied.

So Darius son of Hystaspes was made king, and the whole of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , which Cyrus first and Cambyses after him had conquered, was subject to him, except the
 Arabians ; these did not yield as of slaves to
 the Persians , but were united to them by
 friendship, having given Cambyses passage into
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , which the Persians could not enter
 without the consent of the Arabians .

Darius took wives from the noblest houses of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , marrying Cyrus ' daughters Atossa and Artystone ; Atossa had been a wife of her brother Cambyses and afterwards of the Magus ; Artystone was a virgin.

He also married a daughter of Cyrus ' son Smerdis , whose name was Parmys , and the daughter of Otanes who
 had discovered the truth about the Magus ; and
 everything was full of his power. First he made and set up a carved stone,
 upon which was cut the figure of a horseman, with this inscription: “ Darius son of Hystaspes ,
 aided by the excellence of his horse” (here followed the horse's name) “and
 of Oebares his groom, got possession of the kingdom
 of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia 
 Persia 
 .”

Having done these things in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 , he divided his dominions into twenty provinces, which they call
 satrapies; and having divided his dominions and
 appointed governors, he instructed each people to pay him tribute,
 consolidating neighboring peoples and distributing outlying peoples among
 different provinces, passing over those adjoining.

I will now show how he divided his provinces and the tributes which were
 paid him yearly. Those that paid in silver were required to render the
 weight of a Babylonian talent; those that paid in
 gold, of a Euboic talent; the Babylonian talent being equal to seventy-eight Euboic minae.

In the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses after him there was no fixed tribute, but payment was
 made in gifts. It is because of this fixing of tribute, and other similar
 ordinances, that the Persians called Darius the merchant, Cambyses 
 the master, and Cyrus the father; for Darius made petty profit out of everything, Cambyses was harsh and arrogant, Cyrus was merciful and always worked for their well-being.

The Ionians , Magnesians of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , Aeolians , Carians , Lycians , Milyans , and Pamphylians , on whom
 Darius laid one joint tribute, paid a revenue of
 four hundred talents of silver. This was established as his first province.
 The Mysians , Lydians ,
 Lasonians , Cabalians , and Hytennians paid five
 hundred talents; this was the second province.

The third comprised the Hellespontians on the
 right of the entrance of the straits, the Phrygians , Thracians of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , Paphlagonians , Mariandynians , and Syrians ; these paid
 three hundred and sixty talents of tribute.

The fourth province was Cilicia
 [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cilicia 
 . This rendered three hundred and sixty white horses, one for each
 day in the year, and five hundred talents of silver. A hundred and forty of
 these were expended on the horsemen who were the guard of Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia 
 Cilicia 
 ; the three hundred and sixty that remained were paid to Darius .

The fifth province was the country (except the part
 belonging to the Arabians , which paid no tribute)
 between Posideion , a city founded on the Cilician and Syrian 
 border by Amphilochus son of Amphiaraus , and Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; this paid three hundred and fifty talents; in this province was all
 +Phoenicia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 , and the part of +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia 
 Syria 
 called +Palestine
 [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia 
 Palestine 
 , and Cyprus [33,35]
 (island), Asia 
 Cyprus 
 .

The sixth province was Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 and the neighboring parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 , and Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa 
 Cyrene 
 and +Al Marj
 [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa 
 Barca 
 , all of which were included in the province of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . From here came seven hundred talents, besides the income in silver
 from the fish of the Birkat Qarun
 [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa 
 lake Moeris 
 ;

besides that silver and the assessment of grain that was given also, seven
 hundred talents were paid; for a hundred and twenty thousand bushels of
 grain were also assigned to the Persians 
 quartered at the White Wall of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited
 place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa 
 Memphis 
 and their allies.

The Sattagydae , Gandarii , Dadicae , and Aparytae paid together a hundred and seventy
 talents; this was the seventh province; the eighth was Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 and the rest of the Cissian country,
 paying three hundred talents.

From Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 and the rest of Assyria came to Darius a thousand talents of silver and five hundred
 castrated boys; this was the ninth province; +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan,
 Iran, Asia 
 Ecbatana 
 and the rest of Media, with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians ,
 paid four hundred and fifty talents, and was the tenth province.

The eleventh comprised the Caspii , Pausicae , Pantimathi , and
 Daritae , paying jointly two hundred;

The twelfth, the Bactrians as far as the land of the Aegli ; these paid three hundred and sixty. The thirteenth, the
 Pactyic country and Armenia (region (general)), Asia 
 Armenia 
 and the lands adjoining as far as the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Euxine sea 
 ; these paid four hundred.

The fourteenth province was made up of the Sagartii , Sarangeis , Thamanaei , Utii , Myci , and the inhabitants of those islands of the
 southern sea on which the king settles the so-called displaced people; these together paid a tribute of six hundred talents.

The Sacae and Caspii 
 were the fifteenth, paying two hundred and fifty. The Parthians , Chorasmians , Sogdi , and Arii were the
 sixteenth, paying three hundred.

The Paricanii and Ethiopians of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , the seventeenth, paid four hundred; the Matieni , Saspiri , and Alarodii were the eighteenth, and two hundred
 talents were the appointed tribute.

The Moschi , Tibareni ,
 Macrones , Mossynoeci , and Mares, the nineteenth province, were ordered to
 pay three hundred. The Indians made up the
 twentieth province. These are more in number than any nation of which we
 know, and they paid a greater tribute than any other province, namely three
 hundred and sixty talents of gold dust.

Now if these Babylonian 
 silver talents be calculated in Euboic money, the
 sum is seen to be nine thousand eight hundred and eighty Euboic talents:

and the gold coin being thirteen times the value of the silver, the
 gold-dust is found to be worth four thousand six hundred and eighty Euboic talents. Therefore it is seen by adding all
 together that Darius collected a yearly tribute of
 fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty talents; I take no account of
 figures less than ten.

This was Darius ' revenue
 from Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and a few parts of Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 . But as time went on he drew tribute also from the islands and the
 dwellers in Europe
 (continent) 
 Europe 
 , as far as +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe 
 Thessaly 
 .

The tribute is stored by the king in this fashion: he melts it down and
 pours it into earthen vessels; when the vessel is full he breaks the
 earthenware away, and when he needs money coins as much as serves his
 purpose.

These were the governments and appointments of
 tribute. The Persian country is the only one
 which I have not recorded as tributary; for the Persians live free from all taxes.

As for those on whom no tribute was laid, but who rendered gifts instead,
 they were, firstly, the Ethiopians nearest to
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , whom Cambyses conquered in his march
 towards the long-lived Ethiopians ; and also those
 who dwell about the holy +Nysa
 [28.1667,37.8667] (Perseus) 
 Nysa 
 , 
 where Dionysus is the god of their festivals. These
 Ethiopians and their neighbors use the same
 seed as the Indian Callantiae , and they live
 underground.

These together brought every other year and still bring a gift of two
 choenixes of unrefined gold, two hundred
 blocks of ebony, five Ethiopian boys, and twenty
 great elephants' tusks.

Gifts were also required of the Colchians and
 their neighbors as far as the 
 +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus mountains 
 (which is as far as the Persian rule
 reaches, the country north of the 
 +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus 
 paying no regard to the Persians ); these
 were rendered every four years and are still rendered, namely, a hundred
 boys and as many maids.

The Arabians rendered a thousand talents' weight
 of frankincense yearly. Such were the gifts of these peoples to the king,
 besides the tribute.

All this abundance of gold, from which the Indians send the aforementioned gold-dust to the
 king, they obtain in the following way.

To the east of the Indian country is sand. Of all
 the people of Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 whom we know - even those about whom something is said with
 precision - the Indians dwell nearest to the dawn
 and the rising sun; for on the eastern side of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 all is desolate because of the sand.

There are many Indian nations, none speaking the
 same language; some of them are nomads, some not; some dwell in the river
 marshes and live on raw fish, which they catch from reed boats. Each boat is
 made of one joint of reed.

These Indians wear clothes of bullrushes; they
 mow and cut these from the river, then weave them crosswise like a mat, and
 wear them like a breastplate.

Other Indians , to the
 east of these, are nomads and eat raw flesh; they are called Padaei . It is said to be their custom that when
 anyone of their fellows, whether man or woman, is sick, a man's closest
 friends kill him, saying that if wasted by disease he will be lost to them
 as meat; though he denies that he is sick, they will not believe him, but
 kill and eat him.

When a woman is sick, she is put to death like the men by the women who are
 her close acquaintances. As for one that has come to old age, they sacrifice
 him and feast on his flesh; but not many reach this reckoning, for before
 that everyone who falls ill they kill.

There are other Indians ,
 again, who kill no living creature, nor plant anything, nor are accustomed
 to have houses; they eat grass, and they have a grain growing naturally from
 the earth in its husk, about the size of a millet-seed, which they gather
 with the husk and boil and eat. When any one of them falls sick, he goes
 into the desert and lies there, and no one notices whether he is sick or
 dies.

These Indians whom I have
 described have intercourse openly like cattle; they are all black-skinned,
 like the Ethiopians .

Their semen too, which they ejaculate into the women, is not white like
 other men's, but black like their skin, and resembles in this respect that
 of the Ethiopians . These Indians dwell far away from the Persians southwards, and were not subjects of King Darius .

Other Indians dwell near
 the town of Caspatyrus and the Pactyic country, north of the rest of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 ; these live like the Bactrians ; they are
 of all Indians the most warlike, and it is they
 who are sent for the gold; for in these parts all is desolate because of the
 sand.

In this sandy desert are ants, not as big as
 dogs but bigger than foxes; the Persian king has
 some of these, which have been caught there. These ants live underground,
 digging out the sand in the same way as the ants in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 , to which they are very similar in shape, and the sand which they
 carry from the holes is full of gold.

It is for this sand that the Indians set forth
 into the desert. They harness three camels apiece, males on either side
 sharing the drawing, and a female in the middle: the man himself rides on
 the female, that when harnessed has been taken away from as young an
 offspring as may be. Their camels are as swift as horses, and much better
 able to bear burdens besides.

I do not describe the camel's appearance to Greeks , for they know it; but I shall tell them
 something that they do not know concerning it: the hindlegs of the camel
 have four thighbones and four knee-joints; its genitals are turned towards
 the tail between the hindlegs.

Thus and with teams so harnessed the Indians ride after the gold, being careful to be
 engaged in taking it when the heat is greatest; for the ants are then out of
 sight underground.

Now in these parts the sun is hottest in the morning, not at midday as
 elsewhere, but from sunrise to the hour of market-closing. Through these
 hours it is much hotter than in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 at noon, so that men are said to sprinkle themselves with water at
 this time.

At midday the sun's heat is nearly the same in +India [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 as elsewhere. As it goes to afternoon, the sun of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 has the power of the morning sun in other lands; as day declines it
 becomes ever cooler, until at sunset it is exceedingly cold.

So when the Indians come
 to the place with their sacks, they fill these with the sand and drive back
 as fast as possible; for the ants at once scent them out, the Persians say, and give chase. They say nothing is
 equal to them for speed, so that unless the Indians have a headstart while the ants were gathering, not one
 of them would get away.

They cut loose the male trace-camels, which are slower than the females, as
 they begin to lag, one at a time; the mares never tire, for they remember
 the young that they have left. Such is the tale. Most of the gold (say the
 Persians ) is got in this way by the Indians ; they dig some from mines in their country,
 too, but it is less abundant.

The most outlying nations of the world have somehow
 drawn the finest things as their lot, exactly as Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 has drawn the possession of far the best seasons.

As I have lately said, +India
 [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 lies at the world's most distant eastern limit; and in +India [77,20] (nation), Asia 
 India 
 all living creatures four-footed and flying are much bigger than
 those of other lands, except the horses, which are smaller than the Median
 horses called Nesaean ; moreover, the gold there,
 whether dug from the earth or brought down by rivers or got as I have
 described, is very abundant.

There, too, wool more beautiful and excellent than the wool of sheep grows
 on wild trees; these trees supply the Indians 
 with clothing.

Again, Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 is the most distant to the south of all inhabited countries: and
 this is the only country which produces frankincense and myrrh and casia and
 cinnamon and gum-mastich. All these except myrrh are difficult for the Arabians to get.

They gather frankincense by burning that storax which Phoenicians carry to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 ; they burn this and so get the frankincense; for the spice-bearing
 trees are guarded by small winged snakes of varied color, many around each
 tree; these are the snakes that attack Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 . Nothing except the smoke of storax will drive them away from the
 trees.

The Arabians also say
 that the whole country would be full of these snakes if the same thing did
 not occur among them that I believe occurs among vipers.

Somehow the forethought of God (just as is reasonable) being wise has made
 all creatures prolific that are timid and edible, so that they do not become
 extinct through being eaten, whereas few young are born to hardy and
 vexatious creatures.

On the one hand, because the hare is hunted by every beast and bird and man,
 therefore it is quite prolific; alone of all creatures it conceives during
 pregnancy; some of the unborn young are hairy, some still naked, some are
 still forming in the womb while others are just conceived.

On the one hand there is this sort of thing, but on the other hand the
 lioness, that is so powerful and so bold, once in her life bears one cub;
 for in the act of bearing she casts her uterus out with her cub. The
 explanation of this is that when the cub first begins to stir in the mother,
 its claws, much sharper than those of any other creature, tear the uterus,
 and the more it grows the more it scratches and tears, so that when the hour
 of birth is near seldom is any of the uterus left intact.

So too if the vipers and the winged serpents of
 Arabian Peninsula [45,25]
 (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 were born in the natural manner of serpents life would be impossible
 for men; but as it is, when they copulate, while the male is in the act of
 procreation and as soon as he has ejaculated his seed, the female seizes him
 by the neck, and does not let go until she has bitten through.

The male dies in the way described, but the female suffers in return for the
 male the following punishment: avenging their father, the young while they
 are still within the womb gnaw at their mother and eating through her bowels
 thus make their way out.

Other snakes, that do no harm to men, lay eggs and hatch out a vast number
 of young. The Arabian winged serpents do indeed
 seem to be numerous; but that is because (although there are vipers in every
 land) these are all in Arabian
 Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 and are found nowhere else.

The Arabians get
 frankincense in the foregoing way, and casia in the following way: when they
 go after it they bind oxhides and other skins all over their bodies and
 faces except for the eyes. Casia grows in a shallow lake; around this and in
 it live winged creatures, very like bats, that squeak similarly and make a
 fierce resistance; these have to be kept away from the eyes in order to take
 the casia.

As for cinnamon, they gather it in an even stranger
 way. Where it comes from and what land produces it they cannot say, except
 that it is reported, reasonably enough, to grow in the places where Dionysus was reared.

There are great birds, it is said, that take these dry sticks which we have
 learned from the Phoenicians to call cinnamon and
 carry them off to nests stuck with mud to precipitous cliffs, where man has
 no means of approach.

The Arabian solution to this is to cut dead oxen
 and asses and other beasts of burden into the largest possible pieces, then
 to set these near the eyries and withdraw far off. The birds then fly down
 (it is said) and carry the pieces of the beasts up to their nests, while
 these, not being able to bear the weight, break and fall down the mountain
 side, and then the Arabians come and gather them
 up. Thus is cinnamon said to be gathered, and so to come from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 to other lands.

But ledanon, which the Arabians call ladanon, is produced yet more strangely than this.
 For it is the most fragrant thing produced in the most malodorous; for it is
 found in he-goats' beards, forming in them like gum among timber. This is
 used in the manufacture of many perfumes; there is nothing that the Arabians burn so often as incense.

Enough of marvels, and yet the land of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Arabia 
 gives off a scent as sweet as if divine. They have besides two
 marvellous kinds of sheep, found nowhere else. One of these has tails no
 less than nine feet long. Were the sheep to trail these after them they
 would suffer by the chafing of the tails on the ground;

but every shepherd there knows enough of carpentry to make little carts
 which they fix under the tails, binding the tail of each sheep on its own
 cart. The other kind of sheep has a tail a full three feet broad.

Where south inclines westwards, the part of the
 world stretching farthest towards the sunset is Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa 
 Ethiopia 
 ; this produces gold in abundance, and huge elephants, and all sorts
 of wild trees, and ebony, and the tallest and handsomest and longest-lived
 people.

These then are the most distant lands in Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa 
 Libya 
 . But concerning those in Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 that are the farthest away towards evening, I cannot speak with
 assurance; for I do not believe that there is a river called by foreigners
 +Po [12.5,44.966] (river),
 Italy, Europe 
 Eridanus 
 issuing into the northern sea, where our amber is said to come from,
 nor do I have any knowledge of Tin Islands , where
 our tin is brought from.

The very name +Po [12.5,44.966]
 (river), Italy, Europe 
 Eridanus 
 betrays itself as not a foreign but a Greek name, invented by some poet; nor for all my diligence have
 I been able to learn from one who has seen it that there is a sea beyond
 Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 . All we know is that our tin and amber come from the most distant
 parts.

But in the north of Europe (continent) 
 Europe 
 there is by far the most gold. In this matter again I cannot say
 with assurance how the gold is produced, but it is said that one-eyed men
 called Arimaspians steal it from griffins.

But I do not believe this, that there are one-eyed men who have a nature
 otherwise the same as other men.

The most outlying lands, though, as they enclose and wholly surround all the
 rest of the world, are likely to have those things which we think the finest
 and the rarest.

There is a plain in Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 shut in on all sides by mountains through which there are five
 passes. This plain was once the Chorasmians ', being at the boundaries of the Chorasmians , the Hyrcanians , Parthians , Sarangians ,
 and Thamanaei , but since the Persians have held power it has been the king's.

Now from the encircling mountains flows a great river whose name is the
 Aces. Its stream divides into five channels and formerly watered the lands
 of the above-mentioned peoples, going to each through a different pass, but
 since the beginning of the Persian rule

the king has blocked the mountain passes, and closed each passage with a
 gate; with the water barred from outlet, the plain within the mountains
 becomes a lake, seeing that the river pours into it and finds no way out.

Those therefore who before were accustomed to use the water endure great
 hardship in not being able to use it; for during the winter, god rains for
 them just as for the rest of mankind, but in the summer they are in need of
 the water for their sown millet and sesame.

So whenever no water is given to them, they come into Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 with their women, and cry and howl before the door of the king's
 palace, until the king commands that the river-gate should be opened for
 those whose need is greatest;

then, when this land has drunk its fill of water, that gate is shut, and
 the king has another opened for those of the rest who most require it. I
 know by hearsay that he gets a lot of money, over and above the tribute, for
 opening the gates. So much for these matters.

Of the seven men who revolted against the Magus , one, Intaphrenes ,
 got his death through his own violence immediately after the rebellion. He
 wanted to enter the palace and speak with the king; and in fact the law was,
 that the rebels against the Magus could come into
 the king's presence unannounced, if the king were not having intercourse
 with one of his wives.

Intaphrenes , as one of the seven, claimed his right
 to enter unannounced; but the gatekeeper and the messenger forbade him,
 telling him that the king was having intercourse with one of his wives.
 Intaphrenes thought that they were lying;
 drawing his scimitar he cut off their noses and ears, then strung these on
 his horse's bridle and hung it around the men's necks, and so let them go.

They showed themselves to the king and told him why
 they had been treated so. Darius , fearing that the
 six had done this by common consent, sent for each and asked his opinion,
 whether they approved what had been done;

and being assured that they had no part in it, he seized Intaphrenes with his sons and all his household—for he strongly
 suspected that the man was plotting a rebellion with his kinsmen—and
 imprisoned them with the intention of putting them to death.

Then Intaphrenes ' wife began coming to the palace
 gates, weeping and lamenting; and by continuing to do this same thing she
 persuaded Darius to pity her; and he sent a
 messenger to tell her, “Woman, King Darius will
 allow one of your imprisoned relatives to survive, whomever you prefer of
 them all.”

After considering she answered, “If indeed the king gives me the life of
 one, I chose from them all my brother.”

Darius was astonished when he heard her answer, and
 sent someone who asked her: “Woman, the king asks you with what in mind you
 abandon your husband and your children and choose to save the life of your
 brother, who is less close to you than your children and less dear than your
 husband?”

“O King,” she answered, “I may have another husband, if a god is willing,
 and other children, if I lose these; but since my father and mother are no
 longer living, there is no way that I can have another brother; I said what
 I did with that in mind.”

Darius thought that the woman answered well, and
 for her sake he released the one for whom she had asked, and the eldest of
 her sons as well; he put to death all the rest. Thus immediately perished
 one of the seven.

While Cambyses was still
 ill, the following events occurred. The governor of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 appointed by Cyrus was Oroetes , a Persian . This man had an
 impious desire; for although he had not been injured or spoken badly of by
 Polycrates of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , and had in fact never even seen him before, he desired to seize and
 kill him, for the following reason, most people say.

As Oroetes and another Persian whose name was Mitrobates ,
 governor of the province at Dascyleium , sat at the
 king's doors, they fell from talking to quarreling; and as they compared
 their achievements Mitrobates said to Oroetes ,

“You are not to be reckoned a man; the island of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 lies close to your province, yet you have not added it to the king's
 dominion—an island so easy to conquer that some native of it revolted
 against his rulers with fifteen hoplites, and is now lord of it.”

Some say that Oroetes , angered by this reproach,
 did not so much desire to punish the source of it as to destroy Polycrates utterly, the occasion of the reproach.

A few people, however, say that when Oroetes sent a herald to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 with some request (it is not said what this was), the herald found
 Polycrates lying in the men's apartments, in the
 company of Anacreon of +Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) 
 Teos 
 ;

and, whether on purpose to show contempt for Oroetes , or by mere chance, when Oroetes ' herald entered and addressed him, Polycrates , then lying with his face to the wall, never turned or
 answered him.

These are the two reasons alleged for Polycrates ' death; believe whichever you like. But the
 consequence was that Oroetes , then at Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833]
 (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Magnesia 
 which is above the river 
 +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia 
 Maeander 
 , sent Myrsus son of Gyges , a Lydian , with a message to
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , having learned Polycrates ' intention;

for Polycrates was the first of the Greeks whom we know to aim at the mastery of the
 sea, leaving out of account Minos of +Knossos [25.166,35.3] (deserted
 settlement), Iraklion, Crete, Greece, Europe 
 Cnossus 
 and any others who before him may have ruled the sea; of what may be
 called the human race Polycrates was the first, and
 he had great hope of ruling Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe 
 Ionia 
 and the Islands.

Learning then that he had this intention, Oroetes 
 sent him this message: “ Oroetes addresses Polycrates as follows: I find that you aim at great
 things, but that you have not sufficient money for your purpose. Do then as
 I direct, and you will succeed yourself and will save me. King Cambyses aims at my death; of this I have clear
 intelligence.

Now if you will transport me and my money, you may take some yourself and
 let me keep the rest; thus you shall have wealth enough to rule all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 . If you mistrust what I tell you about the money, send someone who
 is most trusted by you and I will prove it to him.”

Hearing this, Polycrates 
 was pleased and willing; and since he had a great desire for money he first
 sent one of his townsmen, Maeandrius , son of Maeandrius , to have a look; this man was his scribe;
 it was he who not long afterwards dedicated in the Heraeum all the splendid furnishings of the men's apartment in
 Polycrates ' house.

When Oroetes heard that an inspection was imminent,
 he filled eight chests with stones, leaving only a very shallow space at the
 top; then he laid gold on top of the stones, locked the chests, and kept
 them ready. Maeandrius came and saw, and brought
 word back to his master.

Polycrates then prepared to visit Oroetes , despite the strong dissuasion of his diviners and
 friends, and a vision seen by his daughter in a dream; she dreamt that she
 saw her father in the air overhead being washed by Zeus and anointed by Helios ;

after this vision she used all means to persuade him not to go on this
 journey to Oroetes ; even as he went to his
 fifty-oared ship she prophesied evil for him. When Polycrates threatened her that if he came back safe, she would
 long remain unmarried, she answered with a prayer that his threat might be
 fulfilled: for she would rather, she said, long remain unmarried than lose
 her father.

But Polycrates would listen
 to no advice. He sailed to meet Oroetes , with a
 great retinue of followers, among whom was Democedes , son of Calliphon , a man of
 +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 and the most skillful physician of his time.

But no sooner had Polycrates come to Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833]
 (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia 
 Magnesia 
 than he was horribly murdered in a way unworthy of him and of his
 aims; for, except for the sovereigns of +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Syracuse 
 , no sovereign of Greek race is fit to be
 compared with Polycrates for magnificence.

Having killed him in some way not fit to be told, Oroetes then crucified him; as for those who had accompanied him,
 he let the Samians go, telling them to thank him
 that they were free; those who were not Samians ,
 or were servants of Polycrates ' followers, he kept
 for slaves.

And Polycrates hanging in the air fulfilled his
 daughter's vision in every detail; for he was washed by Zeus when it rained, and he was anointed by Helios as he exuded sweat from his body.

This was the end of Polycrates ' string of successes [as Amasis king of Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 had forewarned him]. But not long after, atonement for Polycrates overtook Oroetes .
 After the death of Cambyses and the rule of the
 Magi , Oroetes stayed
 in Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 , where he did not help the Persians in
 any way to regain the power taken from them by the Medes ,

but, to the contrary, in this confusion killed two prominent Persians , Mitrobates , the
 governor from Dascyleium , who had taunted him
 about Polycrates , and Mitrobates ' son Cranaspes ; and on top of
 many other violent acts, he set an ambush down the road after a messenger
 from Darius came with a message which displeased
 him and killed that messenger on his homeward journey, and concealed the
 man's body and horse.

So when Darius became king,
 he wanted to punish Oroetes for all his wrongdoing,
 and especially for killing Mitrobates and his son.
 But he thought it best not to send an army openly against the satrap, seeing
 that everything was still in confusion and he was still new to the royal
 power; moreover he heard that Oroetes was very
 powerful, having a guard of a thousand Persian 
 spearmen and being governor of the Phrygian and
 Lydian and Ionian 
 province.

He had recourse, then, to the following expedient: having summoned an
 assembly of the most prominent Persians , he
 addressed them as follows: “ Persians , which of
 you will promise to do this for me, not with force and numbers, but by
 cunning? Where there is need for cunning, force has no business.

So then, which of you would either bring me Oroetes 
 alive or kill him? For he has done the Persians 
 no good, but much harm; he has destroyed two of us, Mitrobates and his son, and is killing my messengers that are
 sent to recall him, displaying an insolence that is not to be borne. So,
 then, before he does the Persians some still
 greater harm, he has to be punished by us with death.”

Darius asked this and thirty men promised, each
 wanting to do it himself. Darius told them not
 argue but draw lots; they did, and the lot fell to Bagaeus , son of Artontes .

Bagaeus , having drawn the lot, did as follows: he
 had many letters written concerning many things and put the seal of Darius on them, and then went with them to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 .

When he got there and came into Oroetes ' presence,
 he took out each letter in turn and gave it to one of the royal scribes to
 read (all of the governors of the King have scribes); Bagaeus gave the letters to test the spearmen, whether they would
 consent to revolt against Oroetes .

Seeing that they were greatly affected by the rolls and yet more by what was
 written in them, he gave another, in which were these words: “ Persians ! King Darius 
 forbids you to be Oroetes ' guard.” Hearing this,
 they lowered their spears for him.

When Bagaeus saw that they obeyed the letter so
 far, he was encouraged and gave the last roll to the scribe, in which was
 written: “ King Darius instructs the Persians in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 to kill Oroetes .” Hearing this the spearmen
 drew their scimitars and killed him at once. Thus atonement for Polycrates the Samian 
 overtook Oroetes the Persian .

Oroetes ' slaves and other possessions were brought
 to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 . Not long after this, it happened that Darius twisted his foot in dismounting from his horse while
 hunting

so violently that the ball of the ankle joint was dislocated from its
 socket. Darius called in the best physicians of
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , whom he had until now kept near his person. But by violently
 twisting the foot they made the injury worse;

and for seven days and nights the king could not sleep because of the pain.
 On the eighth day, when he was doing poorly, someone who had heard in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) 
 Sardis 
 of the skill of Democedes of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 told Darius of him; and he told them to
 bring him as quickly as possible. When they found him among the slaves of
 Oroetes , where he was forgotten, they brought
 him along, dragging his chains and dressed in rags.

Darius asked him when he was brought in if he were
 trained in medicine. He refused to admit it, for he was afraid that if he
 revealed himself he would be cut off from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 for good.

It was clear to Darius , however, that he was
 trained in deceit, and he ordered those who had brought him to
 bring along scourges and goads. Then he confessed, saying that his training
 was not exact, but that he had associated with a physician and had a passing
 acquaintance with medicine.

But when Darius turned the case over to him and
 Democedes applied Greek remedies and used gentleness instead of the Egyptians ' violence, he enabled him to sleep and in
 a short time had him well, although Darius had had
 no hope of regaining the use of his foot.

After this, Darius rewarded him with a gift of two
 pairs of golden fetters. “Is it your purpose,” Democedes asked, “to double my pains for making you well?”
 Pleased by the retort, Darius sent him to his own
 wives. The eunuchs who conducted him told the women that this was the man
 who had given the king his life back.

Each of them took a bowl and dipped it in a chest full of gold, so richly
 rewarding Democedes that the servant accompanying
 him, whose name was Sciton , collected a very great
 sum of gold by picking up the staters that fell from the bowls.

Now this is how Democedes 
 had come from +Croton
 [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 to live with Polycrates : he was oppressed
 by a harsh-tempered father at 
 +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 ; since he could not stand him, he left him and went to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe 
 Aegina 
 . Within the first year after settling there, he excelled the rest of
 the physicians, although he had no equipment nor any medical implements.

In his second year the Aeginetans 
 paid him a talent to be their public physician; in the
 third year the Athenians hired him for a hundred
 minae, and Polycrates in the fourth year for two
 talents. Thus he came to +Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , and not least because of this man the physicians of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 were well-respected [

for at this time the best physicians in Greek 
 countries were those of 
 +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 , and next to them those of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar,
 Libya, Africa 
 Cyrene 
 . About the same time the Argives had the
 name of being the best musicians].

So now because he had healed Darius at Shush
 [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 
 Democedes had a very grand house and ate at the
 king's table; he had everything, except permission to return to the Greeks .

When the Egyptian physicians who until now had
 attended the king were about to be impaled for being less skilful than a
 Greek , Democedes 
 interceded with the king for them and saved them; and he saved an Elean seer, too, who had been a retainer of Polycrates ' and was forgotten among the slaves. Democedes was a man of considerable influence with the
 King.

A short time after this, something else occurred;
 there was a swelling on the breast of Atossa , the
 daughter of Cyrus and wife of Darius , which broke and spread further. As long as it was small,
 she hid it out of shame and told no one; but when it got bad, she sent for
 Democedes and showed it to him.

He said he would cure her, but made her swear that she would repay him by
 granting whatever he asked of her, and said that he would ask nothing
 shameful.

And after he treated her and did cure her, Atossa addressed Darius in
 their chamber as she had been instructed by Democedes : “O King, although you have so much power you are idle,
 acquiring no additional people or power for the Persians .

The right thing for a man who is both young and the master of great wealth
 is to be seen aggrandizing himself, so that the Persians know too that they are ruled by a man. On two counts it
 is in your interest to do this, both so that the Persians know that their leader is a man, and so that they be
 occupied by war and not have time to plot against you.

You should show some industry now, while you are still young: for sense
 grows with the growing body, but grows old too with the aging body and loses
 its edge for all purposes.”

She said this as instructed, but he replied with this: “Woman, what you have
 said is exactly what I had in mind to do. For I have planned to make a
 bridge from this continent to the other continent and lead an army against
 the Scythians ; and this will be done in a short
 time.”

“Look,” Atossa said, “let the Scythians go for the present; you shall have them whenever you
 like; I tell you, march against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 . I have heard of Laconian and Argive and Attic and Corinthian women, and would like to have them as servants. You
 have a man who is fitter than any other to instruct and guide you in
 everything concerning Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 : I mean the physician who healed your foot.”

Darius answered, “Woman, since you think that we
 should make an attempt on Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 first, it seems to me to be best that we first send Persian spies with the man whom you mention, who
 shall tell us everything that they learn and observe; and then when I am
 fully informed I shall rouse myself against them.”

He said this, and no sooner said than did it. For
 the next day at dawn he summoned fifteen prominent Persians , and instructed them to go with Democedes and sail along the coast of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 ; telling them, too, by all means to bring the physician back and not
 let him escape.

Having given these instructions to them, he then sent for Democedes , and asked of him that when he had shown and made clear
 all of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe 
 Greece 
 to the Persians , he would come back; and
 he told him to take all his movable goods to give to his father and
 siblings, saying that he would give him many times as much in return and
 would send with him a ship with a cargo of all good things.

Darius , I think, made this promise without a
 treacherous intent, but Democedes was afraid that
 Darius was testing him; therefore he was in no
 hurry to accept all that was offered, but answered that he would leave his
 own possessions where they were, so as to have them when he returned; the
 ship which Darius promised him to carry the gifts
 for his siblings, he said he would accept. Having given the same
 instructions to Democedes too, Darius sent them all to the coast.

They came down to the city of +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited
 place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia 
 Sidon 
 in +Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia 
 Phoenicia 
 , and there chartered two triremes, as well as a great galley laden
 with all good things; and when everything was ready they set sail for Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , where they surveyed and mapped the coasts to which they came; until
 having viewed the greater and most famous parts they reached +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited
 place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 in Italy [12.833,42.833]
 (nation), Europe 
 Italy 
 .

There Aristophilides , king of the Tarentines , out of sympathy for Democedes , took the steering gear off the Median ships and put
 the Persians under a guard, calling them spies.
 While they were in this plight, Democedes made his
 way to +Croton
 [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 ; and Aristophilides did not set the Persians free and give them back what he had taken
 from their ships until the physician was in his own country.

The Persians sailed from
 +Taranto [17.216,40.466]
 (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 and pursued Democedes to +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 , where they found him in the marketplace and tried to seize him.

Some Crotoniats , who feared the Persian power, would have given him up; but others
 resisted and beat the Persians with their sticks.
 “Men of +Croton
 [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 , watch what you do,” said the Persians ;
 “you are harboring an escaped slave of the King's.

How do you think King Darius will like this
 insolence? What good will it do you if he gets away from us? What city will
 we attack first here? Which will we try to enslave first?”

But the men of +Croton
 [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 paid no attention to them; so the Persians lost Democedes and the galley
 with which they had come, and sailed back for Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , making no attempt to visit and learn of the further parts of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 now that their guide was taken from them.

But Democedes gave them a message as they were
 setting sail; they should tell Darius , he said,
 that Democedes was engaged to the daughter of Milon . For Darius held the
 name of Milon the wrestler in great honor; and, to
 my thinking, Democedes sought this match and paid a
 great sum for it to show Darius that he was a man
 of influence in his own country as well as in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 .

The Persians then put out
 from +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) 
 Croton 
 ; but their ships were wrecked on the coast of Iapygia , and they were made slaves in the country until Gillus , an exile from +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto,
 Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 , released and restored them to Darius , who
 was ready to give him whatever he wanted in return.

Gillus chose to be restored to +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited
 place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 and told the story of his misfortune; but, so as not to be the
 occasion of agitating Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe 
 Greece 
 , if on his account a great expedition sailed against Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation),
 Europe 
 Italy 
 , he said that it was enough that the Cnidians alone be his escort; for he supposed that the Tarentines would be the readier to receive him back
 as the Cnidians were their friends.

Darius kept his word, and sent a messenger to the
 men of +Cnidus Nova
 [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia 
 Cnidos 
 , telling them to take Gillus back to +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited
 place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe 
 Tarentum 
 . They obeyed Darius ; but they could not
 persuade the Tarentines , and were not able to
 apply force.

This is what happened, and these Persians were
 the first who came from Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 into Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe 
 Hellas 
 , and they came to view the country for this reason.

After this, King Darius 
 conquered +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , the greatest of all city states, Greek 
 or barbarian, the reason for his conquest being this: when Cambyses , son of Cyrus , invaded Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 , many Greeks came with the army, some to
 trade, as was natural, and some to see the country itself; among them was
 Syloson , son of Aeaces ,
 who was Polycrates ' brother and in exile from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 .

This Syloson had a stroke of good luck. He was in
 the market at Mit Rahina
 [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa 
 Memphis 
 wearing a red cloak, when Darius , at that
 time one of Cambyses ' guard and as yet a man of no
 great importance, saw him, and coveting the cloak came and tried to buy it.

When Syloson saw Darius '
 eagerness, by good luck he said, “I will not sell this for any money, but I
 give it to you free if you must have it so much.” Extolling this, Darius accepted the garment.

Syloson supposed that he had lost his cloak out of
 foolish good nature. But in time Cambyses died, the
 seven rebelled against the Magus , and Darius of the seven came to the throne; Syloson then learned that the successor to the royal
 power was the man to whom he had given the garment in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 ; so he went up to Shush
 [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia 
 Susa 
 and sat in the king's antechamber, saying that he was one of Darius ' benefactors.

When the doorkeeper brought word of this to the king, Darius asked “But to what Greek 
 benefactor can I owe thanks? In the little time since I have been king
 hardly one of that nation has come to us, and I have, I may say, no use for
 any Greek . Nevertheless bring him in, so that I
 may know what he means.”

The doorkeeper brought Syloson in and the
 interpreters asked him as he stood there who he was and what he had done to
 call himself the king's benefactor. Then Syloson 
 told the story of the cloak, and said that it was he who had given it.

“Most generous man,” said Darius , “it was you who
 gave me a present when I had as yet no power; and if it was a small one, I
 was none the less grateful then than I am now when I get a big one. In
 return, I give you gold and silver in abundance so you may never be sorry
 that you did Darius son of Hystaspes good.”

Syloson answered, “Do not give me gold, O king, or
 silver, but +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , my country, which our slave has now that my brother Polycrates has been killed by Oroetes ; give me this without killing or enslaving.”

Having heard this, Darius 
 sent an army and Otanes , one of the seven, to
 command it, instructing him to do whatever Syloson 
 asked. So Otanes went down to the coast and got his
 army ready.

Now 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Samos 
 was ruled by Maeandrius , son of Maeandrius , who had authority delegated by Polycrates . He wanted to be the justest of men, but
 that was impossible.

For when he learned of Polycrates ' death, first he
 set up an altar to Zeus the Liberator and marked
 out around it that sacred enclosure which is still to be seen in the suburb
 of the city; when this had been done, he called an assembly of all the
 citizens, and addressed them thus:

“To me, as you know, have come Polycrates ' scepter
 and all of his power, and it is in my power now to rule you. But I, so far
 as it lies in me, shall not do myself what I blame in my neighbor. I always
 disliked it that Polycrates or any other man should
 lord it over men like himself. Polycrates has
 fulfilled his destiny, and inviting you to share his power I proclaim
 equality.

Only I claim for my own privilege that six talents of Polycrates ' wealth be set apart for my use, and that I and my
 descendants keep the priesthood of Zeus the
 Liberator, whose temple I have founded, and now I give you freedom.”

Such was Maeandrius ' promise to the Samians . But one of them arose and answered: “But
 you are not even fit to rule us, low-born and vermin, but you had better
 give an account of the monies that you have handled.”

This was the speech of Telesarchus , a man of consequence among the citizens. But Maeandrius , realizing that if he let go of the
 sovereignty someone else would make himself sovereign instead, resolved not
 to let it go. Withdrawing into the acropolis, he sent for the citizens
 individually as if he would give an account of the money; then he seized and
 bound them.

So they were imprisoned, and afterwards Maeandrius 
 fell sick. His brother Lycaretus thought him likely
 to die, and, so that he might the more easily make himself master of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , he put all the prisoners to death. They had, it would seem, no
 desire to be free.

So when the Persians 
 brought Syloson back to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , no one raised a hand against them, but Maeandrius and those of his faction offered to evacuate the
 island under a flag of truce; Otanes agreed to
 this, and after the treaty was made, the Persians 
 of highest rank sat down on seats facing the acropolis.

Now Maeandrius the
 sovereign had a crazy brother named Charilaus , who
 lay bound in the dungeon for some offense; this man heard what was going on,
 and by peering through the dungeon window saw the Persians sitting there peaceably;

whereupon he cried with a loud voice that he wanted to talk to Maeandrius . His brother, hearing him, had Charilaus loosed and brought before him. No sooner had
 he been brought than he attempted with reviling and abuse to persuade Maeandrius to attack the Persians . “Although I am your brother, you coward,” he said, “and
 did no wrong deserving of prison, you have bound and imprisoned me; but when
 you see the Persians throwing you out of house
 and home, you have no courage to avenge yourself, though you could so easily
 beat them?

If you are yourself afraid of them, give me your foreign guards, and I will
 punish them for coming here; as for you, I will give you safe conduct out of
 the island.”

This was what Charilaus 
 said; and Maeandrius took his advice, to my
 thinking not because he was so foolish as to suppose that he would be strong
 enough to defeat the king, but because he did not want Syloson to recover 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Samos 
 safe and sound with no trouble.

He wanted therefore by provoking the Persians to
 weaken +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 as much as he could before surrendering it, for he was well aware
 that if the Persians were hurt they would be
 furiously angry with the Samians . Besides, he
 knew that he could get himself safely off the island whenever he liked,
 having built a secret passage leading from the acropolis to the sea.

Maeandrius then set sail from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ; but Charilaus armed all the guards, opened
 the acropolis' gates, and attacked the Persians .
 These supposed that a full agreement had been made, and were taken unawares;
 the guard fell upon them and killed the Persians 
 of highest rank, those who were carried in litters.

They were engaged in this when the rest of the Persian force came up in reinforcement, and, hard-pressed, the
 guards retreated into the acropolis.

The Persian captain Otanes , seeing how big a loss the Persians had suffered, deliberately forgot the command given him
 at his departure by Darius not to kill or enslave
 any Samian but to deliver the island intact to
 Syloson ; and he commanded his army to kill
 everyone they took, men and boys alike.

Then, while some of the Persians laid siege to
 the acropolis, the rest killed everyone they met, inside the temples and
 outside the temples alike.

Maeandrius sailed to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 , escaping from +Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 ; and after he arrived there and brought up the possessions with
 which he had left his country, it became his habit to make a display of
 silver and gold drinking cups; while his servants were cleaning these, he
 would converse with the king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 , Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides , and would bring him to his house. As Cleomenes marvelled greatly at the cups whenever he
 saw them, Maeandrius would tell him to take as many
 as he liked.

Maeandrius made this offer two or three times;
 Cleomenes showed his great integrity in that he
 would not accept; but realizing that there were others in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe 
 Lacedaemon 
 from whom Maeandrius would get help by
 offering them the cups, he went to the ephors and told them it would be best
 for Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) 
 Sparta 
 if this Samian stranger quit the country,
 lest he persuade Cleomenes himself or some other
 Spartan to do evil. The ephors listened to his
 advice and banished Maeandrius by proclamation.

As for 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe 
 Samos 
 , the Persians swept it clear and turned
 it over uninhabited to Syloson . But afterwards
 Otanes , the Persian 
 general, helped to settle the land, prompted by a dream and a disease that
 he contracted in his genitals.

While the fleet was away at +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe 
 Samos 
 , the Babylonians revolted. They had made very good preparation; for during the reign
 of the Magus , and the rebellion of the seven,
 they had taken advantage of the time and the confusion to provision
 themselves against the siege; and (I cannot tell how) this went undetected.

At last they revolted openly and did this:—sending away all the mothers,
 each chose one woman, whomever he liked of his domestics, as a bread-maker;
 as for the rest, they gathered them together and strangled them so they
 would not consume their bread.

When Darius heard of this,
 he collected all his forces and led them against Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil,
 Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , and he marched up to the town and laid siege to it; but the Babylonians thought nothing of the siege. They came
 up on to the ramparts of the wall and taunted Darius and his army with gesture and word, and one of them
 uttered this mot:

“Why loiter there, Persians , and not go away?
 You will take us when mules give birth.” One of the Babylonians said this, by no means expecting that a mule would
 give birth.

A year and seven months passed, and Darius and his whole army were bitter because they
 could not take Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 . Yet Darius had used every trick and every
 device against it. He tried the stratagem by which Cyrus took it, and every other stratagem and device, yet with no
 success; for the Babylonians kept a vigilant
 watch, and he could not take them.

But in the twentieth month of the siege a marvellous
 thing befell Zopyrus , son of that Megabyzus who was one of the seven destroyers of the Magus : one of his food-carrying mules gave birth.
 Zopyrus would not believe the news; but when he
 saw the foal for himself, he told those who had seen it to tell no one;

then reflecting he recalled the Babylonian 's
 word at the beginning of the siege—that the city would be taken when mules
 gave birth—and having this utterance in mind he conceived that Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 might be taken; for the hand of heaven, he supposed, was in the
 man's word and the birth from his own mule.

As soon as he thought that it was Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 's fate to fall, he came and inquired of Darius if taking Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 were very important to him; and when he was assured that it was, he
 then cast about for a plan by which the city's fall would be accomplished by
 him alone; for good service among the Persians is
 very much esteemed, and rewarded by high preferment.

He could think of no other way to bring the city down than to mutilate
 himself and then desert to the Babylonians ; so,
 making light of it, he mutilated himself beyond repair, and after cutting
 off his nose and ears and cropping his hair as a disfigurement and scourging
 himself, he came before Darius .

The king reacted very violently to seeing a man so
 well-respected mutilated, and springing from the throne he uttered a cry and
 asked Zopyrus who it was who had mutilated him and
 why.

“There is no man,” he said, “except you, who has enough power to do this to
 me, and no one but I myself did this, O King, because I felt it terribly
 that Assyrians were laughing at Persians .”

Darius answered, “Unfeeling man, you give a pretty
 name to an ugly act if you say that it was on account of those besieged that
 you did for yourself past cure. Why, you poor fool, will the enemy surrender
 sooner because you mutilated yourself? How could you not have been out of
 your mind to disfigure yourself?”

“Had I told you,” said Zopyrus , “what I intended
 to do, you would not have let me; but now I have done it on my own. Now,
 then, if you do your part we shall take Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 . I shall desert to the city as I am, and I shall say to them that I
 suffered this at your hands; and I think that I shall persuade them, and
 thus gain a command.

Now, on the tenth day after I enter the city, take a thousand men from the
 part of your army about which you will least care if it is lost, and post
 them before the gate called the gate of Semiramis ;
 on the seventh day after that, post two thousand more before the gate called
 the gate of the Ninevites ; and when twenty days
 are past after that seventh, lead out four thousand more and post them
 before the Chaldean gate, as they call it; allow
 neither these, nor the others that go before them, to carry any weapons
 except daggers; leave them these.

But immediately after the twentieth day command the rest of your army to
 assault the whole circuit of the walls, and post the Persians before the gate of Belus and
 the gate called Cissian . For I think that once I
 have done conspicuous things the Babylonians will
 give me, among other things, the keys of their gates; then it will depend on
 me and on the Persians to do what is necessary.”

Having given these instructions, he went to the
 gates, turning and looking back as though he were in fact a deserter. When
 the watch posted on the towers saw him, they ran down, and opening half the
 gate a little asked him who he was and why he came; he told them that he was
 Zopyrus and was deserting to them.

When they heard this, the gatekeepers brought him before the general
 assembly of the Babylonians , where he made a
 pitiful sight, saying that he had suffered at the hands of Darius what he had suffered at his own because he had advised the
 king to lead his army away, since they could find no way to take the city.

“Now,” he said in his speech to them, “I come as a great boon to you, men
 of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 , and as a great bane to Darius and to his
 army and to the Persians ; for he shall not get
 away with having mutilated me so; and I know all the issues of his plans.”
 This was what he said.

When the Babylonians saw
 the most well-respected man in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia 
 Persia 
 without his nose and ears and all lurid with blood from the
 scourging, they were quite convinced that he was telling them the truth and
 came as their ally, and were ready to give him all that he asked; and he
 asked for a command.

When he got this from them, he did exactly as he had arranged with Darius . On the tenth day he led out the Babylonian army, surrounded and slaughtered the
 thousand whom he had instructed Darius to put in
 the field first.

Seeing that he produced works equal to his words, the Babylonians were overjoyed and ready to serve him in every way.
 When the agreed number of days was past, he led out once more a chosen body
 of Babylonians , and slaughtered the two thousand
 men of Darius ' army.

When the Babylonians saw this work too, the
 praise of Zopyrus was on everyone's lips. The
 agreed number of days once again passing, he led out his men to the place he
 had named, where he surrounded the four thousand and slaughtered them. And
 when he had done this, Zopyrus was the one man for
 Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 : he was made the commander of their armies and guard of the walls.

So when Darius assaulted
 the whole circuit of the walls, according to the agreed plan, then Zopyrus ' treason was fully revealed. For while the
 townsmen were on the wall defending it against Darius ' assault, he opened the gates called Cissian and Belian , and let the Persians inside the walls.

Those Babylonians who saw what he did fled to the
 temple of that Zeus whom they call Belus ; those who had not seen it remained in position,
 until they too discovered how they had been betrayed.

Thus Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 was taken a second time, and when Darius 
 was master of the Babylonians , he destroyed their
 walls and tore away all their gates, neither of which Cyrus had done at the first taking of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil,
 Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 ; moreover he impaled about three thousand men that were prominent
 among them; as for the rest, he gave them back their city to live in.

Further, as the Babylonians , fearing for their
 food, had strangled their own women, as I described above, Darius provided wives to give them a posterity by appointing that
 each of the neighboring nations should send a certain number of women to
 Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 ; the sum of the women thus collected was fifty thousand: these were
 the mothers of those who now inhabit the city.

There never was in Darius '
 judgment any Persian before or after who did
 better service than Zopyrus , except Cyrus , with whom no Persian 
 could compare himself. Many times Darius is said to
 have declared that he would rather Zopyrus were
 free of disfigurement than have twenty Babylons on
 top of the one he had.

He honored him very much; every year he sent him such gifts as the Persians hold most precious, and let him govern
 Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted
 settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia 
 Babylon 
 all his life with no tribute to pay, giving him many other things
 besides. This Zopyrus was the father of Megabyzus , who was general of an army in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa 
 Egypt 
 against the Athenians and their allies;
 and Megabyzus ' son was that Zopyrus who deserted from the Persians 
 to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) 
 Athens 
 .

After taking Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia 
 Babylon 
 , Darius himself marched against the Scythians . For since Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 was bursting with men and vast revenues were coming in, Darius desired to punish the Scythians for the wrong they had begun when they invaded Media
 first and defeated those who opposed them in battle.

For the Scythians , as I have said before, ruled
 upper Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 
 for twenty-eight years;
 they invaded Asia
 (continent) 
 Asia 
 in their pursuit of the Cimmerians , and
 ended the power of the Medes , who were the rulers
 of Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 before the Scythians came.

But when the Scythians had been away from their
 homes for twenty-eight years and returned to their country after so long an
 absence, as much trouble as their Median war awaited them. They found
 themselves opposed by a great force; for the Scythian women, when their husbands were away for so long, turned
 to their slaves.

Now the Scythians blind
 all their slaves, because of the milk 
 they drink; and this is how they get it: taking tubes of bone very much like
 flutes, they insert these into the genitalia of the mares and blow into
 them, some blowing while others milk. According to them, their reason for
 doing this is that blowing makes the mare's veins swell and her udder drop.

When done milking, they pour the milk into deep wooden buckets, and make
 their slaves stand around the buckets and shake the milk; they draw off what
 stands on the surface and value this most; what lies at the bottom is less
 valued. This is why the Scythians blind all
 prisoners whom they take: for they do not cultivate the soil, but are
 nomads.

So it came about that a younger generation grew up,
 born of these slaves and the women; and when the youths learned of their
 parentage, they came out to fight the Scythians 
 returning from Media.

First they barred the way to their country by digging a wide trench from the
 Tauric mountains to the broadest part of the
 Maeetian lake ; and then, when the Scythians 
 tried to force a passage, they camped opposite them and engaged them in
 battle.

There were many fights, and the Scythians could
 gain no advantage; at last one of them said, “Men of Scythia (region (general)), Asia 
 Scythia 
 , look at what we are doing! We are fighting our own slaves; they
 kill us, and we grow fewer; we kill them, and shall have fewer slaves.

Now, then, my opinion is that we should drop our spears and bows, and meet
 them with horsewhips in our hands. As long as they see us armed, they
 imagine that they are our equals and the sons of our equals; let them see us
 with whips and no weapons, and they will perceive that they are our slaves;
 and taking this to heart they will not face our attack.”

The Scythians heard this
 and acted on it; and their enemies, stunned by what they saw, did not think
 of fighting, but fled. Thus, the Scythians ruled
 Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 and were driven out again by the Medes ,
 and returned to their own country in such a way. Desiring to punish them for
 what they had done, Darius assembled an army
 against them.

The Scythians say that
 their nation is the youngest in the world, and that it came into being in
 this way. A man whose name was Targitaüs appeared
 in this country, which was then desolate. They say that his parents were
 Zeus and a daughter of the Borysthenes river (I do not believe the story, but it is
 told).

Such was Targitaüs ' lineage; and he had three sons:
 Lipoxaïs , Arpoxaïs , and
 Colaxaïs , youngest of the three.

In the time of their rule (the story goes) certain implements—namely, a
 plough, a yoke, a sword, and a flask, all of gold—fell down from the sky
 into Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Scythia 
 . The eldest of them, seeing these, approached them meaning to take
 them; but the gold began to burn as he neared, and he stopped.

Then the second approached, and the gold did as before. When these two had
 been driven back by the burning gold, the youngest brother approached and
 the burning stopped, and he took the gold to his own house. In view of this,
 the elder brothers agreed to give all the royal power to the youngest.

Lipoxaïs , it is said, was the father of the Scythian clan called Auchatae ; Arpoxaïs , the second brother,
 of those called Katiari and Traspians ; the youngest, who was king, of those called Paralatae .

All these together bear the name of Skoloti ,
 after their king; “ Scythians ” is the name given
 them by Greeks . This, then, is the Scythians ' account of their origin,

and they say that neither more nor less than a
 thousand years in all passed from the time of their first king Targitaüs to the entry of Darius into their country. The kings guard this sacred gold very
 closely, and every year offer solemn sacrifices of propitiation to it.

Whoever falls asleep at this festival in the open air, having the sacred
 gold with him, is said by the Scythians not to
 live out the year; for which reason (they say) as much land as he can ride round in
 one day is given to him. Because of the great size of the country, the
 lordships that Colaxaïs established for his sons
 were three, one of which, where they keep the gold, was the greatest.

Above and north of the neighbors of their country no one (they say) can see
 or travel further, because of showers of feathers; for earth and sky are full of
 feathers, and these hinder sight.

This is what the Scythians say about themselves and the country north of them. But
 the story told by the Greeks who live in +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Pontus 
 is as follows. Heracles , driving the cattle
 of Geryones , came to this land, which was then
 desolate, but is now inhabited by the Scythians .

Geryones lived west of the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Pontus 
 , settled in the island called by the Greeks 
 Erythea , on the shore of Ocean near Gadira , outside the pillars of Heracles . As for Ocean, the Greeks say
 that it flows around the whole world from where the sun rises, but they
 cannot prove that this is so.

Heracles came from there to the country now called
 Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Scythia 
 , where, encountering wintry and frosty weather, he drew his lion's
 skin over him and fell asleep, and while he slept his mares, which were
 grazing yoked to the chariot, were spirited away by divine fortune.

When Heracles awoke, he
 searched for them, visiting every part of the country, until at last he came
 to the land called the Woodland, and there he found in a cave a creature of
 double form that was half maiden and half serpent; above the buttocks she
 was a woman, below them a snake.

When he saw her he was astonished, and asked her if she had seen his mares
 straying; she said that she had them, and would not return them to him
 before he had intercourse with her; Heracles did,
 in hope of this reward.

But though he was anxious to take the horses and go, she delayed returning
 them, so that she might have Heracles with her for
 as long as possible; at last she gave them back, telling him, “These mares
 came, and I kept them safe here for you, and you have paid me for keeping
 them, for I have three sons by you.

Now tell me what I am to do when they are grown up: shall I keep them here
 (since I am queen of this country), or shall I send them away to you?” Thus
 she inquired, and then (it is said) Heracles 
 answered:

“When you see the boys are grown up, do as follows and you will do rightly:
 whichever of them you see bending this bow and wearing this belt so, make
 him an inhabitant of this land; but whoever falls short of these
 accomplishments that I require, send him away out of the country. Do so and
 you shall yourself have comfort, and my will shall be done.”

So he drew one of his bows (for until then Heracles always carried two), and showed her the belt,
 and gave her the bow and the belt, that had a golden vessel on the end of
 its clasp; and, having given them, he departed. But when the sons born to
 her were grown men, she gave them names, calling one of them Agathyrsus and the next Gelonus and the youngest Scythes; furthermore, remembering the
 instructions, she did as she was told.

Two of her sons, Agathyrsus and Gelonus , were cast out by their mother and left the country,
 unable to fulfill the requirements set; but Scythes, the youngest, fulfilled
 them and so stayed in the land.

From Scythes son of Heracles comes the whole line of the kings of Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Scythia 
 ; and it is because of the vessel that the Scythians carry vessels on their belts to this day. This alone
 his mother did for Scythes. This is what the Greek dwellers in 
 +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) 
 Pontus 
 say.

There is yet another story, to which account I
 myself especially incline. It is to this effect. The nomadic Scythians inhabiting Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 , when hard pressed in war by the Massagetae , fled across the Araxes 
 river to the Cimmerian country (for
 the country which the Scythians now inhabit is
 said to have belonged to the Cimmerians before),

and the Cimmerians , at the advance of the Scythians , deliberated as men threatened by a great
 force should. Opinions were divided; both were strongly held, but that of
 the princes was the more honorable; for the people believed that their part
 was to withdraw and that there was no need to risk their lives for the dust
 of the earth; but the princes were for fighting to defend their country
 against the attackers.

Neither side could persuade the other, neither the people the princes nor
 the princes the people; the one party planned to depart without fighting and
 leave the country to their enemies, but the princes were determined to lie
 dead in their own country and not to flee with the people, for they
 considered how happy their situation had been and what ills were likely to
 come upon them if they fled from their native land.

Having made up their minds, the princes separated into two equal bands and
 fought with each other until they were all killed by each other's hands;
 then the Cimmerian people buried them by the Tyras river , where their tombs are still to be seen,
 and having buried them left the land; and the Scythians came and took possession of the country left empty.

And to this day there are Cimmerian walls in Scythia (region (general)), Asia 
 Scythia 
 , and a Cimmerian ferry, and there is a
 country Cimmeria 
 and a strait named Cimmerian .

Furthermore, it is evident that the Cimmerians in
 their flight from the Scythians into Asia (continent) 
 Asia 
 also made a colony on the peninsula where the Greek city of 
 +Sinope [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) 
 Sinope 
 has since been founded; and it is clear that the Scythians pursued them and invaded Media, missing their way;

for the Cimmerians always fled along the coast,
 and the Scythians pursued with the +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42]
 (mountain range), Asia 
 Caucasus 
 on their right until they came into the Median land, turning inland
 on their way. That is the other story current among Greeks and foreigners alike.

There is also a story related in a poem by Aristeas son of Caüstrobius ,
 a man of +Marmara Adasi
 [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Proconnesus 
 . This Aristeas , possessed by Phoebus , visited the Issedones ; beyond these (he said) live the one-eyed Arimaspians , beyond whom are the griffins that guard
 gold, and beyond these again the Hyperboreans ,
 whose territory reaches to the sea.

Except for the Hyperboreans , all these nations (and
 first the Arimaspians ) are always at war with
 their neighbors; the Issedones were pushed from
 their lands by the Arimaspians , and the Scythians by the Issedones , and the Cimmerians , living
 by the southern sea, were hard pressed by the Scythians and left their country. Thus Aristeas ' story does not agree with the Scythian account about this country.

Where Aristeas who wrote
 this came from, I have already said; I will tell the story that I heard
 about him at +Marmara Adasi
 [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Proconnesus 
 and +Cyzicus
 [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) 
 Cyzicus 
 . It is said that this Aristeas , who was as
 well-born as any of his townsfolk, went into a fuller's shop at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633]
 (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Proconnesus 
 and there died; the owner shut his shop and went away to tell the
 dead man's relatives,

and the report of Aristeas ' death being spread
 about in the city was disputed by a man of +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) 
 Cyzicus 
 , who had come from the town of Artace , and said that he had met Aristeas going toward +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) 
 Cyzicus 
 and spoken with him. While he argued vehemently, the relatives of
 the dead man came to the fuller's shop with all that was necessary for
 burial;

but when the place was opened, there was no Aristeas there, dead or alive. But in the seventh year after
 that, Aristeas appeared at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Proconnesus 
 and made that poem which the Greeks now
 call the Arimaspea , after which he vanished once again.

Such is the tale told in these two towns. But this,
 I know, happened to the Metapontines in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation),
 Europe 
 Italy 
 , two hundred and forty years after the second disappearance of Aristeas , as reckoning made at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia 
 Proconnesus 
 and +Metapontum
 [16.8333,40.3833] (Perseus) 
 Metapontum 
 shows me:

Aristeas , so the Metapontines say, appeared in their country and told them to set
 up an altar to Apollo , and set beside it a statue
 bearing the name of Aristeas the Proconnesian ; for, he said, Apollo had come to their country alone of all Italian lands, and he—the man who was now Aristeas , but then when he followed the god had been a crow—had
 come with him.

After saying this, he vanished. The Metapontines ,
 so they say, sent to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) 
 Delphi 
 and asked the god what the vision of the man could mean; and the
 Pythian priestess told them to obey the
 vision, saying that their fortune would be better.

They did as instructed. And now there stands beside the image of Apollo a statue bearing the name of Aristeas ; a grove of bay-trees surrounds it; the image is set in
 the marketplace. Let it suffice that I have said this much about Aristeas .

As for the land of which my history has begun to
 speak, no one exactly knows what lies north of it; for I can find out from
 no one who claims to know as an eyewitness. For even Aristeas , whom I recently mentioned—even he did not claim to have
 gone beyond the Issedones , even though a poet;
 but he spoke by hearsay of what lay north, saying that the Issedones had told him.

But all that we have been able to learn for certain by report of the
 farthest lands shall be told.

North of the port of the Borysthenites , which lies midway along the coast of Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia 
 Scythia 
 , the first inhabitants are the Callippidae , who are Scythian Greeks ;
 and beyond them another tribe called Alazones ;
 these and the Callippidae , though in other ways
 they live like the Scythians , plant and eat
 grain, onions, garlic, lentils, and millet.

Above the Alazones live Scythian farmers, who plant grain not to eat but to sell; north
 of these, the Neuri ; north of the Neuri , the land is uninhabited so far as we know.

These are the tribes by the Hypanis river , west of the +Dnepr (river), Europe 
 Borysthenes 
 . But on the other side of the +Dnepr (river), Europe 
 Borysthenes 
 , the tribe nearest to the sea is the tribe of the Woodlands; and
 north of these live Scythian farmers, whom the
 Greek colonists on the Hypanis river (who call themselves Olbiopolitae ) call Borystheneïtae .

These farming Scythians inhabit a land stretching
 east a three days' journey to a river called Panticapes , 
 and north as far as an eleven days' voyage up the +Dnepr (river), Europe 
 Borysthenes 
 ; and north of these the land is desolate for a long way;

after the desolation is the country of the Man-eaters , who are a nation apart and by no means Scythian ; and beyond them is true desolation, where
 no nation of men lives, as far as we know.

But to the east of these farming Scythians , across the Panticapes river ,
 you are in the land of nomadic Scythians , who
 plant nothing, nor plough; and all these lands except the Woodlands are bare
 of trees. These nomads inhabit a country to the east that stretches fourteen
 days' journey to the Gerrus river .

Across the Gerrus are
 those lands called Royal, where the best and most numerous of the Scythians are, who consider all other Scythians their slaves; their territory stretches
 south to the Tauric land, and east to the trench
 that was dug by the sons of the blind men, and to the port called The Cliffs 
 on the Maeetian lake ; and part of it stretches to the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited
 place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs river.

North of the Royal Scythians live the Blackcloaks , who are of another and not a Scythian stock; and beyond the Blackcloaks the land is all marshes and uninhabited by men, so
 far as we know.

Across the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia,
 Asia Tanaïs it is no longer Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia ;
 the first of the districts belongs to the Sauromatae , whose country begins at the inner end of the Maeetian lake and stretches fifteen days' journey
 north, and is quite bare of both wild and cultivated trees. Above these in
 the second district, the Budini inhabit a country
 thickly overgrown with trees of all kinds.

North of the Budini the
 land is uninhabited for seven days' journey; after this desolation, and
 somewhat more toward the east wind, live the Thyssagetae , a numerous and a separate nation, who live by
 hunting.

Adjoining these and in the same country live the people called Iyrkae ; these also live by hunting, in the way that
 I will describe. The hunter climbs a tree, and sits there concealed; for
 trees grow thickly all over the land; and each man has his horse at hand,
 trained to flatten on its belly for the sake of lowness, and his dog; and
 when he sees the quarry from the tree, he shoots with the bow and mounts his
 horse and pursues it, and the dog follows close behind.

Beyond these and somewhat to the east live Scythians again, who revolted from the Royal Scythians and came to this country.

As for the countryside of these Scythians , all the land mentioned up to this point is level and
 its soil deep; but thereafter it is stony and rough.

After a long journey through this rough country, there are men inhabiting
 the foothills of high mountains, who are said to be bald from birth (male
 and female alike) and snub-nosed and with long beards; they speak their own
 language, and wear Scythian clothing, and their
 food comes from trees.

The tree by which they live is called “ Pontic ”;
 it is about the size of a fig-tree, and bears a fruit as big as a bean, with
 a stone in it. When this fruit is ripe, they strain it through cloth, and a
 thick black liquid comes from it, which they call “aschu”; they lick this up or drink it mixed with milk, and from
 the thickest lees of it they make cakes, and eat them.

They have few cattle, for the pasture in their land is not good. They each
 live under a tree, covering it in winter with a white felt cloth, but using
 no felt in summer.

These people are wronged by no man, for they are said to be sacred; nor have
 they any weapon of war. They judge the quarrels between their neighbors;
 furthermore, whatever banished man has taken refuge with them is wronged by
 no one. They are called Argippeans .

Now as far as the land of these bald men, we have
 full knowledge of the country and the nations on the near side of them; for
 some of the Scythians make their way to them,
 from whom it is easy to get knowledge, and from some of the Greeks , too, from the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes port
 and the other ports of +Black Sea
 [38,42] (sea) Pontus ; such Scythians as visit them transact their business with seven
 interpreters and in seven languages.

As far as these men this country is known, then, but
 what lies north of the bald men no one can say with exact knowledge; for
 high and impassable mountains bar the way, and no one crosses them. These
 bald men say (although I do not believe them) that the mountains are
 inhabited by men with goats' feet, and that beyond these are men who sleep
 for six months of the twelve. This I cannot accept as true at all.

But the country east of the bald-heads is known for certain to be inhabited
 by the Issedones ; however, of what lies north
 either of the bald-heads or the Issedones we have
 no knowledge, except what comes from the report of these latter.

It is said to be the custom of the Issedones that, whenever a man's father dies, all
 the nearest of kin bring beasts of the flock and, having killed these and
 cut up the flesh, they also cut up the dead father of their host, and set
 out all the flesh mixed together for a feast.

As for his head, they strip it bare and clean and gild it, and keep it for a
 sacred relic, to which they offer solemn sacrifice yearly. Every son does
 this for his father, just like the Greeks in
 their festivals in honor of the dead. In other respects, these are said to
 be a law-abiding people, too, and the women to have equal power with the
 men.

Of these too, then, we have knowledge; but as for
 what is north of them, it is from the Issedones 
 that the tale comes of the one-eyed men and the griffins that guard gold;
 this is told by the Scythians , who have heard it
 from them; and we have taken it as true from the Scythians , and call these people by the Scythian name, Arimaspians ; for in the
 Scythian tongue “arima” is one, and “spou” is
 the eye.

All the aforesaid country is exceedingly cold: for
 eight months of every year there is unbearable frost, and during these you
 do not make mud by pouring out water but by lighting a fire; the sea
 freezes, as does all the Kerchenskiy Proliv [36.650,45.250] (strait),
 Europe Cimmerian Bosporus ; and the Scythians living on this side of the trench lead armies over the
 ice, and drive their wagons across to the land of the +Sindi [24.666,58.4] (inhabited
 place), lost & found/Estonia, Estonia, Europe Sindi .

So it is winter for eight months, and cold in that country for the four that
 remain. Here, there is a different sort of winter than the winters in other
 lands: for in the season for rain scarcely any falls, but all summer it
 rains unceasingly;

and when there are thunderstorms in other lands, here there are none, but
 in summer there are plenty of them; if there is a thunderstorm in winter
 they are apt to wonder at it as at a portent. And so, too, if there is an
 earthquake summer or winter, it is considered a portent in Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia .

Horses have the endurance to bear the Scythian 
 winter; mules and asses cannot bear it at all; and yet in other lands, while
 asses and mules can endure frost, horses that stand in it are frostbitten.

And in my opinion it is for this reason that the
 hornless kind of cattle grow no horns in Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia . A
 verse of Homer in the Odyssey attests to my opinion: 
 
 “ Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya , the land where lambs are
 born with horns on their foreheads,” 
 
 Hom. Od. 4.85 
 in which it is correctly observed that in hot countries the horns grow
 quickly, whereas in very cold countries beasts hardly grow horns, or not at
 all.

In Scythia
 (region (general)), Asia Scythia , then, this happens
 because of the cold. But I think it strange (for it was always the way of my
 history to investigate excurses) that in the whole of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus)
 Elis no mules can be conceived although the country is not
 cold, nor is there any evident cause. The Eleans 
 themselves say that it is because of a curse that mules cannot be conceived
 among them;

but whenever the season is at hand for the mares to conceive, they drive
 them into the countries of their neighbors, and then send the asses after
 them, until the mares are pregnant, and then they drive them home again.

But regarding the feathers of which the Scythians say that the air is full, so thickly that
 no one can see or traverse the land beyond, I have this opinion. North of
 that country snow falls continually, though less in summer than in winter,
 as is to be expected.

Whoever has seen snow falling thickly near him knows himself my meaning; for
 snow is like feathers; and because of the winter, which is as I have said,
 the regions to the north of this continent are uninhabited. I think
 therefore that in this story of feathers the Scythians and their neighbors only speak of snow figuratively.
 So, then, I have spoken of those parts that are said to be most distant.

Concerning the Hyperborean people, neither the Scythians nor any other inhabitants of these lands tell us
 anything, except perhaps the Issedones . And, I
 think, even they say nothing; for if they did, then the Scythians , too, would have told, just as they tell of the
 one-eyed men. But Hesiod speaks of Hyperboreans , and Homer too in his poem The
 Heroes' Sons , if that is truly the work of
 Homer.

But the Delians 
 say much more about them than any others do.
 They say that offerings wrapped in straw are brought from the Hyperboreans to Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia ; when these
 have passed Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia , each nation in turn receives
 them from its neighbors until they are carried to the +Adriatic Sea [16,43] (sea), Europe
 Adriatic sea , which is the most westerly limit of their
 journey;

from there, they are brought on to the south, the people of Dodona [20.8,39.55]
 (Perseus) Dodona being the first Greeks to receive them. From Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona they
 come down to the Melian gulf, and are carried
 across to +Euboea [23.833,38.566]
 (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea , and one city sends them on to another until they
 come to Carystus ; after this, +Andros [24.9,37.816] (inhabited
 place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Andros is left out of their journey, for Carystians carry them to +Nisos Tinos [25.166,37.583] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Tenos , and Tenians to Delos
 [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos .

Thus (they say) these offerings come to Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos . But
 on the first journey, the Hyperboreans sent two
 maidens bearing the offerings, to whom the Delians give the names Hyperoche and
 Laodice , and five men of their people with them
 as escort for safe conduct, those who are now called Perpherees 
 and
 greatly honored at Delos
 [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos .

But when those whom they sent never returned, they took it amiss that they
 should be condemned always to be sending people and not getting them back,
 and so they carry the offerings, wrapped in straw, to their borders, and
 tell their neighbors to send them on from their own country to the next;

and the offerings, it is said, come by this conveyance to Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos . I can say of my own knowledge that there
 is a custom like these offerings; namely, that when the Thracian and Paeonian women sacrifice
 to the Royal Artemis , they have straw with them
 while they sacrifice.

I know that they do this. The Delian girls and boys cut their hair in honor of these Hyperborean maidens, who died at Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos ; the girls before their marriage cut off a
 tress and lay it on the tomb, wound around a spindle

(this tomb is at the foot of an olive-tree, on the left hand of the
 entrance of the temple of Artemis ); the Delian boys twine some of their hair around a green
 stalk, and lay it on the tomb likewise.

In this way, then, these maidens are honored by the
 inhabitants of Delos
 [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos . These same Delians relate that two virgins, Arge and Opis , came from the Hyperboreans by way of the aforesaid peoples to Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos earlier than Hyperoche and Laodice ;

these latter came to bring to Eileithyia the
 tribute which they had agreed to pay for easing child-bearing; but Arge and Opis , they say,
 came with the gods themselves, and received honors of their own from the Delians .

For the women collected gifts for them, calling upon their names in the hymn
 made for them by +Olen (lake),
 Orebro, Sweden, Europe Olen of +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Lycia ; it was from Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos that the
 islanders and Ionians learned to sing hymns to
 Opis and Arge , calling
 upon their names and collecting gifts (this +Olen (lake), Orebro, Sweden, Europe
 Olen , after coming from +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia ,
 also made the other and ancient hymns that are sung at Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos ).

Furthermore, they say that when the thighbones are burnt in sacrifice on the
 altar, the ashes are all cast on the burial-place of Opis and Arge , behind the temple of
 Artemis , looking east, nearest the refectory of
 the people of +Kea
 [24.366,37.566] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Ceos .

I have said this much of the Hyperboreans , and let it suffice; for I do not tell the story of
 that Abaris , alleged to be a Hyperborean , who carried the arrow over the whole world, fasting
 all the while. But if there are men beyond the north wind, then there are
 others beyond the south.

And I laugh to see how many have before now drawn maps of the world, not one
 of them reasonably; for they draw the world as round as if fashioned by
 compasses, encircled by the Ocean river , and Asia (continent) Asia and
 Europe
 (continent) Europe of a like extent. For myself, I will in a
 few words indicate the extent of the two, and how each should be drawn.

The land where the Persians live extends to the southern sea which is called Red;
 beyond these to the north are the Medes , and
 beyond the Medes the Saspires , and beyond the Saspires the
 Colchians , whose country extends to the
 northern sea into which the Phasis river flows; so these four nations live between the one
 sea and the other.

But west of this region two peninsulas stretch out
 from it into the sea, which I will now describe.

On the north side one of the peninsulas begins at the +Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited
 place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia
 Phasis and stretches seaward along the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus and the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , as far as Sigeum in
 the +Troas (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia Troad ; on the south side, the same peninsula
 has a seacoast beginning at the Myriandric gulf 
 that is near +Phoenicia (region
 (general)), Asia Phoenicia , and stretching seaward as far
 as the Triopian headland. On this peninsula live
 thirty nations.

This is the first peninsula. But the second,
 beginning with Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia , stretches to the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red
 Sea , and is Persian land; and next, the
 neighboring land of Assyria ; and after Assyria , Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)),
 Asia Arabia ; this peninsula ends (not truly but only by
 common consent) at the Persian
 Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian Gulf , to which
 Darius brought a canal from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa Nile .

Now from the Persian country to +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia
 Phoenicia there is a wide and vast tract of land; and from
 +Phoenicia (region (general)),
 Asia Phoenicia this peninsula runs beside our sea by way
 of the Syrian Palestine and Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt , which is at the end of it; in this peninsula there
 are just three nations.

So much for the parts of Asia (continent) Asia west of the Persians . But what is beyond the Persians , and Medes , and Saspires , and Colchians ,
 east and toward the rising sun, this is bounded on the one hand by the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red
 Sea , and to the north by the +Caspian Sea [51,39] (sea) Caspian Sea and the
 Araxes river , which flows toward the sun's
 rising.

As far as +India [77,20]
 (nation), Asia India , Asia (continent) Asia is an inhabited land;
 but thereafter, all to the east is desolation, nor can anyone say what kind
 of land is there.

Such is Asia (continent) Asia , and such its extent. But
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya is on this second peninsula; for Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya comes next after Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . The
 Egyptian part of this peninsula is narrow; for
 from our sea to the +Red Sea
 [42,15] (sea) Red Sea it is a distance of a hundred and
 twenty-five miles; that is, a thousand stades; but after this narrow part,
 the peninsula which is called Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya is very broad.

I wonder, then, at those who have mapped out and
 divided the world into Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , Asia (continent) Asia , and Europe
 (continent) Europe ; for the difference between them is great,
 seeing that in length Europe
 (continent) Europe stretches along both the others
 together, and it appears to me to be wider beyond all comparison.

For Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya shows clearly that it is bounded by the sea,
 except where it borders on Asia
 (continent) Asia . Necos king of
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt first discovered this and made it known. When he had
 finished digging the canal which leads from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river),
 Africa Nile to the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian
 Gulf , he sent Phoenicians in ships,
 instructing them to sail on their return voyage past the Pillars of Heracles until they came into the northern sea and so
 to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt .

So the Phoenicians set out from the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red
 Sea and sailed the southern sea; whenever autumn came they would
 put in and plant the land in whatever part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya they
 had reached, and there await the harvest;

then, having gathered the crop, they sailed on, so that after two years had
 passed, it was in the third that they rounded the pillars of Heracles and came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .
 There they said (what some may believe, though I do not) that in sailing
 around Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya they had the sun on their right hand.

Thus was the first knowledge of Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya gained. The next story is that of the Carthaginians : for as for Sataspes son of Teaspes , an Achaemenid , he did not sail around Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya , although he was sent for that purpose; but he
 feared the length and loneliness of the voyage and so returned without
 accomplishing the task laid upon him by his mother.

For he had raped the virgin daughter of Zopyrus son
 of Megabyzus ; and when on this charge he was to be
 impaled by King Xerxes , Sataspes ' mother, who was Darius '
 sister, interceded for his life, saying that she would impose a heavier
 punishment on him than Xerxes ;

for he would be compelled to sail around Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , until
 he completed his voyage and came to the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian
 Gulf . Xerxes agreed to this, and Sataspes went to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt where he
 received a ship and a crew from the Egyptians ,
 and sailed past the Pillars of Heracles .

Having sailed out beyond them, and rounded the Libyan promontory called Solois , he sailed
 south; but when he had been many months sailing over the sea, and always
 more before him, he turned back and made sail for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Coming to King Xerxes from there, he related in his
 narrative that, when he was farthest distant, he sailed by a country of
 little men, who wore palm-leaf clothing; these, whenever he and his men put
 in to land with their ship, left their towns and fled to the hills; he and
 his men did no harm when they landed, and took nothing from the people
 except cattle.

As to his not sailing completely around Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , the reason (he
 said) was that the ship could move no farther, but was stopped. But Xerxes did not believe that Sataspes spoke the truth, and, as the task appointed was
 unfulfilled, he impaled him, punishing him on the charge first brought
 against him.

This Sataspes had a eunuch, who as soon as he heard
 of his master's death escaped to 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Samos , with a great hoard of wealth, of which a
 man of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos got
 possession. I know the man's name but deliberately omit it.

But as to Asia (continent) Asia , most of it was discovered by
 Darius . There is a river, +Indus [67.75,24.416] (river), Asia
 Indus , second of all rivers in the production of crocodiles.
 Darius , desiring to know where this +Indus [67.75,24.416] (river), Asia
 Indus empties into the sea, sent ships manned by Scylax , a man of Caryanda ,
 and others whose word he trusted;

these set out from the city of Caspatyrus and the
 Pactyic country, and sailed down the river
 toward the east and the sunrise until they came to the sea; and voyaging
 over the sea west, they came in the thirtieth month to that place from which
 the Egyptian king sent the above-mentioned Phoenicians to sail around Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

After this circumnavigation, Darius subjugated the
 Indians and made use of this sea. Thus it was
 discovered that Asia
 (continent) Asia , except the parts toward the rising sun,
 was in other respects like Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

But it is plain that none have obtained knowledge of
 Europe
 (continent) Europe 's eastern or northern regions, so as to be
 able say if it is bounded by seas; its length is known to be enough to
 stretch along both Asia
 (continent) Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

I cannot guess for what reason the earth, which is one, has three names, all
 women's, and why the boundary lines set for it are the Egyptian Nile river and the Colchian Phasis
 river (though some say that the Maeetian Tanaïs
 river and the Cimmerian Ferries 
 are boundaries); and I cannot learn the names of
 those who divided the world, or where they got the names which they used.

For Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya is said by most Greeks to be named after a native woman of that name, and Asia (continent) Asia 
 after the wife of Prometheus ; yet the Lydians claim a share in the latter name, saying that Asia (continent) Asia was
 not named after Prometheus ' wife Asia (continent) Asia ,
 but after Asies , the son of Cotys , who was the son of Manes, and that from him the Asiad clan at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 also takes its name.

But as for Europe
 (continent) Europe , no men have any knowledge whether it
 is bounded by seas or not, or where it got its name, nor is it clear who
 gave the name, unless we say that the land took its name from the Tyrian 
 Europa , having been (it would seem) before then
 nameless like the rest.

But it is plain that this woman was of Asiatic 
 birth, and never came to this land which the Greeks now call Europe
 (continent) Europe , but only from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia
 Phoenicia to 
 +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete and
 from +Crete [25,35.166] (region),
 Greece, Europe Crete to +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Lycia . Thus much I have said of these matters, and let it
 suffice; we will use the names established by custom.

Nowhere are men so ignorant as in the lands by the
 +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Euxine 
 +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus (excluding the Scythian 
 nation) into which Darius led his army. For we
 cannot show that any nation within the region of the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus has any
 cleverness, nor do we know of (overlooking the Scythian nation and Anacharsis ) any
 notable man born there.

But the Scythian race has made the cleverest
 discovery that we know in what is the most important of all human affairs; I
 do not praise the Scythians in all respects, but
 in this, the most important: that they have contrived that no one who
 attacks them can escape, and no one can catch them if they do not want to be
 found.

For when men have no established cities or forts, but are all nomads and
 mounted archers, not living by tilling the soil but by raising cattle and
 carrying their dwellings on wagons, how can they not be invincible and
 unapproachable?

They have made this discovery in a land that suits
 their purpose and has rivers that are their allies; for their country is
 flat and grassy and well-watered, and rivers run through it not very many
 fewer in number than the canals of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

As many of them as are famous and can be entered from the sea, I shall name.
 There is the Ister , which has five mouths, and the
 +Dnestr (river), Europe
 Tyras , and Hypanis , and +Dnepr (river), Europe
 Borysthenes , and Panticapes , and
 Hypacuris , and Gerrhus , and +Azov
 [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia
 Tanaïs . Their courses are as I shall indicate.

The Ister , the greatest of
 all rivers which we know, flows with the same volume in summer and winter;
 it is most westerly Scythian river of all, and the
 greatest because other rivers are its tributaries.

Those that make it great, five flowing through the Scythian country, are these: the river called by Scythians 
 Porata and by Greeks 
 Pyretus , and besides
 this the Tiarantus , the Ararus , the Naparis , and the Ordessus .

The first-named of these rivers is a great stream flowing east and uniting
 its waters with the Ister ; the second, the Tiarantus , is more westerly and smaller; the Ararus , Naparis , and Ordessus flow between these two and pour their waters
 into the Ister .

These are the native-born Scythian rivers that help to swell it; but the Maris river , which commingles with the Ister , flows from the Agathyrsi . The
 Atlas , Auras , and
 Tibisis , three other great rivers that pour
 into it, flow north from the heights of +Stara Planina (mountain range), Europe
 Haemus . The Athrys , the Noes , and the Artanes flow into the Ister 
 from the country of the Crobyzi in Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace ; the Cius river ,
 which cuts through the middle of 
 +Stara Planina (mountain range), Europe Haemus , from the
 Paeonians and the mountain range of +Nomos Rodhopis [25.5,41.83]
 (department), Western Thrace, Greece, Europe Rhodope .

The Angrus river flows north from +Illyria (region (general)), Europe
 Illyria into the Triballic plain and the Brongus river , and the Brongus into the
 Ister , which receives these two great rivers
 into itself. The Carpis and another river called
 Alpis also flow northward, from the country
 north of the Ombrici , to flow into it;

for the Ister traverses the whole of Europe
 (continent) Europe , rising among the Celts , who are the most westerly dwellers in Europe
 (continent) Europe , except for the Cynetes , and flowing thus clean across Europe (continent) Europe it issues forth
 along the borders of Scythia
 (region (general)), Asia Scythia .

With these rivers aforesaid, and many others, too,
 as its tributaries, the Ister becomes the greatest
 river of all, while river for river the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile 
 surpasses it in volume, since that owes its volume of water to no tributary
 river or spring.

But the Ister is always the same height in summer
 and winter, the reason for which, I think, is this. In winter it is of its
 customary size, or only a little greater than is natural to it, for in that
 country in winter there is very little rain, but snow everywhere.

In the summer, the abundant snow that has fallen in winter melts and pours
 from all sides into the Ister ; so this snow-melt
 pours into the river and helps to swell it and much violent rain besides, as
 the summer is the season of rain.

And in proportion as the sun draws to itself more water in summer than in
 winter, the water that commingles with the Ister 
 is many times more abundant in summer than it is in winter; these opposites
 keep the balance true, so that the volume of the river appears always the
 same.

One of the rivers of the Scythians , then, is the Ister . The next
 is the +Dnestr (river), Europe
 Tyras ; this comes from the north, flowing at
 first out of a great lake, which is the boundary between the Scythian and the Neurian 
 countries; at the mouth of the river there is a settlement of Greeks , who are called Tyritae .

The third river is the Hypanis ; this comes from Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , flowing
 out of a great lake, around which wild, white horses graze. This lake is
 truly called the mother of the Hypanis .

Here, then, the Hypanis rises; for five days'
 journey its waters are shallow and still sweet; after that for four days'
 journey seaward it is amazingly bitter,

for a spring runs into it so bitter that although its volume is small its
 admixture taints the Hypanis , one of the few great
 rivers of the world. This spring is on the border between the farming Scythians 
 and the Alazones ; the name
 of it and of the place where it rises is in Scythian Exampaeus ; in the Greek tongue, Sacred Ways .

The +Dnestr (river), Europe
 Tyras and the Hypanis draw near
 together in the Alazones ' country; after that
 they flow apart, the intervening space growing wider.

The fourth is the Borysthenes
 river . This is the next greatest after the Ister , and the most productive, in our judgment, not only of the
 Scythian but of all rivers, except the Egyptian 
 Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166]
 (river), Africa Nile , with which no other river can be
 compared.

But of the rest, the +Dnepr
 (river), Europe Borysthenes is the most productive; it
 provides the finest and best-nurturing pasture lands for beasts, and the
 fish in it are beyond all in their excellence and abundance. Its water is
 most sweet to drink, flowing with a clear current, whereas the other rivers
 are turbid. There is excellent soil on its banks, and very rich grass where
 the land is not planted;

and self-formed crusts of salt abound at its mouth; it provides great
 spineless fish, called sturgeons, for salting, and many other wonderful
 things besides.

Its course is from the north, and it is known as far as the Gerrhan land; that is, for forty days' voyage;
 beyond that, no one can say through what nations it flows; but it is plain
 that it flows through desolate country to the land of the farming Scythians , who live beside it for a ten days'
 voyage.

This is the only river, besides the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ,
 whose source I cannot identify; nor, I think, can any Greek . When the +Dnepr
 (river), Europe Borysthenes comes near the sea, the Hypanis mingles with it, running into the same marsh;

the land between these rivers, where the land projects like a ship's beak,
 is called Hippolaus ' promontory; a temple of Demeter stands there. The settlement of the Borystheneïtae is beyond the temple, on the Hypanis .

This is the produce of these rivers, and after these
 there is a fifth river called Panticapas ; this
 also flows from the north out of a lake, and the land between it and the
 +Dnepr (river), Europe
 Borysthenes is inhabited by the farming Scythians ; it flows into the woodland country, after passing
 which it mingles with the +Dnepr
 (river), Europe Borysthenes .

The sixth is the Hypacuris
 river , which rises from a
 lake, and flowing through the midst of the nomadic Scythians flows out near the city of Carcine , bordering on its right the Woodland and the region
 called the Racecourse of Achilles 
 .

The seventh river, the Gerrhus , separates from the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes at about the
 place which is the end of our knowledge of that river; at this place it
 separates, and has the same name as the place itself, Gerrhus ; then in its course to the sea it divides the country of
 the Nomads and the country of the Royal Scythians , and empties into the Hypacuris .

The eighth is the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov,
 Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs river; in its upper course,
 this begins by flowing out of a great lake, and enters a yet greater lake
 called the Maeetian , which divides the Royal
 Scythians from the Sauromatae ; another river, called Hyrgis , is a
 tributary of this +Azov
 [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia
 Tanaïs .

These are the rivers of note with which the Scythians are provided. For rearing cattle, the
 grass growing in Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia is the most productive of bile of
 all pastures which we know; that this is so can be judged by opening up the
 bodies of the cattle.

The most important things are thus provided them. It
 remains now to show the customs which are established among them. The only
 gods whom they propitiate are these: Hestia in
 particular, and secondly Zeus and Earth, whom they
 believe to be the wife of Zeus ; after these, Apollo , and the Heavenly Aphrodite , and Heracles , and Ares . All the Scythians 
 worship these as gods; the Scythians called Royal
 sacrifice to Poseidon also.

In the Scythian tongue, Hestia is called Tabiti ; Zeus (in my judgment most correctly so called) Papaeus ; Earth is Apia ; Apollo 
 Goetosyrus ; the Heavenly Aphrodite 
 Argimpasa ; Poseidon 
 Thagimasadas . It is their practice to make images
 and altars and shrines for Ares , but for no other
 god.

In all their sacred rites they follow the same
 method of sacrifice; this is how it is offered. The victim stands with its
 forefeet shackled together; the sacrificer stands behind the beast, and
 throws it down by pulling the end of the rope;

as the victim falls, he invokes whatever god it is to whom he sacrifices.
 Then, throwing a noose around the beast's neck, he thrusts in a stick and
 twists it and so strangles the victim, lighting no fire nor offering the
 first-fruits, nor pouring any libation; and having strangled and skinned the
 beast, he sets about cooking it.

Now as the Scythian land
 is quite bare of wood, this is how they contrive to cook the meat. When they
 have skinned the victims, they strip the meat from the bones and throw it
 into the cauldrons of the country, if they have them: these are most like
 Lesbian bowls, except that they are much
 bigger; they throw the meat into these, then, and cook it by lighting a fire
 beneath with the bones of the victims. But if they have no cauldron, then
 they put all the meat into the victims' stomachs, adding water, and make a
 fire of the bones beneath,

which burn nicely; the stomachs easily hold the meat when it is stripped
 from the bones; thus a steer serves to cook itself, and every other victim
 does likewise. When the flesh is cooked, the sacrificer takes the
 first-fruits of the flesh and the entrails and casts them before him. They
 use all grazing animals for sacrifice, but mainly horses.

This is their way of sacrificing to other gods and
 these are the beasts offered; but their sacrifices to Ares are of this sort. Every district in each of the governments
 has a structure sacred to Ares ; namely, a pile of
 bundles of sticks three eighths of a mile wide and long, but of a lesser
 height, on the top of which there is a flattened four-sided surface; three
 of its sides are sheer, but the fourth can be ascended.

Every year a hundred and fifty wagon-loads of sticks are heaped upon this;
 for the storms of winter always make it sink down. On this sacred pile an
 ancient scimitar of iron is set for each people: their image of Ares . They bring yearly sacrifice of sheep and goats
 and horses to this scimitar, offering to these symbols even more than they
 do to the other gods.

Of enemies that they take alive, they sacrifice one man in every hundred,
 not as they sacrifice sheep and goats, but differently. They pour wine on
 the men's heads and cut their throats over a bowl; then they carry the blood
 up on to the pile of sticks and pour it on the scimitar.

They carry the blood up above, but down below by the sacred pile they cut
 off all the slain men's right arms and hands and throw these into the air,
 and depart when they have sacrificed the rest of the victims; the arm lies
 where it has fallen, and the body apart from it.

These then are their established rites of sacrifice;
 but these Scythians make no offerings of swine;
 nor are they willing for the most part to rear them in their country.

As to war, these are their customs. A Scythian drinks the blood of the first man whom he
 has taken down. He carries the heads of all whom he has slain in the battle
 to his king; for if he brings a head, he receives a share of the booty
 taken, but not otherwise.

He scalps the head by making a cut around it by the ears, then grasping the
 scalp and shaking the head off. Then he scrapes out the flesh with the rib
 of a steer, and kneads the skin with his hands, and having made it supple he
 keeps it for a hand towel, fastening it to the bridle of the horse which he
 himself rides, and taking pride in it; for he who has most scalps for hand
 towels is judged the best man.

Many Scythians even make garments to wear out of
 these scalps, sewing them together like coats of skin. Many too take off the
 skin, nails and all, from their dead enemies' right hands, and make
 coverings for their quivers;the human skin was, as it turned out, thick and
 shining, the brightest and whitest skin of all, one might say.

Many flay the skin from the whole body, too, and carry it about on horseback
 stretched on a wooden frame.

The heads themselves, not all of them but those of
 their bitterest enemies, they treat this way. Each saws off all the part
 beneath the eyebrows, and cleans the rest. If he is a poor man, then he
 covers the outside with a piece of raw hide, and so makes use of it; but if
 he is rich, he covers the head with the raw hide, and gilds the inside of it
 and uses it for a drinking-cup.

Such a cup a man also makes out of the head of his own kinsman with whom he
 has been feuding, and whom he has defeated in single combat before the king;
 and if guests whom he honors visit him he will serve them with these heads,
 and show how the dead were his kinsfolk who fought him and were beaten by
 him; this they call manly valor.

Furthermore, once a year each governor of a province
 brews a bowl of wine in his own province, which those Scythians who have slain enemies drink; those who have not
 achieved this do not taste this wine but sit apart dishonored; and this they
 consider a very great disgrace; but as many as have slain not one but many
 enemies have two cups apiece and drink out of both.

There are many diviners among the Scythians , who divine by means of many willow wands
 as I will show. They bring great bundles of wands, which they lay on the
 ground and unfasten, and utter their divinations as they lay the rods down
 one by one; and while still speaking, they gather up the rods once more and
 place them together again;

this manner of divination is hereditary among them. The Enarees , who are hermaphrodites, say that Aphrodite gave them the art of divination, which they practise by
 means of lime-tree bark. They cut this bark into three portions, and
 prophesy while they braid and unbraid these in their fingers.

Whenever the king of the Scythians falls ill, he sends for the three most reputable
 diviners, who prophesy in the aforesaid way; and they generally tell him
 that such and such a man (naming whoever it may be of the people) has sworn
 falsely by the king's hearth;

for when the Scythians will swear their
 mightiest oath, it is by the king's hearth that they are accustomed to
 swear. Immediately, the man whom they allege to have sworn falsely is seized
 and brought in, and when he comes the diviners accuse him, saying that their
 divination shows him to have sworn falsely by the king's hearth, and that
 this is the cause of the king's sickness; and the man vehemently denies that
 he has sworn falsely.

When he denies it, the king sends for twice as many diviners: and if they
 too, consulting their art, prove him guilty of perjury, then he is instantly
 beheaded, and his goods are divided among the first diviners;

but if the later diviners acquit him, then other diviners come, and yet
 again others. If the greater number of them acquit the man, it is decreed
 that the first diviners themselves be put to death.

And this is how they die. Men yoke oxen to a wagon
 laden with sticks and tie the diviners up in these, fettering their legs and
 binding their hands behind them and gagging them; then they set fire to the
 sticks and drive the oxen away, stampeding them.

Often the oxen are burnt to death with the diviners, and often the yoke-pole
 of their wagon is burnt through and the oxen escape with a scorching. They
 burn their diviners for other reasons, too, in the way described, calling
 them false prophets.

When the king puts them to death, he does not leave the sons alive either,
 but kills all the males of the family; the females he does not harm.

As for giving sworn pledges to those who are to
 receive them, this is the Scythian way: they take
 blood from the parties to the agreement by making a little cut in the body
 with an awl or a knife, and pour it mixed with wine into a big earthenware
 bowl, into which they then dip a scimitar and arrows and an axe and a
 javelin; and when this is done those swearing the agreement, and the most
 honorable of their followers, drink the blood after solemn curses.

The burial-places of the kings are in the land of
 the Gerrhi , which is the end of the navigation of
 the +Dnepr (river), Europe
 Borysthenes . Whenever their king has died, the Scythians dig a great four-cornered pit in the
 ground there; when this is ready, they take up the dead man—his body
 enclosed in wax, his belly cut open and cleaned and filled with cut
 marsh-plants and frankincense, and parsley and anise seed, and sewn up
 again—and transport him on a wagon to another tribe.

Then those who receive the dead man on his arrival do the same as do the
 Royal Scythians : that is, they cut off a part of
 their ears, shave their heads, make cuts around their arms, tear their
 foreheads and noses, and pierce their left hands with arrows.

From there, the escorts transport the king's body on the wagon to another of
 the tribes that they rule, and those to whom they have already come follow
 them; and having carried the dead man to all in turn, they are at the place
 of burial, in the country of the Gerrhi , the
 farthest distant tribe of all under their rule.

Then, having laid the body on a couch in the tomb, they plant spears on each
 side of the body and lay wooden planks across them, which they then roof
 over with braided osiers; in the open space which is left in the tomb they
 bury one of the king's concubines, his cupbearer, his cook, his groom, his
 squire, and his messenger, after strangling them, besides horses, and
 first-fruits of everything else, and golden cups; for the Scythians do not use silver or bronze.

Having done this, they all build a great barrow of earth, vying eagerly with
 one another to make this as great as possible.

After a year has past, they next do as follows. They
 take the most trusted of the rest of the king's servants (and these are
 native-born Scythians , for only those whom he
 tells to do so serve the king, and none of the Scythians have servants bought by money)

and strangle fifty of these and fifty of their best horses and empty and
 clean the bellies of them all, fill them with chaff, and sew them up again.

Then they fasten half of a wheel to two posts, the hollow upward, and the
 other half to another pair of posts, until many posts thus prepared are
 planted in the ground, and, after driving thick stakes lengthways through
 the horses' bodies to their necks, they place the horses up on the wheels

so that the wheel in front supports the horse's forequarters and the wheel
 behind takes the weight of the belly by the hindquarters, and the forelegs
 and hindlegs hang free; and putting bridles and bits in the horses' mouths,
 they stretch the bridles to the front and fasten them with pegs.

Then they take each one of the fifty strangled young men and mount him on
 the horse; their way of doing it is to drive an upright stake through each
 body passing up alongside the spine to the neck leaving enough of the stake
 projecting below to be fixed in a hole made in the other stake, which passes
 through the horse. So having set horsemen of this fashion around the tomb,
 they ride away.

This is the way they bury their kings. All other
 Scythians , when they die, are laid in wagons
 and carried about among their friends by their nearest of kin; each receives
 them and entertains the retinue hospitably, setting before the dead man
 about as much of the fare as he serves to the rest. All but the kings are
 carried about like this for forty days and then buried.

After the burial the Scythians cleanse themselves
 as follows: they anoint and wash their heads and, for their bodies, set up
 three poles leaning together to a point and cover these over with wool mats;
 then, in the space so enclosed to the best of their ability, they make a pit
 in the center beneath the poles and the mats and throw red-hot stones into
 it.

They have hemp growing in their country, very like
 flax, except that the hemp is much thicker and taller. This grows both of
 itself and also by their cultivation, and the Thracians even make garments of it which are very like linen; no
 one, unless he were an expert in hemp, could determine whether they were
 hempen or linen; whoever has never seen hemp before will think the garment
 linen.

The Scythians then take
 the seed of this hemp and, crawling in under the mats, throw it on the
 red-hot stones, where it smoulders and sends forth such fumes that no Greek vapor-bath could surpass it.

The Scythians howl in their joy at the
 vapor-bath. This serves them instead of bathing, for they never wash their
 bodies with water.

But their women pound cypress and cedar and frankincense wood on a rough
 stone, adding water also, and with the thick stuff thus pounded they anoint
 their bodies and faces, as a result of which not only does a fragrant scent
 come from them, but when on the second day they take off the ointment, their
 skin becomes clear and shining.

But as regards foreign customs, the Scythians (like others) very much shun practising
 those of any other country, and particularly of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , as
 was proved in the case of Anacharsis and also of
 Scyles .

For when Anacharsis was coming back to the Scythian country after having seen much of the world
 in his travels and given many examples of his wisdom, he sailed through the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and put in at
 +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167]
 (Perseus) Cyzicus ;

where, finding the Cyzicenes celebrating the
 feast of the Mother of the Gods with great ceremony, he vowed to this same
 Mother that if he returned to his own country safe and sound he would
 sacrifice to her as he saw the Cyzicenes doing,
 and establish a nightly rite of worship.

So when he came to Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia , he hid himself in the country
 called Woodland (which is beside the Race of Achilles , and is all overgrown with every kind of timber); hidden
 there, Anacharsis celebrated the goddess' ritual
 with exactness, carrying a small drum and hanging images about himself.

Then some Scythian saw him doing this and told
 the king, Saulius ; who, coming to the place himself
 and seeing Anacharsis performing these rites, shot
 an arrow at him and killed him. And now the Scythians , if they are asked about Anacharsis , say they have no knowledge of him; this is because he
 left his country for Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas and followed the customs
 of strangers.

But according to what I heard from Tymnes , the
 deputy for Ariapithes , Anacharsis was an uncle of Idanthyrsus 
 king of Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia , and he was the son of Gnurus , son of Lycus , son of
 Spargapithes . Now if Anacharsis was truly of this family, then let him know he was
 slain by his own brother; for Idanthyrsus was the
 son of Saulius , and it was Saulius who killed Anacharsis .

It is true that I have heard another story told by
 the Peloponnesians ; namely, that Anacharsis had been sent by the king of Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia and had been a student of the ways of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , and after his return told the king who sent
 him that all Greeks were keen for every kind of
 learning, except the Lacedaemonians ; but that
 these were the only Greeks who spoke and listened
 with discretion.

But this is a tale pointlessly invented by the Greeks themselves; and be this as it may, the man was put to
 death as I have said.

This, then, was how Anacharsis fared, owing to his foreign ways and consorting with
 Greeks ; and a great many years afterward,
 Scyles , son of Ariapithes , suffered a like fate. Scyles 
 was one of the sons born to Ariapithes , king of
 Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia ; but his mother was of +Istra [14,45.25] (region
 (general)), Croatia, Europe Istria , 
 and not native-born; and she taught him to speak and read Greek .

As time passed, Ariapithes was treacherously killed
 by Spargapithes , king of the Agathyrsi , and Scyles inherited the
 kingship and his father's wife, a Scythian woman
 whose name was Opoea , and she bore Scyles a son, Oricus .

So Scyles was king of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia ;
 but he was in no way content with the Scythian 
 way of life, and was much more inclined to Greek 
 ways, from the upbringing that he had received. So this is what he would do:
 he would lead the Scythian army to the city of
 the Borysthenites (who say that they are Milesians ), and when he arrived there would leave
 his army in the suburb of the city,

while he himself, entering within the walls and shutting the gates, would
 take off his Scythian apparel and put on Greek dress; and in it he would go among the
 townsfolk unattended by spearmen or any others (who would guard the gates,
 lest any Scythian see him wearing this apparel),
 and in every way follow the Greek manner of life,
 and worship the gods according to Greek usage.

When he had spent a month or more like this, he would put on Scythian dress and leave the city. He did this
 often; and he built a house in 
 +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes , and married a wife of
 the people of the country and brought her there.

But when things had to turn out badly for him, they
 did so for this reason: he conceived a desire to be initiated into the rites
 of the Bacchic Dionysus ; and when he was about to
 begin the sacred mysteries, he saw the greatest vision.

He had in the city of the Borysthenites a
 spacious house, grand and costly (the same house I just mentioned), all
 surrounded by sphinxes and griffins worked in white marble; this house was
 struck by a thunderbolt. And though the house burnt to the ground, Scyles none the less performed the rite to the end.

Now the Scythians reproach the Greeks for this Bacchic revelling, saying that it is
 not reasonable to set up a god who leads men to madness.

So when Scyles had been initiated into the Bacchic
 rite, some one of the Borysthenites scoffed at
 the Scythians : “You laugh at us, Scythians , because we play the Bacchant and the god
 possesses us; but now this deity has possessed your own king, so that he
 plays the Bacchant and is maddened by the god. If you will not believe me,
 follow me now and I will show him to you.”

The leading men among the Scythians followed him,
 and the Borysthenite brought them up secretly
 onto a tower; from which, when Scyles passed by
 with his company of worshippers, they saw him playing the Bacchant; thinking
 it a great misfortune, they left the city and told the whole army what they
 had seen.

After this Scyles rode off
 to his own place; but the Scythians rebelled
 against him, setting up his brother Octamasades ,
 son of the daughter of Teres , for their king.

Scyles , learning what had happened concerning him
 and the reason why it had happened, fled into Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace ;
 and when Octamasades heard this he led his army
 there. But when he was beside the Ister , the Thracians barred his way; and when the armies were
 about to engage, Sitalces sent this message to
 Octamasades :

“Why should we try each other's strength? You are my sister's son, and you
 have my brother with you; give him back to me, and I will give up your Scyles to you; and let us not endanger our armies.”

Such was the offer Sitalces sent to him; for Sitalces ' brother had fled from him and was with Octamasades . The Scythian 
 agreed to this, and took his brother Scyles , giving
 up his own uncle to Sitalces .

Sitalces then took his brother and carried him
 away, but Octamasades beheaded Scyles on the spot. This is how closely the Scythians guard their customs, and these are the penalties they
 inflict on those who add foreign customs to their own.

How numerous the Scythians are, I was not able to learn exactly, and the accounts
 that I heard did not tally, some saying that they are very numerous, and
 some that they are few, so far as they are true Scythians .

But this much they let me see for myself: there is a region between the
 +Dnepr (river), Europe
 Borysthenes and Hypanis rivers,
 whose name is Exampaeus ; this is the land that I
 mentioned when I said that there is a spring of salt water in it, whose
 water makes the Hypanis unfit to drink.

In this region is a bronze vessel, as much as six times greater than the
 cauldron dedicated by Pausanias son of Cleombrotus at the entrance of the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus .

For anyone who has not yet seen the latter, I will make my meaning plain:
 the Scythian bronze vessel easily contains five
 thousand four hundred gallons, and it is of six fingers' thickness. This
 vessel (so the people of the country said) was made out of arrowheads.

For their king, whose name was Ariantas , desiring
 to know the census of the Scythians , commanded
 every Scythian to bring him the point from an
 arrow, threatening death to all who did not.

So a vast number of arrow-heads was brought, and he decided to make and
 leave a memorial out of them; and he made of these this bronze vessel, and
 set it up in this country Exampaeus . This much I
 heard about the number of the Scythians .

As for marvels, there are none in the land, except
 that it has by far the greatest and the most numerous rivers in the world;
 and over and above the rivers and the great extent of the plains there is
 one most marvellous thing for me to mention: they show a footprint of Heracles by the Tyras river 
 stamped on rock, like the mark of a man's foot, but forty inches in length.
 Having described this, I will now return to the story which I began to
 tell.

While Darius was making
 preparations against the Scythians , and sending messengers to direct some to furnish
 infantry and some to furnish ships, and others again to bridge the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Thracian Bosporus , Artabanus , son of Hystaspes and Darius ' brother, by no means wanted him to make an
 expedition against the Scythians , telling him how
 hard that people were to deal with.

But when, for all his good advice, he could not deter the king, Artabanus ceased to advise, and Darius , all his preparations made, led his army from Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa .

Then the Persian 
 Oeobazus , who had three sons, all with the army,
 asked Darius that one be left behind. “You are my
 friend,” said the king, “and your request is reasonable; I will leave all
 your sons.”

Oeobazus was very happy, supposing his sons
 released from service; but Darius told those whose
 job it was to execute all of Oeobazus ' sons. So
 their throats were cut, and they were left there.

But Darius , when he came to
 that place in his march from Shush
 [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa where the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus was bridged in the territory of Calchedon , went aboard ship and sailed to the Dark Rocks 
 (as
 they are called), which the Greeks say formerly
 moved; there, he sat on a headland and viewed the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus , a
 marvellous sight.

For it is the most wonderful sea of all. Its length is eleven thousand one
 hundred stades, and its breadth three thousand three hundred stades at the
 place where it is widest.

The channel at the entrance of this sea is four stades across; the narrow
 neck of the channel, called Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus , across which the bridge was thrown, is about
 one hundred and twenty stades long. The Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus reaches as far as to the Propontis ;

and the Propontis is five hundred stades wide and
 one thousand four hundred long; its outlet is the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont , which is no wider than seven stades and
 four hundred long. The Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont empties into a gulf of the sea which we call
 +Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea)
 Aegean .

These measurements have been made in this way: a
 ship will generally accomplish seventy thousand orguiae in a long day's voyage, and
 sixty thousand by night.

This being granted, seeing that from the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus ' mouth to
 the +Poti [41.683,42.183]
 (inhabited place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia,
 Asia Phasis (which is the greatest length of the sea) it
 is a voyage of nine days and eight nights, the length of it will be one
 million one hundred and ten thousand orguiai, which make eleven thousand
 stades.

From the Sindic region to Themiscura on the Thermodon river (the
 greatest width of the +Black Sea
 [38,42] (sea) Pontus ) it is a voyage of three days and
 two nights; that is, of three hundred and thirty thousand orguiai, or three
 thousand three hundred stades.

Thus have I measured the +Black
 Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus and the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus and Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , and they are as I have said. Furthermore, a lake
 is seen issuing into the +Black
 Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus and not much smaller than the
 sea itself; it is called the Maeetian lake , and
 the mother of the +Black Sea
 [38,42] (sea) Pontus .

After having viewed the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus , Darius sailed back to the bridge, whose architect was
 Mandrocles of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; and when he had viewed the
 Karadeniz Bogazi (strait),
 Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bosporus also, he set up
 two pillars of white marble by it, engraving on the one in Assyrian and on the other in Greek characters the names of all the nations that were in his
 army: all the nations subject to him. The full census of these, over and
 above the fleet, was seven hundred thousand men, including horsemen, and the
 number of ships assembled was six hundred.

These pillars were afterward carried by the Byzantines into their city and there used to build the altar of
 Orthosian 
 
 Artemis , except for one column covered with Assyrian writing that was left beside the temple of
 Dionysus at +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus)
 Byzantium . Now if my reckoning is correct, the place where
 king Darius bridged the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus was midway between +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333]
 (Perseus) Byzantium and the temple at the entrance of the
 sea.

After this, being pleased with his bridge of boats,
 Darius made a gift of ten of everything to Mandrocles the Samian , the architect of it; Mandrocles took the first-fruits of these and had a picture made
 with them, showing the whole bridge of the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus , and Darius sitting
 aloft on his throne and his army crossing; he set this up in the temple of
 Hera , with this inscription:

“After bridging the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Bosporus that teems with fish, 
 
 Mandrocles dedicated a memorial of the
 floating bridge to Hera , 
 Having won a crown for himself, and fame for the Samians , 
 Doing the will of King Darius .” 
 This memorialized the builder of the bridge.

Darius , after rewarding Mandrocles , crossed over to Europe (continent) Europe ; he had told the Ionians to sail into the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus as far as
 the Ister river , and when they got to the Ister , to wait there for him, bridging the river
 meanwhile; for the fleet was led by Ionians and
 Aeolians and men of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont .

So the fleet passed between the Dark Rocks and
 sailed straight for the Ister and, after a two
 days' voyage up the river from the sea, set about bridging the narrow
 channel of the river where its various mouths separate.

But Darius , passing over the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bosporus on the floating bridge of
 ships, journeyed through Thrace
 (region (general)), Europe Thrace to the sources of the
 Tearus river , where he camped for three days.

The Tearus is said by
 those living on it to be the best river of all for purposes of healing,
 especially for healing mange in men and horses. Its springs are thirty-eight
 in number, some cold and some hot, all flowing from the same rock.

There are two roads to the place, one from the town of Heraeum near Perinthus , one from +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167]
 (Perseus) Apollonia on the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea ; each is
 a two days' journey. This Tearus is a tributary of
 the Contadesdus river , and that of the Agrianes , and that of the +Maritsa [26.2,40.866] (river), Europe
 Hebrus , which empties into the sea near the city of Enez [26.83,40.733] (inhabited
 place), Edirne, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Aenus .

Having come to this river and camped there, then,
 Darius was pleased with the sight of it, and set
 up yet another pillar there, cut with this inscription:

“From the headwaters of the river Tearus flows
 the best and finest water of all; and to them came, leading an army against
 the Scythians , the best and finest man of all,
 Darius son of Hystaspes , king of Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and all the continent.” Such
 was the inscription.

From there, Darius set out
 and came to another river called Artescus , which
 flows through the country of the Odrysae ; and
 having reached this river, he pointed out a spot to the army, and told every
 man to lay one stone as he passed in this spot that he pointed out. After
 his army did this, he led it away, leaving behind there great piles of
 stones.

But before he came to the Ister , he first took the Getae , who
 pretend to be immortal. The Thracians of Salmydessus and of the country above the towns of
 +Apollonia
 [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus) Apollonia and Mesambria , who are called Cyrmianae and Nipsaei , surrendered
 without a fight to Darius ; but the Getae resisted stubbornly, and were enslaved at
 once, the bravest and most just Thracians of all.

Their belief in their immortality is as follows:
 they believe that they do not die, but that one who perishes goes to the
 deity Salmoxis , or Gebeleïzis , as some of them call him.

Once every five years they choose one of their people by lot and send him as
 a messenger to Salmoxis , with instructions to
 report their needs; and this is how they send him: three lances are held by
 designated men; others seize the messenger to Salmoxis by his hands and feet, and swing and toss him up on to
 the spear-points.

If he is killed by the toss, they believe that the god regards them with
 favor; but if he is not killed, they blame the messenger himself,
 considering him a bad man, and send another messenger in place of him. It is
 while the man still lives that they give him the message.

Furthermore, when there is thunder and lightning these same Thracians shoot arrows skyward as a threat to the
 god, believing in no other god but their own.

I understand from the Greeks who live beside the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and 
 +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus , that this Salmoxis was a man who was once a slave in +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , his master
 being Pythagoras son of Mnesarchus ;

then, after being freed and gaining great wealth, he returned to his own
 country. Now the Thracians were a poor and
 backward people, but this Salmoxis knew Ionian ways and a more advanced way of life than the
 Thracian ; for he had consorted with Greeks , and moreover with one of the greatest Greek teachers, Pythagoras ;

therefore he made a hall, where he entertained and fed the leaders among
 his countrymen, and taught them that neither he nor his guests nor any of
 their descendants would ever die, but that they would go to a place where
 they would live forever and have all good things.

While he was doing as I have said and teaching this doctrine, he was
 meanwhile making an underground chamber. When this was finished, he vanished
 from the sight of the Thracians , and went down
 into the underground chamber, where he lived for three years,

while the Thracians wished him back and mourned
 him for dead; then in the fourth year he appeared to the Thracians , and thus they came to believe what Salmoxis had told them. Such is the Greek story about him.

Now I neither disbelieve nor entirely believe the
 tale about Salmoxis and his underground chamber;
 but I think that he lived many years before Pythagoras ;

and as to whether there was a man called Salmoxis 
 or this is some deity native to the Getae , let
 the question be dismissed.

Such were the ways of the Getae , who were subdued by the Persians and followed their army. When Darius and the land army with him had come to the Ister , and all had crossed, he had the Ionians break the bridge and follow him in his march
 across the mainland, together with the men of the fleet.

So the Ionians were preparing to break the bridge
 and do Darius ' bidding; but Cöes son of Erxander , the general of the Mytilenaeans , after first asking if Darius were willing to listen to advice from one who wanted to
 give it, said,

“Since, O King, you are about to march against a country where you will not
 find tilled lands or inhabited cities, let this bridge stay where it is,
 leaving those who made it to guard it.

Thus, if we find the Scythians and do what we
 want, we have a way of return; and even if we do not find them, at least our
 way back is safe; for my fear has never been that we shall be overcome by
 the Scythians in the field, but rather that we
 may not be able to find them, and so go astray to our harm.

Now it may perhaps be said that I say this for my own sake, because I want
 to remain behind; but it is not so; I only declare publicly the opinion that
 I think best for you, and I will follow you and do not want to be left
 here.”

Darius was very pleased with this advice, and he
 answered Cöes thus: “My friend from +Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Lesbos , do not fail to show yourself to me
 when I return to my house safe, so that I may make you a good return for
 your good advice.”

After saying this, he tied sixty knots in a thong,
 and summoning the Ionian sovereigns to an
 audience said to them:

“Gentlemen of Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe Ionia , I take back the decision which
 I delivered before about the bridge; now, take this thong and do as follows.
 Begin to reckon from the day when you see me march away against the Scythians , and untie one knot each day: and if the
 days marked by the knots have all passed and I have not returned, embark for
 your own homes.

But until then, since the plan is changed, guard the bridge, making every
 effort to keep and watch it. You will please me very much if you do this.”
 Having said this, Darius hastened to march further.

Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace runs farther out into the sea than Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia ; and Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia begins
 where a bay is formed in its coast, and the mouth of the Ister , facing southeast, is in that country.

Now I am going to describe the coast of the true Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia 
 from the Ister , and give its measurements. The
 ancient Scythian land begins at the Ister and faces south and the south wind, as far as
 the city called Carcinitis .

Beyond this place, the country fronting the same sea is hilly and projects
 into the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus ; it is inhabited by the Tauric nation as far as what is called the Rough Peninsula ; and this ends in the eastern sea.

For the sea to the south and the sea to the east are two of the four
 boundary lines of Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia , just as seas are boundaries of
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica ; and the Tauri inhabit a
 part of Scythia (region
 (general)), Asia Scythia like Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica , as though some other
 people, not Attic, were to inhabit the heights of Sunium from Thoricus to the town of
 Anaphlystus , if Sunium jutted farther out into the sea.

I mean, so to speak, to compare small things with great. Such a land is the
 Tauric country. But those who have not sailed
 along that part of Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica may understand from this other analogy: it is as
 though in +Calabria [16.5,39]
 (region), Italy, Europe Calabria some other people, not
 Calabrian , were to live on the promontory
 within a line drawn from the harbor of +Brindisi [17.95,40.616] (inhabited place), Brindisi, Apulia,
 Italy, Europe Brundisium to +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto,
 Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum . I am speaking of these
 two countries, but there are many others of a similar kind that +Crimea (region (general)), Krym,
 Ukraine, Europe Tauris resembles.

Beyond the Tauric country
 the Scythians begin, living north of the Tauri and beside the eastern sea, west of the Kerchenskiy Proliv [36.650,45.250]
 (strait), Europe Cimmerian Bosporus and the Maeetian lake , as far as the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov,
 Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs river, which empties into
 the end of that lake.

Now it has been seen that on its northern and inland side, running from the
 Ister , Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia is bounded
 first by the Agathyrsi , next by the Neuri , next by the Man-eaters , and last by the Black-cloaks .

Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia , then, is a four-sided country, two of whose
 sides are coastline, the frontiers running inland and those that are by the
 sea making it a perfect square;

for it is a ten days' journey from the Ister to
 the +Dnepr (river), Europe
 Borysthenes , and the same from the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes to the
 Maeetian lake ; and it is a twenty days' journey
 from the sea inland to the country of the Black-cloaks who live north of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia .

Now, as I reckon a day's journey at two hundred stades, the
 cross-measurement of Scythia
 (region (general)), Asia Scythia would be a distance of
 five hundred miles, and the line drawn straight up inland the same. Such
 then is the extent of this land.

Convinced that they alone were not able to repel
 Darius ' army in open warfare, the Scythians sent messengers to their neighbors, whose
 kings had already gathered and were deliberating on the presumption that a
 great army was marching against them.

The assembled kings were those of the Tauri ,
 Agathyrsi , Neuri ,
 Maneaters , Black-cloaks , Geloni , Budini , and Sauromatae .

Among these, the Tauri 
 have the following customs: all ship-wrecked men, and any Greeks whom they capture in their sea-raids, they
 sacrifice to the Virgin goddess as I will describe: after
 the first rites of sacrifice, they strike the victim on the head with a
 club;

according to some, they then place the head on a pole and throw the body
 off the cliff on which their temple stands; others agree as to the head, but
 say that the body is buried, not thrown off the cliff. The Tauri themselves say that this deity to whom they
 sacrifice is Agamemnon 's daughter Iphigenia .

As for enemies whom they defeat, each cuts his enemy's head off and carries
 it away to his house, where he places it on a tall pole and stands it high
 above the dwelling, above the smoke-vent for the most part. These heads,
 they say, are set up to guard the whole house. The Tauri live by plundering and war.

The Agathyrsi are the most
 refined of men and especially given to wearing gold. Their intercourse with
 women is promiscuous, so that they may be consanguine with one another and,
 all being relations, not harbor jealousy or animosity toward one another. In
 the rest of their customs they are like the Thracians .

The Neuri follow Scythian customs; but one generation before the
 advent of Darius ' army, they happened to be driven
 from their country by snakes; for their land produced great numbers of
 these, and still more came down on them out of the desolation on the north,
 until at last the Neuri were so afflicted that
 they left their own country and lived among the Budini . It may be that these people are wizards;

for the Scythians , and the Greeks settled in Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , say that
 once a year every one of the Neuri becomes a wolf
 for a few days and changes back again to his former shape. Those who tell
 this tale do not convince me; but they tell it nonetheless, and swear to its
 truth.

The Man-eaters are the
 most savage of all men in their way of life; they know no justice and obey
 no law. They are nomads, wearing a costume like the Scythian , but speaking a language of their own; of all these,
 they are the only people that eat men.

The Black-cloaks all wear
 black clothing, from which they get their name; their customs are Scythian .

The Budini are a great
 and populous nation; the eyes of them all are very bright, and they are
 ruddy. They have a city built of wood, called Gelonus . The wall of it is three and three quarters miles in
 length on each side of the city; this wall is high and all of wood; and
 their houses are wooden, and their temples;

for there are temples of Greek gods among them,
 furnished in Greek style with images and altars
 and shrines of wood; and they honor Dionysus every
 two years with festivals and revelry. For the Geloni are by their origin Greeks , who
 left their trading ports to settle among the Budini ; and they speak a language half Greek and half Scythian . But the Budini do not speak the same language as the Geloni , nor is their manner of life the same.

The Budini are
 indigenous; they are nomads, and the only people in these parts that eat
 fir-cones; the Geloni are farmers, eating grain
 and cultivating gardens; they are altogether unlike the Budini in form and in coloring. Yet the Greeks call the Budini too Geloni ; but this is wrong.

Their whole country is thickly wooded with every kind of tree; in the depth
 of the forest there is a great, wide lake and a marsh surrounded by reeds;
 otter is trapped in it, and beaver, besides certain square-faced creatures
 whose skins are used to trim mantles, and their testicles are used by the
 people to heal sicknesses of the womb.

About the Sauromatae , the
 story is as follows. When the Greeks were at war
 with the Amazons (whom the Scythians call Oiorpata , a name
 signifying in our tongue killers of men, for in Scythian a man is “oior” and to kill is “pata”), the story runs
 that after their victory on the Thermodon they
 sailed away carrying in three ships as many Amazons as they had been able to take alive; and out at sea the
 Amazons attacked the crews and killed them.

But they knew nothing about ships, or how to use rudder or sail or oar; and
 with the men dead, they were at the mercy of waves and winds, until they
 came to the Cliffs by the Maeetian lake ; this
 place is in the country of the free Scythians .
 The Amazons landed there, and set out on their
 journey to the inhabited country, and seizing the first troop of horses they
 met, they mounted them and raided the Scythian 
 lands.

The Scythians could not
 understand the business; for they did not recognize the women's speech or
 their dress or their nation, but wondered where they had come from, and
 imagined them to be men all of the same age; and they met the Amazons in battle. The result of the fight was that
 the Scythians got possession of the dead, and so
 came to learn that their foes were women.

Therefore, after deliberation they resolved by no means to slay them as
 before, but to send their youngest men to them, of a number corresponding
 (as they guessed) to the number of the women. They directed these youths to
 camp near the Amazons and to imitate all that
 they did; if the women pursued them, not to fight, but to flee; and when the
 pursuit stopped, to return and camp near them. This was the plan of the
 Scythians , for they desired that children be
 born of the women. The young men who were sent did as they were directed.

When the Amazons 
 perceived that the youths meant them no harm, they let them be; but every
 day the two camps drew nearer to each other. Now the young men, like the
 Amazons , had nothing but their arms and their
 horses, and lived as did the women, by hunting and plunder.

At midday the Amazons 
 would scatter and go apart from each other singly or in pairs, roaming apart
 for greater comfort. The Scythians noticed this
 and did likewise; and as the women wandered alone, a young man laid hold of
 one of them, and the woman did not resist but let him do his will;

and since they did not understand each other's speech and she could not
 speak to him, she signed with her hand that he should come the next day to
 the same place and bring another youth with him (showing by signs that there
 should be two), and she would bring another woman with her.

The youth went away and told his comrades; and the next day he came himself
 with another to the place, where he found the Amazon and another with her awaiting them. When the rest of the
 young men learned of this, they had intercourse with the rest of the Amazons .

Presently they joined their camps and lived
 together, each man having for his wife the woman with whom he had had
 intercourse at first. Now the men could not learn the women's language, but
 the women mastered the speech of the men;

and when they understood each other, the men said to the Amazons , “We have parents and possessions;
 therefore, let us no longer live as we do, but return to our people and be
 with them; and we will still have you, and no others, for our wives.” To
 this the women replied:

“We could not live with your women; for we and they do not have the same
 customs. We shoot the bow and throw the javelin and ride, but have never
 learned women's work; and your women do none of the things of which we
 speak, but stay in their wagons and do women's work, and do not go out
 hunting or anywhere else.

So we could never agree with them. If you want to keep us for wives and to
 have the name of fair men, go to your parents and let them give you the
 allotted share of their possessions, and after that let us go and live by
 ourselves.” The young men agreed and did this.

So when they had been given the allotted share of
 possessions that fell to them, and returned to the Amazons , the women said to them:

“We are worried and frightened how we are to live in this country after
 depriving you of your fathers and doing a lot of harm to your land.

Since you propose to have us for wives, do this with us: come, let us leave
 this country and live across the 
 +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia
 Tanaïs river.”

To this too the youths agreed; and crossing the
 +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited
 place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs , they went a
 three days' journey east from the river, and a three days' journey north
 from lake Maeetis ; and when they came to the
 region in which they now live, they settled there.

Ever since then the women of the Sauromatae have
 followed their ancient ways; they ride out hunting, with their men or
 without them; they go to war, and dress the same as the men.

The language of the Sauromatae is Scythian , but not spoken
 in its ancient purity, since the Amazons never
 learned it correctly. In regard to marriage, it is the custom that no maiden
 weds until she has killed a man of the enemy; and some of them grow old and
 die unmarried, because they cannot fulfill the law.

The kings of the aforesaid nations having gathered,
 then, the Scythian messengers came and laid
 everything before them, explaining how the Persian , now that the whole of the other continent was subject to
 him, had crossed over to their continent by a bridge thrown across the neck
 of the Karadeniz Bogazi (strait),
 Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bosporus , and how having
 crossed it and subjugated the Thracians he was
 now bridging the Ister , so as to make that whole
 region subject to him like the others.

“By no means stand aside and let us be destroyed,” they said; “rather, let
 us unite and oppose this invader. If you will not, then we shall either be
 driven out of our country or stay and make terms.

For what is to become of us if you will not help us? And afterward it will
 not be easy for you, either; for the Persian has
 come to attack you no less than us, and when he has subjugated us he will
 not be content to leave you alone.

We will give you a convincing proof of what we say: if indeed the Persian were marching against us alone, wanting
 vengeance for our former enslavement of his country, he ought to leave
 others alone and make straight for us, and would show everyone that Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia and no other country was his goal.

But as it is, from the day he crossed over to this continent, he has been
 taming all that come in his way, and he holds in subjection not only the
 rest of Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , but also our neighbors the Getae .”

After the Scythians had
 made this speech, the kings who had come from the nations deliberated, and
 their opinions were divided. The kings of the Geloni and the Budini and the Sauromatae were of one mind and promised to help the
 Scythians ; but the kings of the Agathyrsi and Neuri and
 Maneaters and Black-cloaks and Tauri gave this
 answer to the messengers:

“Had it not been you who wronged the Persians 
 first and began the war, what you now ask would seem to us right, and we
 would listen and act together with you.

But as it is, you invaded their land without us and ruled the Persians for as long as god granted; and the Persians , urged on by the same god, are only
 repaying you in kind.

But we did these men no wrong at that former time, nor do we intend now to
 wrong them first; but if the Persian comes
 against our land too and begins the wrong-doing, then we will not accept it,
 either; but until we see that, we shall keep to ourselves. For in our
 judgment the Persians have not come for us but
 for those who were the agents of wrong.”

When this answer was brought back to the Scythians , they determined not to meet their enemy
 in the open field, since they could not get the allies that they sought, but
 rather to fall back driving off their herds, choking the wells and springs
 on their way and destroying the grass from the earth; and they divided
 themselves into two companies.

It was their decision that to one of their divisions, which Scopasis ruled, the Sauromatae be added; if the Persian 
 marched that way, this group was to retire before him and fall back toward
 the +Azov [39.433,47.1]
 (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs 
 river, by the Maeetian lake , and if the Persian turned to go back, then they were to pursue
 and attack him. This was one of the divisions of the royal people, and it
 was appointed to follow this course;

their two other divisions, namely, the greater whose ruler was Idanthyrsus , and the third whose king was Taxakis , were to unite, and taking with them also the
 Geloni and Budini ,
 to draw off like the others at the Persian 
 approach, always keeping one day's march ahead of the enemy, avoiding a
 confrontation and doing what had been determined.

First, then, they were to retreat in a straight line toward the countries
 which refused their alliance, so as to involve these, too, in the war; for
 if they did not of their own accord support the war against the Persians , they must be involved against their will;
 and after that, the division was to turn back to its own country, and attack
 the enemy, if in deliberation they thought this best.

Determined on this plan, the Scythians sent an advance guard of their best horsemen to meet
 Darius ' army. As for the wagons in which their
 children and wives lived, all these they sent forward, with instructions to
 drive always northward; and they sent all their flocks with the wagons,
 keeping none back except what was required for their food.

After this convoy was first sent on its way, the
 advance guard of the Scythians found the Persians about a three days' march distant from the
 Ister ; and having found them they camped a
 day's march ahead of the enemy and set about scorching the earth of all
 living things.

When the Persians saw the Scythian cavalry appear, they marched on its track, the horsemen
 always withdrawing before them; and then, making for the one Scythian division, the Persians held on in pursuit toward the east and the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited
 place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs river;

when the horsemen crossed this, the Persians 
 crossed also, and pursued until they had marched through the land of the
 Sauromatae to the land of the Budini .

As long as the Persians 
 were traversing the Scythian and Sauromatic territory there was nothing for them to
 harm, as the land was dry and barren. But when they entered the country of
 the Budini , they found themselves before the
 wooden-walled town; the Budini had abandoned it
 and left nothing in it, and the Persians burnt
 the town.

Then going forward still on the horsemen's track, they passed through this
 country into desolation, which is inhabited by no one; it lies to the north
 of the Budini and its breadth is a seven days'
 march.

Beyond this desolation live the Thyssagetae ; four
 great rivers flow from their country through the land of the Maeetians , and issue into the lake called the Maeetian ; their names are Lycus , +Volga
 [48,45.833] (river), Russia, Asia Oarus , +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited
 place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs , Syrgis .

When Darius came into the
 desolate country, he halted in his pursuit and camped on the Oarus river , where he built eight great forts, the
 ruins of which were standing even in my lifetime, all at an equal distance
 of about seven miles from one another.

While he was occupied with these, the Scythians 
 whom he was pursuing doubled north and turned back into Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia . Then, when they had altogether vanished and
 were no longer within the Persians ' sight, Darius left those forts only half finished, and he too
 doubled about and marched west, thinking that those Scythians were the whole army, and that they were fleeing toward
 the west.

But when he came by forced marches into Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia , he met the two divisions of the Scythians , and pursued them, who always kept a day's
 march away from him;

and because Darius would not stop pursuing them,
 the Scythians , according to the plan they had
 made, fell back before him to the countries of those who had refused their
 alliance, to the land of the Black-cloaks first.

The Scythians and Persians burst into their land, agitating them; and from there,
 the Scythians led the Persians into the country of the Man-eaters , agitating them too; from there, they drew off into
 the country of the Neuri and, agitating them
 also, fled to the Agathyrsi .

But the Agathyrsi , seeing their neighbors fleeing
 panic-stricken at the Scythians ' approach, before
 the Scythians could break into their land sent a
 herald to forbid them to set foot across their borders, warning the Scythians that if they tried to break through they
 would have to fight with the Agathyrsi first.

With this warning, the Agathyrsi mustered on their
 borders, intending to stop the invaders. When the Persians and the Scythians broke into
 their lands, the Blackcloaks and Man-eaters and Neuri put
 up no resistance, but forgot their threats and fled panic-stricken north
 into the desolate country.

But warned off by the Agathyrsi , the Scythians made no second attempt on that country,
 but led the Persians from the lands of the Neuri into Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia .

As this went on for a long time and did not stop,
 Darius sent a horseman to Idanthyrsus the Scythian king, with
 this message: “You crazy man, why do you always run, when you can do
 otherwise? If you believe yourself strong enough to withstand my power,
 stand and fight and stop running; but if you know you are the weaker, then
 stop running like this and come to terms with your master, bringing gifts of
 earth and water.”

Idanthyrsus the Scythian 
 king replied: “It is like this with me, Persian :
 I never ran from any man before out of fear, and I am not running from you
 now; I am not doing any differently now than I am used to doing in time of
 peace, too.

As to why I do not fight with you at once, I will tell you why. We Scythians have no towns or cultivated land, out of
 fear for which, that the one might be taken or the other wasted, we would
 engage you sooner in battle. But if all you want is to come to that quickly,
 we have the graves of our fathers.

Come on, find these and try to destroy them: you shall know then whether we
 will fight you for the graves or whether we will not fight. Until then,
 unless we have reason, we will not engage with you.

As to fighting, enough; as to masters, I acknowledge Zeus my forefather and Hestia queen of
 the Scythians only. As for you, instead of gifts
 of earth and water I shall send such as ought to come to you; and for your
 boast that you are my master, I say ‘Weep!’” Such is the proverbial “ Scythian speech.”

So the herald went to carry this message to Darius ; but the Scythian 
 kings were filled with anger when they heard the word “slavery”.

They then sent the division of the Scythians to
 which the Sauromatae were attached, and which was
 led by Scopasis , to speak with those Ionians guarding the bridge over the Ister ; as for those of the Scythians who remained behind, it was decided that they should no
 longer decoy the Persians , but attack them
 whenever they were foraging for provision. So they watched for the time when
 Darius ' men were foraging, and did as they had
 planned.

The Scythian horse always routed the Persian horse, and when the Persian cavalry would fall back in flight on their infantry, the
 infantry would come up to their aid; and the Scythians , once they had driven in the horse, turned back for
 fear of the infantry. The Scythians attacked in
 this fashion by night as well as by day.

Very strange to say, what aided the Persians and thwarted the Scythians in their attacks on Darius '
 army was the braying of the asses and the appearance of the mules.

For, as I have before indicated, Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia produces no
 asses or mules; and there is not in most of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia an
 ass or a mule, because of the cold. Therefore the asses frightened the Scythian horses when they brayed loudly;

and often, when they were in the act of charging the Persians , the horses would shy in fear if they heard the asses
 bray or would stand still with ears erect, never having heard a noise like
 it or seen a like creature.

The Persians thus gained
 very little in the war, for when the Scythians 
 saw that the Persians were shaken, they formed a
 plan to have them remain longer in Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia and,
 remaining, be distressed by lack of necessities: they would leave some of
 their flocks behind with the shepherds, moving away themselves to another
 place; and the Persians would come and take the
 sheep, and be encouraged by this achievement.

After such a thing had happened several times, Darius was finally at a loss; and when they perceived
 this, the Scythian kings sent a herald to Darius with the gift of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and
 five arrows.

The Persians asked the bearer of these gifts what
 they meant; but he said that he had only been told to give the gifts and
 then leave at once; he told the Persians to
 figure out what the presents meant themselves, if they were smart enough.

When they heard this, the Persians deliberated. Darius ' judgment
 was that the Scythians were surrendering
 themselves and their earth and their water to him; for he reasoned that a
 mouse is a creature found in the earth and eating the same produce as men,
 and a frog is a creature of the water and a bird particularly like a horse;
 and the arrows signified that the Scythians 
 surrendered their fighting power.

This was the opinion declared by Darius ; but the
 opinion of Gobryas , one of the seven who had slain
 the Magus , was contrary to it. He reasoned that
 the meaning of the gifts was,

“Unless you become birds, Persians , and fly up
 into the sky, or mice and hide in the earth, or frogs and leap into the
 lakes, you will be shot by these arrows and never return home.”

The Persians reasoned
 thus about the gifts. But when the first division of the Scythians came to the bridge—the division that had first been
 appointed to stand on guard by the Maeetian lake 
 and had now been sent to the Ister to speak with
 the Ionians —they said,

“ Ionians , we have come to bring you freedom, if
 you will only listen to us. We understand that Darius has directed you to guard the bridge for sixty days only,
 and if he does not come within that time, then to go away to your homes.

Now then, do what will leave you guiltless in his eyes as in ours: stay here
 for the time appointed; and after that, leave.” So the Ionians promised to do this, and the Scythians made their way back with all haste.

But after sending the gifts to Darius , the Scythians who had remained
 there came out with foot and horse and offered battle to the Persians . But when the Scythian ranks were set in order, a rabbit ran out between the
 armies; and every Scythian that saw it gave
 chase. So there was confusion and shouting among the Scythians ; Darius asked about the clamor
 among the enemy; and when he heard that they were chasing a rabbit, he said
 to those with whom he was accustomed to speak,

“These men hold us in deep contempt; and I think now that Gobryas ' opinion of the Scythian gifts
 was true. Since, then, my own judgment agrees with his, we need to consider
 carefully how we shall return safely.” To this Gobryas said : “O King, I understood almost by reason alone how
 difficult it would be to deal with these Scythians ; but when I came here, I understood even better,
 watching them toying with us.

Now then, my advice is that at nightfall we kindle our campfires in the
 usual way, deceive those in our army who are least fit to endure hardship,
 and tether all our asses here, and ourselves depart, before the Scythians can march straight to the Ister to break up the bridge, or the Ionians take some action by which we may well be
 ruined.”

This was Gobryas ' advice,
 and at nightfall Darius followed it. He left the
 men who were worn out, and those whose loss mattered least to him, there in
 the camp, and all the asses, too, tethered.

His reasons for leaving the asses, and the infirm among his soldiers, were
 the following: the asses, so that they would bray; the men, who were left
 because of their infirmity, he pretended were to guard the camp while he
 attacked the Scythians with the fit part of his
 army.

Giving this order to those who were left behind, and lighting campfires,
 Darius made all haste to reach the Ister . When the asses found themselves deserted by
 the multitude, they brayed the louder for it; and the Scythians heard them and assumed that the Persians were in the place.

But when it was day, the men left behind perceived
 that Darius had betrayed them, and they held out
 their hands to the Scythians and explained the
 circumstances; they, when they heard this, assembled their power in haste,
 the two divisions of their horde and the one division that was with the
 Sauromatae and Budini and Geloni , and made straight
 for the Ister in pursuit of the Persians .

And as the Persian army was for the most part
 infantry and did not know the roads (which were not marked), while the Scythians were horsemen and knew the short cuts,
 they went wide of each other, and the Scythians 
 reached the bridge long before the Persians .

There, perceiving that the Persians had not yet
 come, they said to the Ionians , who were in their
 ships, “ Ionians , the days have exceeded the
 number, and you are wrong to be here still.

Since it was fear that kept you here, now break the bridge in haste and go,
 free and happy men, thanking the gods and the Scythians . The one that was your master we shall impress in such
 a way that he will never lead an army against anyone again.”

Then the Ionians held a
 council. Miltiades the Athenian , general and sovereign of the Chersonesites of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , advised that they do as the Scythians said and set Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia free.

But Histiaeus of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus 
 advised the opposite. He said, “It is owing to Darius that each of us is sovereign of his city; if Darius ' power is overthrown, we shall no longer be
 able to rule, I in Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus or any of you elsewhere;
 for all the cities will choose democracy rather than despotism.”

When Histiaeus explained this, all of them at once
 inclined to his view, although they had first sided with Miltiades .

Those high in Darius ' favor
 who gave their vote were Daphnis of Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos ,
 Hippoclus of Lapseki [26.7,40.366] (inhabited place), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Lampsacus , Herophantus of Parium , Metrodorus of +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Proconnesus , Aristagoras of 
 +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) Cyzicus , Ariston of +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus) Byzantium ,

all from the Canakkale Bogazi
 (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and
 sovereigns of cities there; and from Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , Strattis of 
 +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , Aiaces of +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos , Laodamas of +Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited
 place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea ,
 and Histiaeus of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus who
 opposed the plan of Miltiades . As for the Aeolians , their only notable man present was Aristagoras of Cymae .

When these accepted Histiaeus ' view, they decided to act upon it in the following
 way: to break as much of the bridge on the Scythian side as a bowshot from there carried, so that they seem
 to be doing something when in fact they were doing nothing, and that the
 Scythians not try to force their way across
 the bridge over the Ister ; and to say while they
 were breaking the portion of the bridge on the Scythian side, that they would do all that the Scythians desired.

This was the plan they adopted; and then Histiaeus 
 answered for them all, and said, “You have come with good advice, Scythians , and your urgency is timely: you guide us
 well and we do you a convenient service; for, as you see, we are breaking
 the bridge, and will be diligent about it, as we want to be free.

But while we are breaking the bridge, this is your opportunity to go and
 find the Persians , and when you have found them,
 punish them as they deserve on our behalf and on your own.”

So the Scythians ,
 trusting the Ionians ' word once more, turned back
 to look for the Persians ; but they missed the way
 by which their enemies returned. The Scythians 
 themselves were to blame for this, because they had destroyed the horses'
 pasturage in that region and blocked the wells.

Had they not done, they could, if they had wished, easily have found the
 Persians . But as it was, that part of their
 plan which they had thought the best was the very cause of their going
 astray.

So the Scythians went searching for their enemies
 through the parts of their own country where there was forage for the horses
 and water, supposing that they, too, were heading for such places in their
 flight; but the Persians kept to their own former
 tracks, and so with much trouble they found the crossing.

But as they arrived at night and found the bridge broken, they were in great
 alarm lest the Ionians had abandoned them.

There was an Egyptian 
 with Darius whose voice was the loudest in the
 world; Darius had this man stand on the bank of the
 Ister and call to Histiaeus the Milesian . This the Egyptian did; Histiaeus 
 heard and answered the first shout, and sent all the ships to ferry the army
 over, and repaired the bridge.

Thus the Persians 
 escaped. The Scythians sought the Persians , but missed them again. Their judgment of
 the Ionians is that if they are regarded as free
 men they are the basest and most craven in the world; but if they are
 reckoned as slaves, none love their masters more, or desire less to escape.
 Thus have the Scythians taunted the Ionians .

Darius marched through Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace to
 +Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestos on the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonesus ; from there, he crossed over with
 his ships to Asia
 (continent) Asia , leaving Megabazus as his commander in Europe (continent) Europe , a Persian whom he once honored by saying among the
 Persians what I note here:

Darius was about to eat pomegranates, and no sooner
 had he opened the first of them than his brother Artabanus asked him what he would like to have as many of as
 there were seeds in his pomegranate; then Darius 
 said that he would rather have that many men like Megabazus than make all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas subject to
 him.

By speaking thus among Persians , the king honored
 Megabazus ; and now he left him behind as his
 commander, at the head of eighty thousand of his army.

This Megabazus is forever
 remembered by the people of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont for replying,

when he was told at 
 +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus) Byzantium that the
 people of Calchedon had founded their town
 seventeen years before the Byzantines had founded
 theirs, that the Calchedonians must at that time
 have been blind, for had they not been, they would never have chosen the
 worse site for their city when they might have had the better.

This Megabazus , left now as commander in the
 country, subjugated all the people of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont who did not take the side of the Persians .

At the same time that he was doing this, another
 great force was sent against Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , for the reason that I
 shall give after I finish the story that I am going to tell now.

The descendants of the crew of the Argo were driven
 out by the Pelasgians who carried off the Athenian women from +Brauron [24.025,37.9167] (Perseus)
 Brauron ; after being driven out of +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos by them, they sailed away
 to Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , and there camped on Teügetum and kindled a fire.

Seeing it, the Lacedaemonians sent a messenger to
 inquire who they were and where they came from. They answered the messenger
 that they were Minyae , descendants of the heroes
 who had sailed in the Argo and put in at +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos and there
 begot their race.

Hearing the story of the lineage of the Minyae ,
 the Lacedaemonians sent a second time and asked
 why they had come into +Laconia
 [22.583,37] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Laconia and kindled a fire. They replied that, having been
 expelled by the Pelasgians , they had come to the
 land of their fathers, as was most just; and their wish was to live with
 their fathers' people, sharing in their rights and receiving allotted pieces
 of land.

The Lacedaemonians were happy to receive the
 Minyae 
 on the terms which their guests
 desired; the chief cause of their consenting was that the Tyndaridae 
 had been in the ship's company of the Argo ; so they received the Minyae and gave them land and distributed them among their own
 tribes. The Minyae immediately married, and gave
 in marriage to others the women they had brought from +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos .

But in no time these Minyae became imperious, demanding an equal right to the
 kingship, and doing other impious things;

hence the Lacedaemonians resolved to kill them,
 and they seized them and cast them into prison. (When the Lacedaemonians execute, they do it by night, never
 by day.)

Now when they were about to kill the prisoners, the wives of the Minyae , who were natives of the country, daughters
 of leading Spartans , asked permission to enter
 the prison and each converse with her husband; the Lacedamonians granted this, not expecting that there would be any
 treachery from them.

But when the wives came into the prison, they gave their husbands all their
 own garments, and themselves put on the men's clothing; so the Minyae passed out in the guise of women dressed in
 women's clothing; and thus escaping, once more camped on Teügetum .

Now, about this same time, Theras , a descendant of Polynices 
 through Thersander , Tisamenus , and Autesion , was preparing
 to lead out colonists from Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon .

This Theras was of the line of Cadmus and was an uncle on their mother's side to Aristodemus ' sons Eurysthenes 
 and Procles ; and while these boys were yet children
 he held the royal power of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta as
 regent;

but when his nephews grew up and became kings, then Theras could not endure to be a subject when he had had a taste
 of supreme power, and said he would no longer stay in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 but would sail away to his family.

On the island now called +Thera
 [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Thera , but then 
 +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Calliste , there were descendants of Membliarus the son of Poeciles , a Phoenician ; for Cadmus son of Agenor had put
 in at the place now called +Thera
 [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Thera during his search for Europa ;
 and having put in, either because the land pleased him, or because for some
 other reason he desired to do so, he left on this island his own relation
 Membliarus together with other Phoenicians .

These dwelt on the island of 
 +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Calliste for eight generations before Theras came from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon .

It was these that Theras 
 was preparing to join, taking with him a company of people from the tribes;
 his intention was to settle among the people of +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Calliste and not drive them out
 but claim them as in fact his own people.

So when the Minyae escaped from prison and camped
 on Teügetum , and the Lacedaemonians were planning to put them to death, Theras interceded for their lives, that there might be
 no killing, promising to lead them out of the country himself.

The Lacedaemonians consented to this, and Theras sailed with three thirty-oared ships to join
 the descendants of Membliarus , taking with him not
 all the Minyae but only a few;

for the greater part of them made their way to the lands of the Paroreatae and Caucones ,
 and after having driven these out of their own country, they divided
 themselves into six companies and established the cities of Lepreum , Macistus , Phrixae , Pyrgus , Epium , and Nudium in the
 land they had won; most of these were in my time
 taken and sacked by the Eleans . As for the island
 +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Calliste , it was
 called +Thera [25.433,36.4]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera 
 after its colonist.

But as Theras ' son would
 not sail with him, his father said that he would leave him behind as a sheep
 among wolves; after which saying the boy got the nickname of Oeolycus , and it so happened that this became his customary
 name. He had a son, Aegeus , from whom the Aegidae , a great Spartan 
 clan, take their name.

The men of this clan, finding that none of their children lived, set up a
 temple of the avenging spirits of Laïus and Oedipus , by the instruction of an oracle, after which their children lived.
 It fared thus, too, with the children of the Aegidae at +Thera
 [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Thera .

So far in the story the Lacedaemonian and Theraean records
 agree; for the rest, we have only the word of the Theraeans .

Grinnus son of Aesanius ,
 king of +Thera [25.433,36.4]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera ,
 a descendant of this same Theras , came to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi bringing a hecatomb from his city; among others of
 his people, Battus son of Polymnestus came with him, a descendant of Euphemus of the Minyan clan.

When Grinnus king of +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Thera asked the oracle about
 other matters, the priestess' answer was that he should found a city in
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya . “Lord, I am too old and heavy to stir;
 command one of these younger men to do this,” answered Grinnus , pointing to Battus as he spoke.

No more was said then. But when they departed, they neglected to obey the
 oracle, since they did not know where Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya was, and were
 afraid to send a colony out to an uncertain destination.

For seven years after this there was no rain in
 +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera ; all the
 trees in the island except one withered. The Theraeans inquired at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi again,
 and the priestess mentioned the colony they should send to Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya .

So, since there was no remedy for their ills, they sent messengers to +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe Crete to find any Cretan or traveller there who had travelled to Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya . In their travels about the island, these came
 to the town of Itanus , where they met a murex
 fisherman named Corobius , who told them that he had
 once been driven off course by winds to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , to an island
 there called Platea .

They hired this man to come with them to +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Thera ; from there, just a few men
 were sent aboard ship to spy out the land first; guided by Corobius to the aforesaid island Platea , these left him there with provision for some months, and
 themselves sailed back with all speed to +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Thera to bring news of the
 island.

But after they had been away for longer than the
 agreed time, and Corobius had no provisions left, a
 Samian ship sailing for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt , whose captain was Colaeus ,
 was driven off her course to Platea , where the
 Samians heard the whole story from Corobius and left him provisions for a year;

they then put out to sea from the island and would have sailed to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt , but an easterly wind drove them from their course,
 and did not abate until they had passed through the Pillars of Heracles and came providentially to Tartessus .

Now this was at that time an untapped market; hence, the Samians , of all the Greeks whom we know with certainty, brought back from it the
 greatest profit on their wares except Sostratus of
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina , son of Laodamas ;
 no one could compete with him.

The Samians took six talents, a tenth of their
 profit, and made a bronze vessel with it, like an Argolic cauldron, with griffins' heads projecting from the rim
 all around; they set this up in their temple of Hera , supporting it with three colossal kneeling figures of
 bronze, each twelve feet high.

What the Samians had done was the beginning of a
 close friendship between them and the men of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene and +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Thera .

As for the Theraeans ,
 when they came to +Thera
 [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Thera after leaving Corobius on the
 island, they brought word that they had established a settlement on an
 island off Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya . The Theraeans 
 determined to send out men from their seven regions, taking by lot one of
 every pair of brothers, and making Battus leader
 and king of all. Then they manned two fifty-oared ships and sent them to
 Platea .

This is what the Theraeans say; and now begins the part in which the Theraean and Cyrenaean 
 stories agree, but not until now, for the Cyrenaeans tell a wholly different story about Battus , which is this. There is a town in +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe
 Crete called Oaxus , of which one
 Etearchus became ruler. He was a widower with a
 daughter whose name was Phronime , and he married a
 second wife.

When the second wife came into his house, she thought fit to be the
 proverbial stepmother to Phronime , ill-treating her
 and devising all sorts of evil against her; at last she accused the girl of
 lewdness, and persuaded her husband that the charge was true. So Etearchus was persuaded by his wife and contrived a
 great sin against his daughter.

There was at Oaxus a Theraean trader, one Themison ; Etearchus made this man his guest and friend, and got
 him to swear that he would do him whatever service he desired; then he gave
 the man his own daughter, telling him to take her away and throw her into
 the sea.

But Themison was very angry at being thus tricked
 on his oath and renounced his friendship with Etearchus ; presently, he took the girl and sailed away, and so as
 to fulfill the oath that he had sworn to Etearchus ,
 when he was on the high seas he bound her with ropes and let her down into
 the sea and drew her up again, and presently arrived at +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera .

There Polymnestus , a
 notable Theraean , took Phronime and made her his concubine. In time, a son of weak and
 stammering speech was born to him, to whom he gave the name Battus , as the Theraeans and Cyrenaeans say; but in my opinion the boy was given
 some other name,

and changed it to Battus on his coming to Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya , taking this new name because of the oracle
 given to him at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi and the honorable
 office which he received. For the Libyan word for
 king is “ Battus ,” and this (I believe) is why the
 Pythian priestess called him so in her
 prophecy, using a Libyan name because she knew
 that he was to be king in Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

For when he grew to adulthood, he went to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi 
 to inquire about his voice; and the priestess in answer gave him this:
 
 “ Battus , you have come for a
 voice; but Lord Phoebus Apollo 
 
 Sends you to found a city in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , nurse of
 sheep,” 
 just as if she addressed him using the Greek word for “king,” “Basileus, you have come for a voice,” et
 cetera.

But he answered: “Lord, I came to you to ask about my speech; but you talk
 of other matters, things impossible to do; you tell me to plant a colony in
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya ; where shall I get the power or strength of
 hand for it?” Battus spoke thus, but as the god
 would not give him another oracle and kept answering as before, he departed
 while the priestess was still speaking, and went away to +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera .

But afterward things turned out badly for Battus and the rest of the Theraeans ; and when, ignorant of the cause of their misfortunes,
 they sent to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to ask about their
 present ills,

the priestess declared that they would fare better if they helped Battus plant a colony at Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya . Then
 the Theraeans sent Battus with two fifty-oared ships; these sailed to Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya , but, not knowing what else to do, presently
 returned to +Thera [25.433,36.4]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera .

There, the Theraeans shot at them as they came to
 land and would not let the ship put in, telling them to sail back; which
 they did under constraint of necessity, and planted a colony on an island
 off the Libyan coast called (as I have said
 already) Platea . This island is said to be as big
 as the city of Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene is now.

Here they lived for two years; but as everything
 went wrong, the rest sailed to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi leaving
 one behind, and on their arrival questioned the oracle, and said that they
 were living in Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya , but that they were no better off
 for that.

Then the priestess gave them this reply: 
 “If you know Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya nurse of
 sheep better than I, 
 Though I have been there and you have not, then I am very much
 astonished at your knowledge.” 
 
 Hearing this, Battus and
 his men sailed back again; for the god would not let them do anything short
 of colonizing Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya itself;

and having come to the island and taken aboard the one whom they had left
 there, they made a settlement at a place in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya 
 itself, opposite the island which was called Aziris . This is a place enclosed on both sides by the fairest of
 groves, with a river flowing along one side of it.

Here they dwelt for six years; but in the seventh,
 the Libyans got them to leave the place, saying
 that they would lead them to a better;

and they brought the Greeks from Aziris and led them west, so calculating the hours of
 daylight that they led the Greeks past the
 fairest place in their country, called Irasa , at
 night, lest the Greeks see it in their journey.

Then they brought the Greeks to what is called
 the Fountain of Apollo , and said to them: “Here,
 Greeks , it is suitable for you to live; for
 here the sky is torn.”

Now in the time of Battus 
 the founder of the colony, who ruled for forty years, and of his son Arcesilaus who ruled for sixteen, the inhabitants of
 Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene were no more in number than when they had first
 gone out to the colony.

But in the time of the third ruler, Battus , who was
 called the Fortunate, the Pythian priestess
 warned all Greeks by an oracle to cross the sea
 and live in Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya with the Cyrenaeans ; for the Cyrenaeans invited
 them, promising a distribution of land;

and this was the oracle: 
 “Whoever goes to beloved Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya 
 after 
 The fields are divided, I say shall be sorry afterward.”

So a great multitude gathered at Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar,
 Libya, Africa Cyrene , and cut out great tracts of land
 from the territory of the neighboring Libyans .
 Robbed of their lands and treated violently by the Cyrenaeans , these then sent to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt 
 together with their king, whose name was Adicran ,
 and put their affairs in the hands of Apries , the
 king of that country.

Apries mustered a great force of Egyptians and sent it against Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene ; the
 Cyrenaeans marched out to Irasa and the Thestes spring, and there
 fought with the Egyptians and beat them;

for the Egyptians had as yet had no experience
 of Greeks , and despised their enemy; as a result
 of which, they were so utterly destroyed that few of them returned to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt . Because of this misfortune, and because they blamed
 him for it, the Egyptians revolted from Apries .

This Battus had a son Arcesilaus ; on his first coming to reign, he
 quarrelled with his brothers, until they left him and went away to another
 place in Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya , where they founded a city for themselves,
 which was then and is now called 
 +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Barce ; and while they were founding it, they
 persuaded the Libyans to revolt from the Cyrenaeans .

Then Arcesilaus led an army into the country of the
 Libyans who had received his brothers and had
 also revolted; and they fled in fear of him to the eastern Libyans .

Arcesilaus pursued them until he came in his
 pursuit to Leucon in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , where
 the Libyans resolved to attack him; they engaged,
 and so wholly overcame the Cyrenaeans that seven
 thousand Cyrenaean soldiers were killed there.

After this disaster, Arcesilaus , being worn down
 and having taken a drug, was strangled by his brother Learchus ; Learchus was deftly killed by
 Arcesilaus ' wife, Eryxo .

Arcesilaus ' kingship passed to his son Battus , who was lame and infirm in his feet. The Cyrenaeans , in view of the affliction that had
 overtaken them, sent to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to ask what political
 arrangement would enable them to live best;

the priestess told them bring a mediator from +Mantinea [22.3833,37.6167] (Perseus)
 Mantinea in 
 +Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Arcadia . When the Cyrenaeans sent
 their request, the Mantineans gave them their
 most valued citizen, whose name was Demonax .

When this man came to Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene and learned everything, he divided the
 people into three tribes; of which the Theraeans and
 dispossessed Libyans were one, the Peloponnesians and Cretans the second, and all the islanders the third; furthermore,
 he set apart certain domains and priesthoods for their king Battus , but all the rest, which had belonged to the
 kings, were now to be held by the people in common.

During the life of this Battus , these ordinances held good, but in the time of his son
 Arcesilaus much contention arose about the
 king's rights.

Arcesilaus , son of the lame Battus and Pheretime , would not abide by
 the ordinances of Demonax , but demanded back the
 prerogatives of his forefathers, and made himself head of a faction; but he
 was defeated and banished to 
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Samos , and his mother fled to Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted
 settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus, Asia Salamis in Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus .

Now Salamis [33.9,35.166]
 (deserted settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus, Asia Salamis at
 this time was ruled by Evelthon , who dedicated that
 marvellous censer at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi which stands in the
 treasury of the Corinthians . Pheretime came to him, asking him for an army to bring her and
 her son back to Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene ;

Evelthon was willing to give her everything else,
 only not an army, and when she accepted what he gave her, she said that it
 was fine, but it would be better to give her an army as she asked.

This she said whatever the gift, until at last Evelthon sent her a golden spindle and distaff, and wool, and
 when Pheretime uttered the same words as before, he
 answered that these, and not armies, were gifts for women.

Meanwhile Arcesilaus was in
 +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75]
 (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ,
 collecting all the men that he could and promising them a new division of
 land; and while a great army was thus gathering, he made a journey to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , to ask the oracle about his return.

The priestess gave him this answer: “For the lifetimes
 of four Battuses and four Arcesilauses , eight generations of men, Loxias grants to your house the kingship of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene ; more
 than this he advises you not even to try.

But you, return to your country and live there in peace. But if you
 find the oven full of amphora, do not bake the amphora, but let them go
 unscathed. And if you bake them in the oven, do not go into the tidal
 place; for if you do, then you shall be killed yourself, and also the
 bull that is fairest of the herd.” This was the oracle given by
 the priestess to Arcesilaus .

But he returned to Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene with the men from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , and having
 made himself master of it he forgot the oracle, and demanded justice upon
 his enemies for his banishment.

Some of these left the country altogether; others, Arcesilaus seized and sent away to Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus to be
 killed there. These were carried off their course to +Cnidus Nova [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement),
 Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Cnidus , where the
 Cnidians saved them and sent them to +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Thera . Others of
 the Cyrenaeans fled for refuge into a great tower
 that belonged to one Aglomachus , a private man, and
 Arcesilaus piled wood around it and burnt them
 there.

Then, perceiving too late that this was the meaning of the Delphic oracle which forbade him to bake the amphora
 if he found them in the oven, he deliberately refrained from going into the
 city of the Cyrenaeans , fearing the death
 prophesied and supposing the tidal place to be Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene .

Now he had a wife who was a relation of his, a daughter of Alazir king of the Barcaeans , and
 Arcesilaus went to Alazir ; but men of +Al
 Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Barce and some of the exiles from Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene were
 aware of him and killed him as he walked in the town, and Alazir his father-in-law too. So Arcesilaus whether with or without meaning to missed the meaning
 of the oracle and fulfilled his destiny.

While Arcesilaus was living
 at +Al Marj [20.833,32.5]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa
 Barce , accomplishing his own destruction, his mother Pheretime held her son's prerogative at Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene , where
 she administered all his business and sat with others in council.

But when she learned of her son's death at +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barce , she made her escape to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt , trusting to the good service which Arcesilaus had done Cambyses the son of
 Cyrus ; for this was the Arcesilaus who gave Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar,
 Libya, Africa Cyrene to Cambyses 
 and agreed to pay tribute.

So, on her arrival in Egypt
 [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , Pheretime supplicated Aryandes , asking
 that he avenge her, on the plea that her son had been killed for allying
 himself with the Medes .

This Aryandes had been
 appointed viceroy of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa Egypt by Cambyses ; at a later day, he was put to death for making himself
 equal to Darius . For, learning and seeing that
 Darius desired to leave a memorial of himself
 such as no king ever had, Aryandes imitated him,
 until he got his reward;

for Darius had coined money out of gold refined to
 an extreme purity, and Aryandes , then
 ruling Egypt [30,27] (nation),
 Africa Egypt , made a similar silver coinage; and now
 there is no silver money so pure as is the Aryandic . But when Darius heard that
 Aryandes was doing so, he put him to death, not
 on this charge but as a rebel.

At this time, Aryandes took
 pity on Pheretime and gave her all the Egyptian land and sea forces, appointing Amasis , a Maraphian ,
 general of the army, and Badres of the tribe of the
 +Pasargadae (deserted
 settlement), Fars, Iran, Asia Pasargadae , admiral of the
 fleet.

But before despatching the troops, Aryandes sent a
 herald to +Al Marj [20.833,32.5]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa
 Barce to ask who it was who had killed Arcesilaus . The Barcaeans answered
 that it was the deed of the whole city, for the many wrongs that Arcesilaus had done them; when he heard this, Aryandes sent his troops with Pheretime .

This was the pretext; but I myself think that the troops were sent to
 subjugate Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya . For the Libyan 
 tribes are many and of different kinds, and though a few of them were the
 king's subjects, the greater part cared nothing for Darius .

Now, concerning the lands inhabited by Libyans , the Adyrmachidae 
 are the people that live nearest to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; they follow
 Egyptian customs for the most part, but dress
 like other Libyans . Their women wear twisted
 bronze ornaments on both legs; their hair is long; each catches her own
 lice, then bites and throws them away.

They are the only Libyans that do this, and who
 show the king all virgins that are to be married; the king then takes the
 virginity of whichever of these pleases him. These Adyrmachidae extend from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to the harbor
 called Plynus .

Next to them are the Giligamae , who inhabit the country to the west as far as the
 island of +Geyve [30.3,40.533]
 (inhabited place), Sakarya, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Aphrodisias ; in between lies the island of Platea , which the Cyrenaeans colonized, and on the mainland is the harbor called
 Menelaus , and the Aziris which was a settlement of the Cyrenaeans . Here the country of silphium begins,

which reaches from the island of Platea to the
 entrance of the Golfe de Gabes
 [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa Syrtis . This people
 is like the others in its customs.

The next people west of the Giligamae are the Asbystae , who live
 inland of Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene , not coming down to the coast, for that is
 Cyrenaean territory. These drive four-horse
 chariots to a greater extent than any other Libyans ; it is their practice to imitate most of the Cyrenaean customs.

Next west of the Asbystae 
 are the Auschisae , dwelling inland of +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barce , and
 touching the coast at Euhesperidae . About the
 middle of the land of the Auschisae lives the
 little tribe of the Bacales , whose territory
 comes down to the sea at +Tukrah
 [20.583,32.533] (inhabited place), Banghazi, Libya, Africa
 Tauchira , a town in the Barcaean 
 country; their customs are the same as those of the dwellers inland of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene .

Next west of these Auschisae is the populous country of the Nasamones , who in summer leave their flocks by the sea and go up
 to the land called +Awjilah
 [21.2,29.15] (inhabited place), Banghazi, Libya, Africa
 Augila to gather dates from the palm-trees that grow there
 in great abundance and all bear fruit. They hunt locusts, which they dry in
 the sun, and after grinding sprinkle them into milk and drink it.

It is their custom for every man to have many wives; their intercourse with
 women is promiscuous, as among the Massagetae ; a
 staff is placed before the dwelling, and then they have intercourse. When a
 man of the Nasamones weds, on the first night the
 bride must by custom lie with each of the whole company in turn; and each
 man after intercourse gives her whatever gift he has brought from his house.

As for their manner of swearing and divination, they lay their hands on the
 graves of the men reputed to have been the most just and good among them,
 and by these men they swear; their practice of divination is to go to the
 tombs of their ancestors, where after making prayers they lie down to sleep,
 and take for oracles whatever dreams come to them.

They give and receive pledges by each drinking from the hand of the other
 party; and if they have nothing liquid, they take the dust of the earth and
 lick it up.

On the borders of the Nasamones is the country of the Psylli , who perished in this way: the force of the south wind dried
 up their water-tanks, and all their country, lying in the region of the
 Golfe de Gabes [10.417,34.000]
 (gulf), Tunis, Africa Syrtis , was waterless. After
 deliberating together, they marched south (I tell the story as it is told by
 the Libyans ), and when they came into the sandy
 desert, a strong south wind buried them. So they perished utterly, and the
 Nasamones have their country.

Inland of these to the south, the Garamantes live in wild beast country. They shun the
 sight and fellowship of men, and have no weapons of war, nor know how to
 defend themselves.

These live inland of the Nasamones ; the neighboring seaboard to the west is the country of
 the Macae , who shave their hair to a crest,
 leaving that on the top of their heads to grow and shaving clean off what is
 on either side; in war they carry shields made of ostrich skins.

The Cinyps river empties into their sea through
 their country from a hill called the Hill of the Graces. This hill is
 thickly wooded, while the rest of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya of which I have
 spoken is bare of trees; it is twenty-five miles from the sea.

Next to these Macae are
 the Gindanes , where every woman wears many
 leather anklets, because (so it is said) she puts on an anklet for every man
 with whom she has had intercourse; and she who wears the most is reputed to
 be the best, because she has been loved by the most men.

There is a headland jutting out into the sea from
 the land of the Gindanes ; on it live the Lotus Eaters , whose only fare is the lotus. The
 lotus fruit is the size of a mastich-berry: it has a sweet taste like the
 fruit of a date-palm; the Lotus Eaters not only
 eat it, but make wine of it.

Next to these along the coast are the Machlyes , who also use the lotus, but less than the
 aforesaid people. Their country reaches to a great river called the Triton , 
 which empties into the great Tritonian lake , in
 which is an island called Phla . It is said that
 the Lacedaemonians were told by an oracle to
 plant a settlement on this island.

The following story is also told: it is said that
 Jason , when the Argo 
 had been built at the foot of 
 +Pilion (mountain range), Nomos Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe
 Pelion , put aboard besides a hecatomb a bronze tripod, and
 set out to sail around the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , to go to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi .

But when he was off Malea , a north wind caught and
 carried him away to Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya ; and before he saw land, he came
 into the shallows of the Tritonian lake . There,
 while he could find no way out yet, Triton (the
 story goes) appeared to him and told Jason to give
 him the tripod, promising to show the sailors the channel and send them on
 their way unharmed.

Jason did, and Triton then
 showed them the channel out of the shallows and set the tripod in his own
 temple; but first he prophesied over it, declaring the whole matter to Jason 's comrades: namely, that should any descendant
 of the Argo 's crew take away the tripod, then a
 hundred Greek cities would be founded on the
 shores of the Tritonian lake . Hearing this (it is
 said) the Libyan people of the country hid the
 tripod.

Next to these Machlyes 
 are the Auseans ; these and the Machlyes , separated by the Triton , live on the shores of the Tritonian
 lake . The Machlyes wear their hair long
 behind, the Auseans in front.

They celebrate a yearly festival of Athena , where
 their maidens are separated into two bands and fight each other with stones
 and sticks, thus (they say) honoring in the way of their ancestors that
 native goddess whom we call Athena . Maidens who die
 of their wounds are called false virgins.

Before the girls are set fighting, the whole people choose the fairest maid,
 and arm her with a Corinthian helmet and Greek panoply, to be then mounted on a chariot and
 drawn all along the lake shore.

With what armor they equipped their maidens before Greeks came to live near them, I cannot say; but I suppose the
 armor was Egyptian ; for I maintain that the Greeks took their shield and helmet from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt .

As for Athena , they say that she was daughter of
 Poseidon and the Tritonian
 lake , and that, being for some reason angry at her father, she
 gave herself to Zeus , who made her his own
 daughter. Such is their tale. The intercourse of men and women there is
 promiscuous; they do not cohabit but have intercourse like cattle.

When a woman's child is well grown, the men assemble within three months and
 the child is adjudged to be that man's whom it is most like.

I have now described all the nomadic Libyans who live on the coast. Farther inland than
 these is that Libyan country which is haunted by
 wild beasts, and beyond this wild beasts' haunt runs a ridge of sand that
 stretches from Thebes
 [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt,
 Africa Thebes of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to the Pillars
 of Heracles .

At intervals of about ten days' journey along this ridge there are masses of
 great lumps of salt in hills; on the top of every hill, a fountain of cold
 sweet water shoots up from the midst of the salt; men live around it who are
 farthest away toward the desert and inland from the wild beasts' country.
 The first on the journey from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa Thebes , ten days distant from there, are
 the Ammonians , who follow the worship of the
 Zeus of Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt,
 Egypt, Africa Thebes ; for, as I have said before, the
 image of Zeus at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina,
 Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes has the head of a ram.

They have another spring of water besides, which is warm at dawn, and colder
 at market-time, and very cold at noon;

and it is then that they water their gardens; as the day declines, the
 coldness abates, until at sunset the water grows warm. It becomes ever
 hotter and hotter until midnight, and then it boils and bubbles; after
 midnight it becomes ever cooler until dawn. This spring is called the Spring
 of the Sun.

At a distance of ten days' journey again from the
 Ammonians along the sandy ridge, there is a
 hill of salt like that of the Ammonians , and
 springs of water, where men live; this place is called +Awjilah [21.2,29.15] (inhabited
 place), Banghazi, Libya, Africa Augila ; it is to this
 that the Nasamones come to gather palm-fruit.

After ten days' journey again from +Awjilah [21.2,29.15] (inhabited
 place), Banghazi, Libya, Africa Augila there is yet
 another hill of salt and springs of water and many fruit-bearing palms, as
 at the other places; men live there called Garamantes , an exceedingly great nation, who sow in earth which
 they have laid on the salt.

The shortest way to the Lotus Eaters ' country is
 from here, thirty days' journey distant. Among the Garamantes are the cattle that go backward as they graze, the
 reason being that their horns curve forward;

therefore, not being able to go forward, since the horns would stick in the
 ground, they walk backward grazing. Otherwise, they are like other cattle,
 except that their hide is thicker and harder to the touch.

These Garamantes go in their four-horse chariots
 chasing the cave-dwelling Ethiopians : for the
 Ethiopian cave-dwellers are swifter of foot than
 any men of whom tales are brought to us. They live on snakes and lizards and
 such-like creeping things. Their speech is like no other in the world: it is
 like the squeaking of bats.

Another ten days' journey from the Garamantes there is again a salt hill and water,
 where men live called Atarantes . These are the
 only men whom we know who have no names; for the whole people are called
 Atarantes , but no man has a name of his own.

When the sun is high, they curse and very foully revile him, because his
 burning heat afflicts their people and their land.

After another ten days' journey there is again a hill of salt, and water,
 and men living there. Near to this salt is a mountain called Atlas, whose
 shape is slender and conical; and it is said to be so high that its heights
 cannot be seen, for clouds are always on them winter and summer. The people
 of the country call it the pillar of heaven.

These men get their name, which is Atlantes , from
 this mountain. It is said that they eat no living creature, and see no
 dreams in their sleep.

I know and can tell the names of all the peoples
 that live on the ridge as far as the Atlantes ,
 but no farther than that. But I know this, that the ridge reaches as far as
 the Pillars of Heracles and beyond them.

There is a mine of salt on it every ten days' journey, and men live there.
 Their houses are all built of blocks of the salt; for these are parts of
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya where no rain falls; for the walls, being of
 salt, could not stand firm if there were rain.

The salt there is both white and purple. Beyond this ridge, the southern and
 inland parts of Libya [17,25]
 (nation), Africa Libya are desolate and waterless: there
 are no wild beasts, no rain, no forests; this region is wholly without
 moisture.

Thus from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to the Tritonian lake , the Libyans are nomads that eat meat and drink milk; for the same
 reason as the Egyptians too profess, they will
 not touch the flesh of cows; and they rear no swine.

The women of Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene , too, consider it wrong to eat cows' flesh,
 because of the Isis of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; and
 they even honor her with fasts and festivals; and the Barcaean women refuse to eat swine too, as well as cows.

Thus it is with this region. But west of the Tritonian lake the Libyans 
 are not nomads; they do not follow the same customs, or treat their children
 as the nomads do.

For the practice of many Libyan nomads (I cannot
 say absolutely whether it is the practice of all) is to take their children
 when four years old, and to burn the veins of their scalps or sometimes of
 their temples with grease of sheep's wool, so that the children may never
 afterward be afflicted by phlegm draining from the head.

They say that this makes their children quite healthy. In fact, the Libyans are the healthiest of all men whom we know;
 whether it is because of this practice, I cannot say absolutely; but they
 certainly are healthy. When the children smart from the pain of the burning,
 the Libyans have found a remedy; they soothe them
 by applications of goats' urine. This is what the Libyans themselves say.

The nomads' way of sacrificing is to cut a piece
 from the victim's ear for first-fruits and throw it over the house; then
 they wring the victim's neck. They sacrifice to no gods except the sun and
 moon; that is, this is the practice of the whole nation; but the dwellers by
 the Tritonian lake sacrifice to Athena chiefly, and next to Triton and
 Poseidon .

It would seem that the robe and aegis of the images
 of Athena were copied by the Greeks from the Libyan women; for
 except that Libyan women dress in leather, and
 that the tassels of their goatskin cloaks are not snakes but thongs of hide,
 in everything else their equipment is the same.

And in fact, the very name betrays that the attire of the statues of Pallas has come from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya ; for
 Libyan women wear the hairless tasselled
 “aegea” over their dress, colored with madder, and the Greeks have changed the name of these aegeae into their
 “aegides.”

Furthermore, in my opinion the ceremonial chant first originated in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya : for
 the women of that country chant very tunefully. And it is from the Libyans that the Greeks 
 have learned to drive four-horse chariots.

The dead are buried by the nomads in Greek fashion, except by the Nasamones . They bury their dead sitting, being careful to make
 the dying man sit when he releases his spirit, and not die lying supine.
 Their dwellings are constructed of asphodel stalks twined about reeds; they can be carried here and there.
 Such are the Libyan customs.

West of the Triton river 
 and next to the Aseans begins the country of
 Libyans who cultivate the soil and possess
 houses; they are called Maxyes ; they wear their
 hair long on the right side of their heads and shave the left, and they
 paint their bodies with vermilion.

These claim descent from the men who came from +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) Troy .
 Their country, and the rest of the western part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , is
 much fuller of wild beasts and more wooded than the country of the nomads.

For the eastern region of Libya
 [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , which the nomads inhabit,
 is low-lying and sandy as far as the Triton river ;
 but the land west of this, where the farmers live, is exceedingly
 mountainous and wooded and full of wild beasts.

In that country are the huge snakes and the lions, and the elephants and
 bears and asps, the horned asses, the dog-headed and the headless men that
 have their eyes in their chests, as the Libyans 
 say, and the wild men and women, besides many other creatures not fabulous.

But in the nomads' country there are none of these;
 but there are others, white-rumped antelopes, gazelles, hartebeest, asses,
 not the horned asses, but those that are called “undrinking” (for indeed
 they never drink), the oryx, whose horns are made the horns of the lyre
 (this is a beast the size of a bull),

foxes, hyenas, porcupines, wild rams, the dictys, jackals, panthers, the
 borys, land crocodiles sixty inches long, very
 like lizards, and ostriches and little one-horned serpents; all these beasts
 besides those that are elsewhere too, except deer and wild boar; of these
 two kinds there are none at all in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

There are in this country three kinds of mice, the two-footed, the “zegeries”
 (this is a Libyan word, meaning in our language
 “hills”), and the bristly-haired, as they are called. There are also weasels
 found in the silphium, very like to the weasels of Tartessus . So many are the wild creatures of the nomads' country,
 as far as by our utmost enquiry we have been able to learn.

Next to the Maxyes of
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya are the Zauekes ,
 whose women drive their chariots to war.

Next to these are the Gyzantes , where much honey is made by bees, and much more yet (so
 it is said) by craftsmen. It is certain that they all paint
 themselves with vermilion and eat apes, with which their mountains swarm.

Off their coast (the Carthaginians say) lies an island called Cyrauis , twenty-five miles long and narrow across, accessible
 from the mainland; it is full of olives and vines.

It is said that there is a lake on this island from which the maidens of the
 country draw gold-dust out of the mud on feathers smeared with pitch. I do
 not know whether this is true; I just write what is said. But all things are
 possible; for I myself saw pitch drawn from the water of a pool in +Zakinthos [20.9,37.783] (inhabited
 place), Nisos Zakinthos, Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe
 Zacynthus .

The pools there are numerous; the greatest of them is seventy feet long and
 broad, and twelve feet deep. Into this they drop a pole with a myrtle branch
 fastened to its end, and bring up pitch on the myrtle, smelling like
 asphalt, and for the rest better than the pitch of +Pieria [22.416,40.25] (department), Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Pieria . Then they pour it into a pit that
 they have dug near the pool; and when a fair amount is collected there, they
 fill their vessels from the pit.

Whatever falls into the pool is carried under the ground and appears again
 in the sea, which is about a half a mile distant from the pool. So, then,
 the story that comes from the island lying off the Libyan coast is like the truth, too.

Another story is told by the Carthaginians . There is a place in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , they
 say, where men live beyond the Pillars of Heracles ;
 they come here and unload their cargo; then, having laid it in order along
 the beach, they go aboard their ships and light a smoking fire. The people
 of the country see the smoke, and, coming to the sea, they lay down gold to
 pay for the cargo, and withdraw from the wares.

Then the Carthaginians disembark and examine the
 gold; if it seems to them a fair price for their cargo, they take it and go
 away; but if not, they go back aboard and wait, and the people come back and
 add more gold until the sailors are satisfied.

In this transaction, it is said, neither party defrauds the other: the Carthaginians do not touch the gold until it equals
 the value of their cargo, nor do the people touch the cargo until the
 sailors have taken the gold.

These are all the Libyans 
 whom we can name, and the majority of their kings cared nothing for the king
 of the Medes at the time of which I write, nor do
 they care for him now.

I have this much further to say of this country: four nations and no more,
 as far as we know, inhabit it, two of which are aboriginal and two not; the
 Libyans in the north and the Ethiopians in the south of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya are
 aboriginal; the Phoenicians and Greeks are later settlers.

In my opinion, there is in no part of Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya any great excellence for which it should be
 compared to Asia
 (continent) Asia or Europe (continent) Europe , except in the region
 which is called by the same name as its river, Cinyps .

But this region is a match for the most fertile farmland in the world, nor
 is it at all like to the rest of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya . For the soil
 is black and well-watered by springs, and has no fear of drought, nor is it
 harmed by drinking excessive showers (there is rain in this part of Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya ). Its yield of grain is of the same measure as
 in the land of Babylon
 [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia Babylon .

The land inhabited by the Euhesperitae is also
 good; it yields at the most a hundredfold; but the land of the Cinyps region yields three hundredfold.

The country of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar,
 Libya, Africa Cyrene , which is the highest part of the
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya that the nomads inhabit, has the marvellous
 advantage of three harvest seasons. The fruits of the earth are ripe for
 reaping and picking on the coast first; when these have been gathered, the
 middle region above the coast, which they call the Hills, is ripe for
 gathering;

and no sooner has this yield of the middle country been gathered than the
 highest-lying crops are mellow and ripe, so that the latest fruits of the
 earth are coming in when the earliest are already spent by way of food and
 drink. Thus the Cyrenaeans have a harvest lasting
 eight months. Enough of these matters, then.

Now when the Persians 
 that Aryandes sent from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to
 avenge Pheretime came to +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barce , they laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender
 of those who were guilty of the murder of Arcesilaus : but the Barcaeans , whose
 whole people were accessory to the deed, would not yield.

The Persians besieged +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barce for nine months, digging
 underground passages leading to the walls, and making violent assaults. As
 for the tunnels, a blacksmith discovered them by the means of a bronze
 shield, and this is how he found them: carrying the shield around the inner
 side of the walls, he struck it against the ground of the city;

all the other places which he struck returned a dull sound; but where there
 were tunnels, the bronze of the shield rang clear. Here the Barcaeans made a counter-tunnel and killed those
 Persians who were digging underground. Thus
 the tunnels were discovered, and the assaults were repelled by the
 townsfolk.

When much time had been spent and many on both sides
 (not less of the Persians than of their enemies)
 slain, Amasis the general of the foot soldiers
 devised a plot, knowing that +Al
 Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Barce could not be taken by force but might be
 taken by guile: he dug by night a wide trench and laid frail planks across
 it, which he then covered over with a layer of earth level with the ground
 about it.

Then when day came, he invited the Barcaeans to
 confer with him, and they readily consented; at last all agreed to
 conditions of peace. This was done thus: standing on the hidden trench, they
 gave and accepted a sworn assurance that their treaty would hold good while
 the ground where they stood was unchanged; the Barcaeans promised to pay a due sum to the king, and the Persians to do the Barcaeans no harm.

When the sworn agreement was made, the townsfolk, trusting in it and opening
 all their gates, themselves came out of the city, and let all their enemies
 who so desired enter within the walls. But the Persians broke down the hidden bridge and ran into the city. They
 broke down the bridge that they had made, so that they might keep the oath
 which they had sworn to the Barcaeans : namely,
 that this treaty would hold good for as long as the ground remained as it
 was; but if they broke the bridge the treaty held good no longer.

When they were delivered to her by the Persians , Pheretime took
 the most guilty of the Barcaeans and set them
 impaled around the top of the wall; the breasts of their women she cut off
 and planted around the wall in like manner.

As for the rest of the Barcaeans , she told the
 Persians to take them as their booty, except
 those who were of the house of Battus and not
 accessory to the murder: to these she turned over the city.

The Persians thus
 enslaved the rest of the Barcaeans , and went
 home. When they appeared before the city of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al
 Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene , the Cyrenaeans let them pass through their city, so that a certain
 oracle might be fulfilled.

As the army was passing through, Badres the admiral
 of the fleet was for taking the city, but Amasis 
 the general of the land army would not consent, saying that he had been sent
 against +Al Marj [20.833,32.5]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa
 Barce and no other Greek city; at
 last they passed through Shahhat
 [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene and camped on the hill of Lycaean Zeus ; there they regretted not having taken the city, and
 tried to enter it again, but the Cyrenaeans would
 not let them.

Then, although no one attacked them, panic seized the Persians , and they fled to a place seven miles distant and camped
 there; and while they were there, a messenger from Aryandes came to the camp asking them to return. The Persians asked and received from the Cyrenaeans provisions for their march, after which
 they left to go to Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa Egypt ;

but then they fell into the hands of the Libyans , who killed the laggards and stragglers of the army for the
 sake of their garments and possessions; until at last they came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt .

This Persian force
 advanced as far as Euhesperidae in Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya and no farther. As for the Barcaeans whom they had taken for slaves, they carried them from
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt into banishment and brought them to the king, and
 Darius gave them a town of +Afghanistan [65,33] (nation), Asia
 Bactria to live in. They gave this town the name +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited
 place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barce , and it
 remained an inhabited place in 
 +Afghanistan [65,33] (nation), Asia Bactria until my own
 lifetime.

But Pheretime did not end
 well, either. For as soon as she had revenged herself on the Barcaeans and returned to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , she
 met an awful death. For while still alive she teemed with maggots: thus does
 over-brutal human revenge invite retribution from the gods. That of Pheretime , daughter of Battus , against the Barcaeans was revenge
 of this nature and this brutality.

Those Persians whom Darius had left in Europe (continent) Europe under the command
 of Megabazus , finding the Perinthians unwilling to be Darius '
 subjects, subdued them before any others of the people of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont . These Perinthians had already been roughly handled by the
 Paeonians .

For the oracle of the god ordered the Paeonians 
 from the Strymon to march against Perinthus , and if the Perinthians , who were encamped opposite them, should call to
 them, crying out their name, then to attack them. If, however, there were no
 such call, they were not to attack. The Paeonians 
 acted accordingly. When the Perinthians set up
 camp in front of their city, the armies then challenged each other to a
 threefold duel, in which man was matched against man, horse against horse,
 and dog against dog.

The Perinthians were victorious in two of the
 combats and raised the cry of “Paean” in their joy. The Paeonians reasoned that this was what the oracle had spoken of
 and must have said to each other, “This is surely the fulfillment of the
 prophecy; now it is time for us to act.” Accordingly, the Paeonians set upon the Perinthians and won a great victory, leaving few of their enemies
 alive.

This, then, is what the Perinthians had previously suffered at the hands of the Paeonians . Now they fought like brave men for their
 liberty, but Megabazus and the Persians overcame them by weight of numbers.

When Perinthus had been taken, Megabazus marched his army through Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace ,
 subduing to the king's will every city and every people of that region. For
 this, the conquest of Thrace
 (region (general)), Europe Thrace , was the charge given
 him by Darius .

The Thracians are the
 biggest nation in the world, next to the Indians .
 If they were under one ruler, or united, they would, in my judgment, be
 invincible and the strongest nation on earth. Since, however, there is no
 way or means to bring this about, they are weak.

The Thracians have many names, each tribe
 according to its region, but they are very similar in all their customs,
 save the Getae , the Trausi , and those who dwell above the Crestonaeans .

As for the Getae , who
 claim to be immortal, I have already given an account of their
 practices. The Trausi , who in all else conform to
 the customs of other Thracians , do as I will show
 at the times of birth and death.

When a child is born, the kinsmen sit around it and lament all the ills that
 it must endure from its birth onward, recounting all the sorrows of men. The
 dead, however, they bury with celebration and gladness, asserting that he is
 rid of so many ills and has achieved a state of complete blessedness.

Those who dwell above the Crestonaeans have yet other practices. Each man has many wives,
 and at his death there is both great rivalry among his wives and eager
 contention on their friends' part to prove which wife was best loved by her
 husband. She to whom the honor is adjudged is praised by men and women alike
 and then slain over the tomb by her nearest of kin. After the slaying she is
 buried with the husband. The rest of the wives are greatly displeased by
 this, believing themselves to be deeply dishonored.

Among the rest of the Thracians , it is the custom to sell their children for export and
 to take no care of their maidens, allowing them to have intercourse with any
 man they wish. Their wives, however, they strictly guard, and buy them for a
 price from the parents.

To be tattooed is a sign of noble birth, while to bear no such marks is for
 the baser sort. The idler is most honored, the tiller of the soil most
 scorned; he is held in highest honor who lives by war and robbery.

These are most notable of their usages. They worship
 no gods but Ares , Dionysus , and Artemis . 
 Their princes, however, unlike the rest of their countrymen, worship Hermes above all gods and swear only by him, claiming
 him for their ancestor.

The wealthy have the following funeral practices.
 First they lay out the dead for three days, and after killing all kinds of
 victims and making lamentation, they feast. After that they do away with the
 body either by fire or else by burial in the earth, and when they have built
 a barrow, they initiate all kinds of contests, in which the greatest prizes
 are offered for the hardest type of single combat. Such are the Thracian funeral rites.

As for the region which lies north of this country,
 none can tell with certainty what men dwell there, but what lies beyond the
 Ister is a desolate and infinitely large tract
 of land. I can learn of no men dwelling beyond the Ister save certain that are called Sigynnae and wear Median dress.

Their horses are said to be covered all over with shaggy hair five fingers' breadth long, and to be
 small, blunt-nosed, and unable to bear men on their backs, but very swift
 when yoked to chariots. It is for this reason that driving chariots is the
 usage of the country. These men's borders, it is said, reach almost as far
 as the Eneti on the +Adriatic Sea [16,43] (sea), Europe Adriatic
 Sea .

They call themselves colonists from Media. How this has come about I myself
 cannot understand, but all is possible in the long passage of time. However
 that may be, we know that the Ligyes who dwell
 inland of +Marseilles
 [5.366,43.3] (inhabited place), Bouches-du-Rhone, Provence-Alpes-Cote
 d'Azur, France, Europe Massalia use the word “sigynnae”
 for hucksters, and the Cyprians use it for
 spears.

According to the Thracians , all the land beyond the Ister is full of bees, and that by reason of these none can
 travel there. This, to my mind, is not a credible tale, for those creatures
 are ill able to bear cold. It appears to me rather that it is by reason of
 the cold that the northern lands are not inhabited. Such, then, are the
 stories about this region. Whatever the truth may be, Megabazus made its coastal area subject to the Persians .

As soon as Darius had
 crossed the Canakkale Bogazi
 (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and
 come to Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , he remembered the good
 service done him by Histiaeus of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus and the counsel of Coes the
 Mytilenaean , and after sending for them to
 come to Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , he offered them a choice of whatever
 they wanted.

Histiaeus , seeing that he was tyrant of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , desired no further sovereignty than that, but asked
 for Myrcinus 
 in the Edonian land so that he might build a city there.
 This, then, was Histiaeus ' choice, but Coes , inasmuch as he was no tyrant but a plain
 citizen, asked that he might be made tyrant of Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene .

When the wishes of each had been granted, they made
 their way to the places of their choice, but Darius , as it fell out, saw a sight which put it in his mind to bid
 Megabazus take the Paeonians and take them from their homes out of Europe (continent) Europe 
 into Asia
 (continent) Asia . There were two Paeonians , Pigres and Mantyes , who themselves desired to be rulers of their countrymen.
 When Darius had crossed into Asia (continent) Asia ,
 they came to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , bringing with them
 their sister, a tall and beautiful woman.

There, waiting till Darius should be sitting in
 state in the suburb of the Lydian city, they put
 on their sister the best adornment they had, and sent her to draw water,
 bearing a vessel on her head, leading a horse by the bridle and spinning
 flax at the same time.

Darius took note of the woman as she passed by him,
 for what she did was not in the manner of the Persians or Lydians or any of the
 peoples of Asia
 (continent) Asia . Having taken note of this, he sent some of
 his guards, bidding them watch what the woman would do with the horse.

They, accordingly, followed behind her, and she, coming to the river,
 watered the horse. When she had done this and had filled her vessel with
 water, she passed back again by the same way, bearing the water on her head,
 leading the horse on her arm, and plying her distaff.

Marvelling at what he heard from his watchers and
 what he saw for himself, Darius bade the woman be
 brought before him. When she had been brought, her brothers, who watched all
 this from a place nearby, came too. Darius asked of
 what nation she was, and the young man told him that they were Paeonians and that she was their sister.

“But who,” he answered, “are the Paeonians , and
 where do they dwell, and with what intent have you come to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis ?” They told him, that they had come to be his men,
 that the towns of Paeonia lay on the Strymon , a river not far from the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , and that they were
 colonists from the Teucrians of +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus)
 Troy .

So they told him all this, and the king asked them if all the women of their
 country were so industrious. To this too they very readily answered (for it
 was for this very purpose that they had come), that it was indeed so.

Then Darius wrote a letter
 to Megabazus , whom he had left as his general in
 Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , bidding him take the Paeonians from their houses, and bring them to him, men, women,
 and children.

Immediately a horseman sped with this message to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , and upon crossing it,
 gave the letter to Megabazus , who, after reading
 it, took guides from Thrace
 (region (general)), Europe Thrace and led his army to
 Paeonia .

When the Paeonians 
 learned that the Persians were coming against
 them, they gathered together and marched away to the sea, thinking that the
 Persians would attempt to attack them by that
 way.

So the Paeonians were ready to withstand the
 onset of Megabazus ' army, but the Persians , learning that the Paeonians had gathered their forces and were guarding the coast
 route into their country, got guides and marched instead by the highland
 road. They accordingly took the Paeonians unaware
 and won entrance into their cities, which were left without men, and finding
 these empty at their attack, they easily gained them.

The Paeonians , learning that their towns had been
 taken, straightway disbanded, each going his own way, and surrendered
 themselves to the Persians . Thus of the Paeonians the Siriopaeones and Paeoplae and all who
 lived as far as the Prasiad lake were taken away
 from their homes and led into Asia
 (continent) Asia .

But those near the Pangaean mountains and the country of the
 Doberes and the Agrianes and the Odomanti and the
 Prasiad lake itself were never subdued at all
 by Megabazus . He did in fact try to take the
 lake-dwellers and did so in the following
 manner. There is set in the midst of the lake a platform made fast on tall
 piles, to which one bridge gives a narrow passage from the land.

In olden times all the people working together set the piles which support
 the platform there, but they later developed another method of setting them.
 The men bring the piles from a mountain called Orbelus , and every man plants three for each of the three
 women that he weds.

Each man has both a hut on the platform and a trap-door in the platform
 leading down into the lake. They make a cord fast to the feet of their
 little children out of fear that they will fall into the water.

They give fish as fodder to their horses and beasts of burden, and there is
 such an abundance of fish that a man can open his trap-door, let down an
 empty basket by a line into the lake, and draw it up after a short time full
 of fish. There are two kinds of these, some called “paprakes,” some
 “tilones.”

So those of the Paeonians 
 who had been captured were taken into Asia (continent) Asia . Then Megabazus , having made the Paeonians 
 captive, sent as messengers into Macedonia (region (general)), Europe Macedonia 
 
 the seven Persians who (after himself) were the
 most honorable in his army. These were sent to Amyntas to demand earth and water for Darius the king.

Now there is a very straight way from the Prasiad
 lake to Macedonia
 (region (general)), Europe Macedonia . First there is near
 the lake that mine from which Alexander later drew
 a daily revenue of a talent of silver, and when a person has passed the
 mine, he need only cross the mountain called Dysorum 
 to be in Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia .

The Persians who had been
 sent as envoys came to Amyntas and demanded earth
 and water for Darius the king. He readily gave to
 them what they asked and invited them to be his guests, preparing a dinner
 of great splendor and receiving them hospitably.

After dinner, the Persians said to Amyntas as they sat drinking together, “ Macedonian , our host, it is our custom in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia to bring in also the concubines and wedded wives
 to sit by the men after the giving of any great banquet. We ask you, then,
 (since you have received us heartily, are entertaining us nobly and are
 giving Darius our king earth and water) to follow
 our custom.”

To this Amyntas replied, “ We have no such custom,
 Persians . Among us, men and women sit apart,
 but since you are our masters and are making this request, it shall be as
 you desire.” With that, Amyntas sent for the women.
 Upon being called, the women entered and sat down in a row opposite the
 Persians .

Then the Persians , seeing beautiful women before
 them, spoke to Amyntas and said that there was no
 sense in what he had done. It would be better if the women had never come at
 all than that they should come and not sit beside the men, but sit opposite
 them to torment their eyes.

Amyntas , now feeling compelled to do so, bade the
 women sit beside them. When the women had done as they were bidden, the
 Persians , flushed as they were with excess of
 wine, at once laid hands on the women's breasts, and one or another tried to
 kiss them.

This Amyntas saw, but held
 his peace despite his anger because he greatly feared the Persians . Amyntas ' son
 Alexander , however, because of his youth and
 ignorance of ill deeds, could not bear it longer and said to Amyntas in great wrath, “My father, do as your age
 demands. Leave us and take your rest; do not continue drinking. I will stay
 here and give our guests all that is needful.”

At this Amyntas saw that Alexander had some wild deed in mind and said, “My son, you are
 angered, and if I guess your meaning correctly, you are sending me away so
 that you may do some violent deed. I for my part, for fear that you will
 bring about our undoing, entreat you not to act rashly against these men,
 but to bear patiently the sight of what they do. If you want me to leave, to
 that I consent.”

When Amyntas made this
 request and had gone his way, Alexander said to the
 Persians , “Sirs, you have full freedom to deal
 with these women, and may have intercourse with all or any of them.

As to that, you may make your own decision, but now, since the hour of your
 rest is drawing near and I see that you are all completely drunk, allow
 these women to depart and wash, if this is your desire. When they have
 washed, wait for them to come to you again.”

When he had said this and the Persians had given
 their consent, he sent the women out and away to their apartments. Alexander then took as many beardless men as there
 were women, dressed them in the women's clothes, and gave them daggers.
 These he brought in, and said to the Persians ,

“I believe, men of Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia , that you have feasted to your
 hearts' content. All that we had and all besides that we could find to give
 you has been set before you, and now we make you a free gift of our best and
 most valued possession, our own mothers and sisters. Be aware that in so
 doing we are giving you all the honor that you deserve, and tell your king
 who sent you how his Greek viceroy of Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia has received you hospitably, providing
 food and bedfellows.”

With that, Alexander seated each of his Macedonians next to a Persian , as though they were women, and when the Persians began to lay hands on them, they were
 killed by the Macedonians .

This was the way in which they perished, they and
 all their retinue. Carriages too had come with them, and servants, and all
 the great train they had. The Macedonians made
 away with all that, as well as with all the envoys themselves.

No long time afterwards the Persians made a great
 search for these men, but Alexander had cunning
 enough to put an end to it by the gift of a great sum and his own sister
 Gygaea to Bubares , a
 Persian and the general of those who were
 looking for the slain men. It was in this way, then, that the death of these
 Persians was kept silent.

Now that these descendants of Perdiccas are Greeks , as they
 themselves say, I myself chance to know and will prove it in the later part
 of my history. Furthermore, the Hellenodicae 
 who manage the
 contest at Olympia
 [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia determined that it is
 so,

for when Alexander chose to contend and entered
 the lists for that purpose, the Greeks who were
 to run against him wanted to bar him from the race, saying that the contest
 should be for Greeks and not for foreigners.
 Alexander , however, proving himself to be an
 Argive , was judged to be a Greek . He accordingly competed in the furlong race and tied step
 for first place. This, then, is approximately what happened.

Megabazus , bringing with him the Paeonians , came to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont , and after crossing it from there, he
 came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis . Histiaeus the
 Milesian was by this time fortifying the place
 which he hadasked of Darius as his reward for
 guarding the bridge, a place called Myrcinus by
 the river Strymon . Megabazus discovered what he was doing, and upon his arrival at
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis with the Paeonians , he said to Darius ,

” Sire, what is this that you have done? You have permitted a clever and
 cunning Greek to build a city in Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , where there are abundant forests for
 ship-building, much wood for oars, mines of silver, and many people both
 Greek and foreign dwelling around, who, when
 they have a champion to lead them, will carry out all his orders by day or
 by night.

Stop this man, then, from doing these things so that you will not be
 entangled in a war with your own subjects, but use gentle means to do so.
 When you have him in your grasp, see to it that he never returns to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .”

Megabazus easily persuaded Darius , who believed that his vision of the future was correct.
 Presently the king sent a message to Myrcinus 
 which read as follows: “ Histiaeus , these are the
 words of Darius the king: my thoughts can show me
 no man who is more devoted to me and my affairs. Not words but deeds have
 proven this to me.

Now, therefore, let nothing prevent you from coming to me so that I may
 inform you of certain great purposes which I have in mind.” Trusting these
 words, and proud, moreover, that he would be the king's counsellor, Histiaeus came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

When he had come, Darius said to him, “ Histiaeus , I will tell you the reason why I sent for
 you. As soon as I returned from Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia and you
 were gone from my sight, there was nothing which I longed for so much as
 seeing you and speaking with you, for I knew that the most precious of all
 possessions is a wise and loyal friend. That you are such I can bear witness
 to as regards my affairs.

Now, since you have done well in coming here, I make you this proposal.
 Leave Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus and your newly founded Thracian city and follow me to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , where you will have
 all that is mine, sharing my table and my counsels.”

This, then, is what Darius 
 said, and after appointing Artaphrenes , his
 father's son, to be viceroy of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , he rode
 away to Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , taking
 Histiaeus with him. First, however, he made
 Otanes governor of the people on the coast.
 Otanes ' father Sisamnes 
 had been one of the royal judges, and Cambyses had cut his throat and flayed off all his skin because
 he had been bribed to give an unjust judgment. Then he cut leather strips of
 the skin which had been torn away and with these he covered the seat upon
 which Sisamenes had sat to give judgment.

After doing this, Cambyses appointed the son of
 this slain and flayed Sisamnes to be judge in his
 place, admonishing him to keep in mind the nature of the throne on which he
 was sitting.

This Otanes , then, who sat
 upon that seat, was now made successor to Megabazus 
 in his governorship. He captured +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus) Byzantium ,
 Calchedon , Antandrus 
 in the +Troas (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia Troad , and Lamponium , and with ships he had taken from the Lesbians , he took +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos and Imbros , both of which were still inhabited by Pelasgians .

The Lemnians fought well
 and defended themselves, till at last they were brought to evil plight, and
 the Persians set as governor over those that were
 left of them Lycaretus the brother of Maeandrius who had been king of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

This Lycaretus met his end while ruling in +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos because he
 tried to enslave and subdue all the people, accusing some of shunning
 service against the Scythians and others of
 plundering Darius ' army on its way back from Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia .

All this Otanes achieved
 when he had been made governor. After only a short period of time without
 evils, trouble began once more to come on the Ionians , and this from 
 +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Naxos and Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus .
 +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos 
 surpassed all the other islands in prosperity, and at about the same time
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus , at the height of her fortunes, was the
 glory of Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia . Two generations before this, however, she
 had been very greatly troubled by factional strife, till the Parians , chosen out of all the Greeks by the Milesians for this
 purpose, made peace among them,

The Parians reconciled
 them in the following manner. Their best men came to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , and seeing the Milesian 
 households sadly wasted, they said that they desired to go about the
 country. They then made their way through all the territory of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , and whenever they found any well-tilled farm in the
 desolation of the land, they wrote down the name of the owner of that farm.

After travelling over the whole country and finding only a few such men,
 they assembled the people immediately upon their return to the city and
 appointed as rulers of the state those whose lands they had found well
 tilled. This they did in the belief that these men were likely to take as
 good care of public affairs as they had of their own, and they ordained that
 the rest of the Milesians who had been at feud
 should obey these men.

It was in this way that the Parians made peace in Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , but now
 these cities began to bring trouble upon Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .
 Certain men of substance who had been banished by the common people, went in
 exile to Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus .

Now it chanced that the deputy ruling Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus was
 Aristagoras son of Molpagoras , son-in-law and cousin of that Histiaeus son of Lysagoras whom Darius kept with him at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa . Histiaeus was tyrant
 of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus but was at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa when the Naxians , who
 had been his guests and friends, arrived.

When the Naxians came to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , they asked Aristagoras if
 he could give them enough power to return to their own country. Believing
 that he would become ruler of 
 +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Naxos if they were restored to their city
 with his help and using as a pretext their friendship with Histiaeus , he made them this proposal:

“I myself do not have the authority to give you such power as will restore
 you against the will of the Naxians who hold your
 city, for I know that the Naxians have eight
 thousand men that bear shields, and many ships of war. Nevertheless, I will
 do everything I can to realize your request.

This is my plan. Artaphrenes is my friend, and he
 is not only Hystaspes ' son and brother to Darius the king but also governor of all the coastal
 peoples of Asia
 (continent) Asia . He accordingly has a great army and many
 ships at his disposal. This man, then, will, I think, do whatever we
 desire.”

Hearing this, the Naxians left the matter for
 Aristagoras to deal with as best he could,
 asking him to promise gifts and the costs of the army, for which they
 themselves would pay since they had great hope that when they should appear
 off +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos ,
 the Naxians would obey all their commands. The
 rest of the islanders, they expected, would do likewise since none of these
 Cycladic islands was as yet subject to Darius .

Aristagoras came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 and told Artaphrenes that +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos was indeed an island of no
 great size, but that it was otherwise a beautiful and noble island lying
 near Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia . Furthermore it had a store of wealth and
 slaves. “Therefore send an army against that country,” he said, “ and bring
 back the men who have been banished from there.

If you so do, I have a great sum of money at your disposal, over and above
 the costs of the force, for it is only fair that we, who bring you, should
 furnish that. Furthermore, you will win new dominions for the king, +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos 
 itself and the islands which are its dependents, +Nisos Paros [25.2,37.1] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Paros , +Andros [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros,
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Andros , and the
 rest of those that are called 
 +Cyclades [24.916,37.416] (department), Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Cyclades .

Making these your starting point, you will easily attack +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea , which is a great and a wealthy island, no smaller
 than Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus and very easy to take. A hundred ships suffice
 for the conquest of all these.”

“This plan which you set forth,” Artaphrenes 
 answered, “is profitable for the king's house, and all your advice is good
 except as regards the number of the ships. Not one hundred but two hundred
 ships will be ready for you when the spring comes. The king too, however,
 must himself consent to this.”

When Aristagoras heard
 that, he went away to Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus in great joy. Artaphrenes sent a messenger to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa with the news of what
 Aristagoras said, and when Darius himself too had consented to the plan, he equipped two
 hundred triremes and a very great company of Persians and their allies in addition. For their general he
 appointed Megabates , a Persian of the Achaemenid family, cousin
 to himself and to Darius . This was he whose
 daughter (if indeed the tale is true) Pausanias the
 Lacedaemonian , son of Cleombrotus , at a later day betrothed to himself, since it was
 his wish to possess the sovereignty of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . After
 appointing Megabates general, Artaphrenes sent his army away to Aristagoras .

Then Megabates , 
 bringing Aristagoras from Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , the Ionian army, and the
 Naxians , pretended to be sailing to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , but when he came to
 +Khios [26.116,38.383]
 (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Chios , he put in with his ships at Caucasa 
 so that he might cross with a north wind to
 +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos .

Since it was not fated that the Naxians were to
 be destroyed by this force, the following things took place. As Megabates was making his rounds among the ships'
 watches, it chanced that there was no watch on the ship of +Myndus [27.25,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Myndus . Megabates , very angry at
 this, ordered his guards to find the captain of this ship, whose name was
 Scylax , and thrust him partly through an
 oar-hole of the ship and bound him there so that his head was outside the
 ship and his body inside.

When Scylax had been bound, someone brought word to
 Aristagoras , that his Myndian friend was bound and being disgracefully treated by Megabates . Aristagoras then
 went and pleaded with the Persian for Scylax , but since he obtained nothing that he
 requested, he went and released the man himself. When Megabates learned this, he took it very badly and was angry at
 Aristagoras .

Aristagoras , however, said, “But you, what have you
 to do with these matters? Did not Artaphrenes send
 you to obey me and to sail wherever I bid you? Why are you so meddlesome?”
 This response on the part of Aristagoras enraged
 Megabates , who, went night fell, sent men in a
 boat to +Nisos Naxos
 [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Naxos to tell the Naxians of the
 trouble in store for them.

Now the Naxians had no
 suspicion at all that it was they who were to be attacked by that force.
 However, when they learned the truth, they immediately brought inside their
 walls all that was in their fields, stored both meat and drink in case of a
 siege, and strengthened their walls.

The Naxians , then, made all preparations to face
 the onset of war. When their enemies had brought their ships over from +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited
 place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Chios to +Naxos
 [15.283,37.816] (deserted settlement), Messina, Sicily, Italy, Europe
 Naxos , it was a fortified city that they attacked, and for
 four months they besieged it.

When the Persians had exhausted all the money
 with which they had come, and Aristagoras himself
 had spent much beside, they built a stronghold for the banished Naxians , and went off to the mainland in poor
 spirits since still more money was needed for the siege.

Aristagoras had no way of fulfilling his promise to
 Artaphrenes , and he was hard-pressed by demands
 for the costs of the force. Furthermore he feared what might come of the
 failure of the army and Megabates ' displeasure
 against him. It was likely, he thought, that his lordship of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus would be taken away from him.

With all these fears in his mind, he began to plan revolt, for it chanced
 that at that very time there came from Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa 
 Histiaeus ' messenger, the man with the marked head,
 signifying that Aristagoras should revolt from the
 king.

Since Histiaeus desired to give word to Aristagoras that he should revolt and had no other
 safe way of doing so because the roads were guarded, he shaved and branded
 the head of his most trustworthy slave. He waited till the hair had grown
 again, and as soon as it was grown, he sent the man to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus with no other message except that when he came to
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus he must bid Aristagoras shave his hair and examine his head. The writing
 branded on it signified revolt, as I have already said.

This Histiaeus did because he greatly disliked his
 detention at Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and fully
 expected to be sent away to the coast in the case that there should be a
 revolt. If, however, Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus remained at peace, he
 calculated that he would never return there.

With this intent, then, Histiaeus sent his messenger, and it chanced that all these
 things came upon Aristagoras at one and the same
 time. He accordingly took counsel with the members of his faction, stating
 his own opinion as well as the message which had come to him from Histiaeus .

All the rest spoke their minds to the same effect, favoring revolt, with the
 exception of Hecataeus the historian who, listing
 all the nations subject to Darius and all his
 power, advised them that they should not make war on the king of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia . When, however, he failed to persuade them, he
 counselled them that their next best plan was to make themselves masters of
 the sea.

This, he said, could only be accomplished in one way ( Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , he knew, was a city of no great wealth), namely if
 they took away from the temple at 
 +Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia Branchidae 
 the treasure which Croesus 
 the Lydian had dedicated there. With this at
 their disposal, he fully expected them to gain the mastery of the sea. They
 would then have the use of that treasure and their enemies would not be able
 to plunder it.

The treasure was very great, as I have shown in the beginning of my account.
 This plan was not approved, and they resolved that they would revolt. One
 out of their number was to sail to +Myous (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey,
 Asia Myus , to the army which had left +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos 
 and was there, and attempt to seize the generals who were aboard the ships.

Iatragoras , who had been sent for this very
 purpose, craftily seized Oliatus of Mylasa [27.8,37.3167]
 (Perseus) Mylasa son of Ibanollis ; Histiaeus of Termera [27.3167,37]
 (Perseus) Termera son of Tymnes ;
 Coes son of Erxandrus ,
 to whom Darius gave Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene ;
 Aristagoras of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme , son
 of Heraclides ; and many others besides. Then Aristagoras revolted openly, devising all he could to
 harm Darius .

First he made pretence of giving up his tyranny and gave Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus equality of government so that the Milesians might readily join in his revolt. Then he
 proceeded to do the same things in the rest of Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .
 Some of the tyrants he banished, and as for those tyrants whom he had taken
 out of the ships that sailed with him against +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos , he handed them each over
 to their respective cities, which he wished to please.

Coes , when the Mytilenaeans received him, was taken out and stoned, but the
 Cymaeans , as well as most of the others, let
 their own man go.

In this way, then, an end was made of tyrants in the cities. After doing
 away with the tyrants, Aristagoras of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus ordered all the peoples to set up governors in each
 city. Then he went on an embassy in a trireme to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon , for it was
 necessary for him to find some strong ally.

At Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , Anaxandrides the son of Leon ,
 who had been king, was now no longer alive but was dead, and Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides 
 held the royal power. This he had won not by manly merit but by right of
 birth. Anaxandrides had as his wife his own
 sister's daughter, and although he was content with her, no children were
 born to him.

Since this was the case, the Ephors called him to
 them and said, “Even if you have no interest in caring for yourself, we
 cannot allow the house of Eurysthenes to perish.
 Therefore send away the wife that you have, seeing that she bears you no
 children, and wed another. If you do this, you will please the Spartans .” Anaxandrides ,
 however, said in response that he would do neither of these things and that
 they were not giving him good advice in bidding him to get rid of his
 present wife, who was blameless, and to marry another.

Then the Ephors and Elders
 took counsel, and placed this proposal before Anaxandrides : “Since, as we see, you cling to the wife that you
 have, carry out our command, and do not hold out against it, bearing in mind
 that the Spartans will certainly find some other
 way of dealing with you.

As for the wife that you have, we do not ask that you send her away. Keep
 providing her with all that you give her now and marry another woman in
 addition who can give you children.” So they spoke, and Anaxandrides consented. Presently he had two wives and kept two
 households, a thing which is not at all customary at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta .

After no long time the second wife gave birth to
 Cleomenes . She, then, gave the Spartans an heir to the royal power, and as luck
 would have it, the first wife, who had been barren before, conceived at that
 very time.

When the friends of the new wife learned that the other woman was pregnant,
 they began to make trouble for her. They said that she was making an empty
 boast, so that she might substitute a child. The Ephors were angry, and when her time drew near, they sat around
 to watch her in childbirth because of their skepticism.

She gave birth first to Dorieus , then straightway
 to Leonidas , and right after him to Cleombrotus . Some, however, say that Cleombrotus and Leonidas were twins. As
 for the later wife, the mother of Cleomenes and the
 daughter of Prinetadas son of Demarmenus , she bore no more children.

Now Cleomenes , as the story
 goes, was not in his right mind and really quite mad, while Dorieus was first among all of his peers and fully
 believed that he would be made king for his manly worth.

Since he was of this opinion, Dorieus was very
 angry when at Anaxandrides ' death the Lacedaemonians followed their custom and made Cleomenes king by right of age. Since he would not
 tolerate being made subject to Cleomenes , he asked
 the Spartans for a group of people whom he took
 away as colonists. He neither inquired of the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi in what land he should establish his settlement, nor
 did anything else that was customary but set sail in great anger for Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya , with men of +Thera [25.433,36.4] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Thera to guide him.

When he arrived there, he settled by the Cinyps
 river in the fairest part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , but in the
 third year he was driven out by the Macae , the
 Libyans and the Carchedonians and returned to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnesus .

There Antichares , a man of
 Eleon , advised him, on the basis of
 the oracles of Laius , to plant a colony at +Eraclea [16.666,40.216] (deserted
 settlement), Matera, Basilicata, Italy, Europe Heraclea 
 in Sicily [14,37.5] (region),
 Italy, Europe Sicily , for Heracles 
 
 himself, said Antichares , had won all the region of
 +Eryx [12.5833,38.0333]
 (Perseus) Eryx , which accordingly belonged to his
 descendants. When Dorieus heard that, he went away
 to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi to enquire of the oracle if he should
 seize the place to which he was preparing to go. The priestess responded
 that it should be so, and he took with him the company that he had led to
 Libya [17,25] (nation),
 Africa Libya and went to Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe
 Italy .

Now at this time, as the Sybarites say, they
 and their king Telys were making ready to march
 against +Croton
 [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton , and the men of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) Croton , who were very much afraid, entreated
 Dorieus to come to their aid. Their request was
 granted, and Dorieus marched with them to +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75]
 (Perseus) Sybaris helping them to take it.

This is the story which the Sybarites tell of
 Dorieus and his companions, but the Crotoniats say that they were aided by no stranger
 in their war with +Sybaris
 [16.4833,39.75] (Perseus) Sybaris with the exception of
 Callias , an Elean 
 diviner of the Iamid clan. About him there was a
 story that he had fled to 
 +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton from Telys , the tyrant of +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75] (Perseus)
 Sybaris , because as he was sacrificing for victory over
 +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) Croton , he could obtain no favorable omens.

This is their tale, and both cities have proof of
 the truth of what they say. The Sybarites point
 to a precinct and a temple beside the dry bed of the Crathis , which, they say, Dorieus 
 founded in honor of Athena of Crathis after he had helped to take their city. and find their
 strongest proof in his death. He perished through doing more than the oracle
 bade him, for if he had accomplished no more than that which he set out to
 do, he would have taken and held the Erycine 
 region without bringing about the death of himself and his army.

The Crotoniats , on the other hand, show many
 plots of land which had been set apart for and given to Callias of +Elis
 [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis and on which Callias ' posterity dwelt even to my time but show no
 gift to Dorieus and his descendants. They claim,
 however,that if Dorieus had aided them in their war
 with +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75]
 (Perseus) Sybaris , he would have received a reward many
 times greater than what was given to Callias . This,
 then is the evidence brought forward by each party, and each may side with
 that which seems to him to deserve more credence.

Other Spartans too sailed
 with Dorieus to found his colony, namely, Thessalus , Paraebates , Celees , and Euryleon . When
 these men had come to Sicily
 [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily with all their
 company, they were all overcome and slain in battle by the Phoenicians and Egestans ,
 all, that is, except Euryleon , who was the only
 settler that survived this disaster.

He mustered the remnant of his army and took +Eraclea [13.283,37.4] (deserted settlement),
 Agrigento, Sicily, Italy, Europe Minoa , the colony from
 +Selinus [12.8167,37.5833]
 (Perseus) Selinus , and aided in freeing the people of
 +Selinus [12.8167,37.5833]
 (Perseus) Selinus from their monarch Pithagoras . After deposing this man, he himself attempted to
 become tyrant of +Selinus
 [12.8167,37.5833] (Perseus) Selinus but was monarch there
 for only a little while since the people of the place rose against him and
 slew him at the altar of Zeus of the marketplace,
 to which he had fled for refuge.

Philippus of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus)
 Croton , son of Butacides , was among
 those who followed Dorieus and were slain with him.
 He had been betrothed to the daughter of Telys of
 +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75]
 (Perseus) Sybaris but was banished from +Croton [17.1333,39.0833]
 (Perseus) Croton . Cheated out of his marriage, he sailed
 away to Shahhat [21.866,32.833]
 (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya,
 Africa Cyrene , from where he set forth and followed Dorieus , bringing his own trireme and covering all
 expenses for his men. This Philippus was a victor
 at Olympia [21.6333,37.65]
 (Perseus) Olympia and the fairest Greek of his day.

For his physical beauty he received from the Egestans honors accorded to no one else. They built a hero's
 shrine by his grave and offer him sacrifices of propitiation.

Such, then, was the manner of Dorieus ' death. Had he endured Cleomenes ' rule and stayed at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta 
 he would have been king of Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , for Cleomenes reigned
 no long time, and died leaving no son but one only daughter, whose name was
 Gorgo .

It was in the reign of Cleomenes that Aristagoras the tyrant of
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta .
 When he had an audience with the king, as the Lacedaemonians report, he brought with him a bronze tablet on
 which the map of all the earth was engraved, and all the sea and all the
 rivers.

Having been admitted to converse with Cleomenes ,
 Aristagoras spoke thus to him: “Do not wonder,
 Cleomenes , that I have been so eager to come
 here, for our present situation is such that the sons of the Ionians are slaves and not free men, which is
 shameful and grievous particularly to ourselves but also, of all others, to
 you, inasmuch as you are the leaders of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

Now, therefore, we entreat you by the gods of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to
 save your Ionian kinsmen from slavery. This is a
 thing which you can easily achieve, for the strangers are not valiant men
 while your valor in war is preeminent. As for their manner of fighting, they
 carry bows and short spears, and they go to battle with trousers on their
 legs and turbans on their heads.

Accordingly, they are easy to overcome. Furthermore, the inhabitants of that
 continent have more good things than all other men together, gold first but
 also silver, bronze, colored cloth, beasts of burden, and slaves. All this
 you can have to your heart's desire.

The lands in which they dwell lie next to each other, as I shall show: next
 to the Ionians are the Lydians , who inhabit a good land and have great store of silver.”
 (This he said pointing to the map of the earth which he had brought engraved
 on the tablet.) “Next to the Lydians ,” said Aristagoras , “you see the Phrygians to the east, men that of all known to me are the
 richest in flocks and in the fruits of the earth.

Close by them are the Cappadocians , whom we call
 Syrians , and their neighbors are the Cilicians , whose land reaches to the sea over there,
 in which you see the island of Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus lying. The
 yearly tribute which they pay to the king is five hundred talents. Next to
 the Cilicians , are the Armenians , another people rich in flocks, and after the Armenians , the Matieni ,
 whose country I show you.

Adjoining these you see the Cissian land, in
 which, on the Choaspes , lies that Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa where the great king
 lives and where the storehouses of his wealth are located. Take that city,
 and you need not fear to challenge Zeus for riches.

You should suspend your war, then, for strips of land of no great worth—for
 that fight with with Messenians , who are matched
 in strength with you, and Arcadians and Argives , men who have nothing in the way of gold or
 silver (for which things many are spurred by zeal to fight and die). Yet
 when you can readily be masters of all Asia (continent) Asia , will you refuse to attempt
 it?”

Thus spoke Aristagoras , and Cleomenes replied: “ Milesian , my
 guest, wait till the third day for my answer.”

At that time, then, they got so far. When, on the
 day appointed for the answer, they came to the place upon which they had
 agreed, Cleomenes asked Aristagoras how many days' journey it was from the +Ionian Sea [19,39] (sea), Europe
 Ionian sea to the king.

Till now, Aristagoras had been cunning and fooled
 the Spartan well, but here he made a false step.
 If he desired to take the Spartans away into
 Asia
 (continent) Asia he should never have told the truth, but he
 did tell it, and said that it was a three months' journey inland.

At that, Cleomenes cut short Aristagoras ' account of the prospective journey. He then bade his
 Milesian guest depart from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta before sunset, for never, he said, would the Lacedaemonians listen to the plan, if Aristagoras desired to lead them a three months'
 journey from the sea.

Cleomenes went to his house after this exchange,
 but Aristagoras took a suppliant's garb and
 followed him there. Upon entering, he used a suppliant's right to beg Cleomenes to listen to him. He first asked Cleomenes to send away the child, his daughter Gorgo , who was standing by him. She was his only
 child, and was about eight or nine years of age. Cleomenes bade him say whatever he wanted and not let the child's
 presence hinder him.

Then Aristagoras began to promise Cleomenes from ten talents upwards, if he would grant his
 request. When Cleomenes refused, Aristagoras offered him ever more and more. When he finally
 promised fifty talents the child cried out, “Father, the stranger will
 corrupt you, unless you leave him and go away.”

Cleomenes was pleased with the child's counsel and
 went into another room while Aristagoras departed
 from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , finding no further occasion for telling
 of the journey inland to the king's palace.

Now the nature of this road is as I will show. All along it are the king's road stations
 and very good resting places, and the whole of it passes through country
 that is inhabited and safe. Its course through Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Lydia and Phrygia
 (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia is of the length
 of twenty stages, and ninety-four and a half parasangs.

Next after Phrygia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia it comes to the river
 Halys River (river), Turkey,
 Asia Halys , where there is both a defile which must be
 passed before the river can be crossed and a great fortress to guard it.
 After the passage into 
 +Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Cappadocia , the road in that land as far as the borders of
 Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia is of twenty-eight stages
 and one hundred and four parasangs. On this frontier you must ride through
 two defiles and pass two fortresses.

Ride past these, and you will have a journey through Cilica of three stages and fifteen and a half parasangs. The
 boundary of Cilicia
 [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia 
 and Armenia (region (general)),
 Asia Armenia is a navigable river, the name of which is
 the Euphrates [47.5,31.83]
 (river), Asia Euphrates . In Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia 
 there are fifteen resting-stages and fifty-six and a half parasangs. Here
 too there is a fortress. From Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia the road
 enters the Matienian land, in which there are
 thirty-four stages and one hundred and thirty-seven parasangs.

Through this land flow four navigable rivers which must be passed by
 ferries, first the Tigris
 [47.416,31] (river), Asia Tigris , then a second and a
 third of the same name, yet not the same stream nor flowing from the same
 source. The first-mentioned of them flows from the Armenians and the second from the Matieni .

The fourth river is called Gyndes , that Gyndes which Cyrus parted
 once into three hundred and sixty channels.

When this country is passed, the road is in the Cissian land, where there are eleven stages and forty-two and a
 half parasangs, as far as yet another navigable river, the Choaspes , on the banks of which stands the city of
 Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa .

Thus the sum total of stages is one hundred and
 eleven. So many resting-stages, then, are there in the journey up from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis to Shush
 [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa . If I have accurately counted the parasangs of the
 royal road, and the parasang is of thirty furlongs' length, which assuredly
 it is, then between Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and the king's abode
 called Memnonian 
 there are thirteen thousand and five hundred
 furlongs, the number of parasangs being four hundred and fifty. If each
 day's journey is one hundred and fifty furlongs, then the sum of days spent
 is ninety, neither more nor less.

Aristagoras of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus 
 accordingly spoke the truth to Cleomenes the Lacedaemonian when he said that the journey inland
 was three months long. If anyone should desire a more exact measurement, I
 will give him that too, for the journey from +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis must be added to the rest.

So, then, from the Greek sea to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , which is the city
 called Memnonian , it is a journey of fourteen
 thousand and forty stages, for there are five hundred and forty furlongs
 from +Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis . The three
 months' journey is accordingly made longer by three days.

When he was forced to leave Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , Aristagoras went to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , which had been freed from its ruling
 tyrants in the manner that I will show. First Hipparchus , son of Pisistratus and
 brother of the tyrant Hippias , had been slain by
 Aristogiton and Harmodius , men of Gephyraean descent.
 This was in fact an evil of which he had received a premonition in a dream.
 After this the Athenians were subject for four
 years to a tyranny not less but even more absolute than before.

Now this was the vision which Hipparchus saw in a dream: in the night before the
 Panathenaea he thought that a tall and handsome man stood
 over him uttering these riddling verses: 
 O lion, endure the unendurable with a lion's heart. 
 No man on earth does wrong without paying the penalty.

As soon as it was day, he imparted this to the
 interpreters of dreams, and presently putting the vision from his mind, he
 led the procession in which he met his death.

Now the Gephyraean clan,
 of which the slayers of Hipparchus were members,
 claim to have come at first from +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria , but
 my own enquiry shows that they were among the Phoenicians 
 who came with Cadmus to the country now called Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia . In that country the lands of
 +Tanagra [23.6,38.3083]
 (Perseus) Tanagra were allotted to them, and this is
 where they settled.

The Cadmeans had first been expelled from there
 by the Argives , and these Gephyraeans were forced to go to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 after being expelled in turn by the Boeotians .
 The Athenians received them as citizens of their
 own on set terms, debarring them from many practices not deserving of
 mention here.

These Phoenicians who
 came with Cadmus and of whom the Gephyraeans were a part brought with them to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , among many other kinds of learning, the
 alphabet, which had been unknown before this, I think, to the Greeks . As time went on the sound and the form of
 the letters were changed.

At this time the Greeks who were settled around
 them were for the most part Ionians , and after
 being taught the letters by the Phoenicians , they
 used them with a few changes of form. In so doing, they gave to these
 characters the name of Phoenician , as was quite
 fair seeing that the Phoenicians had brought them
 into Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Greece .

The Ionians have also from ancient times called
 sheets of papyrus skins, since they formerly used the skins of sheep and
 goats due to the lack of papyrus. Even to this day there are many foreigners
 who write on such skins.

I have myself seen Cadmean writing in the temple of Ismenian
 Apollo at Thebes
 [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes of Boeotia (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia engraved on certain
 tripods and for the most part looking like Ionian 
 letters. On one of the tripods there is this inscription: 
 
 Amphitryon dedicated me from the spoils
 of 
 Teleboae . 
 
 This would date from about the time of Laius the son of Labdacus ,
 grandson of Polydorus and great-grandson of Cadmus .

A second tripod says, in hexameter verse: 
 
 Scaeus the boxer, victorious in the
 contest, 
 Gave me to Apollo , the archer god, a lovely
 offering. 
 
 
 Scaeus the son of Hippocoon , if he is indeed the dedicator and not another of the
 same name, would have lived at the time of Oedipus 
 son of Laius .

The third tripod says, in hexameter verse again:
 
 
 Laodamas , while he reigned, dedicated this
 cauldron 
 To Apollo , the sure of aim, as a lovely
 offering.

During the rule of this Laodamas son of Eteocles , the Cadmeans were expelled by the Argives and went away to the Encheleis .
 The Gephyraeans were left behind but were later
 compelled by the Boeotians to withdraw to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens . They have certain set forms of worship
 at Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens in which the rest of the Athenians take no part, particularly the rites and
 mysteries of Achaean Demeter .

I have told both of the vision of Hipparchus ' dream and of the first origin of the Gephyreans , to whom the slayers of Hipparchus belonged. Now I must go further and return to the
 story which I began to tell, namely how the Athenians were freed from their tyrants.

Hippias , their tyrant, was growing ever more bitter
 in enmity against the Athenians because of Hipparchus ' death, and the Alcmeonidae , a family of Athenian 
 stock banished by the sons of Pisistratus ,
 attempted with the rest of the exiled Athenians 
 to make their way back by force and free Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .
 They were not successful in their return and suffered instead a great
 reverse. After fortifying Lipsydrium north of
 Paeonia , they, in their desire to use all
 devices against the sons of Pisistratus , hired
 themselves to the Amphictyons for the building of
 the temple at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi which exists now but
 was not there yet then.

Since they were wealthy and like their fathers men of reputation, they made
 the temple more beautiful than the model showed. In particular, whereas they
 had agreed to build the temple of tufa, they made its front of Parian marble.

These men, as the Athenians say, established themselves at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi and bribed the Pythian 
 priestess to bid any Spartans who should come to
 inquire of her on a private or a public account to set Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens free.

Then the Lacedaemonians , when the same command
 was ever revealed to them, sent Anchimolius the son
 of Aster , a citizen of repute, to drive out the
 sons of Pisistratus with an army despite the fact
 that the Pisistratidae were their close friends,
 for the god's will weighed with them more than the will of man.

They sent these men by sea on shipboard. Anchimolius put in at Phalerum and
 disembarked his army there. The sons of Pisistratus , however, had received word of the plan already, and
 sent to ask help from the Thessalians with whom
 they had an alliance. The Thessalians , at their
 entreaty, joined together and sent their own king, Cineas of Conium , with a thousand
 horsemen. When the Pisistratidae got these allies,
 they devised the following plan.

First they laid waste the plain of Phalerum so
 that all that land could be ridden over and then launched their cavalry
 against the enemy's army. Then the horsemen charged and slew Anchimolius and many more of the Lacedaemonians , and drove those that survived to their ships.
 Accordingly, the first Lacedaemonian army drew
 off, and Anchimolius ' tomb is at Alopecae in Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , near to the Heracleum in
 Cynosarges .

After this the Lacedaemonians sent out a greater army to attack Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , appointing as its general their king
 Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides . This army they sent not by sea but by land.

When they broke into Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , the Thessalian horsemen
 were the first to meet them. They were routed after only a short time, and
 more than forty men were slain. Those who were left alive made off for +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly by the nearest way they could.
 Then Cleomenes , when he and the Athenians who desired freedom came into the city, drove the
 tyrants' family within the Pelasgic wall and besieged them there.

The Lacedaemonians would
 never have taken the Pisistratid stronghold. First
 of all they had no intention to blockade it, and secondly the Pisistratidae were well furnished with food and drink.
 The Lacedaemonians would only have besieged the
 place for a few days and then returned to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta .
 As it was, however, there was a turn of fortune which harmed the one party
 and helped the other, for the sons of the Pisistratid family were taken as they were being secretly carried
 out of the country.

When this happened, all their plans were confounded, and they agreed to
 depart from Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica within five days on the terms prescribed to them by
 the Athenians in return for the recovery of their
 children.

Afterwards they departed to Sigeum on the Scamander . They had ruled the Athenians for thirty-six years and were in lineage of the house of Pylos [21.7083,36.9167] (Perseus)
 Pylos and Neleus , born of the same
 ancestors as the families of Codrus and Melanthus , who had formerly come from foreign parts to
 be kings of Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

It was for this reason that Hippocrates gave his
 son the name Pisistratus as a remembrance, calling
 him after Pisistratus the son of Nestor .

This is the way, then, that the Athenians got rid
 of their tyrants. As regards all the noteworthy things which they did or
 endured after they were freed and before Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia 
 revolted from Darius and Aristagoras of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus came to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens to ask help of its people, of these I
 will first give an account.

Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , which had been great before, now grew
 even greater when her tyrants had been removed. The two principal holders of
 power were Cleisthenes an Alcmaeonid , who was reputed to have bribed the Pythian priestess, and Isagoras son of Tisandrus , a man of a
 notable house but his lineage I cannot say. His kinsfolk, at any rate,
 sacrifice to Zeus of +Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Caria .

These men with their factions fell to contending for power, Cleisthenes was getting the worst of it in this
 dispute and took the commons into his party. Presently he divided the Athenians into ten tribes instead of four as
 formerly. He called none after the names of the sons of Ion — Geleon , Aegicores , Argades , and Hoples —but invented for them names taken from other
 heroes, all native to the country except Aias . Him
 he added despite the fact that he was a stranger because he was a neighbor
 and an ally.

In doing this, to my thinking, this Cleisthenes was imitating his own mother's father,
 Cleisthenes the tyrant of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon , for Cleisthenes , after
 going to war with the Argives , made an end of
 minstrels' contests at Sikyon
 [22.725,37.9833] (Perseus) Sicyon by reason of the Homeric
 poems, in which it is the Argives and Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos which are primarily the theme of the songs.
 Furthermore, he conceived the desire to cast out from the land Adrastus son of Talaus , the
 hero whose shrine stood then as now in the very marketplace of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon because he was an Argive .

He went then to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , and asked the oracle
 if he should cast Adrastus out, but the priestess
 said in response: “ Adrastus is king of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon , and you but a stone thrower.” When the
 god would not permit him to do as he wished in this matter, he returned home
 and attempted to devise some plan which might rid him of Adrastus . When he thought he had found one, he sent to Boeotian Thebes saying that he would gladly bring
 Melanippus son of Astacus into his country, and the Thebans handed him over.

When Cleisthenes had brought him in, he consecrated
 a sanctuary for him in the government house itself, where he was established
 in the greatest possible security. Now the reason why Cleisthenes brought in Melanippus , a
 thing which I must relate, was that Melanippus was
 Adrastus ' deadliest enemy, for Adrastus had slain his brother Mecisteus 
 and his son-in-law Tydeus .

Having then designated the precinct for him, Cleisthenes took away all Adrastus '
 sacrifices and festivals and gave them to Melanippus . The Sicyonians had been
 accustomed to pay very great honor to Adrastus 
 because the country had once belonged to Polybus ,
 his maternal grandfather, who died without an heir and bequeathed the
 kingship to him.

Besides other honors paid to Adrastus by the Sicyonians , they celebrated his lamentable fate with
 tragic choruses in honor not of Dionysus but of
 Adrastus . Cleisthenes ,
 however, gave the choruses back to Dionysus and the
 rest of the worship to Melanippus .

This, then, is what he did regarding Adrastus , but as for the tribes of the Dorians , he changed their names so that these tribes
 should not be shared by Sicyonians and Argives . In this especially he made a laughing-stock
 of the Sicyonians , for he gave the tribes names
 derived from the words ‘donkey’ and ‘pig’ changing only the endings. The
 name of his own tribe, however, he did not change in this way, but rather
 gave it a name indicating his own rule, calling it Archelaoi , rulers of the people. The rest were Swinites , Assites and
 Porkites .

These were the names of the tribes which the Sicyonians used under Cleisthenes ' rule
 and for sixty years more after his death. Afterwards, however, they took
 counsel together and both changed the names of three to Hylleis , Pamphyli , and Dymanatae , and added a fourth which they called
 Aegialeis after Aegialeus son of Adrastus .

This is what the Sicyonian 
 Cleisthenes had done, and the Athenian 
 Cleisthenes , following the lead of his grandfather
 and namesake, decided out of contempt, I imagine, for the Ionians , that his tribes should not be the same as
 theirs.

When he had drawn into his own party the Athenian 
 people, which was then debarred from all rights, he gave the tribes new
 names and increased their number, making ten tribe-wardens in place of four,
 and assigning ten districts to each tribe. When he had won over the people,
 he was stronger by far than the rival faction.

Isagoras , who was on the losing side, devised a
 counter-plot, and invited the aid of Cleomenes , who
 had been his friend since the besieging of the Pisistratidae . It was even said of Cleomenes that he regularly went to see Isagoras ' wife.

Then Cleomenes first sent a herald to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens demanding the banishment of Cleisthenes and many other Athenians with him, the Accursed, as he called them. This he said
 in his message by Isagoras ' instruction, for the
 Alcmeonidae and their faction were held to be
 guilty of that bloody deed while Isagoras and his
 friends had no part in it.

How the Accursed at Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 had received their name, I will now relate. There was an Athenian named Cylon , who had been a
 winner at Olympia
 [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia . This man put on the air
 of one who aimed at tyranny, and gathering a company of men of like age, he
 attempted to seize the citadel. When he could not win it, he took sanctuary
 by the goddess' statue.

He and his men were then removed from their position by the presidents of
 the naval boards, the rulers of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 at that time. Although they were subject to any penalty save death, they
 were slain, and their death was attributed to the Alcmaeonidae . All this took place before the time of Pisistratus .

When Cleomenes had sent for
 and demanded the banishment of Cleisthenes and the
 Accursed, Cleisthenes himself secretly departed.
 Afterwards, however, Cleomenes appeared in Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens with no great force. Upon his arrival,
 he, in order to take away the curse, banished seven hundred Athenian families named for him by Isagoras . Having so done he next attempted to dissolve the
 Council, entrusting the offices of government to
 Isagoras ' faction.

The Council, however, resisted him, whereupon Cleomenes and Isagoras and his partisans
 seized the acropolis. The rest of the Athenians 
 united and besieged them for two days. On the third day as many of them as
 were Lacedaemonians left the country under truce.

The prophetic voice that Cleomenes heard
 accordingly had its fulfillment, for when he went up to the acropolis with
 the intention of taking possession of it, he approached the shrine of the
 goddess to address himself to her. The priestess rose up from her seat, and
 before he had passed through the door-way, she said, “Go back, Lacedaemonian stranger, and do not enter the holy
 place since it is not lawful that Dorians should
 pass in here. “My lady,” he answered, “I am not a Dorian , but an Achaean .”

So without taking heed of the omen, he tried to do as he pleased and was, as
 I have said, then again cast out together with his Lacedaemonians . As for the rest, the Athenians imprisoned them under sentence of death. Among the
 prisoners was Timesitheus the Delphian , whose achievements of strength and courage were quite
 formidable.

These men, then, were bound and put to death. After
 that, the Athenians sent to bring back Cleisthenes and the seven hundred households banished
 by Cleomenes . Then, desiring to make an alliance
 with the Persians , they despatched envoys to
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , for they knew that they had provoked
 the Lacedaemonians and Cleomenes to war.

When the envoys came to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and spoke as they had
 been bidden, Artaphrenes son of Hystaspes , viceroy of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , asked
 them, “What men are you and where do you live, who desire alliance with the
 Persians ?” When he had received the
 information he wanted from the envoys, he gave them an answer the substance
 of which was that if the Athenians gave king
 Darius earth and water, then he would make an
 alliance with them, but if not, his command was that they should depart.

The envoys consulted together, and in their desire to make the alliance,
 they consented to give what was asked. They then returned to their own
 country and were there greatly blamed for what they had done.

Cleomenes , however, fully aware that the Athenians had done him wrong in word and deed,
 mustered an army from the whole of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnesus . He did not declare the purpose for which he
 mustered it, namely to avenge himself on the Athenian people and set up Isagoras , who
 had come with him out of the acropolis, as tyrant.

Cleomenes broke in as far as +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis with a great host, and the Boeotians , by a concerted plan, took Oenoe and Hysiae , districts
 on the borders of Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , while the Chalcidians 
 attacked on another side and raided lands in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica . The Athenians , who were now caught in a ring of foes, decided to
 oppose the Spartans at +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis and to deal with the Boeotians and Chalcidians 
 later.

When the armies were about to join battle, the Corinthians , coming to the conclusion that they were
 acting wrongly, changed their minds and departed. Later Demaratus son of Ariston , the other king
 of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , did likewise, despite the fact that he
 had come with Cleomenes from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 in joint command of the army and had not till now been at variance with him.

As a result of this dissension, a law was made at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta 
 that when an army was despatched, both kings would not be permitted to go
 with it. Until that time they had both gone together, but now one of the
 kings was released from service and one of the sons of Tyndarus too could be left at home. Before that time, both of
 these also were asked to give aid and went with the army.

So now at +Eleusis
 [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis , when the rest of the
 allies saw that the Lacedaemonian kings were not
 of one mind and that the Corinthians had left
 their host, they too went off.

This was the fourth time that Dorians had come into Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica . They had come twice as invaders in
 war and twice as helpers of the Athenian people.
 The first time was when they planted a settlement at +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus)
 Megara 
 (this
 expedition may rightly be said to have been in the reign of Codrus ), the second and third when they set out from
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta to drive out the sons of Pisistratus , and the fourth was now, when Cleomenes broke in as far as +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis with his following of Peloponnesians . This was accordingly the fourth
 Dorian invasion of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

When this force then had been ingloriously
 scattered, the Athenians first marched against
 the Chalcidians to punish them. The Boeotians came to the Euripus to help the Chalcidians and as
 soon as the Athenians saw these allies, they
 resolved to attack the Boeotians before the Chalcidians .

When they met the Boeotians in battle, they won a
 great victory, slaying very many and taking seven hundred of them prisoner.
 On that same day the Athenians crossed to +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea where they met the Chalcidians too in battle, and after overcoming them as well,
 they left four thousand tenant farmers on the lands of the horse-breeders.

Horse-breeders was the name given to the men of substance among the Chalcidians . They fettered as many of these as they
 took alive and kept them imprisoned with the captive Boeotians . In time, however, they set them free, each for an
 assessed ransom of two minae. The fetters in which the prisoners had been
 bound they hung up in the acropolis, where they could still be seen in my
 time hanging from walls which the Persians ' fire
 had charred, opposite the temple which faces west.

Moreover, they made a dedication of a tenth part of the ransom, and this
 money was used for the making of a four-horse chariot which stands on the
 left hand of the entrance into the outer porch of the acropolis and bears this inscription:
 
 
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens with +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667] (Perseus)
 Chalcis and Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Boeotia fought, 
 Bound them in chains and brought their pride to naught. 
 Prison was grief, and ransom cost them dear- 
 One tenth to Pallas raised this chariot
 here.

So the Athenians grew in
 power and proved, not in one respect only but in all, that equality is a
 good thing. Evidence for this is the fact that while they were under
 tyrannical rulers, the Athenians were no better
 in war than any of their neighbors, yet once they got rid of their tyrants,
 they were by far the best of all. This, then, shows that while they were
 oppressed, they were, as men working for a master, cowardly, but when they
 were freed, each one was eager to achieve for himself.

This, then, is the course of action which the Athenians took, and the Thebans , desiring vengeance on Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 afterwards appealed to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi for advice. The Pythian priestess said that the Thebans themselves would not be able to obtain the vengeance they
 wanted and that they should lay the matter before the “many-voiced” and
 entreat their “nearest.”

Upon the return of the envoys, an assembly was called and the oracle put
 before it. When the Thebans heard that they must
 entreat their “nearest,” they said, “If this is so, our nearest neighbors
 are the men of +Tanagra
 [23.6,38.3083] (Perseus) Tanagra and +Koroneia (deserted settlement),
 Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Coronea and 
 +Thespiai [23.166,38.283] (inhabited place), Boeotia, Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Thespiae . These are always our
 comrades in battle and zealously wage our wars. What need, then, is there to
 entreat them? Perhaps this is the meaning of the oracle.”

They reasoned in this way, till at last one
 understood, and said: “I think that I perceive what the oracle is trying to
 tell us. Thebe and Aegina ,
 it is said, were daughters of Asopus and sisters.
 The god's answer is, I think, that we should ask the Aeginetans to be our avengers.”

Seeing that there seemed to be no better opinion before them than this,
 they sent straightaway to entreat the Aeginetans 
 and invite their aid, since this was the oracle's bidding, and the Aeginetans were their nearest. These replied to
 their demand that they were sending the Sons of Aeacus in aid.

The Thebans took the
 field on the strength of their alliance with that family but were soundly
 beaten by the Athenians . Thereupon they sent a
 second message to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , giving back the sons of
 Aeacus and asking for some men instead.

The Aeginetans , who were enjoying great
 prosperity and remembered their old feud with Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 accordingly made war on the Athenians at the
 entreaty of the Thebans without sending a herald.

While the Athenians were busy with the Boeotians , they descended on Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica in ships of war, and
 ravaged +Phaleron
 [23.7083,37.9333] (Perseus) Phaleron and many other
 seaboard townships. By so doing they dealt the Athenians a very shrewd blow.

This was the beginning of the Aeginetans ' long-standing debt of enmity against the Athenians . The Epidaurians ' land bore no produce. For this reason they inquired
 at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi concerning this calamity, and the
 priestess bade them set up images of Damia and
 Auxesia , saying that if they so did their luck would be better.
 The Epidaurians then asked in addition whether
 they should make the images of bronze or of stone, and the priestess bade
 them do neither, but make them of the wood of the cultivated olive.

So the men of Epidauros
 [23.0917,37.6] (Perseus) Epidaurus asked the Athenians to permit them to cut down some olive
 trees, supposing the olives there to be the holiest. Indeed it is said that
 at that time there were no olives anywhere save at Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

The Athenians consented to give the trees, if the
 Epidaurians would pay yearly sacred dues to
 Athena , the city's goddess, and to Erechtheus . The Epidaurians 
 agreed to this condition, and their request was granted. When they set up
 images made of these olive trees, their land brought forth fruit, and they
 fulfilled their agreement with the Athenians .

Now at this time, as before it, the Aeginetans were in all matters still subject to the
 Epidaurians and even crossed to Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) Epidaurus for the hearing of their own private
 lawsuits. From this time, however, they began to build ships, and stubbornly
 revolted from the Epidaurians .

In the course of this struggle, they did the Epidaurians much damage and stole their images of Damia and Auxesia . These they
 took away and set them up in the middle of their own country at a place
 called Oea , about twenty furlongs distant from
 their city.

Having set them up in this place they sought their favor with sacrifices and
 female choruses in the satirical and abusive mode. Ten men were appointed
 providers of a chorus for each of the deities, and the choruses aimed their
 raillery not at any men but at the women of the country. The Epidaurians too had the same rites, and they have
 certain secret rites as well.

When these images were stolen, the Epidaurians ceased from fulfilling their agreement
 with the Athenians . Then the Athenians sent an angry message to the Epidaurians who pleaded in turn that they were doing no wrong.
 “For as long,” they said, “as we had the images in our country, we fulfilled
 our agreement. Now that we are deprived of them, it is not just that we
 should still be paying. Ask your dues of the men of +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina,
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina ,
 who have the images.”

The Athenians therefore sent to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina and demanded that the images be restored, but the
 Aeginetans answered that they had nothing to
 do with the Athenians .

The Athenians report that
 after making this demand, they despatched one trireme with certain of their
 citizens who, coming in the name of the whole people to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , attempted to tear the images, as being made of Attic
 wood, from their bases so that they might carry them away.

When they could not obtain possession of them in this manner, they tied
 cords around the images with which they could be dragged. While they were
 attempting to drag them off, they were overtaken both by a thunderstorm and
 an earthquake. This drove the trireme's crew to such utter madness that they
 began to slay each other as if they were enemies. At last only one of all
 was left, who returned by himself to Phalerum .

This is the Athenian 
 version of the matter, but the Aeginetans say
 that the Athenians came not in one ship only, for
 they could easily have kept off a single ship, or several, for that matter,
 even if they had no navy themselves. The truth was, they said, that the
 Athenians descended upon their coasts with
 many ships and that they yielded to them without making a fight of it at
 sea.

They are not able to determine clearly whether it was because they admitted
 to being weaker at sea-fighting that they yielded, or because they were
 planning what they then actually did.

When, as the Aeginetans say, no man came out to
 fight with them, the Athenians disembarked from
 their ships and turned their attention to the images. Unable to drag them
 from the bases, they fastened cords on them and dragged them until they
 both—this I cannot believe, but another might—fell on their knees. Both have
 remained in this position ever since.

This is what the Athenians did, but the Aeginetans say that they discovered that the Athenians were about to make war upon them and
 therefore assured themselves of help from the Argives . So when the Athenians 
 disembarked on the land of 
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , the Argives came to aid the Aeginetans , crossing over from Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) Epidaurus to the island secretly. They then fell
 upon the Athenians unaware and cut them off from
 their ships. It was at this moment that the thunderstorm and earthquake came
 upon them

This, then, is the story told by the Argives and Aeginetans ,
 and the Athenians too acknowledge that only one
 man of their number returned safely to Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica .

The Argives , however, say that he escaped after
 they had destroyed the rest of the Athenian 
 force, while the Athenians claim that the whole
 thing was to be attributed to divine power. This one man did not survive but
 perished in the following manner. It would seem that he made his way to
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens and told of the mishap. When the wives of
 the men who had gone to attack 
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina heard this, they
 were very angry that he alone should be safe. They gathered round him and
 stabbed him with the brooch-pins of their garments, each asking him where
 her husband was.

This is how this man met his end, and the Athenians found the action of their women to be more dreadful
 than their own misfortune. They could find, it is said, no other way to
 punish the women than changing their dress to the Ionian fashion. Until then the Athenian women had worn Dorian dress,
 which is very like the Corinthian . It was
 changed, therefore, to the linen tunic, so that they might have no
 brooch-pins to use.

The truth of the matter, however, is that this form
 of dress is not in its origin Ionian , but Carian , for in ancient times all women in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Greece wore the costume now known as Dorian .

As for the Argives and Aeginetans , this was the reason of their passing a law in both
 their countries that brooch-pins should be made half as long as they used to
 be and that brooches should be the principal things offered by women in the
 shrines of these two goddesses. Furthermore, nothing else Attic should be
 brought to the temple, not even pottery, and from that time on only drinking
 vessels made in the country should be used.

Ever since that day even to my time the women of
 Argos [22.7333,37.6417]
 (Perseus) Argos and +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina wore
 brooch-pins longer than before, by reason of the feud with the Athenians . The enmity of the Athenians against the Aeginetans began
 as I have told, and now at the Thebans ' call the
 Aeginetans came readily to the aid of the
 Boeotians , remembering the matter of the
 images.

While the Aeginetans were laying waste to the
 seaboard of Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , the Athenians were
 setting out to march against them, but an oracle from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi came to them bidding them to restrain themselves for
 thirty years after the wrongdoing of the Aeginetans , and in the thirty-first to mark out a precinct for
 Aeacus and begin the war with +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina . In this way their purpose would prosper. If,
 however, they sent an army against their enemies straightaway, they would
 indeed subdue them in the end but would in the meantime both suffer and do
 many things.

When the Athenians heard this reported to them,
 they marked out for Aeacus that precinct which is
 now set in their marketplace, but they could not stomach the order that they
 must hold their hand for thirty years, seeing that the Aeginetans had dealt them a foul blow.

As they were making ready for vengeance, a matter
 which took its rise in Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon hindered them, for when the Lacedaemonians learned of the plot of the Alcmaeonids with the Pythian 
 priestess and of her plot against themselves and the Pisistratidae , they were very angry for two reasons,
 namely that they had driven their own guests and friends from the country
 they dwelt in, and that the Athenians showed them
 no gratitude for their doing so.

Furthermore, they were spurred on by the oracles which
 foretold that many deeds of enmity would be perpetrated against them by the
 Athenians . Previously they had had no
 knowledge of these oracles but now Cleomenes 
 brought them to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , and the Lacedaemonians learned their contents. It was from
 the Athenian acropolis that Cleomenes took the oracles, which had been in the possession of
 the Pisistratidae earlier. When they were exiled,
 they left them in the temple from where they were retrieved by Cleomenes .

Now the Lacedaemonians ,
 when they regained the oracles and saw the Athenians increasing in power and in no way inclined to obey
 them, realized that if the Athenians remained
 free, they would be equal in power with themselves, but that if they were
 held down under tyranny, they would be weak and ready to serve a master.
 Perceiving all this, they sent to bring Pisistratus ' son Hippias from Sigeum on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , the Pisistratidae 's
 place of refuge.

When Hippias arrived, the Spartans sent for envoys from the rest of their allies and spoke
 to them as follows: “Sirs, our allies, we do acknowledge that we have acted
 wrongly, for, led astray by lying divinations, we drove from their native
 land men who were our close friends and promised to make Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens subject to us. Then we handed that city
 over to a thankless people which had no sooner lifted up its head in the
 freedom which we gave it, than it insolently cast out us and our king. Now
 it has bred such a spirit of pride and is growing so much in power, that its
 neighbors in Boeotia (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia and
 +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667]
 (Perseus) Chalcis have really noticed it, and others too
 will soon recognize their error.

Since we erred in doing what we did, we will now attempt with your aid to
 avenge ourselves on them. It is on this account and no other that we have
 sent for Hippias , whom you see, and have brought
 you from your cities, namely that uniting our counsels and our power, we may
 bring him to Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and restore that which
 we took away.”

These were the words of the Lacedaemonians , but their words were ill-received by the greater
 part of their allies. The rest then keeping silence, Socles , a Corinthian , said,

“In truth heaven will be beneath the earth and the earth aloft above the
 heaven, and men will dwell in the sea and fishes where men dwelt before, now
 that you, Lacedaemonians , are destroying the rule
 of equals and making ready to bring back tyranny into the cities, tyranny, a
 thing more unrighteous and bloodthirsty than anything else on this earth.

If indeed it seems to you to be a good thing that the cities be ruled by
 tyrants, set up a tyrant among yourselves first and then seek to set up such
 for the rest. As it is, however, you, who have never made trial of tyrants
 and take the greatest precautions that none will arise at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , deal wrongfully with your allies. If you had such
 experience of that thing as we have, you would be more prudent advisers
 concerning it than you are now.”

The Corinthian state was ordered in such manner
 as I will show. There was an oligarchy, and this
 group of men, called the Bacchiadae , held sway in
 the city, marrying and giving in marriage among themselves. Now Amphion , one of these men, had a crippled daughter,
 whose name was Labda . Since none of the Bacchiadae would marry her, she was wedded to Eetion son of Echecrates , of
 the township of +Petra
 [22.7083,39.4917] (Perseus) Petra , a Lapith by lineage and of the posterity of Caeneus .

When no sons were born to him by this wife or any other, he set out to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi to enquire concerning the matter of acquiring
 offspring. As soon as he entered, the Pythian 
 priestess spoke these verses to him: 
 
 Eetion ,worthy of honor, no man honors
 you. 
 
 Labda is with child, and her child will be a
 millstone 
 Which will fall upon the rulers and will bring justice to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth .

This oracle which was given to Eetion was in some
 way made known to the Bacchiadae . The earlier
 oracle sent to Corinth
 [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth had not been
 understood by them, despite the fact that its meaning was the same as the
 meaning of the oracle of Eetion , and it read as
 follows: 
 An eagle in the rocks has conceived, and will bring forth a
 lion, 
 Strong and fierce. The knees of many will it loose. 
 This consider well, Corinthians , 
 You who dwell by lovely Pirene and the
 overhanging heights of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus)
 Corinth .

This earlier prophecy had been unintelligible to the
 Bacchiadae , but as soon as they heard the one
 which was given to Eetion , they understood it at
 once, recognizing its similarity with the oracle of Eetion . Now understanding both oracles, they kept quiet but
 resolved to do away with the offspring of Eetion .
 Then, as soon as his wife had given birth, they sent ten men of their clan
 to the township where Eetion dwelt to kill the
 child.

These men came to +Petra
 [22.7083,39.4917] (Perseus) Petra and passing into Eetion 's courtyard, asked for the child. Labda , knowing nothing of the purpose of their coming
 and thinking that they wished to see the baby out of affection for its
 father, brought it and placed it into the hands of one of them. Now they had
 planned on their way that the first of them who received the child should
 dash it to the ground.

When, however, Labda brought and handed over the
 child, by divine chance it smiled at the man who took it. This he saw, and
 compassion prevented him from killing it. Filled with pity, he handed it to
 a second, and this man again to a third.In fact it passed from hand to hand
 to each of the ten, for none would make an end of it.

They then gave the child back to its mother, and after going out, they stood
 before the door reproaching and upbraiding one another, but chiefly him who
 had first received it since he had not acted in accordance with their
 agreement. Finally they resolved to go in again and all have a hand in the
 killing.

Fate, however, had decreed that Eetion 's offspring
 should be the source of ills for Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth , for
 Labda , standing close to this door, heard all
 this. Fearing that they would change their minds and that they would take
 and actually kill the child, she took it away and hid it where she thought
 it would be hardest to find, in a chest, for she knew that if they returned
 and set about searching they would seek in every place—which in fact they
 did.

They came and searched, but when they did not find it, they resolved to go
 off and say to those who had sent them that they had carried out their
 orders. They then went away and said this.

Eetion 's son, however, grew up, and because of his
 escape from that danger, he was called Cypselus ,
 after the chest. When he had reached manhood and was seeking a divination,
 an oracle of double meaning was given him at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi .
 Putting faith in this, he made an attempt on Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus)
 Corinth and won it.

The oracle was as follows: 
 That man is fortunate who steps into my house, 
 
 Cypselus , son of Eetion , the king of noble Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus)
 Corinth , 
 He himself and his children, but not the sons of his sons. 
 
 Such was the oracle. Cypselus , however, when he had gained the tyranny, conducted
 himself in this way: many of the Corinthians he
 drove into exile, many he deprived of their wealth, and by far the most he
 had killed.

After a reign of thirty years, he died in the height of prosperity, and was succeeded by his
 son Periander . Now Periander was to begin with milder than his father, but after he
 had held converse by messenger with Thrasybulus the
 tyrant of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus , he became much more bloodthirsty than
 Cypselus .

He had sent a herald to Thrasybulus and inquired in
 what way he would best and most safely govern his city. Thrasybulus led the man who had come from Periander outside the town, and entered into a sown field. As he
 walked through the corn, continually asking why the messenger had come to
 him from Corinth
 [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth , he kept cutting off
 all the tallest ears of wheat which he could see, and throwing them away,
 until he had destroyed the best and richest part of the crop.

Then, after passing through the place and speaking no word of counsel, he
 sent the herald away. When the herald returned to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth , Periander 
 desired to hear what counsel he brought, but the man said that Thrasybulus had given him none. The herald added that
 it was a strange man to whom he had been sent, a madman and a destroyer of
 his own possessions, telling Periander what he had
 seen Thrasybulus do.

Periander , however, understood what had been done,
 and perceived that Thrasybulus had counselled him
 to slay those of his townsmen who were outstanding in influence or ability;
 with that he began to deal with his citizens in an evil manner. Whatever act
 of slaughter or banishment Cypselus had left
 undone, that Periander brought to accomplishment.
 In a single day he stripped all the women of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus)
 Corinth naked, because of his own wife +Melissa [17.0333,39.3]
 (Perseus) Melissa .

Periander had sent messengers to the Oracle of the
 Dead on the river +Acheron
 (river), South Island, New Zealand, Oceania Acheron in
 +Nomo Thesprotias
 [20.333,39.5] (department), Epirus, Greece, Europe
 Thesprotia to enquire concerning a deposit that a friend had
 left, but +Melissa
 [17.0333,39.3] (Perseus) Melissa , in an apparition, said
 that she would tell him nothing, nor reveal where the deposit lay, for she
 was cold and naked. The garments, she said, with which Periander had buried with her had never been burnt, and were of
 no use to her. Then, as evidence for her husband that she spoke the truth,
 she added that Periander had put his loaves into a
 cold oven.

When this message was brought back to Periander 
 (for he had had intercourse with the dead body of +Melissa [17.0333,39.3]
 (Perseus) Melissa and knew her token for true),
 immediately after the message he made a proclamation that all the Corinthian women should come out into the temple of
 Hera . They then came out as to a festival,
 wearing their most beautiful garments, and Periander set his guards there and stripped them all alike,
 ladies and serving-women, and heaped all the clothes in a pit, where, as he
 prayed to +Melissa
 [17.0333,39.3] (Perseus) Melissa , he burnt them.

When he had done this and sent a second message, the ghost of +Melissa [17.0333,39.3]
 (Perseus) Melissa told him where the deposit of the
 friend had been laid. “This, then, Lacedaimonians , is the nature of tyranny, and such are its deeds.

We Corinthians marvelled greatly when we saw that
 you were sending for Hippias , and now we marvel yet
 more at your words to us. We entreat you earnestly in the name of the gods
 of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas not to establish tyranny in the cities, but
 if you do not cease from so doing and unrighteously attempt to bring Hippias back, be assured that you are proceeding
 without the Corinthians ' consent.”

These were the words of Socles , the envoy from Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth , and
 Hippias answered, calling the same gods as Socles had invoked to witness, that the Corinthians would be the first to wish the Pisistratidae back, when the time appointed should
 come for them to be vexed by the Athenians .

Hippias made this answer, inasmuch as he had more
 exact knowledge of the oracles than any man, but the rest of the allies, who
 had till now kept silence, spoke out when they heard the free speech of
 Socles and sided with the opinion of the Corinthians , entreating the Lacedaemonians not to harm a Greek 
 city.

His plan, then, came to nothing, and Hippias was forced to depart. Amyntas king of the Macedonians 
 offered him Anthemus , and the Thessalians 
 Iolcus , but he would have neither. He withdrew to
 Sigeum , which Pisistratus had taken at the spear's point from the Mytilenaeans and where he then established as tyrant
 Hegesistratus , his own bastard son by an Argive woman. Hegesistratus , however, could not keep what Pisistratus had given him without fighting,

for there was constant war over a long period of time between the Athenians at Sigeum and the Mytilenaeans at Achilleum . The Mytilenaeans were demanding the place back, and the
 Athenians , bringing proof to show that the
 Aeolians had no more part or lot in the land
 of Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilium than
 they themselves and all the other Greeks who had
 aided Menelaus to avenge the rape of Helen , would not consent.

Among the various incidents of this war, one in
 particular is worth mention; In the course of a battle in which the Athenians had the upper hand, Alcaeus the poet took to flight and escaped, but his armor was
 taken by the Athenians and hung up in the temple
 of Athena at Sigeum .

Alcaeus wrote a poem about this and sent it to
 Mytilene [26.55,39.1]
 (Perseus) Mytilene . In it he relates his own misfortune
 to his friend Melanippus . As for the Mytilenaeans and Athenians , however, peace was made between them by Periander son of Cypselus , to
 whose arbitration they committed the matter, and the terms of peace were
 that each party should keep what it had.

It was in this way, then, that Sigeum came to be under Athenian rule,
 but Hippias , having come from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 into Asia
 (continent) Asia , left no stone unturned, maligning the Athenians to Artaphrenes ,
 and doing all he could to bring Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens into
 subjection to himself and Darius .

While Hippias was engaged in these activities, the
 Athenians heard of it and sent messengers to
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , warning the Persians not to believe banished Athenians . Artaphrenes , however, bade
 them receive Hippias back, if they wanted to be
 safe.When his words were brought back to the Athenians , they would not consent to them, and since they would
 not consent, it was resolved that they should be openly at war with Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia .

It was when the Athenians 
 had made their decision and were already on bad terms with Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , that Aristagoras the
 Milesian , driven from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta by Cleomenes the Lacedaemonian , came to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 since that city was more powerful than any of the rest. Coming before the
 people, Aristagoras spoke to the same effect as at
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , of the good things of Asia (continent) Asia ,
 and how the Persians carried neither shield nor
 spear in war and could easily be overcome.

This he said adding that the Milesians were
 settlers from Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , whom it was only right
 to save seeing that they themselves were a very powerful people. There was
 nothing which he did not promise in the earnestness of his entreaty, till at
 last he prevailed upon them. It seems, then, that it is easier to deceive
 many than one, for he could not deceive Cleomenes 
 of Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , one single man, but thirty thousand 
 Athenians he could.

The Athenians , now persuaded, voted to send
 twenty ships to aid the Ionians , appointing for
 their admiral Melanthius , a citizen of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens who had an unblemished reputation. These
 ships were the beginning of troubles for both Greeks and foreigners.

Aristagoras sailed before the rest, and when he
 came to Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus , he devised a plan from which no
 advantage was to accrue to the Ionians (nor
 indeed was that the purpose of his plan, but rather to vex king Darius ). He sent a man into Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Phrygia , to the Paeonians who had
 been led captive from the Strymon by Megabazus , and now dwelt in a Phrygian territory and village by themselves. When the man came
 to the Paeonians , he spoke as follows:

“Men of Paeonia , I have been sent by Aristagoras , tyrant of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , to
 show you the way to deliverance, if you are disposed to obey. All Ionia (region (general)), Europe
 Ionia is now in revolt against the king, and it is possible
 for you to win your own way back safely to your own land, but afterwards we
 will take care of you.”

The Paeonians were very glad when they heard
 that, and although some of them remained where they were for fear of danger,
 the rest took their children and women and fled to the sea. After arriving
 there, the Paeonians crossed over to +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited
 place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Chios .

They were already in +Khios
 [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Chios , when a great host of Persian horsemen came after them in pursuit. Unable
 to overtake them, the Persians sent to +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited
 place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Chios , commanding the Paeonians 
 to go back. The Paeonians would not consent to
 this, but were brought from 
 +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Chios by the Chians to +Lesbos
 [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lesbos and carried by the Lesbians to Doriscus , from where they
 made their way by land to Paeonia .

The Athenians came with
 their twenty ships as well as five triremes of the Eretrians who came to the war to please not the Athenians but the Milesians themselves, thereby repaying their debt (for the Milesians had once been the allies of the Eretrians in the war against +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667]
 (Perseus) Chalcis , when the Samians came to aid the Chalcidians 
 against the Eretrians and Milesians ). When these, then, and the rest of the allies had
 arrived, Aristagoras planned a march against Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis .

He himself did not go with the army but remained at Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , and appointed others to be generals of the Milesians , namely his own brother Charopinus and another citizen named Hermophantus .

When the Ionians had come
 to +Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus with this force, they left their ships at Coresus 
 in the Ephesian 
 territory and marched inland with a great host, taking Ephesians to guide them on their way. They made their way along
 the river Bakir Cayi [27,38.916]
 (river), Turkey, Asia Caicus , and after crossing the Tmolus , they came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 and captured it without any resistance. They took all of it except the
 citadel, which was held by Artaphrenes himself with
 a great force of men.

They were prevented from plundering the city by the
 fact that most of the houses in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis were made
 of reeds, and those made of brick had roofs of reeds. Accordingly, when one
 of these was seton fire by a soldier, the flames spread from house to house
 all over the whole city.

While the city was burning, the Lydians and all
 the Persians who were in the citadel, being
 hemmed in on every side since the fire was consuming the outer parts and
 having no exit from the city, came thronging into the marketplace and to the
 river Pactolus , which flows through the
 marketplace carrying down gold dust from Tmolus 
 and issues into the river Hermus , which in turn
 issues into the sea. They assembled in the marketplace by this Pactolus and were forced to defend themselves there.

When the Ionians saw some of their enemies
 defending themselves and a great multitude of others approaching, they were
 afraid and withdrew to the mountain called Tmolus ,
 from where they departed to their ships at nightfall.

In the fire at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis , a
 temple of Cybebe , the goddess of that country, was burnt, and the
 Persians afterwards made this their pretext
 for burning the temples of Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . At this time, the Persians of the provinces this side of the Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys , on hearing
 of these matters, gathered together and came to aid the Lydians .

It chanced that they found the Ionians no longer
 at Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , but following on their tracks, they
 caught them at +Ephesus
 [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia Ephesus . There the Ionians stood arrayed to meet them, but were utterly routed in
 the battle.

The Persians put to the sword many men of renown
 including Eualcides the general of the Eretrians who had won crowns as victor in the games
 and been greatly praised by Simonides of +Kea [24.366,37.566] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Ceos . Those of
 the Ionians who escaped from the battle fled,
 each to his city.

This, then is how they fared in their fighting.
 Presently, however, the Athenians wholly
 separated themselves from the Ionians and refused
 to aid them, although Aristagoras sent messages of
 earnest entreaty. Despite the fact that they had been deprived of their
 Athenian allies, the Ionians fervently continued their war against the king (for they
 remained committed by what they had done to Darius ).

They sailed to the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and made +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus)
 Byzantium and all the other cities of that region subject to
 themselves. Then sailing out from the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont they gained to their cause the greater part of
 +Caria [28,37.5] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria , for even +Caunus [28.6333,36.8333]
 (Perseus) Caunus , which till then had not wanted to be
 their ally, now joined itself to them after the burning of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis .

The Cyprians did likewise
 of their own free will, all save the people of +Amathus [33.05,34.6667] (Perseus)
 Amathus , for these too revolted from the Medes in such manner as I will show. There was a certain Onesilus , a younger brother of Gorgus king of the Salaminians , son of Chersis ,
 whose father was Siromus , and grandson of Euelthon .

This man had often before advised Gorgus to revolt
 from Darius , and now when he heard that the Ionians too had revolted, he was insistent in
 striving to move him. When, however, he could not persuade Gorgus , he and his faction waited till his brother had gone out
 of the city of Salamis
 [33.9,35.166] (deserted settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus,
 Asia Salamis , and shut him out of the gates.

Gorgus , after having lost his city, took refuge
 with the Medes , and Onesilus , now king of Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus,
 Asia Salamis , persuaded all Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus to
 revolt with him, all save the Amathusians , who
 would not consent. He accordingly stationed his forces in front of their
 city and besieged it.

Onesilus , then, besieged +Amathus [33.05,34.6667]
 (Perseus) Amathus . When it was reported to Darius that Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis had been
 taken and burnt by the Athenians and Ionians and that Aristagoras the Milesian had been
 leader of the conspiracy for the making of this plan, he at first, it is
 said, took no account of the Ionians since he was
 sure that they would not go unpunished for their rebellion. Darius did, however, ask who the Athenians were, and after receiving the answer, he called for his
 bow. This he took and, placing an arrow on it, and shot it into the sky,
 praying as he sent it aloft,

“O Zeus , grant me vengeance on the Athenians .” Then he ordered one of his servants to
 say to him three times whenever dinner was set before him, “Master, remember
 the Athenians .”

After giving this order, he called before him Histiaeus the Milesian ,
 whom Darius had kept with him for a long time now,
 and said, “I hear, Histiaeus , that the viceregent
 whom you put in charge of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus has done me
 wrong. He has brought men from the mainland overseas, and persuaded certain
 Ionians —who shall yet pay me the penalty for
 their deeds—to follow them and has robbed me of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

Now then, I ask you, do you think that this state of affairs is good? How
 did such things come to pass without any advice from your side? See to it
 that you do not have cause to blame yourself hereafter.”

To this Histiaeus answered: “My lord, what is this
 you say—that I and none other should devise a plan as a result of which any
 harm, great or small, was likely to come to you? What desire or feeling of
 deprivation would prompt me to do such a thing? All that you have is mine,
 and I am regarded worthy of hearing all your deliberations.

If my vicegerent is indeed doing what you say, be assured that he has acted
 of his own accord. For myself, I cannot even go so far as to believe the
 report that the Milesians and my vicegerent are
 doing you some dreadful wrong. If, however,it is true that they are engaged
 in such activities and what you, O king, have heard has a basis in fact,
 then you can see how unwisely you acted when you forced me to leave the
 coast.

It would seem, then, that as soon as I was out of sight, the Ionians did exactly what their hearts had long been
 set on. If I had been in Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia no city would have
 stirred. Now send me off to Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia right away, so that I
 may restore that country to peace and deliver into your hands that
 vicegerent of Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus who has devised all this.

Then, when I have done this to your satisfaction, I swear by the gods of
 your royal house that I will not take off the tunic I
 am wearing on my arrival in Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia until I have made Sardo , the largest of the islands, tributary to you.”

With these words Histiaeus 
 successfully deceived Darius who gave his consent
 and let him go, charging Histiaeus to appear before
 him at Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa when he had
 achieved what he promised.

Now while the message concerning Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis was making its way to the king, and Darius , having done as I said with his bow, held converse with
 Histiaeus and permitted him to go to the sea,
 the following events took place. When Onesilus of
 Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted
 settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus, Asia Salamis was besieging
 the Amathusians , news was brought him that Artybius , a Persian , was
 thought to be coming to Cyprus
 [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus with a great Persian host.

Upon hearing this, Onesilus sent heralds all
 through Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia to summon the people, and the Ionians , after no long deliberation, came with a
 great force. So the Ionians were in Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus when the Persians ,
 crossing from Cilicia
 [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia ,
 marched to Salamis [33.9,35.166]
 (deserted settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus, Asia Salamis by
 land, and the Phoenicians were sailing around the
 headland which is called the keys of Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus .

In this turn of affairs, the tyrants of Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus called together the generals of the Ionians , and said to them: “ Ionians , we Cyprians offer you the
 choice of engaging either the Persians or the
 Phoenicians .

If you want to draw up your army on land and try your strength against the
 Persians , then it is time for you to disembark
 and array yourselves on land and for us to embark in your ships to contend
 with the Phoenicians . If, however, you desire
 rather to engage the Phoenicians , do so, but
 whichever you choose, see to it that Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia and Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus become free.”

To this the Ionians answered, “We were sent by
 the common voice of Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe Ionia to guard the seas, not to
 deliver our ships to men of Cyprus
 [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus and encounter the Persians on land. We will attempt then to bear
 ourselves bravely in the task which was given us. It is for you to prove
 yourselves valiant men, remembering what you suffered when you were enslaved
 by the Medians.”

This was the Ionians '
 response, and when the Persian army afterwards
 arrived on the plain of Salamis
 [33.9,35.166] (deserted settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus,
 Asia Salamis , the Cyprian kings
 ordered their battle line. They drew up the best of the Salaminians and Solians against the
 Persians , leaving the remaining Cyprians to face the rest of the enemy's army. Onesilus placed himself opposite Artybius , the Persian general.

Now the horse which Artybius rode was trained to fight with infantrymen by rearing
 up. Hearing this, Onesilus said to his attendant, a
 Carian of great renown in war and a valiant
 man ,

“I learn that Artybius ' horse rears up and kicks
 and bites to death whomever he encounters. In light of this decide and tell
 me straightway which you will watch and strike down, Artybius himself or his horse.”

To this his henchman answered, “My King, ready am I to do either or both,
 whatever you desire. Nevertheless, I will tell you what I think is in your
 best interest.

To my mind, a king and general should be met in battle by a king and general
 (For if you lay low a man who is a general, you have achieved a great feat.
 Failing that, if he lays you low, as I pray he may not, it is but half the
 misfortune to be slain by a noble enemy). For us servants it is fitting that
 we fight with servants like ourselves and with that horse. Do not fear his
 tricks, for I promise that he will never again do battle with any man.”

This, then, was his response, and immediately
 afterwards war broke out on land and sea. The Ionians in their ships, displaying surpassing excellence that
 day, overcame the Phoenicians , and it was the
 Samnians who were most brave. On land, when
 the armies met, they charged and fought.

As for the two generals, Artybius rode against
 Onesilus who as he had agreed with his
 attendant, dealt Artybius a blow as he bore down
 upon him. When the horse struck his hooves on Onesilus ' shield, the Carian shore
 away the horse's legs with a stroke of his curved sword.

It was in this way that Artybius the Persian general, together
 with his horse, fell. While the rest were still fighting, Stesenor the ruler of 
 +Episkopi [32.916,34.666] (inhabited place), Limassol, Cyprus, Asia
 Curium , allegedly an Argive 
 settlement, played the traitor with great company of men under him. The
 war-chariots of the Salaminians immediately
 followed their lead, and the Persians accordingly
 gained the upper hand over the Cyprians .

So the army was routed, and many were slain, among them Onesilus , son of Chersis , who had
 contrived the Cyprian revolt, as well as the king
 of the Solians , Aristocyprus son of Philocyprus , that
 Philocyprus whom Solon 
 of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , when he came to Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus ,
 extolled in a poem above all other tyrants.

As for Onesilus , the Amathusians cut off his head and brought it to +Amathus [33.05,34.6667]
 (Perseus) Amathus , where they hung it above their gates,
 because he had besieged their city. When this head became hollow, a swarm of
 bees entered it and filled it with their honeycomb.

In consequence of this the Amathusians , who had
 inquired concerning the matter, received an oracle which stated that they
 should take the head down and bury it, and offer yearly sacrifice to Onesilus as to a hero. If they did this, things would
 go better for them.

This the Amathusians did,
 and have done to this day. When, however, the Ionians engaged in the sea-battle off Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus 
 learned that Onesilus ' cause was lost and that the
 cities of Cyprus [33,35] (island),
 Asia Cyprus , with the exception of Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted settlement), Famagusta,
 Cyprus, Asia Salamis which the Salaminians had handed over to their former king Gorgus , were besieged, they sailed off to Ionia (region (general)), Europe
 Ionia without delay.

+Soli [34.55,36.75] (Perseus)
 Soli was the Cyprian city which
 withstood siege longest; the Persians took it in
 the fifth month by digging a mine under its walls.

So the Cyprians , after
 winning freedom for a year, were enslaved once more. 
 Daurises , Hymaees , and
 Otanes , all of them Persian generals and married to daughters of Darius , pursued those Ionians who had
 marched to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and drove them to
 their ships. After this victory they divided the cities among themselves and
 sacked them.

Daurises made for the cities of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and took Dardanus , 
 +Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Abydus , Percote ,
 +Lapseki [26.7,40.366]
 (inhabited place), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Lampsacus , and Paesus , each in a
 single day. Then as he marched from Paesus against
 Parius , news came to him that the Carians had made common cause with the Ionians and revolted from the Persians . For this reason he turned aside from the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and marched his army to
 +Caria [28,37.5] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria .

It so happened that news of this was brought to the
 Carians before Daurises ' coming, and when the Carians 
 heard, they mustered at the place called the White
 Pillars by the river Marsyas 
 
 which flows from the region of Idria and issues
 into the +Buyukmenderes Nehri
 [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander .

When they had gathered together, many plans were laid before them, the best
 of which, in my judgment, was that of Pixodarus of
 Cindya , the son of Mausolus and husband of the daughter of Syennesis , king of Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia Cilicia . He proposed that the Carians should cross the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia
 Maeander and fight with the river at their back, so that
 being unable to flee and compelled to stand their ground they might prove
 themselves even braver than nature made them.

This opinion, however, did not prevail, and it was decided instead that the
 Persians and not the Cilicians should have the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia
 Maeander at their back, the intent being that if the Persians were overcome in the battle and put to
 flight, they would not escape but be hurled into the river.

Presently, when the Persians had come and had crossed the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey,
 Asia Maeander , they and the Carians joined battle by the river Marsyas . The Carians fought
 obstinately and for a long time, but at the last they were overcome by the
 odds. Of the Persians , as many as two thousand
 men fell, and of the Carians ten thousand.

Those of them who escaped were driven into the precinct of Zeus of Armies at +Labraunda [27.8167,37.4167] (Perseus)
 Labraunda , a large and a holy grove of
 plane-trees. (The Carians are the only people
 whom we know who offer sacrifices to Zeus by this
 name.) When they had been driven there, they deliberated how best to save
 themselves, whether it would be better for them to surrender to the Persians or to depart from Asia (continent) Asia .

While they took counsel, the Milesians and their allies came to their aid, whereupon the Carians put aside their former plans, and prepared
 to wage a new war over again. They met the Persian attack and suffered a heavier defeat in the battle than
 the first; many of their whole army fell, but the Milesians were hardest stricken.

The Carians , however,
 rallied and fought again after this disaster, for learning that the Persians had set forth to march against their
 cities, they beset the road with an ambush at Pedasus . The Persians fell into this
 by night and perished, they and their generals, Daurises and Amorges and Sisimaces . With these fell also Myrsus , son of Gyges . The leader of this
 ambush was Heraclides of Mylasas , son of Ibanollis .

This, then, is how these Persians perished. Hymaees , who had been
 one of those who went in pursuit of the Ionians 
 who marched on Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , now turned towards the
 Propontis , and there took Cius in +Mysia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Mysia .

When he had taken this place and heard that Daurises had left the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and was marching towards +Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Caria , he left the Propontis and
 led his army to the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , making himself master of all the Aeolians who dwell in the territory of Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilium , and
 of the Gergithae , a remnant of the ancient Trojans . While he was conquering these nations,
 however, Hymaees himself died of a sickness in the
 +Troas (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia Troad .

This is how he met his end, and Artaphrenes , viceroy of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and Otanes , the third general, were appointed to lead the
 army against Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe Ionia and the Aeolian territory on its borders. They took Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167]
 (Perseus) Clazomenae in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia ,
 and Kyme [24.1167,38.6333]
 (Perseus) Cyme in +Aeolis (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Aeolia .

Aristagoras the Milesian , as he clearly demonstrated, was a man of little courage,
 for after he had disturbed Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia and thrown all into
 utter confusion, he, perceiving what he had done, began to deliberate
 flight. Moreover, it seemed to him to be impossible to overcome Darius .

While the cities were being taken, he accordingly called his fellow-rebels
 together and took counsel with them, saying that it was best for them to
 have some place of refuge in case they should be thrown out of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus . He also asked them whether he should lead them from
 there to a settlement in Sardo , or Myrcinus in Edonia , which
 Histiaeus had received as a gift from Darius and fortified.

Hecataeus the historian, son of Hegesander , was of the opinion that they should set forth to
 neither of these places, but that Aristagoras 
 should build a fortress in the island of +Nisos Leros [26.833,37.133] (island), Sporades,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Leros and reside there, if
 he were driven from Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus . Afterwards, with this as a
 base, he could return to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus .

Such was the advice of Hecataeus , but Aristagoras himself
 thought it best to depart for Myrcinus . He
 accordingly entrusted Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus to Pythagoras , a citizen of repute, and himself sailed to Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace with any that would follow him and then took
 possession of the place to which he had come.

After this he was put to the sword by the Thracians , he and his army, as he was besieging a town, even
 though the Thracians were ready to depart from it
 under treaty.

This was the end of Aristagoras , after he had brought about the Ionian revolt. Histiaeus , the tyrant of
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus , arrived in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 after he was let go by Darius . When he came there
 from Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , Artaphrenes , the governor of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis , asked him for what reason he supposed the Ionians had rebelled; Histiaeus said that he did not know and marvelled at what had
 happened, pretending to have no knowledge of the present troubles.

But Artaphrenes saw that he dissembled and, knowing
 the exact story of the revolt, said: “I will tell you, Histiaeus , the truth of this business: it was you who stitched
 this shoe, and Aristagoras who put it on.”

Thus spoke Artaphrenes 
 regarding the revolt. Histiaeus was frightened by
 Artaphrenes ' understanding of the matter and
 fled the next night to the sea, for he had deceived Darius by promising to subdue Sardo ,
 the greatest of the islands, while secretly intending to make himself leader
 of the Ionians in their war against Darius .

Crossing over to Chios [26,38.366]
 (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , he
 was taken and bound by the Chians , because they
 judged him to have been sent by Darius to make
 trouble for them. But when they learned the whole story of his hostility to
 the king, they set him free.

Then Histiaeus was asked by
 the Ionians why he had so zealously ordered Aristagoras to revolt from the king and done the Ionians such great harm. He did not at all reveal
 the true reason to them, telling them instead that king Darius had planned to remove the Phoenicians and settle them in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia ,
 and the Ionians in Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia
 Phoenicia ; for this reason, he said, he had sent the order.
 The king had made no such plan, but Histiaeus 
 wanted to frighten the Ionians .

Then Histiaeus , using Hermippus , a man of Atarneus [26.95,39.05] (Perseus) Atarneus ,
 as messenger, sent letters to the Persians at
 Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis , because they had previously talked with
 him about revolt. But Hermippus did not give the
 letters to the men to whom he was sent, and went and delivered them to Artaphrenes instead.

Artaphrenes , learning all that was afoot, bade
 Hermippus carry Histiaeus ' letters to those for whom he was bringing them, and
 give him those which the Persians sent in answer
 to Histiaeus . Thus these men became known, and then
 Artaphrenes put many Persians to death.

So troubles arose in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .
 Since he failed in this hope, the Chians brought
 Histiaeus back to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus at
 his own request. But the Milesians were glad
 enough to be rid of Aristagoras himself, and they
 had no wish to receive another tyrant into their country now that they had
 tasted freedom.

When Histiaeus tried to force his way into Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus by night, he was wounded in the thigh by a Milesian . Since he was thrust out from his own city,
 he went back to Khios
 [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Chios ; when he could not persuade the
 Chians to give him ships, he then crossed over
 to Mytilene [26.55,39.1]
 (Perseus) Mytilene and persuaded the Lesbians to give him ships.

They manned eight triremes, and sailed with Histiaeus to Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus) Byzantium ;
 there they encamped, and seized all the ships that were sailing out of the
 Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Euxine , except when the crews consented to serve Histiaeus .

Such were the doings of Histiaeus and the Mytilenaeans .
 Against Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus itself a great fleet and army were
 expected, for the Persian generals had joined
 their power together and made one army, which they led against Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , taking less account of the other fortresses. Of the
 fleet, the Phoenicians were the most eager to
 fight, and there came with them to the war the newly subdued Cyprians , and the Cilicians and Egyptians .

These were coming to attack Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus and the rest of Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia . When the
 Ionians learned of it, they sent deputies to
 take counsel for them in the Panionium . When they came to that place and consulted, they
 resolved not to collect a land army to meet the Persians , but to leave the Milesians 
 to defend their walls themselves, and to man their fleet to the last ship
 and gather as quickly as possible at Lade to fight
 for Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus at sea. This Lade is a small island lying off the city of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus .

The Ionians then came
 there with their ships manned, and with them the Aeolians who dwell in Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Lesbos . This was their order of battle: The Milesians themselves had the eastern wing, bringing
 eighty ships; next to them were the Prieneans 
 with twelve ships, and the Myesians with three;
 next to the Myesians were the Teians with seventeen ships; next to these the Chians with a hundred; near these in the line were
 the Erythraeans , bringing eight ships, and the
 Phocaeans with three, and next to these the
 Lesbians with seventy; last of all in the line
 were the Samians , holding the western wing with
 sixty ships.

The total number of all these together was three hundred and fifty-three
 triremes.

These were the Ionian 
 ships; the ships of the foreigners were six hundred. When these, too,
 reached the Milesian shore, and all their land
 power was present, the Persian generals, learning
 the number of the Ionian ships, feared they would
 be too weak to overcome the Greeks . If they did
 not have mastery of the sea, they would not be able to take Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , and would be in danger of some evil treatment by
 Darius .

With this in mind, they gathered the tyrants of the Ionians who had been deposed from their governments by Aristagoras of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus and
 had fled to the Medes , and who now were with the
 army that was led against Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus . They
 gathered as many of these men as were with them and said to them:

“Men of Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia , let each one of you now show that he has
 done good service to the king's house; let each one of you try to separate
 your own countrymen from the rest of the allied power. Set this promise
 before them: they will suffer no harm for their rebellion, neither their
 temples nor their houses will be burnt, nor will they in any way be treated
 more violently than before.

But if they will not do so and are set on fighting, then utter a threat that
 will restrain them: if they are defeated in battle, they will be enslaved;
 we will make eunuchs of their boys, and carry their maidens captive to Balkh [66.9,36.75] (inhabited place),
 Balkh, Afghanistan, Asia Bactra , and hand over their land
 to others.”

So they spoke; the Ionian 
 tyrants sent their messages by night, each to his own countrymen. But the
 Ionians to whom these messages came were
 stubborn and would have no part of the treachery, each thinking that the
 Persians made this offer to them alone. This
 happened immediately after the Persians arrived
 at Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus .

Then the Ionians who had
 gathered at Lade held assemblies; among those whom
 I suppose to have addressed them was Dionysius , the
 Phocaean general, who spoke thus:

“Our affairs, men of Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia , stand on the edge of a
 razor, whether to be free men or slaves, and runaway slaves at that. If you
 now consent to endure hardships, you will have toil for the present time,
 but it will be in your power to overcome your enemies and gain freedom; but
 if you will be weak and disorderly, I see nothing that can save you from
 paying the penalty to the king for your rebellion.

Believe me and entrust yourselves to me; I promise you that (if the gods
 deal fairly with us) either our enemies shall not meet us in battle, or if
 they do they shall be utterly vanquished.”

When the Ionians heard
 this, they put themselves in Dionysius ' hands. He
 then each day put out to sea with ships in column, using the rowers to
 pierce each other's line of ships, and arming the
 fighting men on board; for the rest of the day he kept the fleet at anchor;
 all day he made the Ionians work.

For seven days they obeyed him and did his bidding; but on the next day,
 untried as they were in such labor and worn out by hard work and by the sun,
 the Ionians began to say each to other:

“Against what god have we sinned that we have to fulfill this task? We have
 lost our minds and launched out into folly, committing ourselves into the
 hands of this Phocaean braggart, who brings but
 three ships; and having got us he afflicts us with afflictions incurable.
 Many of us have fallen sick already, and many are likely to suffer the same
 thing; instead of these ills, it would be better for us to suffer anything,
 and endure this coming slavery, whatever it will be, rather than be
 oppressed by that which is now upon us. Come, let us obey him no longer!”

So they spoke, and from then on no man would obey. As if they were an army,
 they raised tents on the island where they stayed in the shade, and they
 were unwilling to embark upon their ships or to continue their exercises.

When the generals of the Samians learned what the Ionians were
 doing, they recalled that message which Aeaces son
 of Syloson had already sent them at the Persians ' bidding, entreating them to desert the
 Ionian alliance; seeing great disorder on the
 Ionian side, they consented to the message;
 moreover, it seemed impossible to them to overcome the king's power, and
 they were well assured that if they overcame Darius ' present fleet, another one five times as large would come.

Therefore, as soon as they saw the Ionians 
 refusing to be useful, they took up that for a pretext, considering it
 advantageous to save their own temples and houses. This Aeaces , from whom they received the message, was the son of Syloson son of Aeaces , and
 had been tyrant of +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos until he was deposed from his rule by Aristagoras of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus ,
 just like the other Ionian tyrants.

Now when the Phoenician 
 fleet came sailing against them, the Ionians put
 out to sea against them with their ships in column. When they drew near and
 met each other in battle, which of the Ionians 
 were brave men or cowards then in that sea-fight I cannot exactly say; for
 they all blame each other.

The Samians are said, according to their
 agreement with Aeaces , to have raised their sails
 and gone off to +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos , leaving their post, all except eleven ships.

The captains of these stood their ground and fought, disobeying their
 admirals. For this deed the Samian people granted
 that their names and patronymics should be engraved on a pillar as brave
 men; this pillar now stands in their market-place. But the Lesbians , seeing their neighbors fleeing, did the
 same as the Samians ; and most of the Ionians did likewise.

The most roughly handled of those that stood their
 ground in the sea-fight were the Chians , since
 they refused to be cowards and achieved deeds of renown. They brought a
 hundred ships to the fleet, as was mentioned above, and on each ship were
 forty picked men of their citizens.

Seeing themselves betrayed by the greater part of their allies, they did not
 think it right to act like the worst among them; with only a few allies to
 aid them they fought on and broke the enemy's line, until they had taken
 many ships but lost most of their own.

The Chians escaped to
 their own country with their remaining ships, but the crews of the Chian ships that were damaged and disabled were
 pursued and took refuge in Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale . There the
 men beached and left their ships, and made their way across the mainland.

But when the Chians entered the lands of Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted
 settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus on their march, they came by night while the women
 were celebrating the Thesmophoria ; then the Ephesians , never having heard the story of the Chians and seeing an army invading their country,
 were fully persuaded that these were robbers come after their women; so they
 mustered all their force and killed the Chians .

So these men met with such a fate. As for Dionysius the Phocaean ,
 when he saw that the Ionian cause was lost, he
 sailed away with the three enemy ships that he had captured; but not to
 Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited
 place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea ,
 now that he knew well that it would be enslaved with the rest of Ionia (region (general)), Europe
 Ionia ; he right away sailed straight to Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia
 Phoenicia instead, sunk some merchant ships, took a lot of
 money, and sailed to Sicily
 [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily ; from this base
 he set himself up as a pirate, robbing Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians , but no
 Greeks .

When the Persians had
 conquered the Ionians by sea, they laid siege to
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus by sea and land, mining the walls and
 using every device against it, until they utterly captured it in the sixth
 year after the revolt of Aristagoras . They enslaved the city, and thus
 the calamity agreed with the oracle concerning Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus .

When the Argives inquired
 at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi about the safety of their city, a common
 response was given, one part regarding the Argives themselves, but there was an additional response for the
 Milesians .

I will mention the part concerning the Argives 
 when I come to that part of my history; this was the prophecy given to the
 Milesians in their absence: 
 Then, Miletus
 [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , contriver of evil
 deeds, 
 For many will you become a banquet and glorious gifts; 
 Your wives will wash the feet of many long-haired men; 
 Other ministers will tend my Didyman 
 shrine!

All this now came upon the Milesians , since most
 of their men were slain by the Persians , who wore
 long hair, and their women and children were accounted as slaves, and the
 temple at Didyma
 [27.25,37.3667] (Perseus) Didyma with its shrine and
 place of divination was plundered and burnt. Of the wealth that was in this
 temple I have often spoken elsewhere in my history.

After that, the captive Milesians were brought to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa . King Darius did them
 no further harm, settling them by the sea called Red, in the city of Ampe , by which the river Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia Tigris 
 flows as it issues into the sea. Of the Milesian 
 land the Persians themselves held what was
 nearest to the city, and the plain, giving the hill country into the
 possession of Carians from Pedasa [27.3833,37.0333] (Perseus)
 Pedasa .

Now when the Milesians 
 suffered all this at the hands of the Persians ,
 the Sybarites (who had lost their city and dwelt
 in Laus and Scidrus ) did
 not give them equal return for what they had done. When Sybaris [16.4833,39.75] (Perseus)
 Sybaris was taken by the Crotoniates , all the people of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus ,
 young and old, shaved their heads and made great public lamentation; no
 cities which we know were ever so closely joined in friendship as these.

The Athenians acted very differently. The Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking
 of Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus in many ways, but especially in this:
 when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled “The Fall of
 Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus ” and produced it, the whole theater
 fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand
 drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally,
 and forbade the performance of that play forever.

Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus then was left empty of Milesians . The men of property among the Samians were displeased by the dealings of their generals with
 the Medes , so after the sea-fight they took
 counsel immediately and resolved that before Aeaces 
 the tyrant came to their country they would sail to a colony, rather than
 remain and be slaves of the Medes and Aeaces .

The people of Zancle
 [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus) Zancle 
 
 in Sicily [14,37.5] (region),
 Italy, Europe Sicily about this time sent messengers to
 Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia inviting the Ionians to the Fair Coast , desiring
 there to found an Ionian city. This Fair Coast , as it is called, is in Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily , in that part which looks towards Etruria (region (general)), Italy,
 Europe Tyrrhenia . At this invitation, the Samians alone of the Ionians , with those Milesians who had
 escaped, set forth.

In their journey a thing happened to them such as I
 will show. As they voyaged to Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily ,
 the Samians came to the country of the Epizephyrian 
 
 Locrians at a time when the people of Zancle [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus)
 Zancle and their king (whose name was Scythes) were
 besieging a Sicilian town desiring to take it.

Learning this, Anaxilaus the tyrant of Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1]
 (inhabited place), Reggio di Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe
 Rhegium , being then in a feud with the Zanclaeans , joined forces with the Samians and persuaded them to leave off their voyage to the Fair Coast and seize Zancle [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus) Zancle 
 while it was deserted by its men.

The Samians consented and seized Zancle [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus)
 Zancle ; when they learned that their city was taken, the
 Zanclaeans came to deliver it, calling to
 their aid Hippocrates the tyrant of Gela [14.25,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Gela , who was their ally.

But Hippocrates , when he came bringing his army to
 aid them, put Scythes the monarch of Zancle [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus) Zancle and his
 brother Pythogenes in chains for losing the city,
 and sent them away to the city of Inyx . He
 betrayed the rest of the Zanclaeans to the Samians , with whom he had made an agreement and
 exchanged oaths.

The price which the Samians agreed to give him
 was that Hippocrates should take for his share half
 of the movable goods and slaves in the city, and all that was in the
 country.

Most of the Zanclaeans were kept in chains as
 slaves by Hippocrates himself; he gave three
 hundred chief men to the Samians to be put to
 death, but the Samians did not do so.

Scythes the monarch of Zancle [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus) Zancle 
 escaped from Inyx to Himera , and from there he came to Asia (continent) Asia and went up country
 to king Darius . Darius 
 considered him the most honest man of all who had come up to him from Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ;

for he returned by the king's permission to Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe
 Sicily and from Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily 
 back again to Darius , until in old age he ended his
 life in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia in great wealth. Without trouble the Samians planted themselves in that most excellent
 city of Zancle
 [15.5667,38.1833] (Perseus) Zancle , after they had
 escaped from the Medes .

After the fight at sea for Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus , the Phoenicians at the
 Persians ' bidding brought Aeaces son of Syloson back to Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , for the high
 worth of his service to them and for his great achievements. Because of the
 desertion of their ships in the sea-fight, the Samians were the only rebel people whose city and temples were
 not burnt.

After Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus was captured, the Persians at once gained possession of Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Caria . Some of the towns submitted voluntarily; others were
 brought over by force.

All this happened so. Histiaeus the Milesian was at Byzantium [28.95,41.0333]
 (Perseus) Byzantium , seizing the Ionian merchant ships as they sailed out of the Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Euxine , when he had news of the business of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus . Leaving all matters concerning the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont in charge of Bisaltes of Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Abydos , son of Apollophanes , he himself sailed with the Lesbians to Chios
 [26,38.366] (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Chios and, when the Chian 
 guardships would not receive him, fought in the Hollows of Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios (as they are called).

Many of their crews he killed; the rest of the people of the country, since
 they were crippled by the sea-fight, were mastered by Histiaeus with his Lesbians , setting
 out from Polichne in Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Chios .

It is common for some sign to be given when great
 ills threaten cities or nations; for before all this plain signs had been
 sent to the Chians .

Of a band of a hundred youths whom they had sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi only two returned, ninety-eight being caught and
 carried off by pestilence; moreover, at about this same time, a little
 before the sea-fight, the roof fell in on boys learning their letters: of
 one hundred and twenty of them one alone escaped.

These signs a god showed to them; then the sea-fight broke upon them and
 beat the city to its knees; on top of the sea-fight came Histiaeus and the Lesbians . Since the
 Chians were in such a bad state, he easily
 subdued them.

Then Histiaeus brought a
 great force of Ionians and Aeolians against Thasos
 [24.716,40.783] (deserted settlement), Thasos, Kavalla, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Thasos . While he was besieging Thasos [24.716,40.783] (deserted
 settlement), Thasos, Kavalla, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Thasos a message came that the Phoenicians were putting out to sea from Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus to attack the rest of Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .
 When he learned this, he left Thasos [24.716,40.783] (deserted settlement), Thasos, Kavalla,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Thasos unsacked, and hastened
 instead with all his army to Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Lesbos .

From there, since his army suffered from hunger, he crossed over to reap
 from Atarneus [26.95,39.05]
 (Perseus) Atarneus the corn there and the Mysian corn of the Bakir Cayi [27,38.916] (river), Turkey,
 Asia Caicus plain. Now it chanced that in that region was
 Harpagus , a Persian ,
 with no small force under him; when Histiaeus 
 landed, Harpagus met him in battle and took Histiaeus himself alive and killed most of his army.

Histiaeus was taken prisoner in this way: the Greeks fought with the Persians at Malene in the country of
 Atarneus [26.95,39.05]
 (Perseus) Atarneus ; the armies fought for a long time,
 until the Persian cavalry charged and fell upon
 the Greeks . So this was the accomplishment of the
 cavalry; when the Greeks were routed, Histiaeus , supposing that the king would not put him
 to death for his present transgression, did what showed that he loved his
 life too well.

He was overtaken in his flight by a Persian , and
 when he was caught and about to be stabbed, he cried out in the Persian language and revealed himself to be Histiaeus the Milesian .

Now if he had been taken prisoner and brought to
 king Darius , he would have suffered no harm (to my
 thinking) and the king would have forgiven his guilt; but as it was, when
 Histiaeus was brought to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis , both because of what he had done, and for fear that
 he might escape and again win power at the court, Artaphrenes , governor of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and Harpagus , who had captured him, impaled his body on
 the spot, and sent his head embalmed to king Darius 
 at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa .

When Darius learned of this, he blamed those who
 had done it because they had not brought Histiaeus 
 before him alive, and he commanded that the head should be washed and buried
 with due ceremony, as of a man who had done great good to Darius himself and to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia .

Thus it fared with Histiaeus . The Persian fleet wintered
 at Miletus [27.3,37.5]
 (Perseus) Miletus , and putting out to sea in the next
 year easily subdued the islands that lie off the mainland, Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios and Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos and Tenedos [26.05,39.8167]
 (Perseus) Tenedos . Whenever they took an island, the
 foreigners would (net) the people.

This is the manner of their doing it: the men link hands and make a line
 reaching from the northern sea to the southern, and then advance over the
 whole island hunting the people down. They also captured the Ionian cities of the mainland in the same way, but
 not by netting the people; for that was not possible.

Then the Persian generals
 were not false to the threats they had made against the Ionians when they were encamped opposite them. When they had
 gained mastery over the cities, they chose out the most handsome boys and
 castrated them, making them eunuchs instead of men, and they carried the
 fairest maidens away to the king; they did all this, and they burnt the
 cities with their temples. Thus three times had the Ionians been enslaved, first by the Lydians and now twice in a row by the Persians .

Then the fleet departed from Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia and
 captured everything which lies to the left of one sailing up the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont ; the right side had been
 subdued by the Persians themselves from the
 mainland. These are the regions of Europe (continent) Europe that belong to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont : the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese , in which
 there are many cities; Perinthus , and the forts
 that lie towards Thrace (region
 (general)), Europe Thrace , and Selymbria [28.25,41.0833]
 (Perseus) Selymbria and Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus)
 Byzantium .

The Byzantines and the Calchedonians beyond them did not even wait for the attack of the
 Phoenicians , but left their own land and fled
 away into the Black Sea [38,42]
 (sea) Euxine , and there settled in the city of Mesambria . The Phoenicians 
 burnt the aforementioned places and turned against Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus and Artace ; after giving these also to the flames they sailed back to
 the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese 
 to finish off the remaining cities, as many as they had not destroyed at
 their former landing.

But they did not sail against Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) Cyzicus at all;
 the Cyzicenes had already made themselves the
 king's subjects before the Phoenician expedition,
 by an agreement with the governor at Dascyleum ,
 Oebares son of Megabazus .

The Phoenicians subdued
 all the cities in the Gelibolu
 Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese except Cardia .
 Miltiades son of Cimon 
 son of Stesagoras was tyrant there. Miltiades son of Cypselus had
 gained the rule earlier in the following manner: the Thracian Dolonci held possession of this Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese . They were crushed in war by the
 Apsinthians , so they sent their kings to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi to inquire about the war.

The Pythia answered that they should bring to their
 land as founder the first man who offered them hospitality after they left
 the sacred precinct. But as the Dolonci passed
 through +Phocis (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Phocis and
 Boeotia (department), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , going along
 the Sacred Way , no one invited them, so they turned toward Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

At that time in Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 Pisistratus held all power, but Miltiades son of Cypselus 
 also had great influence. His household was rich enough to maintain a
 four-horse chariot, and he traced his earliest descent to Aeacus and +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , though his later ancestry
 was Athenian . Philaeus 
 son of Ajax was the first of that house to be an
 Athenian .

Miltiades was sitting on his porch when he saw the
 Dolonci go by with their foreign clothing and
 spears, so he called out to them, and when they came over, he invited them
 in for lodging and hospitality. They accepted, and after he entertained
 them, they revealed the whole story of the oracle to him and asked him to
 obey the god.

He was persuaded as soon as he heard their speech, for he was tired of Pisistratus ' rule and wanted to be away from it. He
 immediately set out for Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to ask the oracle if
 he should do what the Dolonci asked of him.

The Pythia also bade him do
 so. Then Miltiades son of Cypselus , previously an Olympic victor
 in the four-horse chariot, recruited any Athenian 
 who wanted to take part in the expedition, sailed off with the Dolonci , and took possession of their land. Those
 who brought him appointed him tyrant.

His first act was to wall off the isthmus of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese from the city of Cardia across to Pactye , so that the Apsinthians would
 not be able to harm them by invading their land. The isthmus is thirty-six
 stadia across, and to the south of the isthmus the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese is four hundred and twenty stadia
 in length.

After Miltiades had pushed
 away the Apsinthians by walling off the neck of
 the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ,
 he made war first on the people of +Lapseki [26.7,40.366] (inhabited place), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Lampsacus , but the Lampsacenes laid an ambush and took him prisoner. However, Miltiades stood high in the opinion of Croesus the Lydian , and
 when Croesus heard what had happened, he sent to
 the Lampsacenes and commanded them to release
 Miltiades . If they did not do so, he threatened
 to cut them down like a pine tree.

The Lampsacenes went astray in their counsels as
 to what the utterance meant which Croesus had
 threatened them with, saying he would devastate them like a pine tree, until
 at last one of the elders understood and said what it was: the pine is the
 only tree that once cut down never sends out any shoots; it is utterly
 destroyed. So out of fear of Croesus the Lampsacenes released Miltiades and let him go.

So he escaped by the intervention of Croesus , but he later died childless and left his rule
 and possessions to Stesagoras , the son of his
 half-brother Cimon . Since his death, the people of
 the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese 
 offer sacrifices to him as their founder in the customary manner,
 instituting a contest of horse races and gymnastics. No one from +Lapseki [26.7,40.366] (inhabited
 place), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Lampsacus is
 allowed to compete.

But in the war against the Lampsacenes 
 Stesagoras too met his end and died childless; he
 was struck on the head with an axe in the town-hall by a man who pretended
 to be a deserter but in truth was an enemy and a man of violence.

Stesagoras met his end in this way. The sons of
 Pisistratus sent Miltiades , son of Cimon and brother of
 the dead Stesagoras , in a trireme to the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese to take
 control of the country; they had already treated him well at Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , feigning that they had not been
 accessory to the death of Cimon his father, which I
 will relate in another place.

Reaching the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ,
 Miltiades kept himself within his house,
 professing thus to honor the memory of his brother Stesagoras . When the people of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese learned this, their ruling men
 gathered together from all the cities on every side, and came together in a
 group to show fellow-feeling with his mourning; but he put them in bonds. So
 Miltiades made himself master of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ; there he
 maintained a guard of five hundred men, and married Hegesipyle the daughter of Olorus , king
 of Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace .

But not long after this Miltiades son of Cimon had come to the
 Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ,
 greater difficulties than the present afflictions overtook him. He had been
 driven from the country three years before this by
 the Scythians . The nomadic Scythians , provoked by Darius , gathered
 themselves together and rode as far as the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese .

Miltiades did not await their attack and fled from
 the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ,
 until the Scythians departed and the Dolonci brought him back again. All this had
 happened three years before the matters that now engaged him.

But now, learning that the Phoenicians were in +Tenedos [26.05,39.8167] (Perseus) Tenedos , he
 sailed away to Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens with five triremes
 loaded with the possessions that he had nearby. He set out from Kardia [26.7333,40.5833]
 (Perseus) Cardia and crossed the Black
 Bay , and as he was sailing along the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese the Phoenicians fell upon him with their ships.

Miltiades himself escaped with four of his ships to
 Imbros , but the fifth was pursued and overtaken
 by the Phoenicians . It happened that the captain
 of this ship was Metiochus , the eldest son of Miltiades by another wife, not the daughter of Olorus the Thracian .

The Phoenicians took this man captive with his
 ship; and when they heard that he was Miltiades '
 son, they brought him up to the king, thinking that this would be a very
 favorable service, because Miltiades had declared
 his opinion among the Ionians that they should
 obey the Scythians in their demand to break the
 bridge of boats and sail away to their homes.

But when the Phoenicians brought Miltiades ' son Metiochus 
 before him, Darius did him no harm but much good,
 giving him a house and possessions and a Persian 
 wife, who bore him children who were reckoned as Persians . Miltiades made his way from
 Imbros to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

In this year the Persians caused no further
 trouble for the Ionians , and at this same time
 certain things happened which greatly benefited the Ionians . Artaphrenes governor of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis summoned ambassadors from the cities and compelled
 the Ionians to make agreements among themselves
 that they would abide by the law and not rob and plunder each other.

He compelled them to do this, and he measured their lands by parasangs,
 which is the Persian name for a distance of
 thirty stadia, and ordered that each people should according to this
 measurement pay a tribute which has remained fixed as assessed by Artaphrenes ever since that time up to this day; the
 sum appointed was about the same as that which they had rendered before.
 This then kept them peaceable.

But at the beginning of spring the other generals were deposed by the king from
 their offices, and Mardonius son of Gobryas , a man young in years and recently married to
 Darius ' daughter Artozostre , came down to the coast at the head of a very great
 army and fleet.

When Mardonius reached Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia Cilicia at the head of this army, he himself embarked
 on shipboard and sailed with the rest of his ships, while other captains led
 the land army to the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont .

When Mardonius arrived in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia in
 his voyage along the coast of Asia
 (continent) Asia , he did a thing which I here set down for
 the wonder of those Greeks who will not believe
 Otanes to have declared his opinion among the
 Seven that democracy was best for Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia : 
 Mardonius deposed all the Ionian tyrants and set up democracies in their cities.

He did this and hurried to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont . When a great multitude of ships and a great army
 were assembled, the Persians crossed the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont on shipboard and marched
 through Europe
 (continent) Europe , with +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus)
 Eretria and Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens as their
 goal.

This was the stated end of their expedition, but
 they intended to subdue as many of the Greek 
 cities as they could. Their fleet subdued the Thasians , who did not so much as lift up their hands against it;
 their land army added the Macedonians to the
 slaves that they had already, for all the nations nearer to them than Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia had been made subject to the Persians before this.

Crossing over from +Thasos
 [24.716,40.783] (deserted settlement), Thasos, Kavalla, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Thasos they travelled near the land as far
 as Acanthus , and putting out from there they tried
 to round +Mount Athos
 [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Athos . But a great and irresistible north wind
 fell upon them as they sailed past and dealt very roughly with them, driving
 many of their ships upon +Mount
 Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Athos .

It is said that about three hundred ships were lost, and more than twenty
 thousand men. Since the coasts of 
 +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos abound in wild beasts,
 some men were carried off by beasts and so perished; others were dashed
 against the rocks; those who could not swim perished because of that, and
 still others by the cold.

Thus it fared with the fleet; as for Mardonius and his land army, while they were encamped
 in Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia , the Brygi of
 Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace attacked them by night and killed many of
 them, wounding Mardonius himself. But not even
 these could escape being enslaved by the Persians ; Mardonius did not depart from
 those lands before he had subjugated them.

After conquering them, he led his army away homewards, since the Brygi had dealt a heavy blow to his army and +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166]
 (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Athos an even heavier blow to his fleet. This expedition
 after an inglorious adventure returned back to Asia (continent) Asia .

In the next year after this, 
 Darius first sent a message bidding the Thasians , who were falsely reported by their
 neighbors to be planning rebellion, to destroy their walls and bring their
 ships to +Abdera
 [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera .

Since they had been besieged by Histiaeus of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus and had great revenues, the Thasians had used their wealth to build ships of war and surround
 themselves with stronger walls.

Their revenue came from the mainland and from the mines. About eighty
 talents on average came in from the gold-mines of the “ Dug Forest ”, and less from the mines of +Thasos [24.716,40.783] (deserted
 settlement), Thasos, Kavalla, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Thasos itself, yet so much that the Thasians , paying no tax on their crops, drew a yearly revenue
 from the mainland and the mines of two hundred talents on average, and three
 hundred when the revenue was greatest.

I myself have seen these mines; by far the most
 marvellous were those that were found by the Phoenicians who with 
 +Thasos [24.716,40.783] (deserted settlement), Thasos, Kavalla,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Thasos colonized this island,
 which is now called after that Phoenician Thasos .

These Phoenician mines are between the place
 called Aenyra and Coenyra in +Thasos
 [24.716,40.783] (deserted settlement), Thasos, Kavalla, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Thasos , opposite +Samothrace (island), Nomos Evrou, Western Thrace,
 Greece, Europe Samothrace ; they are in a great hill that
 has been dug up in the searching. So much for that. The Thasians at the king's command destroyed their walls and brought
 all their ships to +Abdera
 [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera .

Then Darius attempted to
 learn whether the Greeks intended to wage war
 against him or to surrender themselves. He sent heralds this way and that
 throughout Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , bidding them demand a gift of
 earth and water for the king.

He despatched some to Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and he sent others to his
 own tributary cities of the coast, commanding that ships of war and
 transports for horses be built.

So the cities set about these preparations. The
 heralds who went to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas received what the king's
 proclamation demanded from many of those dwelling on the mainland and from
 all the islanders to whom they came with the demand. Among the islanders who
 gave earth and water to Darius were the Aeginetans .

The Athenians immediately came down upon them for
 doing this, for they supposed the Aeginetans to
 have given the gift out of enmity for Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 so they might join with the Persians in attacking
 the Athenians . Gladly laying hold of this
 pretext, they went to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta and there accused the
 Aeginetans of acting to betray Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

Regarding this accusation, Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides , king of
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , crossed over to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina,
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina 
 intending to arrest the most culpable of its people.

But when he attempted to make the arrests, the Aeginetans opposed him, especially Crius 
 son of Polycritus , who told him he would not take
 away any Aeginetan with impunity, for he had no
 authority from the Spartans for what he was
 doing; instead he had been bribed by the Athenians ; otherwise he would have come to make the arrests with
 the other king. He said this because of a letter from Demaratus .

Driven from +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , Cleomenes asked Crius his name; and when
 Crius told him what it was, Cleomenes said to him, “Now is the time to put bronze on your
 horns, Mr. Ram , for great
 calamity will confront you.”

All this time Demaratus son
 of Ariston remained at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta 
 and spread evil reports of Cleomenes . This Demaratus was also king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ,
 but of the inferior house; not indeed inferior in any other regard (for they
 have a common ancestor), but the house of Eurysthenes has in some sort the greater honor by right of
 primogeniture.

The Lacedaemonians say
 (but no poet agrees) that it was Aristodemus son of
 Aristomachus son of Cleodaeus son of Hyllus , and not his
 sons, who led them to that land which they now possess.

After no long time Aristodemus ' wife, whose name
 was Argeia , bore him offspring; they say she was
 daughter of Autesion son of Tisamenus son of Thersander son of Polynices ; she bore him twins; Aristodemus lived to see the children, then died of a sickness.

The Lacedaemonians of that day planned to follow
 their custom and make the eldest of the children king. But the children were
 identical in all respects, so the Lacedaemonians 
 did not know which to choose; when they could not judge between them, or
 perhaps even before this, they asked the mother.

She said she knew no better than the Lacedaemonians which was the elder; she knew perfectly well, but
 she said this because she desired that by some means both might be made
 kings. The Lacedaemonians were at a loss, so they
 sent to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to inquire how they
 should deal with the matter.

The priestess bade them make both children kings but give greater honor to
 the elder. When the priestess gave this response, the Lacedaemonians knew no better than before how to discover the
 elder child, and a man of +Nomos
 Messinias [21.833,37.25] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Messenia , whose name was Panites ,
 gave them advice:

he advised them to watch the mother and see which of the children she
 washed and fed before the other; if she was seen to do this always in the
 same order, they would then have all that they sought and desired to
 discover; but if she changed her practice haphazardly, then it would be
 manifest to the Lacedaemonians that she know no
 more than they did, and they must have recourse to some other means.

Then the Spartans did as the Messenian advised; as they watched the mother of Aristodemus ' children, they found her always
 preferring the elder when she fed and washed them, since she did not know
 why she was being watched. So they took the child that was preferred by its
 mother and brought it up at public expense as the first-born; and they
 called it Eurysthenes , and the other Procles .

They say that when these two brothers grew to manhood, they feuded with each
 other as long as they lived, and their descendants continued to do likewise.

The Lacedaemonians are
 the only Greeks who tell this story. But in what
 I write I follow the Greek report, and hold that
 the Greeks correctly recount these kings of the
 Dorians as far back as Perseus son of Danae —they make no
 mention of the god —and prove these kings to be Greek ; for by that time they had come to be classified as Greeks .

I said as far back as Perseus , and I took the
 matter no further than that, because no one is named as the mortal father of
 Perseus , as Amphitryon 
 is named father of Heracles . So I used correct
 reasoning when I said that the Greek record is
 correct as far back as Perseus ; farther back than
 that, if the king's ancestors in each generation, from Danae daughter of Acrisius upward, be
 reckoned, then the leaders of the Dorians will be
 shown to be true-born Egyptians .

Thus have I traced their lineage according to the
 Greek story; but the Persian tale is that Perseus himself was
 an Assyrian , and became a Greek , which his forebears had not been; the Persians say that the ancestors of Acrisius 
 had no bond of kinship with Perseus , and they indeed were, as the Greeks say, Egyptians .

Enough of these matters. Why and for what
 achievements these men, being Egyptian , won the
 kingship of the Dorians has been told by others,
 so I will let it go, and will make mention of matters which others have not
 touched.

These privileges the Spartans have given to their kings: two priesthoods, of Zeus called Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 and of Zeus of Heaven; they wage war against whatever land they wish,
 and no Spartan can hinder them in this on peril
 of being put under a curse; when the armies go forth the kings go out first
 and return last; one hundred chosen men guard them in their campaigns; they
 sacrifice as many sheep and goats as they wish at the start of their
 expeditions, and take the hides and backs of all sacrificed beasts.

Such are their rights in war; in peace the powers
 given them are as follows: at all public sacrifices the kings first sit down
 to the banquet and are first served, each of them receiving a portion double
 of what is given to the rest of the company; they make the first libations,
 and the hides of the sacrificed beasts are theirs.

At each new moon and each seventh day of the first part of the month, a
 full-grown victim for Apollo 's temple, a bushel of
 barley-meal, and a Laconian quart of wine are given to each from the
 public store, and chief seats are set apart for them at the games.

It is their right to appoint whatever citizens they wish to be protectors of
 foreigners; and they each choose two Pythians . (The Pythians 
 are the ambassadors to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi and eat with the kings
 at the public expense.) If the kings do not come to the public dinner, two
 choenixes of barley-meal and half a pint of wine are sent to their houses,
 but when they come, they receive a double share of everything; and the same
 honor shall be theirs when they are invited by private citizens to dinner.

They keep all oracles that are given, though the Pythians also know them. The kings alone judge cases concerning
 the rightful possessor of an unwedded heiress, if her father has not
 betrothed her, and cases concerning public roads.

If a man desires to adopt a son, it is done in the presence of the kings.
 They sit with the twenty-eight elders in council; if they do not come, the
 elders most closely related to them hold the king's privilege, giving two
 votes over and above the third which is their own.

The kings are granted these rights from the Spartan commonwealth while they live; when they die,
 their rights are as follows: Horsemen proclaim their death in all parts of
 +Laconia [22.583,37]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Laconia , and in
 the city women go about beating on cauldrons. When this happens, two free
 persons from each house, a man and a woman, are required to wear mourning,
 or incur heavy penalties if they fail to do so.

The Lacedaemonians have the same custom at the
 deaths of their kings as the foreigners in Asia (continent) Asia ; most foreigners use
 the same custom at their kings' deaths. When a king of the Lacedaemonians dies, a fixed number of their subject
 neighbors must come to the funeral from all Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon , besides the Spartans .

When these and the helots and the Spartans 
 themselves have assembled in one place to the number of many thousands,
 together with the women, they zealously beat their foreheads and make long
 and loud lamentation, calling that king that is most recently dead the best
 of all their kings. Whenever a king dies in war, they make an image of him
 and carry it out on a well-spread bier. For ten days after the burial there
 are no assemblies or elections, and they mourn during these days.

The Lacedaemonians also
 resemble the Persians in this: when one king is
 dead and another takes his office, this successor releases from debt any
 Spartan who owes a debt to the king or to the
 commonwealth. Among the Persians the king at the
 beginning of his reign forgives all cities their arrears of tribute.

The Lacedaemonians 
 resemble the Egyptians in that their heralds and
 flute-players and cooks inherit the craft from their fathers, a
 flute-player's son being a flute-player, and a cook's son a cook, and a
 herald's son a herald; no others usurp their places, making themselves
 heralds by loudness of voice; they ply their craft by right of birth. Such
 is the way of these matters.

While Cleomenes was in
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina working for the common good of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , Demaratus slandered
 him, not out of care for the Aeginetans , but out
 of jealousy and envy. Once Cleomenes returned home
 from +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina , he planned to remove Demaratus from his kingship, using the following affair as a
 pretext against him: Ariston , king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , had married twice but had no children.

He did not admit that he himself was responsible, so he married a third
 time. This is how it came about: he had among the Spartans a friend to whom he was especially attached. This man's
 wife was by far the most beautiful woman in Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ,
 but she who was now most beautiful had once been the ugliest.

Her nurse considered her inferior looks and how she was of wealthy people
 yet unattractive, and, seeing how the parents felt her appearance to be a
 great misfortune, she contrived to carry the child every day to the sacred
 precinct of Helen , which is in the place called
 Therapne , beyond the sacred
 precinct of Phoebus . Every time the nurse carried
 the child there, she set her beside the image and beseeched the goddess to
 release the child from her ugliness.

Once as she was leaving the sacred precinct, it is said that a woman
 appeared to her and asked her what she was carrying in her arms. The nurse
 said she was carrying a child and the woman bade her show it to her, but she
 refused, saying that the parents had forbidden her to show it to anyone. But
 the woman strongly bade her show it to her,

and when the nurse saw how important it was to her, she showed her the
 child. The woman stroked the child's head and said that she would be the
 most beautiful woman in all Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta . From
 that day her looks changed, and when she reached the time for marriage,
 Agetus son of Alcidas 
 married her. This man was Ariston 's friend.

So love for this woman pricked Ariston , and he contrived as follows: He promised to give to his
 comrade any one thing out of all he owned, whatever Agetus might choose, and he bade his comrade make him the same
 promise. Agetus had no fear about his wife, seeing
 that Ariston was already married, so he agreed and
 they took oaths on these terms.

Ariston gave Agetus 
 whatever it was that he chose out of all his treasures, and then, seeking
 equal recompense from him, tried to take the wife of his comrade. Agetus said that he had agreed to anything but that,
 but he was forced by his oath and by the deceitful trick to let his wife be
 taken.

In this way Ariston married
 his third wife, after divorcing the second one. But his new wife gave birth
 to Demaratus too soon, before ten lunar months had
 passed.

When one of his servants announced to him as he sat in council with the
 ephors that he had a son, Ariston , knowing the time
 of the marriage, counted up the months on his fingers and swore on oath,
 “It's not mine.” The ephors heard this but did not make anything of it. When
 the boy grew up, Ariston regretted having said
 that, for he firmly believed Demaratus to be his
 own son.

He named him Demaratus because before his birth all
 the Spartan populace had prayed that Ariston , the man most highly esteemed out of all the
 kings of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , might have a son.
 Thus he was named Demaratus , which means “answer to
 the people's prayer.”

Time passed and Ariston 
 died, so Demaratus held the kingship. But it seems
 that these matters had to become known and cause Demaratus to lose his kingship. He had already fallen out with
 Cleomenes when he had brought the army back from
 +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis , and now they were even more at odds
 when Cleomenes crossed over after the Aeginetans who were Medizing.

Cleomenes wanted revenge, so he made a deal with
 Leotychides son of Menares son of Agis , of the same family
 as Demaratus . The deal was that Leotychides would go with Cleomenes 
 against the Aeginetans if he became king.

Leotychides had already become strongly hostile to
 Demaratus for the following reason: Leotychides was betrothed to Percalus , daughter of Demarmenus , but
 Demaratus plotted and robbed him of his
 marriage, stealing Percalus and marrying her first.

From this affair Leotychides was hostile toward
 Demaratus , so at Cleomenes ' instigation he took an oath against him, saying that
 he was not king of the Spartans by right, since
 he was not Ariston 's son. After making this oath,
 he prosecuted him, recalling that utterance which Ariston had made when the servant told him he had a son, and he
 counted up the months and swore that it was not his.

Taking his stand on this remark, Leotychides 
 declared that Demaratus was not Ariston 's son and that he was not rightly king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , bringing as witnesses the ephors who had been
 sitting beside Ariston and heard him say this.

Disputes arose over it, so the Spartans resolved to ask the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi 
 if Demaratus was the son of Ariston .

At Cleomenes ' instigation this was revealed to the
 Pythia . He had won over a man of great influence
 among the Delphians , Cobon son of Aristophantus , and Cobon persuaded the priestess, Periallus , to say what Cleomenes wanted
 her to.

When the ambassadors asked if Demaratus was the son
 of Ariston , the Pythia 
 gave judgment that he was not. All this came to light later; Cobon was exiled from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi ,
 and Periallus was deposed from her position.

So it was concerning Demaratus ' loss of the kingship, and from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta he went into exile among the Medes because of the following reproach: after he was deposed
 from the kingship, he was elected to office.

When it was the time of the Gymnopaidia , 
 Leotychides , now king in his place, saw him in the
 audience and, as a joke and an insult, sent a messenger to him to ask what
 it was like to hold office after being king.

He was grieved by the question and said that he had experience of both,
 while Leotychides did not, and that this question
 would be the beginning for Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta of either
 immense evil or immense good fortune. He said this, covered his head, left
 the theater, and went home, where he immediately made preparations and
 sacrificed an ox to Zeus . Then he summoned his
 mother.

When she came in, he put some of the entrails in her
 hands and entreated her, saying, “Mother, appealing to Zeus of the household and to all the other gods, I beseech you to
 tell me the truth. Who is my father? Tell me truly.

Leotychides said in the disputes that you were
 already pregnant by your former husband when you came to Ariston . Others say more foolishly that you approached to one of
 the servants, the ass-keeper, and that I am his son.

I adjure you by the gods to speak what is true. If you have done anything of
 what they say, you are not the only one; you are in company with many women.
 There is much talk at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta that Ariston did not have child-bearing seed in him, or his former
 wives would have given him children.”

Thus he spoke. His mother answered, “My son, since
 you adjure me by entreaties to speak the truth, I will speak out to you all
 that is true. On the third night after Ariston 
 brought me to his house, a phantom resembling him came to me. It came and
 lay with me and then put on me the garlands which it had.

It went away, and when Ariston came in later and
 saw me with the garlands, he asked who gave them to me. I said he did, but
 he denied it. I swore an oath that just a little while before he had come in
 and lain with me and given me the garlands, and I said it was not good of
 him to deny it.

When he saw me swearing, he perceived that this was some divine affair. For
 the garlands had clearly come from the hero's precinct which is established
 at the courtyard doors, which they call the precinct of Astrabacus , and the seers responded that this was the same hero
 who had come to me. Thus, my son, you have all you want to know.

Either you are from this hero and Astrabacus the
 hero is your father, or Ariston is, for I conceived
 you that night. As for how your enemies chiefly attack you, saying that
 Ariston himself, when your birth was announced,
 denied in front of a large audience that you were his because the ten months
 had not yet been completed, he spoke an idle word, out of ignorance of such
 things.

Some women give birth after nine months or seven months; not all complete
 the ten months. I gave birth to you, my son, after seven months. A little
 later Ariston himself recognized that he had
 blurted out that speech because of foolishness. Do not believe other stories
 about your manner of birth. You have heard the whole truth. May the wife of
 Leotychides himself, and the wives of the others
 who say these things, give birth to children fathered by ass-keepers.”

Thus his mother spoke. After learning what he
 desired, Demaratus took provisions and travelled to
 +Elis [21.4,37.8833]
 (Perseus) Elis , pretending that he was going to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi to inquire of the oracle. But the Lacedaemonians suspected that he planned to escape and went in
 pursuit.

Demaratus somehow went across to +Zakinthos [20.9,37.783] (inhabited
 place), Nisos Zakinthos, Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe
 Zacynthus from 
 +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis before them; the
 Lacedaemonians crossed over after him and laid
 hands on him, carrying off his servants. But the Zacynthians refused to give him up, and later he crossed from
 there to Asia
 (continent) Asia and went to king Darius , who received him in grand style and gave him lands and
 cities.

So Demaratus reached Asia (continent) Asia through such chances,
 a man who had gained much renown in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon by his many achievements and
 his wisdom, and by conferring on the state the victory in a chariot-race he
 had won at Olympia
 [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia ; he was the only king of
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta who did this.

Leutychides son of Menares 
 succeeded to the kingship after Demaratus was
 deposed. A son was born to him, Zeuxidemus , called
 by some of the Spartans 
 Cyniscus . This Zeuxidemus 
 never became king of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , for he died before
 Leutychides , leaving his son Archidemus .

After the loss of Zeuxidemus , Leutychides married a second wife, Eurydame , sister of Menius and daughter
 of Diactorides ; by her he had no male offspring,
 but a daughter, Lampito , to whom Archidemus son of Zeuxidemus was married
 by Leutychides .

But Leutychides also did
 not come to old age in Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ; he was punished for
 his dealings with Demaratus as I will show. He led
 a Lacedaemonian army to +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly , and when he could have
 subdued all the country he took a great bribe.

After being caught in the act of hoarding a sleeve full of silver there in
 the camp, he was brought before a court and banished from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , and his house was destroyed. He went into exile at
 Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea and died in that country.

This happened long afterwards. When Cleomenes ' dealings with Demaratus came off successfully, he immediately took Leutychides with him and went to punish the Aeginetans , with whom he was terribly angry because
 of their insulting behavior.

When the Aeginetans saw that both kings had come
 after them, they now deemed it best to offer no further resistance; the
 kings chose ten men of +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina who were most honored for
 wealth and lineage, among them Crius son of Polycritus and Casambus son
 of Aristocrates , the two most powerful men in +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina ; they carried them to Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica and gave them into the
 keeping of the Athenians , the bitterest foes of
 the Aeginetans .

Later Cleomenes '
 treacherous plot against Demaratus became known; he
 was seized with fear of the Spartans and secretly
 fled to +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly . From there he came to
 +Arcadia [22.25,37.583]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia and
 stirred up disorder, uniting the Arcadians 
 against Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ; among his methods of
 binding them by oath to follow him wherever he led was his zeal to bring the
 chief men of +Arcadia
 [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Arcadia to the city of Nonacris 
 and make them swear by the water of the Styx .

Near this city is said to be the Arcadian water
 of the Styx , and this is its nature: it is a
 stream of small appearance, dropping from a cliff into a pool; a wall of
 stones runs round the pool. Nonacris , where this
 spring rises, is a city of 
 +Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Arcadia near Pheneus .

When the Lacedaemonians 
 learned that Cleomenes was doing this, they took
 fright and brought him back to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta to rule
 on the same terms as before. Cleomenes had already
 been not entirely in his right mind, and on his return from exile a mad
 sickness fell upon him: any Spartan that he
 happened to meet he would hit in the face with his staff.

For doing this, and because he was out of his mind, his relatives bound him
 in the stocks. When he was in the stocks and saw that his guard was left
 alone, he demanded a dagger; the guard at first refused to give it, but
 Cleomenes threatened what he would do to him
 when he was freed, until the guard, who was a helot, was frightened by the
 threats and gave him the dagger.

Cleomenes took the weapon and set about slashing
 himself from his shins upwards; from the shin to the thigh he cut his flesh
 lengthways, then from the thigh to the hip and the sides, until he reached
 the belly, and cut it into strips; thus he died, as most of the Greeks say, because he persuaded the Pythian priestess to tell the tale of Demaratus . The Athenians 
 alone say it was because he invaded +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis and
 laid waste the precinct of the gods. The Argives 
 say it was because when Argives had taken refuge
 after the battle in their temple of Argus 
 he brought them out and cut them down, then paid no
 heed to the sacred grove and set it on fire.

As Cleomenes was seeking
 divination at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , the oracle responded
 that he would take Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos . When he came with
 Spartans to the river Erasinus , which is said to flow from the Stymphalian 
 lake (this lake issues into a cleft out of sight and
 reappears at Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos , and from that place
 onwards the stream is called by the Argives 
 Erasinus )—when Cleomenes 
 came to this river he offered sacrifices to it.

The omens were in no way favorable for his crossing, so he said that he
 honored the Erasinus for not betraying its
 countrymen, but even so the Argives would not go
 unscathed. Then he withdrew and led his army seaward to Thyrea , where he sacrificed a bull to the sea and carried his men
 on shipboard to the region of 
 +Tiryns [22.8167,37.6] (Perseus) Tiryns and to +Navplion [22.8,37.566] (inhabited
 place), Nomos Argolidhos, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Nauplia .

The Argives heard of this
 and came to the coast to do battle with him. When they had come near +Tiryns [22.8167,37.6] (Perseus)
 Tiryns and were at the place called Hesipeia , they encamped opposite the Lacedaemonians , leaving only a little space between the armies.
 There the Argives had no fear of fair fighting,
 but rather of being captured by a trick.

This was the affair referred to by that oracle which the Pythian priestess gave to the Argives 
 and Milesians in common, which ran thus: 
 When the female defeats the male 
 
 And drives him away, winning glory in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos , 
 She will make many Argive women tear their
 cheeks. 
 As someday one of men to come will say: 
 The dread thrice-coiled serpent died tamed by the spear.

All these things coming together spread fear among the Argives . Therefore they resolved to defend themselves by making
 use of the enemies' herald, and they performed their resolve in this way:
 whenever the Spartan herald signalled anything to
 the Lacedaemonians , the Argives did the same thing.

When Cleomenes saw that the
 Argives did whatever was signalled by his
 herald, he commanded that when the herald cried the signal for breakfast,
 they should then put on their armor and attack the Argives .

The Lacedaemonians performed this command, and
 when they assaulted the Argives they caught them
 at breakfast in obedience to the herald's signal; they killed many of them,
 and far more fled for refuge into the grove of Argus , which the Lacedaemonians 
 encamped around and guarded.

Then Cleomenes ' plan was
 this: He had with him some deserters from whom he learned the names, then he
 sent a herald calling by name the Argives that
 were shut up in the sacred precinct and inviting them to come out, saying
 that he had their ransom. (Among the Peloponnesians there is a fixed ransom of two minae to be paid
 for every prisoner.) So Cleomenes invited about
 fifty Argives to come out one after another and
 murdered them.

Somehow the rest of the men in the temple precinct did not know this was
 happening, for the grove was thick and those inside could not see how those
 outside were faring, until one of them climbed a tree and saw what was being
 done. Thereafter they would not come out at the herald's call.

Then Cleomenes bade all the
 helots pile wood about the grove; they obeyed, and he burnt the grove. When
 the fire was now burning, he asked of one of the deserters to what god the
 grove belonged; the man said it was of Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos .
 When he heard that, he groaned aloud, “ Apollo , god
 of oracles, you have gravely deceived me by saying that I would take Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos ; this, I guess, is the fulfillment of that prophecy.”

Then Cleomenes sent most of
 his army back to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , while he himself took
 a thousand of the best warriors and went to the temple of Hera 
 to sacrifice. When he wished
 to sacrifice at the altar the priest forbade him, saying that it was not
 holy for a stranger to sacrifice there. Cleomenes 
 ordered the helots to carry the priest away from the altar and whip him, and
 he performed the sacrifice. After doing this, he returned to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta .

But after his return his enemies brought him before
 the ephors, saying that he had been bribed not to take Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos when he might have easily taken it. Cleomenes alleged (whether falsely or truly, I cannot rightly
 say; but this he alleged in his speech) that he had supposed the god's
 oracle to be fulfilled by his taking of the temple of Argus ; therefore he had thought it best not to make any attempt
 on the city before he had learned from the sacrifices whether the god would
 deliver it to him or withstand him;

when he was taking omens in Hera 's temple a flame
 of fire had shone forth from the breast of the image, and so he learned the
 truth of the matter, that he would not take Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos .
 If the flame had come out of the head of the image, he would have taken the
 city from head to foot utterly; but its coming from the breast signified
 that he had done as much as the god willed to happen. This plea of his
 seemed to the Spartans to be credible and
 reasonable, and he far outdistanced the pursuit of his accusers.

But Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos was so
 wholly deprived of men that their slaves took possession of all affairs,
 ruling and governing until the sons of the slain men grew up. Then they
 recovered Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos for themselves and cast
 out the slaves; when they were driven out, the slaves took possession of
 +Tiryns [22.8167,37.6]
 (Perseus) Tiryns by force.

For a while they were at peace with each other; but then there came to the
 slaves a prophet, Cleander , a man of Phigalea in +Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece,
 Europe Arcadia by birth; he persuaded the slaves to
 attack their masters. From that time there was a long-lasting war between
 them, until with difficulty the Argives got the
 upper hand.

The Argives say this was
 the reason Cleomenes went mad and met an evil end;
 the Spartans themselves say that Cleomenes ' madness arose from no divine agent, but
 that by consorting with Scythians he became a
 drinker of strong wine, and the madness came from this.

The nomadic Scythians , after Darius had invaded their land, were eager for revenge, so they
 sent to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta and made an alliance.
 They agreed that the Scythians would attempt to
 invade Media by way of the river 
 +Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican
 jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis , and they urged the
 Spartans to set out and march inland from
 +Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus and meet the Scythians .

They say that when the Scythians had come for
 this purpose, Cleomenes kept rather close company
 with them, and by consorting with them more than was fitting he learned from
 them to drink strong wine. The Spartans consider
 him to have gone mad from this. Ever since, as they themselves say, whenever
 they desire a strong drink they call for “a Scythian cup.” Such is the Spartan 
 story of Cleomenes ; but to my thinking it was for
 what he did to Demaratus that he was punished thus.

When the Aeginetans heard
 that Cleomenes was dead, they sent messengers to
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta to cry out against Leutychides concerning the hostages that were held at Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens . The Lacedaemonians then assembled a court and gave judgment that
 Leutychides had done violence to the Aeginetans ; and they condemned him to be given up
 and carried to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina in requital for the men
 that were held at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

But when the Aeginetans were about to carry Leutychides away, a man of repute at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta , Theasides son of Leoprepes , said to them, “Men of +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , what are you planning to do? To have the king of the
 Spartans given up to you by the citizens and
 carry him away? If the Spartans have now so
 judged in their anger, see that they do not bring utter destruction upon
 your country if you do this.”

The Aeginetans heard this and refrained from
 carrying the king away, and made an agreement that Leutychides should go with them to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 and restore the men to the Aeginetans .

When Leutychides came to
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens and demanded back the hostages, the Athenians were unwilling to give them back and made
 excuses, saying that two kings had given them the trust and they deemed it
 wrong to restore it to one without the other.

When the Athenians refused to give them back,
 Leutychides said to them: “Men of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , do whichever thing you desire. If you
 give them back, you do righteously; if you do not give them back, you do the
 opposite. But I want to tell you the story of what happened at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta in the matter of a trust.

We Spartans say that three generations ago there
 was at Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon one Glaucus , the son of
 Epicydes . We say that this man added to his
 other excellences a reputation for justice above all men who at that time
 dwelt in Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon .

But we say that at the fitting time this befell him: There came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta a certain man of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , who
 desired to have a talk with Glaucus and made him
 this offer: ‘I am a Milesian , and I have come to
 have the benefit of your justice, Glaucus .

Since there is much talk about your justice throughout all the rest of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , and even in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , I
 considered the fact that Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia is always in danger
 while the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese is securely
 established, and nowhere in Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia are the same men seen
 continuing in possession of wealth.

Considering and taking counsel concerning these matters, I resolved to turn
 half of my property into silver and deposit it with you, being well assured
 that it will lie safe for me in your keeping. Accept the money for me, and
 take and keep these tokens; restore the money to whoever comes with the same
 tokens and demands it back.’

Thus spoke the stranger who had come from Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , and
 Glaucus received the trust according to the
 agreement. After a long time had passed, the sons of the man who had
 deposited the money came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ; they
 spoke with Glaucus , showing him the tokens and
 demanding the money back.

But Glaucus put them off and answered in turn: ‘I
 do not remember the matter, and nothing of what you say carries my mind
 back. Let me think; I wish to do all that is just. If I took the money, I
 will duly restore it; if I never took it at all, I will deal with you
 according to the customs of the Greeks . I will
 put off making my decision for you until the fourth month from this day.’

So the Milesians went away in sorrow, as men
 robbed of their possessions; but Glaucus journeyed
 to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi to question the oracle. When he asked
 the oracle whether he should seize the money under oath, the Pythian priestess threatened him in these verses:

Glaucus son of Epicydes , it is more profitable now 
 To prevail by your oath and seize the money. 
 Swear, for death awaits even the man who swears true. 
 But Oath has a son, nameless; he is without hands 
 Or feet, but he pursues swiftly, until he catches 
 And destroys all the family and the entire house. 
 The line of a man who swears true is better later on. 
 When Glaucus heard this, he entreated the
 god to pardon him for what he had said. The priestess answered that to tempt
 the god and to do the deed had the same effect.

So Glaucus summoned the Milesian strangers and gave them back their money. But hear now,
 Athenians , why I began to tell you this story:
 there is today no descendant of Glaucus , nor any
 household that bears Glaucus ' name; he has been
 utterly rooted out of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta . So good is it not
 even to think anything concerning a trust except giving it back on demand!”

Thus spoke Leutychides ; but
 even so the Athenians would not listen to him,
 and he departed. The Aeginetans , before paying
 the penalty for the violence they had done to the Athenians to please the Thebans , acted
 as follows: blaming the Athenians and deeming
 themselves wronged, they prepared to take vengeance on the Athenians , who were now celebrating a quinquennial
 festival at Sunium . The Aeginetans set an ambush and captured the sacred ship, with many
 leading Athenians on board, and put in prison the
 men they seized.

Suffering this from the Aeginetans , the Athenians no longer
 put off devising all mischief against +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina . There
 was a notable man in +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , Nicodromus son of Cnoethus by name, who
 held a grudge against the Aeginetans for his
 former banishment from the island. When he learned that the Athenians were now set upon harming the Aeginetans , he agreed to betray +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina to the Athenians , naming
 the day when he would make the attempt and when they must come to aid him.

Later Nicodromus , according
 to his agreement with the Athenians , took
 possession of the Old City , as it was called; but
 the Athenians were not there at the right time,
 for they did not have ships worthy to fight the Aeginetans . While they were asking the Corinthians to lend them ships, the affair was ruined. The Corinthians at that time were their close friends,
 so they consented to the Athenians ' plea and gave
 them twenty ships, at a price of five drachmas apiece; by their law they
 could not make a free gift of them. Taking these ships and their own, the
 Athenians manned seventy in all and sailed for
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina , but they came a day later than the time
 agreed.

When the Athenians did
 not show up at the right time, Nicodromus took ship
 and escaped from +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina . Other Aeginetans followed him, and the Athenians gave them Sunium to dwell in;
 setting out from there they harried the Aeginetans of the island.

But this happened later. The rich men of +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina,
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina 
 gained mastery over the people, who had risen against them with Nicodromus , then made them captive and led them out to
 be killed. Because of this a curse fell upon them, which despite all their
 efforts they could not get rid of by sacrifice, and they were driven out of
 their island before the goddess would be merciful to them.

They had taken seven hundred of the people alive; as they led these out for
 slaughter one of them escaped from his bonds and fled to the temple gate of
 Demeter the Lawgiver, where he laid hold of the
 door-handles and clung to them. They could not tear him away by force, so
 they cut off his hands and carried him off, and those hands were left
 clinging fast to the door-handles.

Thus the Aeginetans dealt
 with each other. When the Athenians came, they
 fought them at sea with seventy ships; the Aeginetans were defeated in the sea-fight and asked for help from
 the Argives , as they had done before. But this
 time the Argives would not aid them, holding a
 grudge because ships of +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina had been taken by force by
 Cleomenes and put in on the +Nomos Argolidhos [22.833,37.666]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Argolid coast,
 where their crews landed with the Lacedaemonians ;
 men from ships of Sikyon
 [22.725,37.9833] (Perseus) Sicyon also took part in the
 same invasion.

The Argives laid on them the payment of a fine of
 a thousand talents, five hundred each. The Sicyonians confessed that they had done wrong and agreed to go
 free with a payment of a hundred talents, but the Aeginetans made no such confession and remained stubborn. For
 this cause the Argive state sent no one to aid
 them at their request, but about a thousand came voluntarily, led by a
 captain whose name was Eurybates , a man who
 practiced the pentathlon.

Most of these never returned, meeting their death at the hands of the Athenians in +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina ; Eurybates himself, their captain, fought in single
 combat and thus killed three men, but was slain by the fourth, Sophanes the son of Deceles .

The Aeginetan ships found
 the Athenians in disarray and attacked and
 overcame them, taking four Athenian ships and
 their crews.

Thus Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina grappled together in war. The Persian was going about his own business, for his servant was
 constantly reminding him to remember the Athenians , and the Pisistratidae were at his elbow maligning the Athenians ; moreover, Darius desired to
 take this pretext for subduing all the men of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas who
 had not given him earth and water.

He dismissed from command Mardonius , who had fared
 so badly on his expedition, and appointed other generals to lead his armies
 against Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917]
 (Perseus) Eretria , Datis , a
 Mede by birth, and his own nephew Artaphrenes son of Artaphrenes ; the order he gave them at their departure was to
 enslave Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917]
 (Perseus) Eretria and bring the slaves into his presence.

When these appointed generals on their way from the
 king reached the Aleian plain in Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia , bringing with them a
 great and well-furnished army, they camped there and were overtaken by all
 the fleet that was assigned to each; there also arrived the transports for
 horses, which in the previous year Darius had
 bidden his tributary subjects to make ready.

Having loaded the horses into these, and embarked the land army in the
 ships, they sailed to Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia with six hundred
 triremes. From there they held their course not by the mainland and straight
 towards the Canakkale Bogazi
 (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and
 Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , but setting forth from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos they sailed
 by the Icarian sea and from island to island;
 this, to my thinking, was because they feared above all the voyage around
 +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166]
 (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Athos , seeing that in the previous year they had come to
 great disaster by holding their course that way; moreover, +Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos 
 was still unconquered and constrained them.

When they approached +Naxos [15.283,37.816] (deserted settlement), Messina,
 Sicily, Italy, Europe Naxos from the Icarian sea and came to land (for it was +Naxos [15.283,37.816] (deserted settlement), Messina,
 Sicily, Italy, Europe Naxos which the Persians intended to attack first), the Naxians , remembering what had happened before, fled away to the mountains instead of
 waiting for them. The Persians enslaved all of
 them that they caught, and burnt their temples and their city. After doing
 this, they set sail for the other islands.

While they did this, the Delians also left Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos and fled away
 to +Nisos Tinos [25.166,37.583]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Tenos .
 As his expedition was sailing landwards, Datis went
 on ahead and bade his fleet anchor not off Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos , but
 across the water off Rhenaea . Learning where the
 Delians were, he sent a herald to them with
 this proclamation:

“Holy men, why have you fled away, and so misjudged my intent? It is my own
 desire, and the king's command to me, to do no harm to the land where the
 two gods were born, neither to the land itself nor to its
 inhabitants. So return now to your homes and dwell on your island.” He made
 this proclamation to the Delians , and then piled
 up three hundred talents of frankincense on the altar and burnt it.

After doing this, Datis 
 sailed with his army against 
 +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria first,
 taking with him Ionians and Aeolians ; and after he had put out from there, Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos was shaken by an earthquake, the first and
 last, as the Delians say, before my time. This
 portent was sent by heaven, as I suppose, to be an omen of the ills that
 were coming on the world.

For in three generations, that is, in the time of Darius son of Hystaspes and Xerxes son of Darius and
 Artaxerxes son of Xerxes , more ills
 happened to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas than in twenty generations before
 Darius ; some coming from the Persians , some from the wars for preeminence among the chief of
 the nations themselves.

Thus it was no marvel that there should be an earthquake in Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos when there had been none before. Also
 there was an oracle concerning Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos , where it was
 written: 
 I will shake Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos , though
 unshaken before. 
 In the Greek language these names have
 the following meanings: Darius is the Doer, Xerxes the Warrior, Artaxerxes the Great Warrior . The Greeks would rightly call the kings thus in their
 language.

Launching out to sea from Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos , the
 foreigners put in at the islands and gathered an army from there, taking the
 sons of the islanders for hostages.

When in their voyage about the islands they put in at Carystos , the Carystians gave them no
 hostages and refused to join them against neighboring cities, meaning +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917]
 (Perseus) Eretria and Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ;
 the Persians besieged them and laid waste their
 land, until the Carystians too came over to their
 side.

When the Eretrians 
 learned that the Persian expedition was sailing
 to attack them, they asked for help from the Athenians . The Athenians did not
 refuse the aid, but gave them for defenders the four thousand tenant farmers
 who held the land of the Chalcidian 
 horse-breeders. But it seems that all the plans of the Eretrians were unsound; they sent to the Athenians for aid, but their counsels were divided.

Some of them planned to leave the city and make for the heights of +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea ; others plotted treason in hope of winning advantages
 from the Persians .

When Aeschines son of Nothon , a leading man in +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria ,
 learned of both designs, he told the Athenians 
 who had come how matters stood, and asked them to depart to their own
 country so they would not perish like the rest. The Athenians followed Aeschines ' advice.

So they saved themselves by crossing over to Oropus ; the Persians 
 sailed holding their course for Temenos and Choereae and Aegilea , all
 in Eretrian territory. Landing at these places,
 they immediately unloaded their horses and made preparation to attack their
 enemies.

The Eretrians had no intention of coming out and
 fighting; all their care was to guard their walls if they could, since it
 was the prevailing counsel not to leave the city. The walls were strongly
 attacked, and for six days many fell on both sides; but on the seventh two
 Eretrians of repute, Euphorbus son of Alcimachus and Philagrus son of Cineas ,
 betrayed the city to the Persians .

They entered the city and plundered and burnt the temples, in revenge for
 the temples that were burnt at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ; moreover,
 they enslaved the townspeople, according to Darius '
 command.

After subduing +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus)
 Eretria , the Persians waited a
 few days and then sailed away to the land of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica , pressing ahead in
 expectation of doing to the Athenians exactly
 what they had done to the Eretrians .
 Marathon was the place in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica most
 suitable for riding horses and closest to +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus)
 Eretria , so Hippias son of Pisistratus led them there.

When the Athenians 
 learned this, they too marched out to Marathon, with ten generals leading
 them. The tenth was Miltiades , and it had befallen
 his father Cimon son of Stesagoras to be banished from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 by Pisistratus son of Hippocrates .

While in exile he happened to take the Olympic 
 prize in the four-horse chariot, and by taking this victory he won the same
 prize as his half-brother Miltiades . At the next
 Olympic games he won with the same horses but
 permitted Pisistratus to be proclaimed victor, and
 by resigning the victory to him he came back from exile to his own property
 under truce.

After taking yet another Olympic prize with the
 same horses, he happened to be murdered by Pisistratus ' sons, since Pisistratus was
 no longer living. They murdered him by placing men in ambush at night near
 the town-hall. Cimon was buried in front of the
 city, across the road called “Through the Hollow”, and buried opposite him
 are the mares who won the three Olympic prizes.

The mares of Evagoras the Laconian did the same as these, but none others. Stesagoras , the elder of Cimon 's sons, was then being brought up with his uncle Miltiades in the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese . The younger was with Cimon at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , and he took the name
 Miltiades from Miltiades the founder of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese .

It was this Miltiades who
 was now the Athenian general, after coming from
 the Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese 
 and escaping a two-fold death. The Phoenicians 
 pursued him as far as Imbros , considering it of
 great importance to catch him and bring him to the king.

He escaped from them, but when he reached his own country and thought he was
 safe, then his enemies met him. They brought him to court and prosecuted him
 for tyranny in the Gelibolu
 Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese , but he was acquitted and appointed Athenian general, chosen by the people.

While still in the city, the generals first sent to
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta the herald Philippides , an Athenian and a
 long-distance runner who made that his calling. As Philippides himself said when he brought the message to the Athenians , when he was in the Parthenian mountain above Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea he encountered
 Pan.

Pan called out Philippides ' name and bade him ask
 the Athenians why they paid him no attention,
 though he was of goodwill to the Athenians , had
 often been of service to them, and would be in the future.

The Athenians believed that these things were
 true, and when they became prosperous they established a sacred precinct of
 Pan beneath the Acropolis. Ever since that message they propitiate him with
 annual sacrifices and a torch-race.

This Philippides was in
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta on the day after leaving the city of
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , that time when he was sent by the generals and said that
 Pan had appeared to him. He came to the magistrates and said,

“ Lacedaemonians , the Athenians ask you to come to their aid and not allow the most
 ancient city among the Hellenes to fall into
 slavery at the hands of the foreigners. Even now +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus)
 Eretria has been enslaved, and Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas has
 become weaker by an important city.”

He told them what he had been ordered to say, and they resolved to send help
 to the Athenians , but they could not do this
 immediately, for they were unwilling to break the law. It was the ninth day
 of the rising month, and they said that on the ninth they could not go out
 to war until the moon's circle was full.

So they waited for the full moon, while the
 foreigners were guided to Marathon by Hippias son
 of Pisistratus . The previous night Hippias had a dream in which he slept with his mother.

He supposed from the dream that he would return from exile to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , recover his rule, and end his days an
 old man in his own country. Thus he reckoned from the dream. Then as guide
 he unloaded the slaves from 
 +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria onto the
 island of the Styrians called Aegilia , and brought to anchor the ships that had put ashore at
 Marathon, then marshalled the foreigners who had disembarked onto land.

As he was tending to this, he happened to sneeze and cough more violently
 than usual. Since he was an elderly man, most of his teeth were loose, and
 he lost one of them by the force of his cough. It fell into the sand and he
 expended much effort in looking for it, but the tooth could not be found.

He groaned aloud and said to those standing by him: “This land is not ours
 and we will not be able to subdue it. My tooth holds whatever share of it
 was mine.”

Hippias supposed that the dream had in this way
 come true. As the Athenians were marshalled in
 the precinct of Heracles , the Plataeans came to help them in full force. The Plataeans had put themselves under the protection of
 the Athenians , and the Athenians 
 had undergone many labors on their behalf. This is how they did it:

when the Plataeans were pressed by the Thebans , they first tried to put themselves under
 the protection of Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides and the Lacedaemonians , who happened to be there. But they did not accept
 them, saying, “We live too far away, and our help would be cold comfort to
 you. You could be enslaved many times over before any of us heard about it.

We advise you to put yourselves under the protection of the Athenians , since they are your neighbors and not bad
 men at giving help.” The Lacedaemonians gave this
 advice not so much out of goodwill toward the Plataeans as wishing to cause trouble for the Athenians with the Boeotians .

So the Lacedaemonians gave this advice to the
 Plataeans , who did not disobey it. When the
 Athenians were making sacrifices to the twelve
 gods, they sat at the altar
 as suppliants and put themselves under protection. When the Thebans heard this, they marched against the Plataeans , but the Athenians came to their aid.

As they were about to join battle, the Corinthians , who happened to be there, prevented them and brought
 about a reconciliation. Since both sides desired them to arbitrate, they
 fixed the boundaries of the country on condition that the Thebans leave alone those Boeotians who were unwilling to be enrolled as Boeotian . After rendering this decision, the Corinthians departed. The Boeotians attacked the Athenians as
 they were leaving but were defeated in battle.

The Athenians went beyond the boundaries the
 Corinthians had made for the Plataeans , fixing the Asopus
 river as the boundary for the Thebans 
 in the direction of Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea and Hysiae . So the Plataeans had put
 themselves under the protection of the Athenians 
 in the aforesaid manner, and now came to help at Marathon.

The Athenian generals
 were of divided opinion, some advocating not fighting because they were too
 few to attack the army of the Medes ; others,
 including Miltiades , advocating fighting.

Thus they were at odds, and the inferior plan prevailed. An eleventh man had
 a vote, chosen by lot to be polemarch of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 and by ancient custom the Athenians had made his
 vote of equal weight with the generals. Callimachus 
 of Aphidnae was polemarch at this time. Miltiades approached him and said,

“ Callimachus , it is now in your hands to enslave
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens or make her free, and thereby leave
 behind for all posterity a memorial such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton left. Now the
 Athenians have come to their greatest danger
 since they first came into being, and, if we surrender, it is clear what we
 will suffer when handed over to Hippias . But if the
 city prevails, it will take first place among Hellenic cities.

I will tell you how this can happen, and how the deciding voice on these
 matters has devolved upon you. The ten generals are of divided opinion, some
 urging to attack, others urging not to.

If we do not attack now, I expect that great strife will fall upon and shake
 the spirit of the Athenians , leading them to
 medize. But if we attack now, before anything unsound corrupts the Athenians , we can win the battle, if the gods are
 fair.

All this concerns and depends on you in this way: if you vote with me, your
 country will be free and your city the first in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . But
 if you side with those eager to avoid battle, you will have the opposite to
 all the good things I enumerated.”

By saying this Miltiades 
 won over Callimachus . The polemarch's vote was
 counted in, and the decision to attack was resolved upon. Thereafter the
 generals who had voted to fight turned the presidency over to Miltiades as each one's day came in turn. He accepted the office but did not make an attack until
 it was his own day to preside.

When the presidency came round to him, he arrayed
 the Athenians for battle, with the polemarch
 Callimachus commanding the right wing, since it
 was then the Athenian custom for the polemarch to
 hold the right wing. He led, and the other tribes were numbered out in
 succession next to each other. The Plataeans were marshalled last, holding the left wing.

Ever since that battle, when the Athenians are
 conducting sacrifices at the festivals every fourth year, the Athenian herald prays for good things for the Athenians and Plataeans 
 together.

As the Athenians were marshalled at Marathon, it
 happened that their line of battle was as long as the line of the Medes . The center, where the line was weakest, was
 only a few ranks deep, but each wing was strong in numbers.

When they had been set in order and the sacrifices
 were favorable, the Athenians were sent forth and
 charged the foreigners at a run. The space between the armies was no less
 than eight stadia.

The Persians saw them running to attack and
 prepared to receive them, thinking the Athenians 
 absolutely crazy, since they saw how few of them there were and that they
 ran up so fast without either cavalry or archers.

So the foreigners imagined, but when the Athenians all together fell upon the foreigners they fought in a
 way worthy of record. These are the first Hellenes whom we know of to use running against the enemy. They
 are also the first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it, for
 up until then just hearing the name of the Medes 
 caused the Hellenes to panic.

They fought a long time at Marathon. In the center
 of the line the foreigners prevailed, where the Persians and Sacae were arrayed. The
 foreigners prevailed there and broke through in pursuit inland, but on each
 wing the Athenians and Plataeans prevailed.

In victory they let the routed foreigners flee, and brought the wings
 together to fight those who had broken through the center. The Athenians prevailed, then followed the fleeing Persians and struck them down. When they reached the
 sea they demanded fire and laid hold of the Persian ships.

In this labor Callimachus 
 the polemarch was slain, a brave man, and of the generals Stesilaus son of Thrasylaus died. Cynegirus 
 son of Euphorion 
 fell there, his hand cut off with an ax as he grabbed a ship's figurehead.
 Many other famous Athenians also fell there.

In this way the Athenians 
 overpowered seven ships. The foreigners pushed off with the rest, picked up
 the Eretrian slaves from the island where they
 had left them, and sailed around Sunium hoping to
 reach the city before the Athenians . There was an
 accusation at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens that they devised this
 by a plan of the Alcmaeonidae , who were said to
 have arranged to hold up a shield as a signal once the Persians were in their ships.

They sailed around Sunium ,
 but the Athenians marched back to defend the city
 as fast as their feet could carry them and got there ahead of the
 foreigners. Coming from the sacred precinct of Heracles in Marathon, they pitched camp in the sacred precinct of
 Heracles in Cynosarges . The foreigners lay at anchor off Phalerum , the Athenian naval port at
 that time. After riding anchor there, they sailed their ships back to Asia (continent) Asia .

In the battle at Marathon about six thousand four
 hundred men of the foreigners were killed, and one hundred and ninety-two
 Athenians ; that many fell on each side.

The following marvel happened there: an Athenian , Epizelus son of Couphagoras , was fighting as a brave man in the battle when he
 was deprived of his sight, though struck or hit nowhere on his body, and
 from that time on he spent the rest of his life in blindness.

I have heard that he tells this story about his misfortune: he saw opposing
 him a tall armed man, whose beard overshadowed his shield, but the phantom
 passed him by and killed the man next to him. I learned by inquiry that this
 is the story Epizelus tells.

Datis journeyed with his army to Asia (continent) Asia ,
 and when he arrived at Myconos he saw a vision in
 his sleep. What that vision was is not told, but as soon as day broke Datis made a search of his ships. He found in a Phoenician ship a gilded image of Apollo , and asked where this plunder had been taken. Learning
 from what temple it had come, he sailed in his own ship to Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos .

The Delians had now returned to their island, and
 Datis set the image in the temple, instructing
 the Delians to carry it away to Theban Delium , on the coast opposite +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667]
 (Perseus) Chalcis .

Datis gave this order and sailed away, but the
 Delians never carried that statue away; twenty
 years later the Thebans brought it to +Delium (deserted settlement),
 Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Delium 
 by command of an oracle.

When Datis and Artaphrenes reached Asia (continent) Asia in their voyage, they
 carried the enslaved Eretrians inland to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa .

Before the Eretrians were taken captive, king
 Darius had been terribly angry with them for
 doing him unprovoked wrong; but when he saw them brought before him and
 subject to him, he did them no harm, but settled them in a domain of his own
 called Ardericca in the Cissian land; this place is two hundred and ten stadia distant
 from Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , and forty
 from the well that is of three kinds.

Asphalt and salt and oil are drawn from it in the following way: a windlass
 is used in the drawing, with half a skin tied to it in place of a bucket;
 this is dipped into the well and then poured into a tank; then what is drawn
 is poured into another tank and goes three ways: the asphalt and the salt
 congeal immediately; the oil, which the Persians call
 rhadinace, is dark and evil-smelling.

There king Darius settled the Eretrians , and they dwelt in that place until my time, keeping
 their ancient language. Such was the fate of the Eretrians .

After the full moon two thousand Lacedaemonians came to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , making
 such great haste to reach it that they were in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica on the third day after
 leaving Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta . Although they came
 too late for the battle, they desired to see the Medes , so they went to Marathon and saw them. Then they departed
 again, praising the Athenians and their
 achievement.

It is a wonder to me, and I do not believe the
 story, that the Alcmeonidae would ever have agreed
 to hold up a shield as a sign for the Persians 
 out of a desire to make Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens subject to foreigners
 and to Hippias ; for it is plain to see that they
 were tyrant-haters as much as Callias (son of Phaenippus and father of Hipponicus ), or even more so.

Callias was the only Athenian who dared to buy Pisistratus '
 possessions when they were put up for sale by the state after Pisistratus ' banishment from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens ; and he devised other acts of bitter
 hatred against him.

[This Callias is worthy of all men's remembrance for many
 reasons: first, because he so excellently freed his country, as I have said;
 second, for what he did at Olympia [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia , where he
 won a horserace, and was second in a four-horse chariot, after already
 winning a Pythian prize, and was the cynosure of
 all Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas for the lavishness of his spending;

and third, for his behavior regarding his three daughters. When they were
 of marriageable age, he gave them a most splendid gift and one very pleasant
 to them, promising that each would wed that man whom she chose for herself
 from all the Athenians .]

The Alcmeonidae were
 tyrant-haters as much as Callias , or not less so.
 Therefore I find it a strange and unbelievable accusation that they of all
 men should have held up a shield; at all times they shunned tyrants, and it
 was by their contrivance that the sons of Pisistratus were deposed from their tyranny.

Thus in my judgment it was they who freed Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 much more than did Harmodius and Aristogeiton . These only enraged the remaining sons of Pisistratus by killing Hipparchus , and did nothing to end the tyranny of the rest of
 them; but the Alcmeonidae plainly liberated their
 country, if they truly were the ones who persuaded the Pythian priestess to signify to the Lacedaemonians that they should free Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 as I have previously shown.

Perhaps out of some grudge against the Athenian people they betrayed their country. But
 there were no others at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens more esteemed or more
 honored than they;

therefore plain reason forbids believing that they of all men could have
 held up the shield for any such cause. A shield was held up; this cannot be
 denied, for it happened; but who did it I do not know, and I can say no
 further.

The Alcmeonidae had been
 men of renown at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens even in the old days,
 and from the time of Alcmeon 
 and then Megacles their renown increased.

When the Lydians from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 came from Croesus to the Delphic oracle, Alcmeon son of Megacles worked with them and zealously aided them;
 when Croesus heard from the Lydians who visited the oracle of Alcmeon 's benefits to him, he summoned Alcmeon to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and there made him a
 gift of as much gold as he could carry away at one time on his person.

Considering the nature of the gift, Alcmeon planned
 and employed this device: he donned a wide tunic, leaving a deep fold in it,
 and put on the most spacious boots that he could find, then went into the
 treasury to which they led him.

Falling upon a heap of gold-dust, first he packed next to his legs as much
 gold as his boots would contain; then he filled all the fold of his tunic
 with gold and strewed the dust among the hair of his head, and took more of
 it into his mouth; when he came out of the treasury, hardly dragging the
 weight of his boots, he was like anything rather than a human being, with
 his mouth crammed full and all his body swollen.

Croesus burst out laughing at the sight and gave
 him all the gold he already had and that much more again. Thus the family
 grew very rich; Alcmeon came to keep four-horse
 chariots and won with them at Olympia [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia .

In the next generation Cleisthenes 
 the tyrant
 of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon raised that house still higher, so that
 it grew much more famous in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas than it had formerly been.
 Cleisthenes son of Aristonymus son of Myron son of Andreas had one daughter, whose name was Agariste . He desired to wed her to the best man he
 could find in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas .

It was the time of the Olympian games, and when
 he was victor there with a four-horse chariot, Cleisthenes made a proclamation that whichever Greek thought himself worthy to be his son-in-law
 should come on the sixtieth day from then or earlier to Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon , and Cleisthenes 
 would make good his promise of marriage in a year from that sixtieth day.

Then all the Greeks who were proud of themselves
 and their country came as suitors, and to that end Cleisthenes had them compete in running and wrestling contests.

From Italy
 [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy came Smindyrides of +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75] (Perseus)
 Sybaris , son of Hippocrates , the
 most luxurious liver of his day (and +Sybaris [16.4833,39.75] (Perseus)
 Sybaris was then at the height of its prosperity), and Damasus of +Siris [15.6333,40.0667] (Perseus) Siris , son of
 that Amyris who was called the Wise.

These came from Italy
 [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy ; from the Ionian Gulf , Amphimnestus 
 son of Epistrophus , an Epidamnian ; he was from the Ionian
 Gulf . From +Aetolia
 (region (general)), Aitolia and Akarnania, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Aetolia came Males, the brother of that
 Titormus who surpassed all the Greeks in strength, and fled from the sight of men
 to the farthest parts of the Aetolian land.

From the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese came Leocedes , son of Phidon the
 tyrant of Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos , that Phidon who made weights and measures for the Peloponnesians 
 and acted more arrogantly than any other Greek ; he drove out the Elean contest-directors and held the contests at Olympia [21.6333,37.65]
 (Perseus) Olympia himself. This man's son now came, and
 Amiantus , an Arcadian 
 from +Trapezus [39.7167,41]
 (Perseus) Trapezus , son of Lycurgus ; and an Azenian from the town
 of Paeus , Laphanes , son
 of that Euphorion who, as the Arcadian tale relates, gave lodging to the Dioscuri , and ever since kept open house for all men; and Onomastus from +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis , son of Agaeus .

These came from the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese itself;
 from Athens Megacles , son of that Alcmeon who visited Croesus , and also
 Hippocleides son of Tisandrus , who surpassed the Athenians 
 in wealth and looks. From 
 +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria , which at
 that time was prosperous, came Lysanias ; he was the
 only man from +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea . From +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly came a Scopad , Diactorides of Crannon ; and
 from the Molossians , Alcon .

These were the suitors. When they arrived on the
 appointed day, Cleisthenes first inquired the
 country and lineage of each; then he kept them with him for a year, testing
 their manliness and temper and upbringing and manner of life; this he did by
 consorting with them alone and in company, putting the younger of them to
 contests of strength, but especially watching their demeanor at the common
 meal; for as long as he kept them with him, he did everything for them and
 entertained them with magnificence.

The suitors that most pleased him were the ones who had come from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , and of these Hippocleides son of Tisandrus was judged
 foremost, both for his manliness and because in ancestry he was related to
 the Cypselids of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus)
 Corinth .

When the appointed day came for the marriage feast
 and for Cleisthenes ' declaration of whom he had
 chosen out of them all, Cleisthenes sacrificed a
 hundred oxen and gave a feast to the suitors and to the whole of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon .

After dinner the suitors vied with each other in music and in anecdotes for
 all to hear. As they sat late drinking, Hippocleides , now far outdoing the rest, ordered the flute-player
 to play him a dance-tune; the flute-player obeyed and he began to dance. I
 suppose he pleased himself with his dancing, but Cleisthenes saw the whole business with much disfavor.

Hippocleides then stopped for a while and ordered a
 table to be brought in; when the table arrived, he danced Laconian figures on it first, and then Attic; last
 of all he rested his head on the table and made gestures with his legs in
 the air.

Now Cleisthenes at the first and the second bout of
 dancing could no more bear to think of Hippocleides 
 as his son-in-law, because of his dancing and his shamelessness, but he had
 held himself in check, not wanting to explode at Hippocleides ; but when he saw him making gestures with his legs,
 he could no longer keep silence and said, “son of Tisandrus , you have danced away your marriage.” Hippocleides said in answer, “It does not matter to Hippocleides !” Since then this is proverbial.

Then Cleisthenes bade them
 all be silent and spoke to the company at large: “Suitors for my daughter's
 hand, I thank you one and all; if it were possible I would grant each of you
 his wish, neither choosing out one to set him above another nor disparaging
 the rest.

But since I have but one maiden to plan for and so cannot please all of you,
 to those of you whose suit is rejected I make a gift of a talent of silver
 to each, for his desire to take a wife from my house and for his sojourn
 away from his home; and to Megacles son of Alcmeon do I betroth my daughter Agariste , by the laws of the Athenians .” Megacles accepted the
 betrothal, and Cleisthenes brought the marriage to
 pass.

Such is the tale of the choice among the suitors;
 and thus the fame of the Alcmeonidae resounded
 throughout Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas . From this marriage was born that
 Cleisthenes , named after his mother's father
 from Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon , who gave the Athenians their tribes and their democracy;

he and Hippocrates were born to Megacles ; Hippocrates was father of
 another Megacles and another Agariste , called after Agariste who was
 Cleisthenes ' daughter. She was married to Xanthippus son of Ariphron ,
 and when she was pregnant she saw in her sleep a vision in which she thought
 she gave birth to a lion. In a few days she bore Xanthippus a son, Pericles .

After the Persian 
 disaster at Marathon, the reputation of Miltiades ,
 already great at Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , very much increased.
 He asked the Athenians for seventy ships, an
 army, and money, not revealing against what country he would lead them, but
 saying that he would make them rich if they followed him; he would bring
 them to a country from which they could easily carry away an abundance of
 gold; so he said when he asked for the ships. The Athenians were induced by these promises and granted his request.

Miltiades took his army and sailed for +Nisos Paros [25.2,37.1] (island),
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Paros , on the
 pretext that the Parians had brought this on
 themselves by first sending triremes with the Persian fleet to Marathon. Such was the pretext of his argument,
 but he had a grudge against the Parians because
 Lysagoras son of Tisias , a man of Parian descent, had
 slandered him to Hydarnes the Persian .

When he reached his voyage's destination, Miltiades 
 with his army drove the Parians inside their
 walls and besieged them; he sent in a herald and demanded a hundred talents,
 saying that if they did not give it to him, his army would not return home
 before it had stormed their city.

The Parians had no intention of giving Miltiades any money at all, and they contrived how to
 defend their city. They did this by building their wall at night to double
 its former height where it was most assailable, and also by other devices.

All the Greeks tell the
 same story up to this point; after this the Parians themselves say that the following happened: as Miltiades was in a quandary, a captive woman named
 Timo , Parian by birth
 and an under-priestess of the goddesses of the dead, came to talk with him.

Coming before Miltiades , she advised him, if taking
 +Nisos Paros [25.2,37.1]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Paros 
 was very important to him, to do whatever she suggested. Then, following her
 advice, he passed through to the hill in front of the city and jumped over
 the fence of the precinct of Demeter the Lawgiver,
 since he was unable to open the door. After leaping over, he went to the
 shrine, whether to move something that should not be moved, or with some
 other intention. When he was right at the doors, he was immediately seized
 with panic and hurried back by the same route; leaping down from the wall he
 twisted his thigh, but some say he hit his knee.

So Miltiades sailed back
 home in a sorry condition, neither bringing money for the Athenians nor having won +Nisos Paros [25.2,37.1] (island), Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Paros ; he had besieged the town
 for twenty-six days and ravaged the island.

The Parians learned that Timo the under-priestess of the goddesses had been Miltiades ' guide and desired to punish her for this.
 Since they now had respite from the siege, they sent messengers to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi to ask if they should put the under-priestess to
 death for guiding their enemies to the capture of her native country, and
 for revealing to Miltiades the rites that no male
 should know.

But the Pythian priestess forbade them, saying
 that Timo was not responsible: Miltiades was doomed to make a bad end, and an apparition had led
 him in these evils.

Such was the priestess' reply to the Parians . The Athenians 
 had much to say about Miltiades on his return from
 +Nisos Paros [25.2,37.1]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Paros ,
 especially Xanthippus son of Ariphron , who prosecuted Miltiades 
 before the people for deceiving the Athenians and
 called for the death penalty.

Miltiades was present but could not speak in his
 own defense, since his thigh was festering; he was laid before the court on
 a couch, and his friends spoke for him, often mentioning the fight at
 Marathon and the conquest of 
 +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Lemnos : how Miltiades had
 punished the Pelasgians and taken +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos , delivering
 it to the Athenians .

The people took his side as far as not condemning him to death, but they
 fined him fifty talents for his wrongdoing. Miltiades later died of gangrene and rot in his thigh, and the
 fifty talents were paid by his son Cimon .

Miltiades son of Cimon 
 took possession of +Lemnos
 [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lemnos in this way: When the Pelasgians 
 were
 driven out of Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica by the Athenians , whether
 justly or unjustly I cannot say, beyond what is told; namely, that Hecataeus the son of Hegesandrus declares in his history that the act was unjust;

for when the Athenians saw the land under +Imittos [23.816,37.95] (inhabited
 place), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Hymettus , formerly theirs, which they had given to the Pelasgians as a dwelling-place in reward for the
 wall that had once been built around the acropolis—when the Athenians saw how well this place was tilled which
 previously had been bad and worthless, they were envious and coveted the
 land, and so drove the Pelasgians out on this and
 no other pretext. But the Athenians themselves
 say that their reason for expelling the Pelasgians was just.

The Pelasgians set out from their settlement at
 the foot of +Imittos
 [23.816,37.95] (inhabited place), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Hymettus and wronged the Athenians in this way: Neither the Athenians nor any other Hellenes had servants yet at that time, and their sons and
 daughters used to go to the Nine Wells 
 for water; and
 whenever they came, the Pelasgians maltreated
 them out of mere arrogance and pride. And this was not enough for them;
 finally they were caught in the act of planning to attack Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

The Athenians were much better men than the Pelasgians , since when they could have killed them,
 caught plotting as they were, they would not so do, but ordered them out of
 the country. The Pelasgians departed and took
 possession of +Lemnos
 [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lemnos , besides other places. This is the Athenian story; the other is told by Hecataeus .

These Pelasgians dwelt at
 that time in +Lemnos
 [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lemnos and desired vengeance on the Athenians . Since they well knew the time of the Athenian festivals, they acquired fifty-oared ships
 and set an ambush for the Athenian women
 celebrating the festival of Artemis at +Brauron [24.025,37.9167]
 (Perseus) Brauron . They seized many of the women, then
 sailed away with them and brought them to +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos to be their concubines.

These women bore more and more children, and they taught their sons the
 speech of Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica and Athenian manners.
 These boys would not mix with the sons of the Pelasgian women; if one of them was beaten by one of the others,
 they would all run to his aid and help each other; these boys even claimed
 to rule the others, and were much stronger.

When the Pelasgians perceived this, they took
 counsel together; it troubled them much in their deliberations to think what
 the boys would do when they grew to manhood, if they were resolved to help
 each other against the sons of the lawful wives and attempted to rule them
 already.

Thereupon the Pelasgians resolved to kill the
 sons of the Attic women; they did this, and then killed the boys' mothers
 also. From this deed and the earlier one which was done by the women when
 they killed their own husbands who were Thoas '
 companions, a “ Lemnian crime” has been a proverb
 in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas for any deed of cruelty.

But when the Pelasgians 
 had murdered their own sons and women, their land brought forth no fruit,
 nor did their wives and their flocks and herds bear offspring as before.
 Crushed by hunger and childlessness, they sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi 
 to ask for some release from their present ills.

The Pythian priestess ordered them to pay the
 Athenians whatever penalty the Athenians themselves judged. The Pelasgians went to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and
 offered to pay the penalty for all their wrongdoing.

The Athenians set in their town-hall a couch
 adorned as finely as possible, and placed beside it a table covered with all
 manner of good things, then ordered the Pelasgians to deliver their land to them in the same condition.

The Pelasgians answered, “We will deliver it when
 a ship with a north wind accomplishes the voyage from your country to ours
 in one day”; they supposed that this was impossible, since Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica is far
 to the south of +Lemnos
 [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lemnos .

At the time that was all. But a great many years
 later, when the Gelibolu
 Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont was made subject to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 Miltiades son of Cimon 
 accomplished the voyage from Elaeus on the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese to +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos with the
 Etesian 
 winds then constantly blowing; he
 proclaimed that the Pelasgians must leave their
 island, reminding them of the oracle which the Pelasgians thought would never be fulfilled.

The Hephaestians obeyed, but the Myrinaeans would not agree that the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese was Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica and were
 besieged, until they too submitted. Thus did Miltiades and the Athenians take
 possession of +Lemnos
 [25.25,39.916] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Lemnos .

When the message concerning the fight at Marathon
 came to Darius son of Hystaspes , already greatly angry against the Athenians for their attack upon Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ,
 he was now much more angry and eager to send an expedition against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

Immediately he sent messengers to all the cities and commanded them to equip
 an army, instructing each to provide many more ships and horses and
 provisions and transport vessels than they had before. Asia (continent) Asia was
 in commotion with these messages for three years, as the best men were enrolled for service
 against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas and made preparations.

In the fourth year the Egyptians , whom Cambyses had enslaved, revolted from the Persians ; thereupon Darius 
 was even more eager to send expeditions against both.

But while Darius was making
 preparations against Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa Egypt and Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 a great quarrel arose among his sons concerning the chief power in the land.
 They held that before his army marched he must declare an heir to the
 kingship according to Persian law.

Three sons had been born to Darius before he became
 king by his first wife, the daughter of Gobryas ,
 and four more after he became king by Atossa 
 daughter of Cyrus . Artobazanes was the oldest of the earlier sons, Xerxes of the later;

and as sons of different mothers they were rivals. Artobazanes pleaded that he was the oldest of all Darius ' offspring and that it was everywhere customary
 that the eldest should rule; Xerxes argued that he
 was the son of Cyrus ' daughter Atossa and that it was Cyrus who had won
 the Persians their freedom.

While Darius delayed making
 his decision, it chanced that at this time Demaratus son of Ariston had come up to
 Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , in voluntary exile
 from Lacedaemonia after he had lost the kingship
 of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta .

Learning of the contention between the sons of Darius , this man, as the story goes, came and advised Xerxes to add this to what he said: that he had been
 born when Darius was already king and ruler of
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , but Artobazanes when
 Darius was yet a subject;

therefore it was neither reasonable nor just that anyone should have the
 royal privilege before him. At Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta too
 (advised Demaratus ) it was customary that if sons
 were born before their father became king, and another son born later when
 the father was king, the succession to the kingship belongs to the
 later-born.

Xerxes followed Demaratus 
 advice, and Darius judged his plea to be just and
 declared him king. But to my thinking Xerxes would
 have been made king even without this advice, for Atossa held complete sway.

After declaring Xerxes 
 king, Darius was intent on his expedition. But in
 the year after this and the revolt of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , death came
 upon him in the midst of his preparations, after a reign of six and thirty
 years in all, and it was
 not granted to him to punish either the revolted Egyptians or the Athenians .

After Darius ' death, the
 royal power descended to his son Xerxes . Now Xerxes was at first by no means eager to march against
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ; it was against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt that
 he mustered his army. But Mardonius son of Gobryas , Xerxes cousin and
 the son of Darius ' sister, was with the king and
 had more influence with him than any Persian . He
 argued as follows: “Master, it is not fitting that the Athenians should go unpunished for their deeds, after all the
 evil they have done to the Persians .

For now you should do what you have in hand; then, when you have tamed the
 insolence of Egypt [30,27]
 (nation), Africa Egypt , lead your armies against Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , so that you may have fair fame among
 men, and others may beware of invading your realm in the future.”

This argument was for vengeance, but he kept
 adding that Europe
 (continent) Europe was an extremely beautiful land, one
 that bore all kinds of orchard trees, a land of highest excellence, worthy
 of no mortal master but the king.

He said this because he desired adventures and
 wanted to be governor of Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . Finally he worked on
 Xerxes and persuaded him to do this, and other
 things happened that helped him to persuade Xerxes .

Messengers came from +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly from the
 Aleuadae (who were princes of +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly ) and invited the king into Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas with all earnestness; the Pisistratidae who had come up to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa used the same pleas as the Aleuadae , offering Xerxes even more than
 they did.

They had come up to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis with Onomacritus , an Athenian diviner who had set in order the oracles of Musaeus . They had reconciled their previous hostility
 with him; Onomacritus had been banished from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens by Pisistratus '
 son Hipparchus , when he was caught by Lasus 
 of +Hermione [23.2583,37.3833] (Perseus)
 Hermione in the act of interpolating into the writings of
 Musaeus an oracle showing that the islands off
 +Lemnos [25.25,39.916]
 (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos 
 would disappear into the sea.

Because of this Hipparchus banished him, though
 they had previously been close friends. Now he had arrived at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa with the Pisistratidae , and whenever he came into the king's
 presence they used lofty words concerning him and he recited from his
 oracles; all that portended disaster to the Persian he left unspoken, choosing and reciting such prophecies
 as were most favorable, telling how the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont must be bridged by a man of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia and describing the expedition.

So he brought his oracles to bear, while the Pisistratidae and Aleuadae gave their
 opinions.

After being persuaded to send an expedition against
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , Xerxes first
 marched against the rebels in the year after Darius 
 death. He subdued them and laid Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt under a much
 harder slavery than in the time of Darius , and he
 handed it over to Achaemenes , his own brother and
 Darius ' son. While governing Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt , this Achaemenes was at a
 later time slain by a Libyan , Inaros son of Psammetichus .

After the conquest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ,
 intending now to take in hand the expedition against Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , Xerxes held a
 special assembly of the noblest among the Persians , so he could learn their opinions and declare his will
 before them all. When they were assembled, Xerxes 
 spoke to them as follows:

“Men of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , I am not bringing in and establishing a new
 custom, but following one that I have inherited. As I learn from our elders,
 we have never yet remained at peace ever since Cyrus deposed Astyages and we won this
 sovereignty from the Medes . It is the will of
 heaven; and we ourselves win advantage by our many enterprises. No one needs
 to tell you, who already know them well, which nations Cyrus and Cambyses and Darius my father subdued and added to our realm.

Ever since I came to this throne, I have considered how I might not fall
 short of my predecessors in this honor, and not add less power to the Persians ; and my considerations persuade me that we
 may win not only renown, but a land neither less nor worse, and more
 fertile, than that which we now possess; and we would also gain vengeance
 and requital. For this cause I have now summoned you together, that I may
 impart to you what I intend to do.

It is my intent to bridge the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and lead my army through Europe (continent) Europe to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , so I may punish the Athenians for what they have done to the Persians and to my father.

You saw that Darius my father was set on making an
 expedition against these men. But he is dead, and it was not granted him to
 punish them. On his behalf and that of all the Persians , I will never rest until I have taken Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens and burnt it, for the unprovoked wrong
 that its people did to my father and me.

First they came to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis with our slave Aristagoras the Milesian 
 and burnt the groves and the temples; next, how they dealt with us when we
 landed on their shores, when Datis and Artaphrenes were our generals, I suppose you all know.

For these reasons I am resolved to send an army against them; and I reckon
 that we will find the following benefits among them: if we subdue those men,
 and their neighbors who dwell in the land of Pelops 
 the Phrygian , we will make the borders of Persian territory and of the firmament of heaven be
 the same.

No land that the sun beholds will border ours, but I will make all into one
 country, when I have passed over the whole of Europe (continent) Europe .

I learn that this is the situation: no city of men or any human nation which
 is able to meet us in battle will be left, if those of whom I speak are
 taken out of our way. Thus the guilty and the innocent will alike bear the
 yoke of slavery.

This is how you would best please me: when I declare the time for your
 coming, every one of you must eagerly appear; and whoever comes with his
 army best equipped will receive from me such gifts as are reckoned most
 precious among us.

Thus it must be done; but so that I not seem to you to have my own way, I
 lay the matter before you all, and bid whoever wishes to declare his
 opinion.” So spoke Xerxes and ceased.

After him Mardonius said:
 “Master, you surpass not only all Persians that
 have been but also all that shall be; besides having dealt excellently and
 truly with all other matters, you will not suffer the Ionians 
 who dwell in Europe (continent) Europe to laugh at us,
 which they have no right to do.

It would be strange indeed if we who have subdued and made slaves of Sacae and Indians and
 Ethiopians and Assyrians and many other great nations, for no wrong done to the
 Persians but of mere desire to add to our
 power, will not take vengeance on the Greeks for
 unprovoked wrongs.

What have we to fear from them? Have they a massive population or abundance
 of wealth? Their manner of fighting we know, and we know how weak their
 power is; we have conquered and hold their sons, those who dwell in our land
 and are called Ionians and Aeolians and Dorians .

I myself have made trial of these men, when by your father's command I
 marched against them. I marched as far as Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia and almost to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 itself, yet none came out to meet me in battle.

Yet the Greeks are accustomed to wage wars, as I
 learn, and they do it most senselessly in their wrongheadedness and folly.
 When they have declared war against each other, they come down to the
 fairest and most level ground that they can find and fight there, so that
 the victors come off with great harm; of the vanquished I say not so much as
 a word, for they are utterly destroyed.

Since they speak the same language, they should end their disputes by means
 of heralds or messengers, or by any way rather than fighting; if they must
 make war upon each other, they should each discover where they are in the
 strongest position and make the attempt there. The Greek custom, then, is not good; and when I marched as far as the
 land of Macedonia (region
 (general)), Europe Macedonia , it had not come into their
 minds to fight.

But against you, O king, who shall make war? You will bring the multitudes
 of Asia
 (continent) Asia , and all your ships. I think there is not so
 much boldness in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas as that; but if time should show
 me wrong in my judgment, and those men prove foolhardy enough to do battle
 with us, they would be taught that we are the greatest warriors on earth.
 Let us leave nothing untried; for nothing happens by itself, and all men's
 gains are the fruit of adventure.”

Thus Mardonius smoothed
 Xerxes ' resolution and stopped. The rest of the
 Persians held their peace, not daring to utter
 any opinion contrary to what had been put forward; then Artabanus son of Hystaspes , the king's
 uncle, spoke. Relying on his position, he said,

“O king, if opposite opinions are not uttered, it is impossible for someone
 to choose the better; the one which has been spoken must be followed. If
 they are spoken, the better can be found; just as the purity of gold cannot
 be determined by itself, but when gold is compared with gold by
 rubbing, we then determine
 the better.

Now I advised Darius , your father and my brother,
 not to lead his army against the Scythians , who
 have no cities anywhere to dwell in. But he hoped to subdue the nomadic
 Scythians and would not obey me; he went on
 the expedition and returned after losing many gallant men from his army.

You, O king, are proposing to lead your armies against far better men than
 the Scythians —men who are said to be excellent
 warriors by sea and land. It is right that I should show you what danger
 there is in this.

You say that you will bridge the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and march your army through Europe (continent) Europe 
 to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . Now suppose you happen to be defeated
 either by land or by sea, or even both; the men are said to be valiant, and
 we may well guess that it is so, since the Athenians alone destroyed the great army that followed Datis and Artaphrenes to
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica .

Suppose they do not succeed in both ways; but if they attack with their
 ships and prevail in a sea-fight, and then sail to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and destroy your bridge,
 that, O king, is the hour of peril.

It is from no wisdom of my own that I thus conjecture; it is because I know
 what disaster once almost overtook us, when your father, making a highway
 over the Karadeniz Bogazi
 (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Thracian
 Bosporus and bridging the river Ister ,
 crossed over to attack the Scythians . At that
 time the Scythians used every means of entreating
 the Ionians , who had been charged to guard the
 bridges of the Ister , to destroy the way of
 passage.

If Histiaeus the tyrant of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus)
 Miletus had consented to the opinion of the other tyrants
 instead of opposing it, the power of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia would have
 perished. Yet it is dreadful even in the telling, that one man should hold
 in his hand all the king's fortunes.

So do not plan to run the risk of any such danger when there is no need for
 it. Listen to me instead: for now dismiss this assembly; consider the matter
 by yourself and, whenever you so please, declare what seems best to you.

A well-laid plan is always to my mind most profitable; even if it is
 thwarted later, the plan was no less good, and it is only chance that has
 baffled the design; but if fortune favor one who has planned poorly, then he
 has gotten only a prize of chance, and his plan was no less bad.

You see how the god smites with his thunderbolt creatures of greatness and
 does not suffer them to display their pride, while little ones do not move
 him to anger; and you see how it is always on the tallest buildings and
 trees that his bolts fall; for the god loves to bring low all things of
 surpassing greatness. Thus a large army is destroyed by a smaller, when the
 jealous god sends panic or the thunderbolt among them, and they perish
 unworthily; for the god suffers pride in none but himself.

Now haste is always the parent of failure, and great damages are likely to
 arise; but in waiting there is good, and in time this becomes clear, even
 though it does not seem so in the present.

This, O king, is my advice to you. But you, Mardonius son of Gobryas , cease your
 foolish words about the Greeks , for they do not
 deserve to be maligned. By slandering the Greeks 
 you incite the king to send this expedition; that is the end to which you
 press with all eagerness. Let it not be so.

Slander is a terrible business; there are two in it who do wrong and one who
 suffers wrong. The slanderer wrongs another by accusing an absent man, and
 the other does wrong in that he is persuaded before he has learned the whole
 truth; the absent man does not hear what is said of him and suffers wrong in
 the matter, being maligned by the one and condemned by the other.

If an army must by all means be sent against these Greeks , hear me now: let the king himself remain in the Persian land, and let us two stake our children's
 lives upon it; you lead out the army, choosing whatever men you wish and
 taking as great an army as you desire.

If the king's fortunes fare as you say, let my sons be slain, and myself
 with them; but if it turns out as I foretell, let your sons be so treated,
 and you likewise, if you return.

But if you are unwilling to submit to this and will at all hazards lead your
 army overseas to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , then I think that those left
 behind in this place will hear that Mardonius has
 done great harm to Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia , and has been torn apart by dogs and
 birds in the land of Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens or of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon ,
 if not even before that on the way there; and that you have learned what
 kind of men you persuade the king to attack.”

Thus spoke Artabanus . Xerxes answered angrily, “ Artabanus , you are my father's brother; that will save you from
 receiving the fitting reward of foolish words. But for your cowardly lack of
 spirit I lay upon you this disgrace, that you will not go with me and my
 army against Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , but will stay here with the
 women; I myself will accomplish all that I have said, with no help from you.

May I not be the son of Darius son of Hystaspes son of Arsames son
 of Ariaramnes son of Teispes son of Cyrus son of Cambyses son of Teispes son
 of Achaemenes , 
 if I do not have vengeance on the Athenians ; I
 well know that if we remain at peace they will not; they will assuredly
 invade our country, if we may infer from what they have done already, for
 they burnt Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and marched into Asia (continent) Asia .

It is not possible for either of us to turn back: to do or to suffer is our
 task, so that what is ours be under the Greeks ,
 or what is theirs under the Persians ; there is no
 middle way in our quarrel.

Honor then demands that we avenge ourselves for what has been done to us;
 thus will I learn what is this evil that will befall me when I march against
 these Greeks —men that even Pelops the Phrygian , the slave of my
 forefathers, did so utterly subdue that to this day they and their country
 are called by the name of their conqueror.”

The discussion went that far; then night came, and
 Xerxes was pricked by the advice of Artabanus . Thinking it over at night, he saw clearly
 that to send an army against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas was not his
 affair. He made this second resolve and fell asleep; then (so the Persians say) in the night he saw this vision: It
 seemed to Xerxes that a tall and handsome man stood
 over him and said,

“Are you then changing your mind, Persian , and
 will not lead the expedition against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , although you
 have proclaimed the mustering of the army? It is not good for you to change
 your mind, and there will be no one here to pardon you for it; let your
 course be along the path you resolved upon yesterday.”

So the vision spoke, and seemed to Xerxes to vanish away. When day dawned, the king took no account
 of this dream, and he assembled the Persians whom
 he had before gathered together and addressed them thus:

“ Persians , forgive me for turning and twisting
 in my purpose; I am not yet come to the fullness of my wisdom, and I am
 never free from people who exhort me to do as I said. It is true that when I
 heard Artabanus ' opinion my youthful spirit
 immediately boiled up, and I burst out with an unseemly and wrongful answer
 to one older than myself; but now I see my fault and will follow his
 judgment.

Be at peace, since I have changed my mind about marching against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .”

When the Persians heard
 that, they rejoiced and made obeisance to him. But when night came on, the
 same vision stood again over Xerxes as he slept,
 and said, “Son of Darius , have you then plainly
 renounced your army's march among the Persians ,
 and made my words of no account, as though you had not heard them? Know for
 certain that, if you do not lead out your army immediately, this will be the
 outcome of it: as you became great and mighty in a short time, so in a
 moment will you be brought low again.”

Greatly frightened by the vision, Xerxes leapt up from his bed, and sent a messenger to summon
 Artabanus . When he came, Xerxes said, “ Artabanus , for a moment I
 was of unsound mind, and I answered your good advice with foolish words; but
 after no long time I repented, and saw that it was right for me to follow
 your advice.

Yet, though I desire to, I cannot do it; ever since I turned back and
 repented, a vision keeps coming to haunt my sight, and it will not allow me
 to do as you advise; just now it has threatened me and gone.

Now if a god is sending the vision, and it is his full pleasure that there
 this expedition against Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas take place, that same
 dream will hover about you and give you the same command it gives me. I
 believe that this is most likely to happen, if you take all my apparel and
 sit wearing it upon my throne, and then lie down to sleep in my bed.”

Xerxes said this, but Artabanus would not obey the first command, thinking it was not
 right for him to sit on the royal throne; at last he was compelled and did
 as he was bid, saying first:

“O king, I judge it of equal worth whether a man is wise or is willing to
 obey good advice; to both of these you have attained, but the company of bad
 men trips you up; just as they say that sea, of all things the most
 serviceable to men, is hindered from following its nature by the blasts of
 winds that fall upon it.

It was not that I heard harsh words from you that stung me so much as that,
 when two opinions were laid before the Persians ,
 one tending to the increase of pride, the other to its abatement, showing
 how evil a thing it is to teach the heart continual desire of more than it
 has, of these two opinions you preferred that one which was more fraught
 with danger to yourself and to the Persians .

Now when you have turned to the better opinion, you say that, while
 intending to abandon the expedition against the Greeks , you are haunted by a dream sent by some god, which
 forbids you to disband the expedition.

But this is none of heaven's working, my son. The roving dreams that visit
 men are of such nature as I shall teach you, since I am many years older
 than you. Those visions that rove about us in dreams are for the most part
 the thoughts of the day; and in these recent days we have been very busy
 with this expedition.

But if this is not as I determine and it has something divine to it, then
 you have spoken the conclusion of the matter; let it appear to me just as it
 has to you, and utter its command. If it really wishes to appear, it should
 do so to me no more by virtue of my wearing your dress instead of mine, and
 my sleeping in your bed rather than in my own.

Whatever it is that appears to you in your sleep, surely it has not come to
 such folly as to infer from your dress that I am you when it sees me. We now
 must learn if it will take no account of me and not deign to appear and
 haunt me, whether I am wearing your robes or my own, but will come to you;
 if it comes continually, I myself would say that it is something divine.

If you are determined that this must be done and there is no averting it,
 and I must lie down to sleep in your bed, so be it; this duty I will
 fulfill, and let the vision appear also to me. But until then I will keep my
 present opinion.”

So spoke Artabanus and did
 as he was bid, hoping to prove Xerxes ' words vain;
 he put on Xerxes ' robes and sat on the king's
 throne. Then while he slept there came to him in his sleep the same dream
 that had haunted Xerxes ; it stood over him and
 spoke thus:

“Are you the one who dissuades Xerxes from
 marching against Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , because you care for him? Neither
 in the future nor now will you escape with impunity for striving to turn
 aside what must be. To Xerxes himself it has been
 declared what will befall him if he disobeys.”

With this threat (so it seemed to Artabanus ) the vision was about to burn his eyes with hot irons.
 He leapt up with a loud cry, then sat by Xerxes and
 told him the whole story of what he had seen in his dream, and next he said:

“O King, since I have seen, as much as a man may, how the greater has often
 been brought low by the lesser, I forbade you to always give rein to your
 youthful spirit, knowing how evil a thing it is to have many desires, and
 remembering the end of Cyrus ' expedition against
 the Massagetae and of Cambyses ' against the Ethiopians , and
 I myself marched with Darius against the Scythians .

Knowing this, I judged that you had only to remain in peace for all men to
 deem you fortunate. But since there is some divine motivation, and it seems
 that the gods mark Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas for destruction, I myself change
 and correct my judgment. Now declare the gods' message to the Persians , and bid them obey your first command for
 all due preparation. Do this, so that nothing on your part be lacking to the
 fulfillment of the gods' commission.”

After this was said, they were incited by the vision, and when daylight came
 Xerxes imparted all this to the Persians . Artabanus now
 openly encouraged that course which he alone had before openly discouraged.

Xerxes was now intent on the expedition and then
 saw a third vision in his sleep, which the Magi 
 interpreted to refer to the whole earth and to signify that all men should
 be his slaves. This was the vision: Xerxes thought
 that he was crowned with an olive bough, of which the shoots spread over the
 whole earth, and then the crown vanished from off his head where it was set.

The Magi interpreted it in this way, and
 immediately every single man of the Persians who
 had been assembled rode away to his own province and there used all zeal to
 fulfill the kings command, each desiring to receive the promised gifts. Thus
 it was that Xerxes mustered his army, searching out
 every part of the continent.

For full four years after the conquest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt he
 was equipping his force and preparing all that was needed for it; before the
 fifth year was completed, he set forth on his march with the might of a
 great multitude.

This was by far the greatest of all expeditions that we know of. The one
 that Darius led against the Scythians is nothing compared to it; neither is the Scythian expedition when they burst into Media in pursuit of the Cimmerians and subdued and ruled almost all the
 upper lands of Asia
 (continent) Asia (it was for this that Darius afterwards attempted to punish them). According to the
 reports, the expedition led by the sons of Atreus 
 against +Troy [26.2833,39.9167]
 (Perseus) Troy is also nothing by comparison; neither is
 the one of the Mysians and Teucrians which before the Trojan war
 crossed the +Karadeniz Bogazi
 (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bosporus into
 Europe
 (continent) Europe , subdued all the Thracians , and came down to the +Ionian Sea [19,39] (sea), Europe
 Ionian sea , marching southward as far as the river Peneus .

All these expeditions and whatever others have
 happened in addition could not together be compared with this single one.
 For what nation did Xerxes not lead from Asia (continent) Asia 
 against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ? What water did not fail when being drunk
 up, except only the greatest rivers?

Some people supplied him with ships, some were enrolled in his infantry,
 some were assigned the provision of horsemen, others of horse-bearing
 transports to follow the army, and others again of warships for the bridges,
 or of food and ships.

Since those who had earlier attempted to sail around
 +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166]
 (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Athos had suffered shipwreck, for about three years
 preparations had been underway there. Triremes were anchored off Elaeus in the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese ; with these for their headquarters, all
 sorts of men in the army were compelled by whippings to dig a canal, coming
 by turns to the work; the inhabitants about +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place),
 Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos also dug.

Bubares son of Megabazus 
 and Artachaees son of Artaeus , both Persians , were the
 overseers of the workmen. +Mount
 Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Athos is a great and famous mountain,
 running out into the sea and inhabited by men. At the mountain's landward
 end it is in the form of a peninsula, and there is an isthmus about twelve
 stadia wide; here is a place of level ground or little hills, from the sea
 by Acanthus to the sea opposite +Torone [23.8167,40.05] (Perseus)
 Torone .

On this isthmus which is at the end of +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos , there stands a Greek town, Sane; there are others situated seaward
 of Sane and landward of +Mount
 Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia,
 Greece, Europe Athos , and the Persian now intended to make them into island and not mainland
 towns; they are +Dion
 [22.5,40.175] (Perseus) Dion , Olophyxus , Acrothoum , Thyssus , and Cleonae .

These are the towns situated on +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166]
 (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Athos . The foreigners dug as follows, dividing up the ground by nation: they made a
 straight line near the town of Sane; when the channel had been dug to some
 depth, some men stood at the bottom of it and dug, others took the dirt as
 it was dug out and delivered it to yet others that stood higher on stages,
 and they again to others as they received it, until they came to those that
 were highest; these carried it out and threw it away.

For all except the Phoenicians , the steep sides
 of the canal caved in, doubling their labor; since they made the span the
 same breadth at its mouth and at the bottom, this was bound to happen.

But the Phoenicians showed the same skill in this
 as in all else they do; taking in hand the portion that fell to them, they
 dug by making the topmost span of the canal as wide again as the canal was
 to be, and narrowed it as they worked lower, until at the bottom their work
 was of the same span as that of the others.

There is a meadow there, where they made a place for buying and marketing;
 much ground grain frequently came to them from Asia (continent) Asia .

As far as I can judge by conjecture, Xerxes gave the command for this digging out of pride,
 wishing to display his power and leave a memorial; with no trouble they
 could have drawn their ships across the isthmus, yet he ordered them to dig
 a canal from sea to sea, wide enough to float two triremes rowed abreast.
 The same men who were assigned the digging were also assigned to join the
 banks of the river Strymon by a bridge.

Thus Xerxes did this. He
 assigned the Phoenicians and Egyptians to make ropes of papyrus and white flax for the
 bridges, and to store provisions for his army, so that
 neither the army nor the beasts of burden would starve on the march to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

After making inquiry, he ordered them to store it in the most fitting
 places, carrying it to the various places from all parts of Asia (continent) Asia in
 cargo ships and transports. They brought most of it to the White Headland (as it is called) in Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace ; some were dispatched to Tyrodiza in the Perinthian country or
 to Doriscus , others to Eion on the Strymon or to Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia .

While these worked at their appointed task, all the
 land force had been mustered and was marching with Xerxes to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , setting forth from
 Critalla in +Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Cappadocia , which was the place appointed for gathering all
 the army that was to march with Xerxes himself by
 land.

Now which of his governors received the promised gifts from the king for
 bringing the best-equipped army, I cannot say; I do not even know if the
 matter was ever determined.

When they had crossed the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys and entered
 Phrygia (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia Phrygia , they marched through that country
 to Celaenae , where rises the source of the river +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466]
 (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander and of another river no
 smaller, which is called Cataractes; it rises right in the market-place of
 Celaenae and issues into the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466]
 (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander . The skin of Marsyas the Silenus also
 hangs there; the Phrygian story tells that it was
 flayed off him and hung up by Apollo .

In this city Pythius son of
 Atys , a Lydian , sat
 awaiting them; he entertained Xerxes himself and
 all the king's army with the greatest hospitality, and declared himself
 willing to provide money for the war.

When Pythius offered the money, Xerxes asked the Persians present who
 this Pythius was and how much wealth he possessed
 in making the offer. They said, “O king, this is the one who gave your
 father Darius the gift of a golden plane-tree and
 vine; he is now the richest man we know of after you.”

Xerxes marvelled at this last saying and next
 himself asked Pythius how much wealth he had. “O
 king,” said Pythius , “I will not conceal the
 quantity of my property from you, nor pretend that I do not know; I know and
 will tell you the exact truth.

As soon as I learned that you were coming down to the Greek sea , I wanted to give you money for the war, so I inquired
 into the matter, and my reckoning showed me that I had two thousand talents
 of silver, and four million Daric staters of gold, lacking seven thousand.

All this I freely give to you; for myself, I have a sufficient livelihood
 from my slaves and my farms.”

Thus he spoke. Xerxes was
 pleased with what he said and replied: “My Lydian 
 friend, since I came out of Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia I have so far met with no
 man who was willing to give hospitality to my army, nor who came into my
 presence unsummoned and offered to furnish money for the war, besides you.

But you have entertained my army nobly and offer me great sums. In return
 for this I give you these privileges: I make you my friend, and out of my
 own wealth I give you the seven thousand staters which will complete your
 total of four million, so that your four million not lack the seven thousand
 and the even number be reached by my completing it.

Remain in possession of what you now possess, and be mindful to be always
 such as you are; neither for the present nor in time will you regret what
 you now do.”

Xerxes said this and made good his words, then
 journeyed ever onward. Passing by the Phrygian 
 town called Anaua , and the lake from which salt is
 obtained, he came to +Colossae
 [29.25,37.783] (deserted settlement), Denizli Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia Colossae , a great city in Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia Phrygia ; there the river Lycus plunges into a cleft in the earth and disappears, until it reappears about five
 stadia away; this river issues into the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia
 Maeander .

From +Colossae [29.25,37.783]
 (deserted settlement), Denizli Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Colossae the army held its course for the borders of Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia Phrygia and Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Lydia , and came to the city of Cydrara , where there stands a pillar set up by Croesus which marks the boundary with an inscription.

Passing from Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia 
 into Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia , he came to the place
 where the roads part; the road on the left leads to +Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia
 Caria , the one on the right to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ;
 on the latter the traveller must cross the river +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey,
 Asia Maeander and pass by the city of Callatebus , where craftsmen make honey out of wheat and
 tamarisks. Xerxes went by this road and found a
 plane-tree, which he adorned with gold because of its beauty, and he
 assigned one of his immortals to guard it. On the next day he reached the
 city of the Lydians .

After he arrived in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ,
 he first sent heralds to Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to demand earth and water
 and to command the preparation of meals for the king. He sent demands for
 earth everywhere except to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon .
 The reason for his sending for earth and water the second time was this: he
 fully believed that whoever had not previously given it to Darius ' messengers would now be compelled to give by fear; so he
 sent out of desire to know this for certain.

After this he prepared to march to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos ;
 meanwhile his men were bridging the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont from Asia (continent) Asia to Europe (continent) Europe . On the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese , which is on
 the Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , between the
 city of Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestus and Madytos [26.3667,40.2] (Perseus) Madytus 
 there is a broad headland running out into the sea opposite Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos . It
 was here that not long afterwards the Athenians ,
 when Xanthippus son of Ariphron was their general, took Artayctes , a Persian and the governor
 of Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestus , and crucified him alive; he had been in
 the habit of bringing women right into the temple of Protesilaus at Elaeus and doing impious
 deeds there.

The men who had been given this assignment made
 bridges starting from Abydus
 [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Abydos across to that headland; the Phoenicians one of flaxen cables, and the Egyptians a papyrus one. From Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos to
 the opposite shore it is a distance of seven stadia. But no
 sooner had the strait been bridged than a great storm swept down, breaking
 and scattering everything.

When Xerxes heard of this,
 he was very angry and commanded that the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont be whipped with three hundred lashes, and
 a pair of fetters be thrown into the sea. I have even heard that he sent
 branders with them to brand the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont .

He commanded them while they whipped to utter words outlandish and
 presumptuous, “Bitter water, our master thus punishes you, because you did
 him wrong though he had done you none. Xerxes the
 king will pass over you, whether you want it or not; in accordance with
 justice no one offers you sacrifice, for you are a turbid and briny river.”

He commanded that the sea receive these punishments and that the overseers
 of the bridge over the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont be beheaded.

So this was done by those who were appointed to the
 thankless honor, and new engineers set about making the bridges. They made
 the bridges as follows: in order to lighten the strain of the cables, they
 placed fifty-oared ships and triremes alongside each other, three hundred
 and sixty to bear the bridge nearest the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea , and
 three hundred and fourteen to bear the other; all lay obliquely to the line
 of the Black Sea [38,42]
 (sea) Pontus and parallel with the current of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont .

After putting the ships together they let down very great anchors, both from
 the end of the ships on the Black
 Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus side to hold fast against the
 winds blowing from within that sea, and from the other end, towards the west
 and the Aegean Sea [25,38.5]
 (sea) Aegean , to hold against the west and south winds.
 They left a narrow opening to sail through in the line of fifty-oared ships
 and triremes, that so whoever wanted to could sail by small craft to the
 Black Sea [38,42]
 (sea) Pontus or out of it.

After doing this, they stretched the cables from the land, twisting them
 taut with wooden windlasses; they did not as before keep the two kinds
 apart, but assigned for each bridge two cables of flax and four of papyrus.

All these had the same thickness and fine appearance, but the flaxen were
 heavier in proportion, for a cubit of them weighed a talent.

When the strait was thus bridged, they sawed logs of wood to a length equal
 to the breadth of the floating supports, and laid them in order on
 the taut cables; after placing them together they then made them fast. After
 doing this, they carried brushwood onto the bridge; when this was all laid
 in order they heaped earth on it and stamped it down; then they made a fence
 on either side, so that the beasts of burden and horses not be frightened by
 the sight of the sea below them.

When the bridges and the work at Mount Athos [24.316,40.166]
 (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Athos were ready, and both the dikes at the canal's
 entrances, built to prevent the surf from silting up the entrances of the
 dug passage, and the canal itself were reported to be now completely
 finished, the army then wintered. At the beginning of spring the army made ready and set
 forth from Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to march to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos .

As it was setting out, the sun left his place in the heaven and was
 invisible, although the sky was without clouds and very clear, and the day
 turned into night. When Xerxes saw and took note of
 that, he was concerned and asked the Magi what
 the vision might signify.

They declared to him that the god was showing the Greeks the abandonment of their cities; for the sun (they said)
 was the prophet of the Greeks , as the moon was
 their own. Xerxes rejoiced exceedingly to hear that
 and continued on his march.

As Xerxes led his army
 away, Pythius the Lydian , frightened by the heavenly vision and encouraged by the
 gifts that he had received, came to Xerxes and
 said, “Master, I have a favor to ask that I desire of you, easy for you to
 grant and precious for me to receive.”

Xerxes supposed that Pythius would demand anything rather than what he did ask and
 answered that he would grant the request, bidding him declare what he
 desired. When Pythius heard this, he took courage
 and said: “Master, I have five sons, and all of them are constrained to
 march with you against Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

I pray you, O king, take pity on me in my advanced age, and release one of
 my sons, the eldest, from service, so that he may take care of me and of my
 possessions; take the four others with you, and may you return back with all
 your plans accomplished.”

Xerxes became very angry and thus replied:
 “Villain, you see me marching against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas myself, and
 taking with me my sons and brothers and relations and friends; do you, my
 slave, who should have followed me with all your household and your very
 wife, speak to me of your son? Be well assured of this, that a man's spirit
 dwells in his ears; when it hears good words it fills the whole body with
 delight, but when it hears the opposite it swells with anger.

When you did me good service and promised more, you will never boast that
 you outdid your king in the matter of benefits; and now that you have turned
 aside to the way of shamelessness, you will receive a lesser requital than
 you merit. You and four of your sons are saved by your hospitality; but you
 shall be punished by the life of that one you most desire to keep.”

With that reply, he immediately ordered those who were assigned to do these
 things to find the eldest of Pythius sons and cut
 him in half, then to set one half of his body on the right side of the road
 and the other on the left, so that the army would pass between them.

This they did, and the army passed between. First
 went the baggage train and the beasts of burden, and after them a mixed army
 of all sorts of nations, not according to their divisions but all mingled
 together; when more than half had passed there was a space left, and these
 did not come near the king.

After that, first came a thousand horsemen, chosen out of all Persians ; next, a thousand spearmen, picked men like
 the others, carrying their spears reversed; and after them ten horses of the
 breed called Nesaean , equipped most splendidly.

The horses are called Nesaean because there is in
 Media a wide plain of that name, where the great horses are bred.

Behind these ten horses was the place of the sacred chariot of Zeus , drawn by eight white horses, with
 the charioteer following the horses on foot and holding the reins; for no
 mortal man may mount into that seat. After these came Xerxes himself in a chariot drawn by Nesaean horses; beside him was his charioteer, whose name was
 Patiramphes , the son of Otanes , a Persian .

In this way Xerxes rode out
 from Sardis [28.0167,38.475]
 (Perseus) Sardis ; but whenever the thought took him he
 would alight from the chariot into a carriage. Behind him came a thousand
 spearmen of the best and noblest blood of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia ,
 carrying their spears in the customary manner; after them a thousand picked
 Persian horsemen, and after the horse ten
 thousand that were foot soldiers, chosen out of the rest of the Persians .

One thousand of these had golden pomegranates on their spear-shafts instead
 of a spike, and surrounded the rest; the nine thousand who were inside them
 had silver pomegranates. Those who held their spears reversed also carried
 golden pomegranates, and those following nearest to Xerxes had apples of gold. After the ten thousand came ten
 thousand Persian horsemen in array. After these
 there was a space of two stadia, and then the rest of the multitude followed
 all mixed together.

From Lydia
 [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia 
 the army took its course to the river Bakir Cayi [27,38.916] (river), Turkey, Asia Caicus 
 and the land of +Mysia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Mysia ; leaving the Bakir Cayi [27,38.916] (river),
 Turkey, Asia Caicus , they went through +Atarneus [26.95,39.05]
 (Perseus) Atarneus to the city of Carene , keeping the mountain of Khalkodonion (mountains), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly,
 Greece, Europe Cane 
 on the left. From there they
 journeyed over the plain of Thebe , passing the city
 of Adramytteum and the Pelasgian city of Antandrus .

Then they came into the territory of Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Ilium , with Ida on
 their left. When they had halted for the night at the foot of Ida , a storm of thunder and lightning fell upon them,
 killing a great crowd of them there.

When the army had come to the river Scamander , which was the first river after the
 beginning of their march from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis that fell
 short of their needs and was not sufficient for the army and the cattle to
 drink—arriving at this river, Xerxes ascended to
 the citadel of Priam , having a desire to see it.

After he saw it and asked about everything there, he sacrificed a thousand
 cattle to Athena of Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilium , and the Magi offered libations to the heroes. After they did this, a
 panic fell upon the camp in the night. When it was day they journeyed on
 from there, keeping on their left the cities of Rhoetium and Ophryneum and Dardanus , which borders Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos , and on
 their right the Teucrian Gergithae .

When they were at Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos , Xerxes wanted to see the whole of his army. A lofty seat of white
 stone had been set up for him on a hill there for this
 very purpose, built by the people of Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Abydos at the king's command. There he sat
 and looked down on the seashore, viewing his army and his fleet; as he
 viewed them he desired to see the ships contend in a race. They did so, and
 the Phoenicians of Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub,
 Lebanon, Asia Sidon won; Xerxes 
 was pleased with the race and with his expedition.

When he saw the whole Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont covered with ships, and all the shores
 and plains of Abydus [26.416,40.2]
 (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Abydos full of men, Xerxes first
 declared himself blessed, and then wept.

His uncle Artabanus 
 perceived this, he who in the beginning had spoken his mind freely and
 advised Xerxes not to march against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . Marking how Xerxes 
 wept, he questioned him and said, “O king, what a distance there is between
 what you are doing now and a little while ago! After declaring yourself
 blessed you weep.”

Xerxes said, “I was moved to compassion when I
 considered the shortness of all human life, since of all this multitude of
 men not one will be alive a hundred years from now.”

Artabanus answered, “In one life we have deeper
 sorrows to bear than that. Short as our lives are, there is no human being
 either here or elsewhere so fortunate that it will not occur to him, often
 and not just once, to wish himself dead rather than alive. Misfortunes fall
 upon us and sicknesses trouble us, so that they make life, though short,
 seem long.

Life is so miserable a thing that death has become the most desirable refuge
 for humans; the god is found to be envious in this, giving us only a taste
 of the sweetness of living.”

Xerxes answered and said, “ Artabanus , human life is such as you define it to be. Let us
 speak no more of that, nor remember evils in our present prosperous estate.
 But tell me this: if you had not seen the vision in your dream so clearly,
 would you still have held your former opinion and advised me not to march
 against Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , or would you have changed your mind? Come,
 tell me this truly.”

Artabanus answered and said, “O king, may the
 vision that appeared in my dream bring such an end as we both desire! But I
 am even now full of fear and beside myself for many reasons, especially when
 I see that the two greatest things in the world are your greatest enemies.”

Xerxes made this response: “Are you possessed? What
 are these two things that you say are my greatest enemies? Is there some
 fault with the numbers of my land army? Does it seem that the Greek army will be many times greater than ours? Or
 do you think that our navy will fall short of theirs? Or that the fault is
 in both? If our power seems to you to lack anything in this regard, it would
 be best to muster another army as quickly as possible.”

Artabanus answered and said, “O king, there is no
 fault that any man of sound judgment could find either with this army or
 with the number of your ships; and if you gather more, those two things I
 speak of become even much more your enemies. These two are the land and the
 sea.

The sea has nowhere any harbor, as I conjecture, that will be able to
 receive this navy and save your ships if a storm arise. Yet there has to be
 not just one such harbor, but many of them all along the land you are
 sailing by.

Since there are no harbors able to receive you, understand that men are the
 subjects and not the rulers of their accidents. I have spoken of one of the
 two, and now I will tell you of the other.

The land is your enemy in this way: if nothing is going to stand in your way
 and hinder you, the land becomes more your enemy the further you advance,
 constantly unaware of what lies beyond; no man is ever satisfied with
 success.

So I say that if no one opposes you, the increase of your territory and the
 time passed in getting it will breed famine. The best man is one who is
 timid while making plans because he takes into account all that may happen
 to him, but is bold in action.”

Xerxes answered, “ Artabanus , you define these matters reasonably. But do not fear
 everything, nor take account of all alike; If you wanted to take everything
 equally into account on every occasion that happens, you would never do
 anything; it is better to do everything boldly and suffer half of what you
 dread than to fear all chances and so never suffer anything.

But if you quarrel with whatever is said yet cannot put forth a secure
 position, you must be proved as wrong on your part as he who holds the
 contrary opinion. In this both are alike: how can someone who is only human
 know where there is security? I think it is impossible. Those who have the
 will to act most often win the rewards, not those who hesitate and take
 account of all chances.

You see what power Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia has attained. Now if those kings who
 came before me had held such opinions as yours, or if they had not held them
 but had had advisers like you, you would never have seen our fortunes at
 their present height; but as it is those kings ran the risks and advanced
 them to this height.

Great successes are not won except by great risks. So we will do as they
 did; we are travelling in the fairest season of the year, and we will return
 home the conquerors of all Europe
 (continent) Europe without suffering famine or any other
 harm anywhere. First, we carry ample provisions with us on our march;
 second, we will have the food of those whose land and nation we invade; for
 we are marching against men who are tillers of the soil, not nomads.”

Then said Artabanus : “O
 king, I see that you will not allow us to fear any danger. But take from me
 this advice, as there is need for much speaking when our affairs are so
 great.

Cyrus son of Cambyses 
 subdued and made tributary to Iran
 [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia all Ionians except only the Athenians . I
 advise you by no means to lead these Ionians 
 against the land of their fathers, since even without their aid we are well
 able to overcome our enemies. If they come with our army, they must either
 behave very unjustly by enslaving their mother city, or very justly by
 aiding it to be free.

If they deal very unjustly they bring us no great advantage, but by dealing
 very justly they may well do great harm to your army. Take to heart the
 truth of that ancient saying, that the end of every matter is not revealed
 at its beginning.”

Xerxes answered, “ Artabanus , in all your pronouncements you are most mistaken when
 you fear that the Ionians might change sides; we
 have the surest guarantee for them, and you and all who marched with Darius against the Scythians can bear witness. They had the power to destroy or to
 save the whole Persian army, and they gave proof
 of their justice and faithfulness, with no evil intent.

Moreover, since they have left their children and wives and possessions in
 our country, we need not consider it even possible that they will make any
 violent change. So be rid of that fear; keep a stout heart and guard my
 household and tyranny; to you alone I entrust the symbols of my kingship.”

Xerxes spoke thus and sent Artabanus away to Shush
 [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa . He next sent for the most notable among the Persians , and when they were present he said, “ Persians , I have assembled you to make this demand,
 that you bear yourselves bravely and never sully the great and glorious
 former achievements of the Persians . Let us each
 and all be zealous, for the good that we seek is common to all.

For these reasons I bid you set your hands to the war strenuously; I know
 that we march against valiant men, and if we overcome them it is certain
 that no other human army will ever withstand us. Let us now cross over,
 after praying to the gods who hold Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia for their
 allotted realm.”

All that day they made preparations for the
 crossing. On the next they waited until they could see the sun rise, burning
 all kinds of incense on the bridges and strewing the road with myrtle
 boughs.

At sunrise Xerxes poured a libation from a golden
 phial into the sea, praying to the sun that no accident might befall him
 which would keep him from subduing Europe (continent) Europe before he reached its
 farthest borders. After the prayer, he cast the phial into the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , and along with it a
 golden bowl, and a Persian sword which they call
 “acinaces.”

As for these, I cannot rightly determine whether he cast them into the sea
 for offerings to the sun, or repented having whipped the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and gave gifts to the
 sea as atonement.

When they had done this they crossed over, the foot
 and horse all by the bridge nearest to the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus , the beasts
 of burden and the service train by the bridge towards the Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea)
 Aegean .

The ten thousand Persians , all wearing garlands,
 led the way, and after them came the mixed army of diverse nations. All that
 day these crossed; on the next, first crossed the horsemen and the ones who
 carried their spears reversed; these also wore garlands.

After them came the sacred horses and the sacred chariot, then Xerxes himself and the spearmen and the thousand
 horse, and after them the rest of the army. Meanwhile the ships put out and
 crossed to the opposite shore. But I have also heard that the king crossed
 last of all.

When Xerxes had passed over
 to Europe
 (continent) Europe , he viewed his army crossing under the
 lash. Seven days and seven nights it was in crossing, with no pause.

It is said that when Xerxes had now crossed the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , a man of the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont cried, “O
 Zeus , why have you taken the likeness of a Persian man and changed your name to Xerxes , leading the whole world with you to remove
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas from its place? You could have done that
 without these means.”

When all had passed over and were ready for the
 road, a great portent appeared among them. Xerxes 
 took no account of it, although it was easy to interpret: a mare gave birth
 to a hare. The meaning of it was easy to guess: Xerxes was to march his army to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas with
 great pomp and pride, but to come back to the same place fleeing for his
 life.

There was another portent that was shown to him at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis : a mule gave birth to a mule that had double
 genitals, both male and female, the male above the other. But he took no
 account of either sign and journeyed onward; the land army was with him.

His navy sailed out of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont and travelled along the land, going
 across from the land army.

The ships sailed westwards, laying their course for the headland of Sarpedon , where Xerxes had
 ordered them to go and wait for him; the army of the mainland travelled
 towards the east and the sunrise through the
 Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese ,
 with the tomb of Athamas ' daughter Helle on its
 right and the town of Cardia on its left, marching
 through the middle of a city called Agora .

From there they rounded the head of the Black Bay 
 (as it is called) and crossed the Black River ,
 which could not hold its own then against the army, but gave out—crossing
 this river, which gives its name to the bay, they went westwards, past the
 Aeolian city of Enez [26.83,40.733] (inhabited place), Edirne, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Aenus and the marsh of Stentor , until they came to Doriscus .

The territory of Doriscus 
 is in Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , a wide plain by the sea, and through it
 flows a great river, the +Maritsa
 [26.2,40.866] (river), Europe Hebrus ; here had been built
 that royal fortress which is called Doriscus , and
 a Persian guard had been posted there by Darius ever since the time of his march against Scythia (region (general)),
 Asia Scythia .

It seemed to Xerxes to be a fit place for him to
 arrange and number his army, and he did so. All the ships had now arrived at
 Doriscus , and the captains at Xerxes ' command brought them to the beach near Doriscus , where stands the Samothracian city of Sane, and Zone; at the end is Serreum , a well-known headland. This country was in
 former days possessed by the Cicones .

To this beach they brought in their ships and hauled them up for rest.
 Meanwhile Xerxes made a reckoning of his forces at
 Doriscus .

I cannot give the exact number that each part
 contributed to the total, for there is no one who tells us that; but the
 total of the whole land army was shown to be one million and seven hundred
 thousand.

They were counted in this way: ten thousand men were collected in one place,
 and when they were packed together as closely as could be a line was drawn
 around them; when this was drawn, the ten thousand were sent away and a wall
 of stones was built on the line reaching up to a man's navel;

when this was done, others were brought into the walled space, until in
 this way all were numbered. When they had been numbered, they were
 marshalled by nations.

The men who served in the army were the following:
 the Persians were equipped in this way: they wore
 on their heads loose caps called tiaras, and on their bodies embroidered
 sleeved tunics, with scales of iron like the scales of fish in appearance,
 and trousers on their legs; for shields they had wicker bucklers, with
 quivers hanging beneath them; they carried short spears, long bows, and reed
 arrows, and daggers that hung from the girdle by the right thigh.

Their commander was Otanes , son of Amestris and father of Xerxes ' wife. They were formerly called by the Greeks 
 Cephenes , but by themselves and their neighbors
 Artaei .

When Perseus son of Danae 
 and Zeus had come to Cepheus son of Belus and married his
 daughter Andromeda , a son was born to him whom he
 called Perses , and he left him there; for Cepheus had no male offspring; it was from this Perses that the Persians 
 took their name.

The Medes in the army
 were equipped like the Persians ; indeed, that
 fashion of armor is Median, not Persian . Their
 commander was Tigranes , an Achaemenid . The Medes were formerly
 called by everyone Arians , but
 when the Colchian woman Medea came from Athens
 [23.733,38] (inhabited place), Perifereia Protevousis, Greece,
 Europe Athens to the Arians 
 they changed their name, like the Persians . This
 is the Medes ' own account of themselves.

The Cissians in the army were equipped like the
 Persians , but they wore turbans instead of
 caps. Their commander was Anaphes son of Otanes . The Hyrcanians 
 were armed like the Persians ; their leader was Megapanus ,
 who was afterwards the governor of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq,
 Asia Babylon .

The Assyrians in the army
 wore on their heads helmets of twisted bronze made in an outlandish fashion
 not easy to describe. They carried shields and spears and daggers of Egyptian fashion, and also wooden clubs studded with
 iron, and they wore linen breastplates. They are called by the Greeks Syrians , but the foreigners called them Assyrians . With them were the Chaldeans . Their commander was Otaspes 
 son of Artachaees .

The Bactrians in the army
 wore a headgear very similar to the Median, carrying their native reed bows
 and short spears.

The Sacae , who are Scythians , had on their heads tall caps, erect and stiff and
 tapering to a point; they wore trousers, and carried their native bows, and
 daggers, and also axes which they call “sagaris.” These were Amyrgian Scythians , but were called Sacae ; that is the Persian name for all Scythians . The
 commander of the Bactrians and Sacae was Hystaspes , son of
 Darius and Cyrus '
 daughter Atossa .

The Indians wore garments
 of tree-wool, and carried reed
 bows and iron-tipped reed arrows. Such was their equipment; they were
 appointed to march under the command of Pharnazathres son of Artabates .

The Arians were equipped
 with Median bows, but in all else like the Bactrians ; their commander was Sisamnes 
 son of Hydarnes . The Parthians , Chorasmians , Sogdians , Gandarians , and
 Dadicae in the army had the same equipment as
 the Bactrians .

The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces , the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus , the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus .

The Caspians in the army
 wore cloaks and carried their native reed bows and short swords. Such was
 their equipment; their leader was Ariomardus ,
 brother of Artyphius . The Sarangae were conspicuous in their dyed garments and knee-high
 boots, carrying bows and Median spears. Their commander was Pherendates son of Megabazus .

The Pactyes wore cloaks and carried their native
 bows and daggers; their commander was Artayntes son
 of Ithamitres .

The Utians and Mycians and Paricanians 
 were equipped like the Pactyes ; the Utians and Mycians had
 for their commander Arsamenes son of Darius , the Paricanians
 Siromitres son of Oeobazus .

The Arabians wore mantles
 girded up, and carried at their right side long bows curving backwards. The Ethiopians were wrapped in skins of leopards and lions, and
 carried bows made of palmwood strips, no less than four cubits long, and
 short arrows pointed not with iron but with a sharpened stone that they use
 to carve seals; furthermore, they had spears pointed with a gazelle's horn
 sharpened like a lance, and also studded clubs.

When they went into battle they painted half their bodies with gypsum and
 the other half with vermilion. The Arabians and
 the Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt had as commander Arsames , the
 son of Darius and Artystone daughter of Cyrus , whom Darius loved best of his wives; he had an image made
 of her of hammered gold.

The Ethiopians above
 Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt and the Arabians had Arsames for commander, while the Ethiopians of the east (for there were two
 kinds of them in the army) served with the Indians ; they were not different in appearance from the others,
 only in speech and hair: the Ethiopians from the
 east are straight-haired, but the ones from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya have
 the woolliest hair of all men.

These Ethiopians of Asia (continent) Asia were for the most
 part armed like the Indians ; but they wore on
 their heads the skins of horses' foreheads, stripped from the head with ears
 and mane; the mane served them for a crest, and they wore the horses' ears
 stiff and upright; for shields they had bucklers of the skin of cranes.

The Libyans came in
 leather garments, using javelins of burnt wood. Their commander was Massages
 son of Oarizus .

The Paphlagonians in the
 army had woven helmets on their heads, and small shields and short spears,
 and also javelins and daggers; they wore their native shoes that reach
 midway to the knee. The Ligyes and Matieni and Mariandyni 
 and Syrians were equipped like the Paphlagonians . These Syrians are called by the Persians
 Cappadocians .

Dotus son of Megasidrus 
 was commander of the Paphlagonians and Matieni , Gobryas son of
 Darius and Artystone of
 the Mariandyni and Ligyes and Syrians .

The Phrygian equipment
 was very similar to the Paphlagonian , with only a
 small difference. As the Macedonians say, these
 Phrygians were called Briges as long as they dwelt in Europe (continent) Europe , where they were
 neighbors of the Macedonians ; but when they
 changed their home to Asia
 (continent) Asia , they changed their name also and were
 called Phrygians . The Armenians , who are
 settlers from Phrygia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia , were armed like the
 Phrygians . Both these together had as their
 commander Artochmes , who had married a daughter of
 Darius .

The Lydian armor was most
 similar to the Greek . The Lydians were formerly called Meiones ,
 until they changed their name and were called after Lydus son of Atys . The Mysians wore on their heads their native helmets,
 carrying small shields and javelins of burnt wood.

They are settlers from Lydia
 [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia ,
 and are called Olympieni after the mountain +Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis,
 Thessaly, Greece, Europe Olympus . The commander of the
 Lydians and Mysians 
 was that Artaphrenes son of Artaphrenes , who attacked Marathon with Datis .

The Thracians in the army
 wore fox-skin caps on their heads, and tunics on their bodies; over these
 they wore embroidered mantles; they had shoes of fawnskin on their feet and
 legs; they also had javelins and little shields and daggers.

They took the name of Bithynians after they
 crossed over to Asia
 (continent) Asia ; before that they were called (as they
 themselves say) Strymonians , since they lived by
 the Strymon ; they say that they were driven from
 their homes by Teucrians and Mysians . The commander of the Thracians of Asia
 (continent) Asia was Bassaces son
 of Artabanus .

The < Pisidians > had
 little shields of raw oxhide; each man carried two wolf-hunters' spears;
 they wore helmets of bronze, and on these helmets were the ears and horns of
 oxen wrought in bronze, and also crests; their legs were wrapped around with
 strips of purple rags. Among these men is a place of divination sacred to
 Ares .

The Cabelees , 
 who are Meiones and are called Lasonii , had the same equipment as the Cilicians ; when I come in my narrative to the place
 of the Cilicians , I will then declare what it
 was. The Milyae had short spears and garments
 fastened by brooches; some of them carried Lycian 
 bows and wore caps of skin on their heads. The commander of all these was
 Badres son of Hystanes .

The Moschi wore wooden
 helmets on their heads, and carried shields and small spears with long
 points. The Tibareni and Macrones and Mossynoeci in the army
 were equipped like the Moschi . The commanders who
 marshalled them were, for the Moschi and Tibareni , Ariomardus son of
 Darius and Parmys , the
 daughter of Cyrus ' son Smerdis ; for the Macrones and Mossynoeci , Artayctes son
 of Cherasmis , who was governor of Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestus on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont .

The Mares wore on their
 heads their native woven helmets, and carried javelins and small hide
 shields. The Colchians had wooden helmets and
 small shields of raw oxhide and short spears, and also swords. The commander
 of the Mares and Colchians was Pharandates son of Teaspis . The Alarodians and Saspires 
 in the army were armed like the Colchians ; Masistius son of Siromitres 
 was their commander.

The island tribes that came from the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red
 Sea , and from the islands where the king settles those who are
 called Exiles, wore dress and armor very similar to the Median. The
 commander of these islanders was Mardontes son of
 Bagaeus , who in the next year was general at Mykale [26.8667,38.1]
 (Perseus) Mykale and died in the battle.

These are the nations that marched by the mainland
 and had their places in the infantry. The commanders of this army were those
 whom I have mentioned, and they were the ones who marshalled and numbered
 them and appointed captains of thousands and ten thousands; the captains of
 ten thousands appointed the captains of hundreds and of tens. There were
 others who were leaders of companies and nations.

These were the commanders, as I have said; the
 generals of these and of the whole infantry were Mardonius son of Gobryas , Tritantaechmes son of that Artabanus who delivered the opinion that there should be no
 expedition against Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , Smerdomenes son of Otanes (these two
 latter were sons of Darius ' brothers, and thus they
 were Xerxes ' cousins), Masistes son of Darius and Atossa , Gergis son of Ariazus , and Megabyzus son of
 Zopyrus .

These were the generals of the whole infantry,
 except the Ten Thousand . Hydarnes son of Hydarnes was general of
 these picked ten thousand Persians , who were
 called Immortals for this reason: when any one of them was forced to fall
 out of the number by death or sickness, another was chosen so that they were
 never more or fewer than ten thousand.

The Persians showed the richest adornment of all,
 and they were the best men in the army. Their equipment was such as I have
 said; beyond this they stood out by the abundance of gold that they had.
 They also brought carriages bearing concubines and many well-equipped
 servants; camels and beasts of burden carried food for them, apart from the
 rest of the army.

There are horsemen in these nations, but not all of
 them furnished cavalry. Only the following did so: the Persians , equipped like their infantry, except that some of them
 wore headgear of hammered bronze and iron.

There are also certain nomads called Sagartian ; they are Persian in speech, and the fashion of their equipment is somewhat
 between the Persian and the Pactyan ; they furnished eight thousand horsemen. It is their
 custom to carry no armor of bronze or iron, except only daggers, and to use
 ropes of twisted leather.

They go to battle relying on these. This is the manner of fighting of these
 men: when they are at close quarters with their enemy, they throw their
 ropes, which have a noose at the end; whatever he catches, horse or man,
 each man drags to himself, and the enemy is entangled in the coils and
 slain. Such is their manner of fighting; they were marshalled with the Persians .

The Median cavalry were
 equipped like their infantry, and the Cissians 
 similarly. The Indians were armed in the same
 manner as their infantry; they rode swift horses and drove chariots drawn by
 horses and wild asses. The Bactrians were
 equipped as were their foot, and the Caspians in
 the same manner.

The Libyans , too, were armed like the men of
 their infantry, and all of them also drove chariots. In the same manner the
 Caspians and Paricanians were armed as the men of their infantry. The Arabians had the same equipment as the men of their
 infantry, and all of them rode on camels no less swift than horses.

These nations alone were on horseback; the number of
 the horsemen was shown to be eighty thousand, besides the camels and the
 chariots. All the rest of the horsemen were ranked with their companies, but
 the Arabians were posted last. Since horses
 cannot endure camels, their place was in the rear, so that the horses would
 not be frightened.

The captains of cavalry were Harmamithres and Tithaeus , sons of Datis ; the third who was captain with them, Pharnuches , had been left behind sick at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis . As they set forth from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ,
 an unwelcome mishap befell him: a dog ran under the feet of the horse he was
 riding, and the horse was taken by surprise and frightened, so it reared up
 and threw Pharnuches ; after his fall he vomited
 blood and began to waste away.

The horse was immediately dealt with according to Pharnuces ' command; his servants led it away to the place where
 it had thrown their master, and cut off its legs at the knee. Thus it was
 that Pharnuches lost his command.

The number of the triremes was twelve hundred and
 seven, and they were furnished by the following: the Phoenicians with the Syrians of +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region
 (general)), Asia Palestine furnished three hundred; for
 their equipment, they had on their heads helmets very close to the Greek in style; they wore linen breastplates, and
 carried shields without rims, and javelins.

These Phoenicians formerly dwelt, as they
 themselves say, by the +Red Sea
 [42,15] (sea) Red Sea ; they crossed from there and now
 inhabit the seacoast of +Syria
 [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria . This part of +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia
 Syria as far as Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is all called
 +Palestine [35.333,31.916]
 (region (general)), Asia Palestine .

The Egyptians furnished two hundred ships. They
 wore woven helmets and carried hollow shields with broad rims, and spears
 for sea-warfare, and great battle-axes. Most of them wore cuirasses and
 carried long swords.

Such was their armor. The Cyprians furnished a hundred and fifty ships; for their
 equipment, their princes wore turbans wrapped around their heads, and the
 people wore tunics, but in all else they were like the Greeks . These are their tribes: some are from Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted
 settlement), Famagusta, Cyprus, Asia Salamis and Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , some from +Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Arcadia , some from Cythnus , some from Phoenice , and some
 from Ethiopia [39,8] (nation),
 Africa Ethiopia , as the Cyprians themselves say.

The Cilicians furnished a
 hundred ships. They also wore on their heads their native helmets, carried
 bucklers of raw oxhide for shields, and were clad in woollen tunics; each
 had two javelins and a sword very close in style to the knives of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt . These Cilicians were
 formerly called Hypachaei , and took their name
 from Cilix son of Agenor ,
 a Phoenician . The Pamphylians furnished a hundred ships: they were armed like the
 Greeks . These Pamphylians are descended from the Trojans of the diaspora who followed Amphilochus and Calchas .

The Lycians furnished
 fifty ships; they wore cuirasses and greaves, and carried cornel-wood bows
 and unfeathered arrows and javelins; goat-skins hung from their shoulders,
 and they wore on their heads caps crowned with feathers; they also had
 daggers and scimitars. The Lycians are from +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe Crete and were once called Termilae ; they took their name from Lycus son of Pandion , an Athenian .

The Dorians of Asia (continent) Asia 
 furnished thirty ships; their armor was Greek ;
 they are of Peloponnesian descent. The Carians furnished seventy ships; they had scimitars
 and daggers, but the rest of their equipment was Greek . I have said in the beginning of my history what they were formerly called.

The Ionians furnished a
 hundred ships; their equipment was like the Greek . These Ionians , as long as they
 were in the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , dwelt in
 what is now called +Achaea
 [21.75,38.25] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Achaia , and before Danaus and Xuthus came to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , as the Greeks say,
 they were called Aegialian Pelasgians . They were
 named Ionians after Ion the son of Xuthus .

The islanders provided seventeen ships and were
 armed like Greeks ; they were also of Pelasgian stock, which was later called Ionian for the same reason as were the Ionians of the twelve cities, who came from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .
 The Aeolians furnished sixty ships and were
 equipped like Greeks ; formerly they were called
 Pelasgian , as the Greek story goes.

Of the people of the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , the people of Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos had been charged by the king
 to remain at home and guard the bridges; the rest of the people from +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus who came with the army furnished a hundred ships and
 were equipped like Greeks . They were settlers
 from the Ionians and Dorians .

Persians and Medes and
 Sacae served as soldiers on all the ships. The
 most seaworthy ships were furnished by the Phoenicians , and among them by the Sidonians . All of these, as with those who were marshalled in the
 infantry, each had their native leaders, whose names I do not record, since
 it is not necessary for the purpose of my history.

The leaders of each nation are not worthy of mention, and every city of each
 nation had a leader of its own. These came not as generals but as slaves,
 like the rest of the expedition; I have already said who were the generals
 of supreme authority and the Persian commanders
 of each nation.

The admirals of the navy were Ariabignes son of Darius , Prexaspes son of Aspathines ,
 Megabazus son of Megabates , and Achaemenes son of Darius . Ariabignes , son of
 Darius and Gobryas '
 daughter, was admiral of the Ionian and Carian fleet; the admiral of the Egyptians was Achaemenes , full brother
 of Xerxes ; and the two others were admirals of the
 rest. The ships of thirty and of fifty oars, the light galleys, and the
 great transports for horses came to a total of three thousand all together.

After the admirals, the most famous of those on
 board were these: from +Sidon
 [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia
 Sidon , Tetramnestus son of Anysus ; from +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon,
 Asia Tyre , Matten son of Siromus ; from +Jazirat Arwad (island), Tartus, Syria, Asia
 Aradus , Merbalus son of Agbalus ; from Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey,
 Asia Cilicia , Syennesis son of Oromedon ; from +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia ,
 Cyberniscus son of Sicas ; from Cyprus
 [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus , Gorgus son of Chersis and Timonax son of Timagoras ; and
 from +Caria [28,37.5] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria , Histiaeus son of Tymnes , Pigres son of Hysseldomus ,
 and Damasithymus son of Candaules .

I see no need to mention any of the other captains
 except Artemisia . I find it a great marvel that a
 woman went on the expedition against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas : after her
 husband died, she took over his tyranny, though she had a young son, and
 followed the army from youthful spirits and manliness, under no compulsion.

Artemisia was her name, and she was the daughter of
 Lygdamis ; on her fathers' side she was of Halicarnassian lineage, and on her mothers' Cretan . She was the leader of the men of Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited
 place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Halicarnassus and Kos City [27.3,36.8917] (Perseus) Cos and Nisyrus and Calydnos , and
 provided five ships.

Her ships were reputed to be the best in the whole fleet after the ships of
 +Sidon [35.366,33.55]
 (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon , and she
 gave the king the best advice of all his allies. The cities that I said she
 was the leader of are all of Dorian stock, as I can
 show, since the Halicarnassians are from Troizen [23.375,37.5]
 (Perseus) Troezen , and the rest are from Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) Epidaurus .

Here ends what I have said of the fleet. When his
 army had been numbered and marshalled, Xerxes 
 desired to ride through and view it. Then he did this; as he rode in a
 chariot past the men of each nation, he questioned them while his scribes
 wrote it all down, until he had gone from one end to the other of the
 cavalry and infantry.

After he had done this, the ships were drawn down and launched into the sea.
 Xerxes alighted from his chariot into a Sidonian ship and sat under a golden canopy while he
 was carried past the prows of the ships, questioning the men in the same way
 as the army and having the answers written down.

The captains put out and anchored in line four hundred feet from the shore,
 with their prows turned landward and the marines armed for war; Xerxes viewed them by passing between the prows and
 the land.

After he passed by all his fleet and disembarked
 from the ship, he sent for Demaratus 
 son of Ariston , who was on
 the expedition with him against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . He summoned
 him and said, “ Demaratus , it is now my pleasure to
 ask you what I wish to know. You are a Greek ,
 and, as I am told both by you and by the other Greeks whom I have talked to, a man from neither the least nor
 the weakest of Greek cities.

So tell me: will the Greeks offer battle and
 oppose me? I think that even if all the Greeks 
 and all the men of the western lands were assembled together, they are not
 powerful enough to withstand my attack, unless they are united.

Still I want to hear from you what you say of them.” To this question Demaratus answered, “O king, should I speak the truth
 or try to please you?” Xerxes bade him speak the
 truth and said that it would be no more unpleasant for him than before.

Demaratus heard this and said, “O King, since you
 bid me by all means to speak the whole truth, and to say what you will not
 later prove to be false, in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas poverty is always endemic,
 but courage is acquired as the fruit of wisdom and strong law; by use of
 this courage Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas defends herself from poverty and
 tyranny.

Now I praise all the Greeks who dwell in those
 Dorian lands, yet I am not going to speak these
 words about all of them, but only about the Lacedaemonians . First, they will never accept conditions from you
 that bring slavery upon Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ; and second, they will
 meet you in battle even if all the other Greeks 
 are on your side.

Do not ask me how many these men are who can do this; they will fight with
 you whether they have an army of a thousand men, or more than that, or
 less.”

When he heard this, Xerxes 
 smiled and said, “What a strange thing to say, Demaratus , that a thousand men would fight with so great an army!
 Come now, tell me this: you say that you were king of these men. Are you
 willing right now to fight with ten men? Yet if your state is entirely as
 you define it, you as their
 king should by right encounter twice as many according to your laws.

If each of them is a match for ten men of my army, then it is plain to me
 that you must be a match for twenty; in this way you would prove that what
 you say is true. But if you Greeks who so exalt
 yourselves are just like you and the others who come to speak with me, and
 are also the same size, then beware lest the words you have spoken be only
 idle boasting.

Let us look at it with all reasonableness: how could a thousand, or ten
 thousand, or even fifty thousand men, if they are all equally free and not
 under the rule of one man, withstand so great an army as mine? If you Greeks are five thousand, we still would be more
 than a thousand to one.

If they were under the rule of one man according to our custom, they might
 out of fear of him become better than they naturally are, and under
 compulsion of the lash they might go against greater numbers of inferior
 men; but if they are allowed to go free they would do neither. I myself
 think that even if they were equal in numbers it would be hard for the Greeks to fight just against the Persians .

What you are talking about is found among us alone, and even then it is not
 common but rare; there are some among my Persian 
 spearmen who will gladly fight with three Greeks 
 at once. You have no knowledge of this and are spouting a lot of nonsense.”

To this Demaratus answered,
 “O king I knew from the first that the truth would be unwelcome to you. But
 since you compelled me to speak as truly as I could, I have told you how it
 stands with the Spartans .

You yourself best know what love I bear them: they have robbed me of my
 office and the privileges of my house, and made me a cityless exile; your
 father received me and gave me a house and the means to live on. It is not
 reasonable for a sensible man to reject goodwill when it appears; rather he
 will hold it in great affection.

I myself do not promise that I can fight with ten men or with two, and I
 would not even willingly fight with one; yet if it were necessary, or if
 some great contest spurred me, I would most gladly fight with one of those
 men who claim to be each a match for three Greeks .

So is it with the Lacedaemonians ; fighting singly
 they are as brave as any man living, and together they are the best warriors
 on earth. They are free, yet not wholly free: law is their master, whom they
 fear much more than your men fear you.

They do whatever it bids; and its bidding is always the same, that they must
 never flee from the battle before any multitude of men, but must abide at
 their post and there conquer or die. If I seem to you to speak foolishness
 when I say this, then let me hereafter hold my peace; it is under constraint
 that I have now spoken. But may your wish be fulfilled, King.”

Thus Demaratus answered.
 Xerxes made a joke of the matter and showed no
 anger, but sent him away kindly. After he had conversed with Demaratus , and appointed Mascames son of Megadostes governor of
 this Doriscus , deposing the governor Darius had appointed, Xerxes 
 marched his army through Thrace
 (region (general)), Europe Thrace towards Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

Xerxes left behind this Mascames , who so conducted himself that to him alone Xerxes always sent gifts, as being the most valiant of
 all the governors that he or Darius appointed; he
 sent these gifts every year, and so did Artaxerxes 
 son of Xerxes to Mascames '
 descendants. Before this march, governors had been appointed everywhere in
 Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace and on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont .

All of these in Thrace (region
 (general)), Europe Thrace and the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont , except the governor of Doriscus , were after this expedition captured by the
 Greeks ; but no one could ever drive out Mascames in Doriscus , though
 many tried. For this reason gifts are sent by the successive kings of Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia .

The only one of those who were driven out by the
 Greeks whom king Xerxes considered a valiant man was Boges , from whom they took +Eion [23.8833,40.7333] (Perseus) Eion . He never
 ceased praising this man, and gave very great honor to his sons who were
 left alive in Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia ; indeed Boges proved himself worthy of all praise. When he was besieged
 by the Athenians under Cimon son of Miltiades , he could have
 departed under treaty from +Eion
 [23.8833,40.7333] (Perseus) Eion and returned to Asia (continent) Asia ,
 but he refused, lest the king think that he had saved his life out of
 cowardice; instead he resisted to the last.

When there was no food left within his walls, he piled up a great pyre and
 slew his children and wife and concubines and servants and cast them into
 the fire; after that, he took all the gold and silver from the city and
 scattered it from the walls into the Strymon ;
 after he had done this, he cast himself into the fire. Thus he is justly
 praised by the Persians to this day.

From Doriscus 
 Xerxes went on his way towards Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , compelling all that he met to go with his
 army. As I have shown earlier, all the country as far as +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly had been enslaved and was
 tributary to the king, by the conquests of Megabazus and Mardonius after him.

On his road from Doriscus he first passed the
 Samothracian fortresses; of these, the city built farthest to the west is called
 Mesambria . Next to it is the Thasian city of +Stryme [25.6167,40.8833] (Perseus)
 Stryme ; between them runs the river Lisus , which now could not furnish water enough for Xerxes ' army, but was exhausted.

All this region was once called Gallaic , but it
 is now called Briantic ; however, by rights it
 also belongs to the Ciconians .

After he had crossed the dried-up bed of the river
 Lisus , he passed by the Greek cities of Maronea , Dicaea , and +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera . He
 passed by these, and along certain well-known lakes near them: the Ismarid lake that lies between Maronea and +Stryme
 [25.6167,40.8833] (Perseus) Stryme , and near Dicaea the Bistonian lake ,
 into which the rivers Travus and Compsantus discharge. Near Abdera 
 Xerxes passed no well-known lake, but crossed the
 river Nestus where it flows into the sea.

From these regions he passed by the cities of the mainland, one of which has
 near it a lake of about thirty stadia in circuit, full of fish and very
 salty; this was drained dry by watering the beasts of burden alone. This
 city is called Pistyrus .

Xerxes marched past these Greek cities of the coast, keeping them on his left. The Thracian tribes through whose lands he journeyed
 were the Paeti , Cicones , Bistones , Sapaei , Dersaei , Edoni , and Satrae . Of these, the ones who dwelt by the sea
 followed his army on shipboard; the ones living inland, whose names I have
 recorded, were forced to join with his land army, all of them except the
 Satrae .

The Satrae , as far as we
 know, have never yet been subject to any man; they alone of the Thracians have continued living in freedom to this
 day; they dwell on high mountains covered with forests of all kinds and
 snow, and they are excellent warriors.

It is they who possess the place of divination sacred to Dionysus . This place is in their highest mountains; the Bessi , a clan of the Satrae , are the prophets of the shrine; there is a priestess who
 utters the oracle, as at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi ; it is no more
 complicated here than there.

After passing through the aforementioned land, Xerxes next passed the fortresses of the Pierians , one called Phagres and the other 
 +Bergama [27.166,39.133] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari,
 Turkey, Asia Pergamus . By going this way he marched right
 under their walls, keeping on his right the great and high Pangaean range , where the Pierians and Odomanti and especially
 the Satrae have gold and silver mines.

Marching past the Paeonians , Doberes , and Paeoplae , who dwell beyond and northward of the
 Pangaean mountains , he kept going westwards, until he came to the river
 Strymon and the city of +Eion [23.8833,40.7333] (Perseus)
 Eion ; its governor was that Boges ,
 then still alive, whom I mentioned just before this.

All this region about the Pangaean range is called
 Phyllis ; it stretches westwards to the river
 Angites , which issues into the Strymon , and southwards to the Strymon itself; at this river the Magi 
 sought good omens by sacrificing white horses.

After using these enchantments and many others
 besides on the river, they passed over it at the Nine
 Ways in Edonian country, by the bridges which they found thrown across
 the Strymon . When they learned that Nine Ways was the name of the place, they buried
 alive that number of boys and maidens, children of the local people.

To bury people alive is a Persian custom; I have
 learned by inquiry that when Xerxes ' wife Amestris reached old age, she buried twice seven sons
 of notable Persians as an offering on her own
 behalf to the fabled god beneath the earth.

Journeying from the Strymon , the army passed by Argilus , a
 Greek town standing on a stretch of coast
 further westwards; the territory of this town and that which lies inland of
 it are called Bisaltia .

From there, keeping on his left hand the gulf off Poseideion , Xerxes traversed the plain
 of Syleus (as they call it), passing by the Greek town of Stagirus ,
 and came to Acanthus . He took along with him all
 these tribes and those that dwelt about the Pangaean
 range , just as he did those previously mentioned, the men of the
 coast serving in his fleet and the inland men in his land army.

The entire road along which king Xerxes led his
 army the Thracians neither break up nor sow, but
 they hold it in great reverence to this day.

When Xerxes came to Acanthus , he declared the Acanthians his guests and friends, and gave them Median clothing,
 praising them for the zeal with which he saw them furthering his campaign,
 and for what he heard of the digging of the canal.

While Xerxes was at Acanthus , it happened that Artachaees , overseer of the digging of the canal, died of an
 illness. He was high in Xerxes ' favor, an Achaemenid by lineage, and the tallest man in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , lacking four finger-breadths of five royal
 cubits in stature, and his voice
 was the loudest on earth. For this reason Xerxes 
 mourned him greatly and gave him a funeral and burial of great pomp, and the
 whole army poured libations on his tomb.

The Acanthians hold Artachaees a hero, and sacrifice to him, calling upon his name.
 This they do at the command of an oracle.

King Xerxes , then, mourned for the death of Artachaees . But the Greeks 
 who received Xerxes ' army and entertained the king
 himself were brought to such a degree of misery, that they were driven from
 house and home. Witness the case of the Thasians ,
 who received and feasted Xerxes ' army on behalf of
 their towns on the mainland; Antipatrus son of
 Orgeus , as notable a man as any of his townsmen,
 chosen by them for this task, rendered them an account of four hundred
 silver talents expended on the dinner.

Similar accounts were returned by the officers in
 the other towns. Now the dinner, about which a great deal of fuss had been
 made and for the preparation of which orders had been given long ago,
 proceeded as I will tell.

As soon as the townsmen had word from the herald's proclamation, they
 divided corn among themselves in their cities and all of them for many
 months ground it to wheat and barley meal; moreover, they fed the finest
 beasts that money could buy, and kept landfowl and waterfowl in cages and
 ponds, for the entertaining of the army. They also made gold and silver cups
 and bowls and all manner of service for the table.

These things were provided for the king himself and those that ate with him.
 For the rest of the army they provided only food. At the coming of the army,
 there was always a tent ready for Xerxes to take
 his rest in, while the men camped out in the open air.

When the hour came for dinner, the real trouble for the hosts began. When
 they had eaten their fill and passed the night there, the army tore down the
 tent on the next day and marched off with all the movables, leaving nothing
 but carrying all with them.

It was then that a very apt saying was uttered by
 one Megacreon of +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus)
 Abdera . He advised his townsmen, men and women alike, to
 gather at their temples, and there in all humility to entreat the gods to
 defend them in the future from half of every threatened ill. They should
 also, he said, thank the gods heartily for their previous show of favor, for
 it was Xerxes ' custom to take a meal only once a
 day. Otherwise they would have been commanded to furnish a breakfast similar
 to the dinner.

The people of +Abdera
 [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera would then have had no
 choice but to flee before Xerxes ' coming, or to
 perish most miserably if they awaited him.

So the townsmen, oppressed as they were,
 nevertheless did as they were commanded. Upon leaving Acanthus , Xerxes sent his ships on their
 course away from him, giving orders to his generals that the fleet should
 await him at +Thessaloniki
 [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place), Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Therma , the town on the Thermaic gulf which gives the gulf its name, for this, he
 learned, was his shortest way.

The order of the army's march, from Doriscus to
 Acanthus , had been such as I will show.
 Dividing his entire land army into three parts, Xerxes appointed one of them to march beside his fleet along the
 coast.

Mardonius and Masistes 
 were the generals of this segment, while another third of the army marched,
 as appointed, further inland under Tritantaechmes 
 and Gergis . The third part, with which Xerxes himself went, marched between the two, and its
 generals were Smerdomenes and Megabyzus .

Now when the fleet had left Xerxes , it sailed through the +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place),
 Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos canal
 which reached to the gulf in which are located the towns of +Assa [45.416,43.233] (river), Asia
 Assa , Pilorus , Singus , and Sarte . The fleet took on
 board troops from all these cities and then headed for the Thermaic gulf . Then rounding Ampelus , the headland of +Torone [23.8167,40.05] (Perseus) Torone , it
 passed the Greek towns of +Torone [23.8167,40.05] (Perseus)
 Torone , Galepsus , Sermyle , Mecyberna , and
 +Olynthus [23.3667,40.3]
 (Perseus) Olynthus , all of which gave them ships and men.

This country is called +Sithonia (peninsula), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Sithonia . The fleet held a straight course from
 the headland of Ampelus to the Canastraean headland , where +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus)
 Pallene runs farthest out to sea, and received ships and men
 from the towns of what is now 
 +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus) Pallene but was
 formerly called Phlegra , namely, +Potidaea (deserted settlement),
 Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Potidaea , Aphytis , 
 +Kavala [24.416,40.933] (inhabited place), Kavalla, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Neapolis , Aege , Therambus , +Scione [23.55,39.95] (Perseus) Scione , Mende, and
 Sane.

Sailing along this coast they made for the appointed place, taking troops
 from the towns adjacent to 
 +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus) Pallene and near the
 Thermaic gulf , of which the names are Lipaxus , Combrea , Aesa , Gigonus , Campsa , 
 +Smela [31.9,49.25] (inhabited place), Cerkassy, Ukraine, Europe
 Smila , Aenea ; the territory of
 these cities is called Crossaea to this day.

From Aenea , the last-named in my list of the
 towns, the course of the fleet lay from the Thermaic
 gulf itself and the Mygdonian territory
 until its voyage ended at 
 +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place), Thessaloniki,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Therma , the place appointed,
 and the towns of Sindus and Chalestra , where it came to the river +Vardar [22.833,40.583] (river), Europe
 Axius ; this is the boundary, between the Mygdonian and the Bottiaean territory,
 in which are located the towns of Ichnae and +Pella [22.5333,40.7583] (Perseus)
 Pella on the narrow strip of coast.

So the fleet lay there off the river +Vardar [22.833,40.583] (river),
 Europe Axius and the city of +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place),
 Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Therma and the
 towns between them, awaiting the king. But Xerxes 
 and his land army marched from Acanthus by the
 straightest inland course, making for +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place), Thessaloniki,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Therma . Their way lay through
 the Paeonian and the Crestonaean country to the river Cheidorus , which, rising in the Crestonaean land, flows through the Mygdonian country and issues by the marshes of the +Vardar [22.833,40.583] (river),
 Europe Axius .

As Xerxes marched by this
 route, lions attacked the camels which carried his provisions; nightly they
 would come down out of their lairs and made havoc of the camels alone,
 seizing nothing else, man or beast of burden. I wonder what prevented the
 lions from touching anything but the camels, creatures which they had not
 seen and had no knowledge of until then.

In these parts there are many lions and wild oxen,
 whose horns are those very long ones which are brought into Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . The boundary of the lions' country is the
 river Nestus which flows through +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833]
 (Perseus) Abdera and the river Achelous which flows through +Akarnania (region (general)), Aitolia and Akarnania, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Acarnania . Neither to
 the east of the Nestus anywhere in the nearer part
 of Europe
 (continent) Europe , nor to the west of the Achelous in the rest of the mainland, is any lion to be seen, but
 they are found in the country between those rivers.

When he had arrived at +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place),
 Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Therma , Xerxes quartered his army there. Its encampment by the
 sea covered all the space from 
 +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place), Thessaloniki,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Therma and the Mygdonian country to the rivers Lydias and Haliacmon , which unite their
 waters in one stream and so make the border between the Bottiaean and the Macedonian 
 territory.

In this place the foreigners lay encamped; of the rivers just mentioned,
 the Cheidorus , which flows from the Crestonaean country, was the only one which could
 not suffice for the army's drinking but was completely drained by it.

When Xerxes saw from +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633]
 (inhabited place), Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Therma the very great height of the Thessalian mountains 
 +Olympus (mountain), Nomos
 Larisis, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Olympus and Ossa and learned that the Peneus flows through them in a narrow pass, which was the way
 that led into +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly , he
 desired to view the mouth of the Peneus because he
 intended to march by the upper road through the highland people of Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia to the country of the Perrhaebi and the town of Gonnus ; this, it was told him, was the safest way.

He did exactly as he desired. He embarked on a Sidonian ship which he always used when he had some such business
 in hand, and hoisted his signal for the rest also to put out to sea, leaving
 his land army where it was. Great wonder took him when he came and viewed
 the mouth of the Peneus , and calling his guides,
 he asked them if it were possible to turn the river from its course and lead
 it into the sea by another way.

+Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly , as tradition has it, was in old
 times a lake enclosed all round by high mountains. On its eastern side it is
 fenced in by the joining of the lower parts of the mountains +Pilion (mountain range), Nomos
 Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Pelion and Ossa , to the north by +Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece,
 Europe Olympus , to the west by Pindus , towards the south and the southerly wind by Othrys . In the middle, then, of this ring of
 mountains, lies the vale of 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly .

A number of rivers pour into this vale, the most notable of which are Peneus , Apidanus , Onochonus , Enipeus , Pamisus . These five, while they flow towards their
 meeting place from the mountains which surround +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly , have their several names, until their waters all
 unite and issue into the sea by one narrow passage.

As soon as they are united, the name of the Peneus 
 prevails, making the rest nameless. In ancient days, it is said, there was
 not yet this channel and outfall, but those rivers and the Boebean lake , which was not yet named, had the same volume of water
 as now, and thereby turned all 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly 
 into a sea.

Now the Thessalians say that Poseidon made the passage by which the Peneus flows. This is reasonable, for whoever believes that Poseidon is the shaker of the earth and that rifts
 made by earthquakes are the work of that god will conclude, upon seeing that
 passage, that it is of Poseidon 's making. It was
 manifest to me that it must have been an earthquake which forced the
 mountains apart.

Xerxes asked his guides if there were any other
 outlet for the Peneus into the sea, and they, with
 their full knowledge of the matter, answered him: “The river, O king, has no
 other way into the sea, but this alone. This is so because there is a ring
 of mountains around the whole of 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly .” Upon hearing this Xerxes 
 said: “These Thessalians are wise men;

this, then, was the primary reason for their precaution long before when they changed to a
 better mind, for they perceived that their country would be easily and
 speedily conquerable. It would only have been necessary to let the river out
 over their land by barring the channel with a dam and to turn it from its
 present bed so that the whole of 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly ,
 with the exception of the mountains, might be under water.”

This he said with regard in particular to the sons of Aleues , the Thessalians who were the
 first Greeks to surrender themselves to the king.
 Xerxes supposed that when they offered him
 friendship they spoke for the whole of their nation. After delivering this
 speech and seeing what he had come to see, he sailed back to +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633]
 (inhabited place), Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Therma .

Xerxes stayed for many days in the region of +Pieria [22.416,40.25] (department),
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Pieria while a third part of
 his army was clearing a road over the Macedonian
 mountains so that the whole army might pass by that way to the
 Perrhaebian country. Now it was that the
 heralds who had been sent to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to demand
 earth, some empty-handed, some bearing earth and water, returned.

Among those who paid that tribute were the Thessalians , 
 Dolopes , Enienes ,
 Perrhaebians , Locrians , Magnesians , Melians , Achaeans of
 +Phthia [22.75,36.2667]
 (Perseus) Phthia , Thebans , and
 all the Boeotians except the men of +Thespiai [23.166,38.283] (inhabited
 place), Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Thespiae and Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea .

Against all of these the Greeks who declared war
 with the foreigner entered into a sworn agreement, which was this: that if
 they should be victorious, they would dedicate to the god of Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi the possessions of all Greeks who had of free will surrendered themselves to the Persians . Such was the agreement sworn by the Greeks .

To Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and Sparta 
 Xerxes sent no heralds to demand earth, and this he
 did for the following reason. When Darius had
 previously sent men with this same purpose, those who made the request were
 cast at the one city into the Pit and at the other into a
 well, and bidden to obtain their earth and water for the king from these
 locations.

What calamity befell the Athenians for dealing in
 this way with the heralds I cannot say, save that their land and their city
 were laid waste. I think, however, that there was another reason for this,
 and not the aforesaid.

Be that as it may, the anger of Talthybius , Agamemnon 's herald, fell
 upon the Lacedaemonians . At Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta there is a shrine of Talthybius and descendants of Talthybius 
 called Talthybiadae , who have the special privilege
 of conducting all embassies from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta .

Now there was a long period after the incident I have mentioned above during
 which the Spartans were unable to obtain good
 omens from sacrifice. The Lacedaemonians were
 grieved and dismayed by this and frequently called assemblies, making a
 proclamation inviting some Lacedaemonian to give
 his life for Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta . Then two Spartans of noble birth and great wealth, Sperthias son of Aneristus 
 and Bulis son of Nicolaus ,
 undertook of their own free will to make atonement to Xerxes for Darius ' heralds who had been
 killed at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta .

Thereupon the Spartans sent these men to Media
 for execution.

Worthy of admiration was these men's deed of daring,
 and so also were their sayings. On their way to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa , they came to Hydarnes ,
 a Persian , who was general of the coast of Asia (continent) Asia . He
 entertained and feasted them as his guests, and as they sat at his board, he
 asked:

“ Lacedaemonians , why do you shun the king's
 friendship? You can judge from what you see of me and my condition how well
 the king can honor men of worth. So might it be with you if you would but
 put yourselves in the king's hands, being as you are of proven worth in his
 eyes, and every one of you might by his commission be a ruler of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .”

To this the Spartans answered: “Your advice to
 us, Hydarnes , is not completely sound; one half of
 it rests on knowledge, but the other on ignorance. You know well how to be a
 slave, but you, who have never tasted freedom, do not know whether it is
 sweet or not. Were you to taste of it, not with spears you would counsel us
 to fight for it, no, but with axes.”

This was their answer to Hydarnes . From there they came to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran,
 Asia Susa , into the king's presence, and when the guards
 commanded and would have compelled them to fall down and bow to the king,
 they said they would never do that. This they would refuse even if they were
 thrust down headlong, for it was not their custom, said they, to bow to
 mortal men, nor was that the purpose of their coming. Having averted that,
 they next said,

“The Lacedaemonians have sent us, O king of the
 Medes , in requital for the slaying of your
 heralds at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , to make atonement for
 their death,” and more to that effect. To this Xerxes , with great magnanimity, replied that he would not imitate
 the Lacedaemonians . “You,” said he, “made havoc
 of all human law by slaying heralds, but I will not do that for which I
 censure you, nor by putting you in turn to death will I set the Lacedaemonians free from this guilt.”

This conduct on the part of the Spartans succeeded for a time in allaying the anger of Talthybius , in spite of the fact that Sperthias and Bulis returned
 to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta . Long after that, however, it rose up
 again in the war between the Peloponnesians and
 Athenians , as the Lacedaemonians say. That seems to me to be an indication of
 something divine.

It was just that the wrath of Talthybius descended
 on ambassadors, nor abated until it was satisfied. The venting of it,
 however, on the sons of those men who went up to the king to appease it,
 namely on Nicolas son of Bulis and Aneristus son of Sperthias (that Aneristus who
 landed a merchant ships crew at the Tirynthian 
 settlement of Halia and took it), makes it
 plain to me that this was the divine result of Talthybius ' anger.

These two had been sent by the Lacedaemonians as
 ambassadors to Asia
 (continent) Asia , and betrayed by the Thracian king Sitalces son of Tereus and Nymphodorus son of
 Pytheas of +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus)
 Abdera , they were made captive at +Tekirdag [27.516,40.983] (inhabited place), Tekirdag,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bisanthe on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , and carried away to
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , where the Athenians put
 them, and with them Aristeas son of Adimantus , a Corinthian , to
 death. This happened many years after the king's
 expedition, and I return now to the course of my history.

The professed intent of the king's march was to
 attack Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , but in truth all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas was
 his aim. This the Greeks had long since learned,
 but not all of them regarded the matter alike.

Those of them who had paid the tribute of earth and water to the Persian were of good courage, thinking that the
 foreigner would do them no harm, but they who had refused tribute were
 afraid, since there were not enough ships in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to
 do battle with their invader; furthermore, the greater part of them had no
 stomach for grappling with the war, but were making haste to side with the
 Persian .

Here I am forced to declare an opinion which will be
 displeasing to most, but I will not refrain from saying what seems to me to
 be true.

Had the Athenians been panic-struck by the
 threatened peril and left their own country, or had they not indeed left it
 but remained and surrendered themselves to Xerxes ,
 none would have attempted to withstand the king by sea. What would have
 happened on land if no one had resisted the king by sea is easy enough to
 determine.

Although the Peloponnesians had built not one but
 many walls across the Isthmus for their defense, they would
 nevertheless have been deserted by their allies (these having no choice or
 free will in the matter, but seeing their cities taken one by one by the
 foreign fleet), until at last they would have stood alone. They would then
 have put up quite a fight and perished nobly.

Such would have been their fate. Perhaps, however, when they saw the rest of
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas siding with the enemy, they would have made
 terms with Xerxes . In either case Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas would have been subdued by the Persians , for I cannot see what advantage could
 accrue from the walls built across the isthmus, while the king was master of
 the seas.

As it is, to say that the Athenians were the
 saviors of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas is to hit the truth. It was the
 Athenians who held the balance; whichever side
 they joined was sure to prevail. choosing that Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece 
 should preserve her freedom, the Athenians roused
 to battle the other Greek states which had not
 yet gone over to the Persians and, after the
 gods, were responsible for driving the king off.

Nor were they moved to desert Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas by the
 threatening oracles which came from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi and
 sorely dismayed them, but they stood firm and had the courage to meet the
 invader of their country.

The Athenians had sent
 messages to Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi asking that an oracle
 be given them, and when they had performed all due rites at the temple and
 sat down in the inner hall, the priestess, whose name was Aristonice , gave them this answer:

Wretches, why do you linger here? Rather flee from your
 houses and city, 
 Flee to the ends of the earth from the circle embattled of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens ! 
 The head will not remain in its place, nor in the body, 
 Nor the feet beneath, nor the hands, nor the parts between; 
 But all is ruined, for fire and the headlong god of war speeding in a
 Syrian chariot will bring you low.

Many a fortress too, not yours alone, will he shatter; 
 Many a shrine of the gods will he give to the flame for devouring; 
 Sweating for fear they stand, and quaking for dread of the enemy, 
 Running with gore are their roofs, foreseeing the stress of their
 sorrow; 
 Therefore I bid you depart from the sanctuary. 
 Have courage to lighten your evil.

When the Athenian 
 messengers heard that, they were very greatly dismayed, and gave themselves
 up for lost by reason of the evil foretold. Then Timon son of Androbulus , as notable a
 man as any Delphian , advised them to take boughs
 of supplication and in the guise of suppliants, approach the oracle a second
 time.

The Athenians did exactly this; “Lord,” they
 said, “regard mercifully these suppliant boughs which we bring to you, and
 give us some better answer concerning our country. Otherwise we will not
 depart from your temple, but remain here until we die.” Thereupon the
 priestess gave them this second oracle:

Vainly does Pallas strive to
 appease great Zeus of +Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly,
 Greece, Europe Olympus ; 
 Words of entreaty are vain, and so too cunning counsels of wisdom. 
 Nevertheless I will speak to you again of strength adamantine. 
 All will be taken and lost that the sacred border of Cecrops 
 
 Holds in keeping today, and the dales divine of Cithaeron ; 
 Yet a wood-built wall will by Zeus all-seeing
 be granted 
 To the Trito -born, a stronghold for you and
 your children.

Await not the host of horse and foot coming from Asia
 (continent) Asia , 
 Nor be still, but turn your back and withdraw from the foe. 
 Truly a day will come when you will meet him face to face. 
 Divine Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , you will bring death to women's
 sons 
 When the corn is scattered, or the harvest gathered in.

This answer seemed to be and really was more
 merciful than the first, and the envoys, writing it down, departed for Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens . When the messengers had left Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi and laid the oracle before the people, there was much
 inquiry concerning its meaning, and among the many opinions which were
 uttered, two contrary ones were especially worthy of note. Some of the elder
 men said that the gods answer signified that the acropolis should be saved,
 for in old time the acropolis of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens had been
 fenced by a thorn hedge,

which, by their interpretation, was the wooden wall. But others supposed
 that the god was referring to their ships, and they were for doing nothing
 but equipping these. Those who believed their ships to be the wooden wall
 were disabled by the two last verses of the oracle: 
 Divine Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , you will bring death to women's
 sons 
 When the corn is scattered, or the harvest gathered in.

These verses confounded the opinion of those who said that their ships were
 the wooden wall, for the readers of oracles took the verses to mean that
 they should offer battle by sea near Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis and be there overthrown.

Now there was a certain Athenian , by name and title Themistocles 
 son of Neocles , who had lately risen to be among
 their chief men. He claimed that the readers of oracles had incorrectly
 interpreted the whole of the oracle and reasoned that if the verse really
 pertained to the Athenians , it would have been
 formulated in less mild language, calling Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis “cruel” rather than “divine ”
 seeing that its inhabitants were to perish.

Correctly understood, the gods' oracle was spoken not of the Athenians but of their enemies, and his advice was
 that they should believe their ships to be the wooden wall and so make ready
 to fight by sea.

When Themistocles put forward this interpretation,
 the Athenians judged him to be a better
 counsellor than the readers of oracles, who would have had them prepare for
 no sea fight, and, in short, offer no resistance at all, but leave Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica and
 settle in some other country.

The advice of Themistocles 
 had prevailed on a previous occasion. The revenues from the mines at +Lavrion [24.5,37.716] (inhabited
 place), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Laurium 
 had brought great wealth into the Athenians ' treasury, and when each man was to receive ten
 drachmae for his share, Themistocles persuaded the
 Athenians to make no such division but to use
 the money to build two hundred ships for the war, that is, for the war with
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina .

This was in fact the war the outbreak of which saved Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas by
 compelling the Athenians to become seamen. The
 ships were not used for the purpose for which they were built, but later
 came to serve Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas in her need. These ships, then,
 had been made and were already there for the Athenians ' service, and now they had to build yet others.

In their debate after the giving of the oracle they accordingly resolved
 that they would put their trust in the god and meet the foreign invader of
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas with the whole power of their fleet, ships
 and men, and with all other Greeks who were so
 minded.

These oracles, then, had been given to the Athenians . All the Greeks 
 who were concerned about the general welfare of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas met
 in conference and exchanged guarantees. They resolved in debate to make an
 end of all their feuds and wars against each other, whatever the cause from
 which they arose; among others that were in course at that time, the
 greatest was the war between the Athenians and
 the Aeginetans .

Presently, learning that Xerxes was at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis with his army, they planned to send men into Asia (continent) Asia to
 spy out the king's doings and to despatch messengers, some to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos , who should make the Argives their brothers in arms against the Persian , some to Gelon son of Dinomenes in Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily ,
 some to +Corfu [19.916,39.633]
 (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe
 Corcyra , praying aid for Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and
 some to +Crete [25,35.166]
 (region), Greece, Europe Crete . This they did in the hope
 that since the danger threatened all Greeks 
 alike, all of Greek blood might unite and work
 jointly for one common end. Now the power of Gelon 
 was said to be very great, surpassing by far any power in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

Being so resolved and having composed their
 quarrels, they first sent three men as spies into Asia (continent) Asia . These came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis and took note of the king's army. They were
 discovered, however, and after examination by the generals of the land army,
 they were led away for execution.

They were condemned to die, but when Xerxes heard
 of it, he blamed the judgment of his generals and sent some of his guards,
 charging them to bring the spies before him if they should be found alive.

They were found still living and brought into the king's presence; then
 Xerxes , having inquired of them the purpose of
 their coming, ordered his guards to lead them around and show them his whole
 army. When the spies had seen all to their heart's content, they were to
 send them away unharmed to whatever country they pleased.

The reason alleged for his command was this: had the
 spies been put to death, the Greeks would not so
 soon have learned the unspeakable greatness of his power, and the Persians would have done their enemy no great harm
 by putting three men to death. Xerxes said that if
 they should return to Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , the Greeks would hear of his power and would surrender their peculiar
 freedom before the expedition with the result that there would be no need to
 march against them.

This was like that other saying of Xerxes when he
 was at Abydus [26.416,40.2]
 (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Abydos and saw ships laden with corn sailing out of the
 +Black Sea [38,42] (sea)
 Pontus through the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont on their way to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina,
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina 
 and the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese . His counsellors,
 perceiving that they were enemy ships, were for taking them, and looked to
 the king for orders to do so.

Xerxes , however, asked them where the ships were
 sailing, and they answered: “To your enemies, Sire, carrying corn.” Xerxes then answered, “And are not we too sailing to
 the same places as they, with corn among all our other provisions? What
 wrong are they doing us in carrying food there?”

So the spies were sent back after they had seen all
 and returned to Europe
 (continent) Europe . After sending the spies, those of the
 Greeks who had sworn alliance against the
 Persian next sent messengers to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos .

Now this is what the Argives say of their own
 part in the matter. They were informed from the first that the foreigner was
 stirring up war against Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . When they learned that
 the Greeks would attempt to gain their aid
 against the Persian , they sent messengers to
 Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi to inquire of the god how it would be
 best for them to act, for six thousand of them had been lately slain by a Lacedaemonian 
 army and Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides its general. For this reason, they said, the
 messengers were sent.

The priestess gave this answer to their question: 
 Hated by your neighbors, dear to the immortals, 
 Crouch with a lance in rest, like a warrior fenced in his armor, 
 Guarding your head from
 the blow, and the head will shelter the body. 
 
 This answer had already been uttered by the
 priestess when the envoys arrived in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos and entered
 the council chamber to speak as they were charged.

Then the Argives answered to what had been said
 that they would do as was asked of them if they might first make a thirty
 years peace with Lacedaemonia and if the command
 of half the allied power were theirs. It was their right to have the full
 command, but they would nevertheless be content with half.

This, they say, was the answer of their council,
 although the oracle forbade them to make the alliance with the Greeks ; furthermore, they, despite their fear of the
 oracle, were eager to secure a thirty years treaty so that their children
 might have time in those years to grow to be men. If there were to be no
 such treaty—so they reasoned—then, if after the evil that had befallen them
 the Persian should deal them yet another blow, it
 was to be feared that they would be at the Lacedaemonians ' mercy.

Then those of the envoys who were Spartans 
 replied to the demands of the council, saying that they would refer the
 question of the truce to their own government at home; as for the command,
 however, they themselves had been commissioned to say that the Spartans had two kings, and the Argives but one. Now it was impossible to deprive either Spartan of his command, but there was nothing to
 prevent the Argive from having the same right of
 voting as their two had.

At that, say the Argives , they decided that the
 Spartans ' covetousness was past all bearing
 and that it was better to be ruled by the foreigners than give way to the
 Lacedaemonians . They then bade the envoys
 depart from the land of Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos before sunset, for they
 would otherwise be treated as enemies.

Such is the Argives '
 account of this matter, but there is another story told in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , namely that before Xerxes set forth on his march against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , he
 sent a herald to Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos , who said on his coming
 (so the story goes),

“Men of Argos [22.7333,37.6417]
 (Perseus) Argos , this is the message to you from King Xerxes . Perses our
 forefather had, as we believe, Perseus son of Danae for his father, and Andromeda daughter of Cepheus for his
 mother; if that is so, then we are descended from your nation. In all right
 and reason we should therefore neither march against the land of our
 forefathers, nor should you become our enemies by aiding others or do
 anything but abide by yourselves in peace. If all goes as I desire, I will
 hold none in higher esteem than you.”

The Argives were strongly moved when they heard
 this, and although they made no promise immediately and demanded no share,
 they later, when the Greeks were trying to obtain
 their support, did make the claim, because they knew that the Lacedaemonians would refuse to grant it, and that
 they would thus have an excuse for taking no part in the war.

This is borne out, some of the Greeks say, by the tale of a thing which happened many years
 afterwards. It happened that while Athenian 
 envoys, Callias son of Hipponicus , and the rest who had come up with him, were at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , called the Memnonian , about some other business, the Argives also had at this same time sent envoys to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , asking of Xerxes ' son Artoxerxes 
 whether the friendship which they had forged with Xerxes still held good, as they desired, or whether he considered
 them as his enemies. Artoxerxes responded to this
 that it did indeed hold good and that he believed no city to be a better
 friend to him than Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos .”

Now, whether it is true that Xerxes sent a herald with such a message to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus)
 Argos , and that the Argive envoys
 came up to Shush [48.333,32.2]
 (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and
 questioned Artoxerxes about their friendship, I
 cannot say with exactness, nor do I now declare that I consider anything
 true except what the Argives themselves say.

This, however, I know full well, namely if all men should carry their own
 private troubles to market for barter with their neighbors, there would not
 be a single one who, when he had looked into the troubles of other men,
 would not be glad to carry home again what he had brought.

The conduct of the Argives was accordingly not
 utterly shameful. As for myself, although it is my business to set down that
 which is told me, to believe it is none at all of my business. This I ask
 the reader to hold true for the whole of my history, for there is another
 tale current, according to which it would seem that it was the Argives who invited the Persian into Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , because the war with the
 Lacedaemonians was going badly, and they would
 prefer anything to their present distresses.

Such is the end of the story of the Argives . As for Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily ,
 envoys were sent there by the allies to hold converse with Gelon , Syagrus from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 among them. The ancestor of this Gelon , who settled
 at +Gela [14.25,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Gela , was from the island of +Nisos Tilos [27.416,36.416]
 (island), Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Telos 
 which lies off Triopium . When the founding of
 +Gela [14.25,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Gela by Antiphemus and
 the Lindians of +Rhodes [28,36.166] (island), Sporades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Rhodes was happening, he would
 not be left behind.

His descendants in time became and continue to be priests of the goddesses
 of the underworld; this office had been won, as I will show, by
 Telines , one of their forefathers. There were
 certain Geloans who had been worsted in party
 strife and had been banished to the town of Mactorium , inland of 
 +Gela [14.25,37.0667] (Perseus) Gela .

These men Telines brought to +Gela [14.25,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Gela with no force of men but only the holy instruments of
 the goddesses worship to aid him. From where he got these, and whether or
 not they were his own invention, I cannot say; however that may be, it was
 in reliance upon them that he restored the exiles, on the condition that his
 descendants should be ministering priests of the goddesses.

Now it makes me marvel that Telines should have
 achieved such a feat, for I have always supposed that such feats cannot be
 performed by any man but only by such as have a stout heart and manly
 strength. Telines , however, is reported by the
 dwellers in Sicily [14,37.5]
 (region), Italy, Europe Sicily to have had a soft and
 effeminate disposition.

At the death of Cleandrus son of Pantares , who had been tyrant of +Gela [14.25,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Gela for seven years, and had been slain by a man of that
 city named Sabyllus , the sovereignty passed to
 Cleandrus ' brother Hippocrates . While Hippocrates was
 tyrant, Gelon , a descendant of the ministering
 priest Telines , was one of Hippocrates ' guard, as were Aenesidemus 
 son of Pataecus and many others.

In no long time he was appointed for his worth to be captain of the entire
 cavalry, for his performance had been preeminent while he served under Hippocrates in the assaults against +Gallipoli [17.983,40.5] (inhabited
 place), Lecce, Apulia, Italy, Europe Callipolis , +Naxos [15.283,37.816] (deserted
 settlement), Messina, Sicily, Italy, Europe Naxos , +Zancle [15.5667,38.1833]
 (Perseus) Zancle , Leontini ,
 +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse , and many other of the foreigners'
 towns. None of these cities, with the exception of +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse , escaped enslavement by Hippocrates ; the Syracusans 
 were defeated in battle on the river Elorus .

They were, however, rescued by the Corinthians 
 and Corcyraeans , who made a peace for them on the
 condition that the Syracusans should deliver up
 to Hippocrates 
 Camarina , which had formerly been theirs.

When Hippocrates , too,
 after reigning the same number of years as his brother Cleandrus , came to his end near the town of Hybla —from where he had marched against the Sicels —then Gelon made a pretence of
 serving the cause of Hippocrates ' sons Euclides and Cleandrus , whose
 rule the citizens would no longer bear. When he had defeated the men of
 +Gela [14.25,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Gela , however, he deposed the sons of Hippocrates and held sway himself.

After this stroke of good fortune, Gelon brought
 back from the town of Casmena to +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse both the so-called landed gentry of
 +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse , who had been driven into exile by the
 common people, and their slaves, the Cyllyrians .
 He then took possession of that city also, for the Syracusan common people surrendered themselves and it to Gelon at his coming.

When he had made +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Syracuse his own, he took less account of his rule over
 +Gela [14.25,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Gela , which he gave in charge to his brother
 Hiero ; over +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Syracuse he reigned, and all his care was for +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse .

Straightway that city grew and became great, for not only did Gelon bring all the people of Camarina to 
 +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus) Syracuse and give them
 its citizenship, razing the township of Camarina ,
 but he did the same thing to more than half of the townsmen of +Gela [14.25,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Gela , and when the Megarians 
 in Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily surrendered to him on terms after a siege,
 he took the wealthier of them, who had made war on him and expected to be
 put to death for this, and brought them to +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Syracuse to be citizens there. As for the common people of
 +Megara [23.35,38]
 (Perseus) Megara , who had had no hand in the making of
 that war and expected that no harm would be done them, these too he brought
 to +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Syracuse and sold them for slaves to be taken
 out of Sicily [14,37.5] (region),
 Italy, Europe Sicily .

He dealt in a similar way with the Euboeans 
 of
 Sicily [14,37.5] (region),
 Italy, Europe Sicily , making the same distinction. The
 reason for his treating the people of both places in this way was that he
 held the common people to be exceedingly disagreeable to live with.

By these means Gelon had
 grown to greatness as a tyrant, and now, when the Greek envoys had come to +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Syracuse , they had audience with him and spoke as follows:
 “The Lacedaemonians and their allies have sent us
 to win your aid against the foreigner, for it cannot be, we think, that you
 have no knowledge of the Persian invader of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , how he proposes to bridge the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and lead all the hosts
 of the east from Asia
 (continent) Asia against us, making an open show of
 marching against Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , but actually with
 intent to subdue all Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to his will.

Now you are rich in power, and as lord of Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe
 Sicily you rule what is not the least part of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ; therefore, we beg of you, send help to those
 who are going to free Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and aid them in so doing.
 The uniting of all those of Greek stock entails
 the mustering of a mighty host able to meet our invaders in the field. If,
 however, some of us play false and others will not come to our aid, while
 the sound part of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas is but small, then it is to be
 feared that all Greek lands alike will be
 destroyed.

Do not for a moment think that if the Persian 
 defeats us in battle and subdues us, he will leave you unassailed, but
 rather look well to yourself before that day comes. Aid us, and you champion
 your own cause; in general a well-laid plan leads to a happy issue.”

This is what they said, and Gelon , speaking very vehemently, said in response to this: “Men
 of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , it is with a self-seeking plea that you
 have dared to come here and invite me to be your ally against the
 foreigners; yet what of yourselves?

When I was at odds with the Carchedonians , and asked you to be my comrades against a foreign army,
 and when I desired that you should avenge the slaying of Dorieus 
 son of Anaxandrides on
 the men of +Segesta [12.85,37.95]
 (deserted settlement), Trapani, Sicily, Italy, Europe
 Egesta , and when I promised to free those trading ports from
 which great advantage and profit have accrued to you,—then neither for my
 sake would you come to aid nor to avenge the slaying of Dorieus . Because of your position in these matters, all these
 lands lie beneath the foreigners' feet.

Let that be; for all ended well, and our state was improved. But now that
 the war has come round to you in your turn, it is time for remembering Gelon !

Despite the fact that you slighted me, I will not make an example of you; I
 am ready to send to your aid two hundred triremes, twenty thousand
 men-at-arms, two thousand horsemen, two thousand archers, two thousand
 slingers, and two thousand light-armed men to run with horsemen. I also pledge to furnish provisions for the
 whole Greek army until we have made an end of the
 war.

All this, however, I promise on one condition, that I shall be general and
 leader of the Greeks against the foreigner. On no
 other condition will I come myself or send others.”

When Syagrus heard that, he
 could not contain himself; “In truth,” he cried, “loudly would Agamemnon son of Pelops 
 lament, when hearing that the Spartans had been
 bereft of their command by Gelon and his Syracusans ! No, rather, put the thought out of your
 minds that we will give up the command to you. If it is your will to aid
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , know that you must obey the Lacedaemonians ; but if, as I think, you are too
 proud to obey, then send no aid.”

Thereupon Gelon , seeing how
 unfriendly Syagrus ' words were, for the last time
 declared his opinion to them: “My Spartan friend,
 the hard words that a man hears are likely to arouse his anger; but for all
 the arrogant tenor of your speech you will not move me to make an unseemly
 answer.

When you set such store by the command, it is but reasonable that it should
 be still more important to me since I am the leader of an army many times
 greater than yours and more ships by far. But seeing that your response to
 me is so haughty, we will make some concession in our original condition. It
 might be that you should command the army, and I the fleet; or if it is your
 pleasure to lead by sea, then I am ready to take charge of the army. With
 that you will surely be content, unless you want depart from here without
 such allies as we are.”

Such was Gelon 's offer, and
 the Athenian envoy answered him before the Lacedaemonian could speak. “King of the Syracusans ,” he said, “ Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas 
 sends us to you to ask not for a leader but for an army. You however, say no
 word of sending an army without the condition of your being the leader of
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ; it is the command alone that you desire.

Now as long as you sought the leadership of the whole force, we Athenians were content to hold our peace, knowing
 that the Laconian was well able to answer for
 both of us; but since, failing to win the whole, you would gladly command
 the fleet, we want to let you know how the matter stands. Even if the Laconian should permit you to command it, we would
 not do so, for the command of the fleet, which the Lacedaemonians do not desire for themselves, is ours. If they
 should desire to lead it, we will not withstand them, but we will not allow
 anyone else to be admiral.

It would be for nothing, then, that we possess the greatest number of
 seafaring men in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , if we Athenians yield our command to Syracusans ,—we who can demonstrate the longest lineage of all and
 who alone among the Greeks have never changed our
 place of habitation; of our stock too was the man of whom the poet
 Homer says that of all who came to +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Ilion , he was the best man in ordering and
 marshalling armies. We accordingly cannot be reproached for what we
 now say. ”

“My Athenian friend,”
 Gelon answered, “it would seem that you have
 many who lead, but none who will follow. Since, then, you will waive no
 claim but must have the whole, it is high time that you hasten home and tell
 your Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas that her year has lost its spring.”

The significance of this statement was that Gelon 's army was the most notable part of the Greek army, just as the spring is the best part of the year. He
 accordingly compared Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas deprived of alliance with
 him to a year bereft of its spring.

After such dealings with Gelon the Greek envoys sailed away.
 Gelon , however, feared that the Greeks would not be able to overcome the barbarian,
 while believing it dreadful and intolerable that he, the tyrant of Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily , should go to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese to be at the beck and call of Lacedaemonians . For this reason he took no more
 thought of this plan but followed another instead.

As soon as he was informed that the Persian had
 crossed the Canakkale Bogazi
 (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , he
 sent Cadmus son of Scythes, a man of Kos City [27.3,36.8917]
 (Perseus) Cos , to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi with
 three fifty-oared ships, bringing them money and messages of friendship.
 Cadmus was to observe the outcome of the battle,
 and if the barbarian should be victorious, he was to give him both the
 money, and earth and water on behalf of Gelon 's
 dominions. If, however, the Greeks were
 victorious, he was to bring everything back again.

This Cadmus had previously
 inherited from his father the tyranny of Cos .
 Although the tyranny was well established, he nevertheless handed the
 government over to the whole body of Coans of his
 own free will. This he did under no constraint of danger, but out of a sense
 of justice, and he then went to Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily ,
 where he was given by the Samians the city of
 +Zancle [15.5667,38.1833]
 (Perseus) Zancle which he colonized and changed its name
 to +Messene [21.9333,37.175]
 (Perseus) Messene .

This is how Cadmus had come, and it was he whom
 Gelon now sent because of his sense of justice.
 What I will now relate was not the least of the many just acts of Cadmus ' life; he had in his possession great wealth
 entrusted to him by Gelon and might have kept it.
 He nevertheless would not do so, but when the Greeks had prevailed in the sea-fight and Xerxes had headed home, Cadmus returned
 to Sicily [14,37.5] (region),
 Italy, Europe Sicily with all that money.

There is, however, another story told by the Sicilians : even though he was to be under Lacedaemonian authority, Gelon would still have aided the Greeks had it not been for Terillus son
 of Crinippus , the tyrant of Himera . This man, who had been expelled from Himera by Theron son of Aenesidemus , sovereign ruler of +Agrigento [13.566,37.316]
 (inhabited place), Agrigento, Sicily, Italy, Europe
 Acragas , at this very time brought against Gelon three hundred thousand Phoenicians , Libyans , Iberians , Ligyes , Elisyci , Sardinians , and
 Cyrnians , led by Amilcas son of
 Annon , the king of the Carchedonians . Terillus had induced him
 to do this partly through the prerogative of personal friendship, but mainly
 through the efforts of Anaxilaus son of Cretines,
 tyrant of +Reggio di Calabria
 [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di Calabria, Calabria, Italy,
 Europe Rhegium . He had handed over his own children as
 hostages to Amilcas , and brought him into Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily to the help of his father-in-law; for Anaxilaus had as his wife Terillus ' daughter Cydippe . Accordingly
 Gelon sent the money to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , because he could not aid the Greeks .

They add this tale too—that Gelon and Theron won a victory over
 Amilcas the Carchedonian in Sicily
 [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily on the same day
 that the Greeks defeated the Persian at Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis . This Amilcas was, on
 his father's side, a Carchedonian , and a Syracusan on his mother's and had been made king of
 Carchedon for his virtue. When the armies met
 and he was defeated in the battle, it is said that he vanished from sight,
 for Gelon looked for him everywhere but was not
 able to find him anywhere on earth, dead or alive.

The story told by the Carchedonians themselves seems to have some element of truth.
 They say that the barbarians fought with the Greeks in Sicily
 [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily from dawn until
 late evening (so long, it is said, the battle was drawn out), during which
 time Amilcas stayed in his camp offering sacrifice
 and striving to obtain favorable omens by burning whole bodies on a great
 pyre. When he saw his army routed, he cast himself into the fire where he
 was pouring libations on the sacrifice; he was consumed by this and was not
 seen any more.

Whether he vanished as the Phoenicians say, or in
 the manner related by the Carchedonians and Syracusans , sacrifice is offered to him, and
 monuments have been set up in all the colonists' cities, the greatest of
 which is in Carchedon itself.

This is how the campaign in Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe
 Sicily fell out. As for the Corcyraeans , their answer to the envoys and their acts were as I
 will show. The men who had gone to Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily 
 sought their aid too, using the same arguments which they had used with
 Gelon . The Corcyraeans straightaway promised to send help and protection,
 declaring that they would not allow Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to perish,
 for if she should fall, the very next day would certainly see them also
 enslaved. They would accordingly have to help to the best of their ability.

Now this answer seemed fair enough, but when the time came for sending help,
 their minds changed. They manned sixty ships and put out to sea, making for
 the coast of the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese . There,
 however, they anchored off Pylos
 [21.7083,36.9167] (Perseus) Pylos and Taenarus in the Lacedaemonian 
 territory, waiting like the others to see which way the war should incline.
 They had no hope that the Greeks would prevail,
 but thought that the Persian would win a great
 victory and be lord of all Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

Their course of action, therefore, had been planned with a view to being
 able to say to the Persian , “O king, we whose
 power is as great as any and who could have furnished as many ships as any
 state save Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,—we, when the Greeks attempted to gain our aid in this war, would
 not resist you nor do anything displeasing to you.” This plea, they hoped,
 would win them some advantage more than ordinary; and so, I believe, it
 would have been.

They were, however, also ready with an excuse which they could make to the
 Greeks , and in the end they made it; when the
 Greeks blamed them for sending no help, they
 said that they had manned sixty triremes, but that they could not round
 Malea because of the Etesian winds. It was for this reason, they said, that they could
 not arrive at Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis ;
 it was not cowardliness which made them late for the sea-fight. With such a
 plea they put the Greeks off.

But the Cretans , when the
 Greeks appointed to deal with them were trying
 to gain their aid, acted as I will show. They sent messengers to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , inquiring if it would be to their advantage to help
 the Greeks .

The Pythia answered them, “Foolish men, was not the
 grief enough which Minos sent upon your people for
 the help given to Menelaus , out of anger that those
 others would not help to avenge his death at Camicus , while you helped them to avenge the stealing
 of that woman from Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta by a barbarian?” When
 this was brought to the ears of the Cretans , they
 would have nothing to do with aiding the Greeks .

Now Minos , it is said, went
 to Sicania , which is now called Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily , in search for Daedalus , and perished there by a violent death. Presently all
 the Cretans except the men of Polichne and Praesus were bidden by a
 god to go with a great host to Sicania . Here they
 besieged the town of Camicus , where in my day the
 men of +Agrigento [13.566,37.316]
 (inhabited place), Agrigento, Sicily, Italy, Europe
 Acragas dwelt, for five years.

Presently, since they could neither take it nor remain there because of the
 famine which afflicted them, they departed. However, when they were at sea
 off Iapygia , a great storm caught and drove them
 ashore. Because their ships had been wrecked and there was no way left of
 returning to +Crete [25,35.166]
 (region), Greece, Europe Crete , they founded there the
 town of +Hyria [23.8,38.3167]
 (Perseus) Hyria , and made this their dwelling place,
 accordingly changing from Cretans to Messapians of Iapygia , and
 from islanders to dwellers on the mainland.

From +Hyria [23.8,38.3167]
 (Perseus) Hyria they made settlements in those other
 towns which a very long time afterwards the Tarentines attempted to destroy, thereby suffering great
 disaster. The result was that no one has ever heard of so great a slaughter
 of Greeks as that of the Tarentines and Rhegians ; three
 thousand townsmen of the latter, men who had been coerced by Micythus son of Choerus to
 come and help the Tarentines , were killed, and no
 count was kept of the Tarentine slain.

Micythus was a servant of Anaxilaus and had been left in charge of +Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place),
 Reggio di Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe Rhegium ; it
 was he who was banished from 
 +Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di
 Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe Rhegium and settled in
 Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea of +Arcadia
 [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Arcadia , and who set up those many statues at Olympia [21.6333,37.65]
 (Perseus) Olympia .

In relating the matter of the Rhegians and Tarentines , however, I
 digress from the main thread of my history. The Praesians say that when +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete 
 was left desolate, it was populated especially by Greeks , among other peoples. Then, in the third generation after
 Minos , the events surrounding the Trojan War, in
 which the Cretans bore themselves as bravely as
 any in the cause of Menelaus , took place.

After this, when they returned from +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) Troy , they and
 their flocks and herds were afflicted by famine and pestilence, until +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece,
 Europe Crete was once more left desolate. Then came a
 third influx of Cretans , and it is they who, with
 those that were left, now dwell there. It was this that the priestess bade
 them remember, and so prevented them from aiding the Greeks as they were previously inclined.

The Thessalians had at
 first sided with the Persians , not willingly but
 of necessity. This their acts revealed, because they disliked the plans of
 the Aleuadae ; as soon as they heard that the Persian was about to cross over into Europe
 (continent) Europe , they sent messengers to the Isthmus, where
 men chosen from the cities which were best disposed towards Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas were assembled in council for the Greek cause.

To these the Thessalian messengers came and said,
 “Men of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , the pass of +Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece,
 Europe Olympus must be guarded so that +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly and all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas may
 be sheltered from the war. Now we are ready to guard it with you, but you
 too must send a great force. If you will not send it, be assured that we
 will make terms with the Persian , for it is not
 right that we should be left to stand guard alone and so perish for your
 sakes.

If you will not send help, there is nothing you can do to constrain us, for
 no necessity can prevail over lack of ability. As for us, we will attempt to
 find some means of deliverance for ourselves.” These are the words of the
 men of +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly .

Thereupon the Greeks 
 resolved that they would send a land army to +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly by sea to guard the pass. When the forces had
 assembled, they passed through the Euripus and
 came to Alus in +Achaea [21.75,38.25] (department), Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Achaea , where they disembarked and took
 the road for +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly , leaving
 their ships where they were. They then came to the pass of Tempe , which runs from the lower 
 Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia into +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly along the river Peneus ,
 between the mountains +Olympus
 (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece, Europe
 Olympus and Ossa .

There the Greeks were encamped, about ten
 thousand men-at-arms altogether, and the cavalry was there as well. The
 general of the Lacedaemonians was Euaenetus son of Carenus ,
 chosen from among the Polemarchs , yet not of the
 royal house, and Themistocles son of Neocles was the general of the Athenians .

They remained there for only a few days, for messengers came from Alexander son of Amyntas , the
 Macedonian . These, pointing out the size of
 the army and the great number of ships, advised them to depart and not
 remain there to be trodden under foot by the invading host. When they had
 received this advice from the messengers (as they thought their advice was
 sound and that the Macedonian meant well by
 them), the Greeks followed their counsel.

To my thinking, however, what persuaded them was fear, since they had found
 out that there was another pass leading into +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly by the hill country of Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia through the country of the Perrhaebi , near the town of Gonnus ; this was indeed the way by which Xerxes ' army descended on +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly . The Greeks accordingly
 went down to their ships and made their way back to the Isthmus.

This was the course of their expedition into +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly , while the king was planning to
 cross into Europe
 (continent) Europe from Asia (continent) Asia and was already at
 Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos . The
 Thessalians , now bereft of their allies, sided
 with the Persian wholeheartedly and
 unequivocally. As a result of this they, in their acts, proved themselves to
 be most useful to the king.

When they had come to the Isthmus, the Greeks , taking into account what was said by Alexander , deliberated as a body how and where they
 should stand to fight. It was decided that they should guard the pass of
 +Thermopylae
 [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae , for they saw that
 it was narrower than the pass into +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly and nearer home.

The pass, then, which brought about the fall of those Greeks who fell at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae ,
 was unknown to them until they came to +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae and learned of it from the men of +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis . This pass they were resolved to guard and so stay
 the barbarian's passage into Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , while their
 fleet should sail to 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium in the
 territory of Histiaea . These places are near to
 each other, and each force could therefore be informed of the other's
 doings. As for the places themselves, their nature is as follows.

+Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium is where the wide
 Thracian sea contracts until the passage
 between the island of Sciathus and the mainland of
 Nomos Magnisias [22.75,39.25]
 (department), Thessaly, Greece, Europe Magnesia is but
 narrow. This strait leads next to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium , which is a beach on the coast of +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea , on which stands a temple of Artemis .

The pass through +Trachis
 [22.55,38.8] (Perseus) Trachis into Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas 
 is fifty
 feet wide at its narrowest point. It is not here, however, but elsewhere
 that the way is narrowest, namely, in front of +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae and behind it; at Alpeni , which lies behind, it is only the breadth of
 a cart-way, and it is the same at the Phoenix stream, near the town of Anthele .

To the west of +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae 
 rises a high mountain, inaccessible and precipitous, a spur of Oeta ; to the east of the road there is nothing but
 marshes and sea. In this pass are warm springs for bathing, called the
 Basins by the people of the country, and an altar of Heracles stands nearby. Across this entry a wall had been built,
 and formerly there was a gate in it.

It was the Phocians 
 who built it for
 fear of the Thessalians when these came from
 +Nomo Thesprotias
 [20.333,39.5] (department), Epirus, Greece, Europe
 Thesprotia to dwell in the Aeolian land, the region which they now possess. Since the Thessalians were trying to subdue them, the Phocians made this their protection, and in their
 search for every means to keep the Thessalians 
 from invading their country, they then turned the stream from the hot
 springs into the pass, so that it might be a watercourse.

The ancient wall had been built long ago and most of it lay in ruins; those
 who built it up again thought that they would in this way bar the
 foreigner's way into Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . Very near the road is a
 village called Alpeni , and it is from here that
 the Greeks expected to obtain provisions.

These places, then, were thought by the Greeks to suit their purpose. After making a
 thorough survey, they concluded that the barbarians could not make use of
 their entire army, nor of their horsemen. They therefore resolved, that they
 would meet the invader of Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas here. Then, when they
 heard that the Persian was in +Pieria [22.416,40.25] (department),
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Pieria , they broke up from the
 Isthmus and set out with their army to +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae and with their fleet to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium .

So with all speed the Greeks went their several ways to meet the enemy. In the
 meantime, the Delphians , who were afraid for
 themselves and for Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , consulted the god. They were
 advised to pray to the winds, for these would be potent allies for Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

When they had received the oracle, the Delphians 
 first sent word of it to those Greeks who desired
 to be free; because of their dread of the barbarian, they were forever
 grateful. Subsequently they erected an altar to the winds at Thyia , the present location of the precinct of Thyia the daughter of Cephisus , and they offered sacrifices to them. This, then, is the
 reason why the Delphians to this day offer the
 winds sacrifice of propitiation.

Xerxes ' fleet, however, set forth from the city of
 +Thessaloniki [22.933,40.633]
 (inhabited place), Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Therma , and the ten swiftest of the ships laid their course
 straight for Sciathus , where there lay an advance
 guard of three Greek ships, a Troezenian , an Aeginetan , and an
 Attic. These, when they sighted the foreigners ships, took to flight.

The ship of Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) Troezen , of which
 Prexinus was captain, was pursued and
 straightway captured by the foreigners, who brought the best of its fighting
 men and cut his throat on the ship's prow, thinking that the sacrifice of the foremost and
 fairest of their Greek captives would be
 auspicious. The name of the sacrificed man was Leon , and it was perhaps his name that he had to thank for it.

The Aeginetan trireme, of
 which Asonides was captain, did however give them
 some trouble. On board this ship was Pytheas son of
 Ischenous , who acted heroically on that day.
 When his ship had been taken, he would not stop fighting until he had been
 entirely hacked to mincemeat.

When he finally did fall, he still had life in him, and the Persian soldiers on the ships took great pains to
 keep him alive for his valor, tending his wounds with ointments and wrapping
 him in bandages of linen cloth .

Upon returning to their own station, they showed him to the whole host, and
 made much of him and treated him with kindness. The rest of those whom they
 took in that ship, however, they used as slaves.

Two of the ships, then, were made captive, and the
 third trireme, of which Phormus an Athenian was captain, ran aground in her flight at
 the mouth of the Peneus ; the barbarians took her
 hull but not the crew, for the Athenians , as soon
 as they had run their craft aground, leapt out and made their way through
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

The Greeks who were
 stationed at +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium were informed of
 these matters by beacons from Sciathus . They were
 frightened by this and accordingly changed their anchorage from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium to +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667] (Perseus)
 Chalcis , proposing to guard the Euripus and leaving watchmen on the heights of +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea .

Three of the ten barbarian ships ran aground on the reef called the Ant,
 which lies between Sciathus and Nomos Magnisias [22.75,39.25]
 (department), Thessaly, Greece, Europe Magnesia . The
 barbarians then brought a pillar of stone and set it on the reef, and when
 their course was plain before them, the whole fleet set forth and sailed
 from +Thessaloniki
 [22.933,40.633] (inhabited place), Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Therma , eleven days after the king had marched
 from there.

It was Pammon of Scyros 
 who showed them where in the strait the reef lay. After sailing along all
 day, the foreign fleet reached Sepias in Nomos Magnisias [22.75,39.25]
 (department), Thessaly, Greece, Europe Magnesia and the
 beach between the town of Casthanaea and the Sepiad headland.

Until the whole host reached this place and +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae it suffered no hurt, and
 calculation proves to me that its numbers were still such as I will now
 show. The ships from Asia
 (continent) Asia were twelve hundred and seven in number,
 and including the entire host of nations involved, there were a total of two
 hundred and forty-one thousand and four hundred men, two hundred being
 reckoned for each ship.

On
 board all these ships were thirty fighting men of the Persians and Medes and Sacae in addition to the company which each had of
 native fighters; the number of this added contingent is thirty-six thousand,
 two hundred and ten.

To this and to the first number I add the crews of the ships of fifty oars,
 calculating eighty men for each, whether there were actually more or fewer.
 Now seeing that, as has already been said, three thousand of these
 vessels were assembled, the number of men in them must have been two hundred
 and forty thousand.

These, then, were the ships' companies from Asia (continent) Asia , and the total number
 of them was five hundred and seventeen thousand, six hundred and ten. There
 were seven hundred thousand and one hundred footsoldiers and eighty thousand
 cavalrymen; to these I add the Arabian 
 camel-riders and Libyan charioteers, estimating
 them to have been twenty thousand in number.

The forces of sea and land added together would consist of two million,
 three hundred and seventeen thousand, six hundred and ten men. So far I have
 spoken of the force which came from Asia (continent) Asia itself, without the train of
 servants which followed it and the companies of the grain-bearing craft.

I must, however, also take into account the force
 brought from Europe
 (continent) Europe , and I will rely on my best judgment in
 doing so. The Greeks of Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace 
 and the islands off Thrace (region
 (general)), Europe Thrace furnished one hundred and twenty
 ships, and the companies of these ships must then have consisted of
 twenty-four thousand men.

As regards the land army supplied by all the nations— Thracians , Paeonians , Eordi , Bottiaei , Chalcidians , Brygi , Pierians , Macedonians ,
 Perrhaebi , Enienes ,
 Dolopes , Magnesians , Achaeans , dwellers on the
 coast of Thrace (region
 (general)), Europe Thrace —of all these I suppose the
 number to have been three hundred thousand.

When these numbers are added to the numbers from Asia (continent) Asia , the sum total of
 fighting men is two million, six hundred and forty-one thousand, six hundred
 and ten.

This then is the number of soldiers. As for the
 service-train which followed them and the crews of the light corn-bearing
 vessels and all the other vessels besides which came by sea with the force,
 these I believe to have been not fewer but more than the fighting men.

Suppose, however, that they were equal in number, neither more nor fewer. If
 they were equal to the fighting contingent, they made up as many tens of
 thousands as the others. The number, then, of those whom Xerxes son of Darius led as far as the
 Sepiad headland and +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae was five million, two hundred and
 eighty-three thousand, two hundred and twenty.

That is the number of Xerxes ' whole force. No one, however, can say what the exact
 number of cooking women, and concubines, and eunuchs was, nor can one
 determine the number of the beasts of draught and burden, and the Indian dogs which accompanied the host; so many of
 them were there. It is accordingly not surprising to me that some of the
 streams of water ran dry. I do, however, wonder how there were provisions
 sufficient for so many tens of thousands,

for calculation shows me, that if each man received one choenix of wheat a
 day and no more, eleven hundred thousand and three hundred and forty bushels
 would be required every day. In this calculation I take no account of the provisions
 for the women, eunuchs, beasts of burden and dogs. Of all those tens of
 thousands of men, there was not one, as regards looks and grandeur, worthier
 than Xerxes himself to hold that command.

The Persian fleet put to
 sea and reached the beach of the Magnesian land,
 between the city of Casthanaea and the headland of
 Sepia. The first ships to arrive moored close to land, with the others after
 them at anchor; since the beach was not large, they lay at anchor in rows
 eight ships deep out into the sea.

They spent the night in this way, but at dawn a storm descended upon them
 out of a clear and windless sky, and the sea began to boil. A strong east
 wind blew, which the people living in those parts call Hellespontian .

Those who felt the wind rising or had proper mooring dragged their ships up
 on shore ahead of the storm and so survived with their ships. The wind did,
 however, carry those ships caught out in the open sea against the rocks
 called the Ovens at +Pilion
 (mountain range), Nomos Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe
 Pelion or onto the beach. Some ships were wrecked on the
 Sepian headland, others were cast ashore at
 the city of +Meliboea
 [22.8167,39.75] (Perseus) Meliboea or at Casthanaea . The storm was indeed unbearable.

The story is told that because of an oracle the
 Athenians invoked Boreas , the north wind, to help them, since another oracle told
 them to summon their son-in-law as an ally. According to the Hellenic story, Boreas had
 an Attic wife, Orithyia , the daughter of Erechtheus , ancient king of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

Because of this connection, so the tale goes, the Athenians considered Boreas to be their
 son-in-law. They were stationed off +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667] (Perseus) Chalcis in
 +Euboea [23.833,38.566]
 (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea , and when they saw the storm rising, they then, if
 they had not already, sacrificed to and called upon Boreas and Orithyia to help them by
 destroying the barbarian fleet, just as before at +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place),
 Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos .

I cannot say whether this was the cause of Boreas 
 falling upon the barbarians as they lay at anchor, but the Athenians say that he had come to their aid before
 and that he was the agent this time. When they went home, they founded a
 sacred precinct of Boreas beside the Ilissus river .

They say that at the very least no fewer than 400
 ships were destroyed in this labor, along with innumerable men and abundant
 wealth. This shipwreck proved useful to Ameinocles 
 son of Cretines , a man of Nomos Magnisias [22.75,39.25] (department), Thessaly,
 Greece, Europe Magnesia who owned land around Sepia , for he later picked up many gold and silver
 cups cast up on shore, found the Persian 
 treasures, and acquired other untold riches. Although he became very rich
 from his findings, he did not enjoy luck in everything, for he suffered
 greatly when his son was murdered.

There was no counting how many grain-ships and other
 vessels were destroyed. The generals of the fleet were afraid that the Thessalians might attack them now that they had been
 defeated, so they built a high palisade out of the wreckage.

The storm lasted three days. Finally the Magi 
 made offerings and cast spells upon the wind, sacrificing also to Thetis and the Nereids . In
 this way they made the wind stop on the fourth day—or perhaps it died down
 on its own. They sacrificed to Thetis after hearing
 from the Ionians the story that it was from this
 place that Peleus had carried her off and that all
 the headland of Sepia belonged to her and to the other Nereids .

The storm, then, ceased on the fourth day. Now the
 scouts stationed on the headlands of +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea ran down and told the
 Hellenes all about the shipwreck on the second
 day after the storm began.

After hearing this they prayed to Poseidon as their
 savior and poured libations. Then they hurried to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium hoping to find few ships opposing
 them. So they came to 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium a
 second time and made their station there. From that time on they call Poseidon their savior.

The barbarians, when the wind ceased and the waves
 no longer ran high, put to sea and coasted along the mainland; they sailed
 around the headland of Nomos
 Magnisias [22.75,39.25] (department), Thessaly, Greece,
 Europe Magnesia and sailed straight into the gulf which
 stretches toward +Pagasae
 (deserted settlement), Nomos Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe
 Pagasae .

There is a place on this gulf in Nomos Magnisias [22.75,39.25] (department), Thessaly, Greece,
 Europe Magnesia , where, it is said, Heracles was sent for water and was left behind by Jason and his comrades of the Argo , when they were sailing to Aea in
 Caucasus (region (general)),
 Asia Colchis for the fleece; their purpose was to draw
 water from there and then to put out to sea. This is the reason why that
 place has been called 
 +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167] (Perseus) Aphetae . Here Xerxes ' men made their
 anchorage.

Fifteen of those ships had put to sea a long time
 after all the rest, and it chanced that they sighted the Greek ships off 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium .
 Supposing these to be their own fleet, the barbarians proceeded into the
 midst of their enemies. Their captain was the viceroy from Kyme [24.1167,38.6333]
 (Perseus) Cyme in +Aeolis (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Aeolia ,
 Sandoces son of Thamasius . This man, who was one of the king's judges, had once
 before been taken and crucified by Darius because
 he had given unjust judgment for a bribe.

When Sandoces had been hung on the cross, Darius found on consideration that his good services
 to the royal house outweighed his offenses. The king then perceived that he
 had acted with more haste than wisdom and set Sandoces free.

In this way he escaped from being put to death by Darius . Now that he was taken into the midst of the Greeks , however, he was not to escape a second time,
 for when the Greeks saw the Persians bearing down on them, they perceived their mistake and
 putting to sea, easily took them captive.

In one of these ships they took Aridolis , the tyrant of +Alabanda [28,37.6] (Perseus) Alabanda in +Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)),
 Turkey, Asia Caria , and in another the Paphian captain Penthylus ,
 son of Demonous; of the twelve ships which he had brought from +Paphos [32.416,34.75] (inhabited
 place), Paphos, Cyprus, Asia Paphos he had lost eleven in
 the storm off the Sepiad headland and was in the
 one which remained when he was taken as he headed down on +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium . Having questioned these men and
 learned what they desired to know of Xerxes ' force,
 the Greeks sent them away to the isthmus of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth in bonds.

So the foreign fleet, of which, with the exception
 of fifteen ships Sandoces was captain, came to
 +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167]
 (Perseus) Aphetae . Xerxes and
 his land army marched through 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly 
 and +Achaea [21.75,38.25]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Achaea , and it
 was three days since he had entered Malis . In
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly he held a race for his
 own cavalry; this was also a test of the Thessalian horsemen, whom he had heard were the best in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . The Greek horses
 were far outpaced in this contest. Of the Thessalian rivers, the Onochonus was
 the only one which could not provide enough water for his army to drink. In
 +Achaea [21.75,38.25]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Achaea ,
 however, even the greatest river there, the Apidanus , gave out, remaining but a sorry
 trickle.

When Xerxes had come to
 Alus in +Achaea [21.75,38.25] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Achaea , his guides, desiring to inform him of all they knew,
 told him the story which is related in that country concerning the worship
 of Laphystian Zeus , namely how Athamas son of Aeolus plotted Phrixus ' death with Ino , and
 further, how the Achaeans by an oracle's bidding
 compel Phrixus descendants to certain tasks.

They order the eldest of that family not to enter their town-hall (which the
 Achaeans call the People's
 House ) 
 and themselves keep watch there. If he should enter, he may not come out,
 save only to be sacrificed. They say as well that many of those who were to
 be sacrificed had fled in fear to another country, and that if they returned
 at a later day and were taken, they were brought into the town-hall. The
 guides showed Xerxes how the man is sacrificed,
 namely with fillets covering him all over and a procession to lead him
 forth.

It is the descendants of Phrixus ' son Cytissorus who are treated in this way, because when
 the Achaeans by an oracle's bidding made Athamas son of Aeolus a
 scapegoat for their country and were about to sacrifice him, this Cytissorus came from Aea in
 +Caucasus (region (general)),
 Asia Colchis and delivered him, thereby bringing the
 god's wrath on his own descendants.

Hearing all this, Xerxes , when he came to the
 temple grove, refrained from entering it himself and bade all his army do
 likewise, holding the house and the precinct of Athamas ' descendants alike in reverence.

These were Xerxes ' actions
 in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly and +Achaea [21.75,38.25] (department),
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Achaea . From here he came
 into Malis along a gulf of the sea, in which the
 tide ebbs and flows daily. There is
 low-lying ground about this gulf, sometimes wide and sometimes very narrow,
 and around it stand high and inaccessible mountains which enclose the whole
 of Malis and are called the Rocks of +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis .

Now the first town by the gulf on the way from +Achaea [21.75,38.25] (department), Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Achaea is Anticyra , near to which the river Spercheus flows from the country of the Enieni and issues into the sea. About twenty furlongs from that
 river is another named Dyras , which is said to
 have risen from the ground to aid Heracles against
 the fire that consumed him and twenty furlongs again from that there is
 another river called the Black river .

The town of +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus) Trachis is five
 furlongs away from this Black river . Here is the
 greatest distance in all this region between the sea and the hills on which
 +Trachis [22.55,38.8]
 (Perseus) Trachis stands, for the plain is twenty-two
 thousand plethra in extent. In the mountains which hem in the Trachinian land there is a ravine to the south of +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis , through which the river Asopus flows past the lower slopes of the mountains.

There is another river south of the Asopus , the Phoenix , a
 little stream which flows from those mountains into the Asopus . Near this stream is the narrowest place; there is only
 space for a single cart-way. +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae 
 is fifteen furlongs away from the river Phoenix.

Between the river and 
 +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae there
 is a village named Anthele , past which the Asopus flows out into the sea, and there is a wide
 space around it in which stand a temple of Amphictyonid
 Demeter , seats for the Amphictyons , and a temple of
 Amphictyon himself

King Xerxes lay encamped in +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis in Malis and the Hellenes in the pass. This place is called +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae by most of the Hellenes , but by the natives and their neighbors Pylae . 
 Each lay encamped in these places. Xerxes was
 master of everything to the north from
 +Trachis [22.55,38.8]
 (Perseus) Trachis , and the Hellenes of all that lay toward the south on the mainland.

The Hellenes who awaited
 the Persians in that place were these: three
 hundred Spartan armed men; one thousand from
 Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea and 
 +Mantinea [22.3833,37.6167] (Perseus) Mantinea , half from
 each place; one hundred and twenty from Kalpali [22.3,37.716] (inhabited place), Arcadia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Orchomenus in +Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Arcadia and one thousand from the rest of
 +Arcadia [22.25,37.583]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia ; that
 many Arcadians , four hundred from Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth , two hundred from Phlius , and eighty Mycenaeans . These
 were the Peloponnesians present; from Boeotia (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia there were seven
 hundred Thespians and four hundred Thebans .

In addition, the Opuntian
 Locrians in full force and one thousand Phocians came at the summons. The Hellenes had called upon them through messengers who told them
 that this was only the advance guard, that the rest of the allies were
 expected any day now, and that the sea was being watched, with the Athenians and Aeginetans 
 and all those enrolled in the fleet on guard. There was nothing for them to
 be afraid of.

The invader of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas was not a god but a human being,
 and there was not, and never would be, any mortal on whom some amount of
 evil was not bestowed at birth, with the greatest men receiving the largest
 share. The one marching against them was certain to fall from pride, since
 he was a mortal. When they heard this, the Locrians and Phocians marched to +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis to help.

Each city had its own general, but the one most
 admired and the leader of the whole army was a Lacedaemonian , Leonidas , son of Anaxandrides , son of Leon ,
 son of Eurycratides , son of Anaxandrus , son of Eurycrates , son of
 Polydorus , son of Alcamenes , son of Teleclus , son of Archelaus , son of Hegesilaus ,
 son of Doryssus , son of Leobotes , son of Echestratus , son of
 Agis , son of Eurysthenes , son of Aristodemus , son of
 Aristomachus , son of Cleodaeus , son of Hyllus , son of Heracles . Leonidas had gained
 the kingship at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta unexpectedly.

Since he had two older brothers, Cleomenes and Dorieus , he had renounced
 all thought of the kingship. Cleomenes , however,
 died without male offspring, and Dorieus , who had
 met his end in Sicily [14,37.5]
 (region), Italy, Europe Sicily , was also no longer alive.
 The succession therefore fell to Leonidas since he
 was older than Anaxandrides ' youngest son Cleombrotus and had married Cleomenes ' daughter.

He now came to 
 +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae with
 the appointed three hundred he had selected, all of whom had sons. He also brought those
 Thebans whom I counted among the number and
 whose general was Leontiades son of Eurymachus .

Leonidas took pains to bring only the Thebans among the Hellenes , because they were accused of medizing; he summoned them
 to the war wishing to know whether they would send their men with him or
 openly refuse the Hellenic alliance. They sent
 the men but intended something quite different

The Spartans sent the men
 with Leonidas on ahead so that the rest of the
 allies would see them and march, instead of medizing like the others if they
 learned that the Spartans were delaying. At
 present the Carneia 
 was
 in their way, but once they had completed the festival, they intended to
 leave a garrison at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta and march out in full
 force with all speed.

The rest of the allies planned to do likewise, for the Olympiad 
 coincided with these events. They accordingly sent their advance guard, not
 expecting the war at 
 +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae to be
 decided so quickly.

This is what they intended, but the Hellenes at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae , when the Persians 
 drew near the pass, fearfully took counsel whether to depart. The rest of
 the Peloponnesians were for returning to the
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese and guarding the
 isthmus, but the Phocians and Locrians were greatly angered by this counsel. Leonidas voted to remain where they were and send messengers to
 the cities bidding them to send help, since they were too few to ward off
 the army of the Medes .

While they debated in this way, Xerxes sent a mounted scout to see how many there were and what
 they were doing. While he was still in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly , he had heard that a small army was gathered there
 and that its leaders were Lacedaemonians ,
 including Leonidas , who was of the Heracleid clan.

Riding up to the camp, the horseman watched and spied out the place. He
 could, however, not see the whole camp, for it was impossible to see those
 posted inside the wall which they had rebuilt and were guarding. He did take
 note of those outside, whose arms lay in front of the wall, and it chanced
 that at that time the Lacedaemonians were posted
 there.

He saw some of the men exercising naked and others combing their hair. He
 marvelled at the sight and took note of their numbers. When he had observed
 it all carefully, he rode back in leisure, since no one pursued him or paid
 him any attention at all. So he returned and told Xerxes all that he had seen.

When Xerxes heard that, he
 could not comprehend the fact that the Lacedaemonians were actually, to the best of their ability,
 preparing to kill or be killed. What they did appeared laughable to him, so
 he sent for Demaratus the son of Ariston , who was in his camp.

When this man arrived, he asked him about each of these matters, wanting to
 understand what it was that the Lacedaemonians 
 were doing. Demaratus said, “You have already heard
 about these men from me, when we were setting out for Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , but when you heard, you mocked me, although I
 told you how I expected things to turn out. It is my greatest aim, O King,
 to be truthful in your presence.

So hear me now. These men have come to fight us for the pass, and it for
 this that they are preparing. This is their custom: when they are about to
 risk their lives, they arrange their hair.

Rest assured that if you overcome these men and those remaining behind at
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , there is no one else on earth who will
 raise his hands to withstand you, my King. You are now attacking the fairest
 kingdom in Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas and men who are the very best.”

What he said seemed completely incredible to Xerxes , so he then asked how they, who were so few in number, would
 fight against his army. Demaratus answered, “My
 King, take me for a liar if this does not turn out as I say.” So he spoke,
 but he did not persuade Xerxes .

He let four days go by, expecting them to run away
 at any minute. They did not leave, and it seemed to him that they stayed out
 of folly and lack of due respect. On the fifth day he became angry and sent
 the Medes and Cissians 
 against them, bidding them take them prisoner and bring them into his
 presence.

The Medes bore down upon the Hellenes and attacked. Many fell, but others attacked in turn,
 and they made it clear to everyone, especially to the king himself, that
 among so many people there were few real men. The battle lasted all day.

When the Medes had been
 roughly handled, they retired, and the Persians 
 whom the king called Immortals, led by Hydarnes ,
 attacked in turn. It was thought that they would easily accomplish the task.

When they joined battle with the Hellenes , they
 fared neither better nor worse than the Median army, since they used shorter
 spears than the Hellenes and could not use their
 numbers fighting in a narrow space.

The Lacedaemonians fought memorably, showing
 themselves skilled fighters amidst unskilled on many occasions, as when they
 would turn their backs and feign flight. The barbarians would see them
 fleeing and give chase with shouting and noise, but when the Lacedaemonians were overtaken, they would turn to
 face the barbarians and overthrow innumerable Persians . A few of the Spartans 
 themselves were also slain. When the Persians 
 could gain no inch of the pass, attacking by companies and in every other
 fashion, they withdrew.

It is said that during these assaults in the battle
 the king, as he watched, jumped up three times from the throne in fear for
 his army. This, then, is how the fighting progressed, and on the next day
 the barbarians fought no better. They joined battle supposing that their
 enemies, being so few, were now disabled by wounds and could no longer
 resist.

The Hellenes , however, stood ordered in ranks by
 nation, and each of them fought in turn, except the Phocians , who were posted on the mountain to guard the path. When the Persians 
 found nothing different from what they saw the day before, they withdrew.

The king was at a loss as to how to deal with the
 present difficulty. Epialtes son of Eurydemus , a Malian ,
 thinking he would get a great reward from the king, came to speak with him
 and told him of the path leading over the mountain to +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae . In so doing he caused the
 destruction of the Hellenes remaining there.

Later he fled into +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly in fear of
 the Lacedaemonians , and while he was in exile, a
 price was put on his head by the Pylagori 
 when the Amphictyons assembled
 at Pylae . Still later he returned from exile to
 Anticyra and was killed by Athenades , a Trachinian .

Athenades slew Epialtes 
 for a different reason, which I will tell later in my history, but he was
 given no less honor by the Lacedaemonians . It was
 in this way, then, that Epialtes was later killed.

There is another story told, namely that Onetes son of Phanagoras , a
 Carystian , and Corydallus of Anticyra are the ones who
 gave the king this information and guided the Persians around the mountain, but I find it totally incredible.

One must judge by the fact that the Pylagori set a
 price not on Onetes and Corydallus but on Epialtes the Trachinian , and I suppose they had exact knowledge;
 furthermore, we know that Epialtes was banished on
 this charge.

Onetes might have known the path, although he was
 not a Malian , if he had often come to that
 country, but Epialtes was the one who guided them
 along the path around the mountain. It is he whom I put on record as guilty.

Xerxes was pleased by what Epialtes promised to accomplish. He immediately became overjoyed
 and sent out Hydarnes and the men under Hydarnes command, who set forth from the camp at about
 lamp-lighting time. This path had been discovered by the native Malians , who used it to guide the Thessalians into 
 +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Phocis when the Phocians had
 fenced off the pass with a wall and were sheltered from the war. So long ago
 the Malians had discovered that the pass was in
 no way a good thing.

The course of the path is as follows: it begins at
 the river Asopus as it flows through the ravine,
 and this mountain and the path have the same name, Anopaea . This Anopaea stretches along
 the ridge of the mountain and ends at Alpenus , the
 Locrian city nearest to Malis , near the rock called Blackbuttock and the seats of the Cercopes , where it is narrowest.

This, then, was the nature of the pass. The Persians crossed the Asopus and travelled all night along this path, with the Oetaean mountains on their right and the Trachinian on their left. At dawn they came to the
 summit of the pass.

In this part of the mountain one thousand armed men of the Phocians were on watch, as I have already shown,
 defending their own country and guarding the path. The lower pass was held
 by those I have mentioned, but the Phocians had
 voluntarily promised Leonidas to guard the path
 over the mountain.

The Phocians learned in
 the following way that the Persians had climbed
 up: they had ascended without the Phocians '
 notice because the mountain was entirely covered with oak trees. Although
 there was no wind, a great noise arose like leaves being trodden underfoot.
 The Phocians jumped up and began to put on their
 weapons, and in a moment the barbarians were there.

When they saw the men arming themselves, they were amazed, for they had
 supposed that no opposition would appear, but they had now met with an army.
 Hydarnes feared that the Phocians might be Lacedaemonians and
 asked Epialtes what country the army was from. When
 he had established what he wanted to know with certainty, he arrayed the
 Persians for battle.

The Phocians , assailed by thick showers of arrows
 and supposing that the Persians had set out
 against them from the start, fled to the top of the mountain and prepared to
 meet their destruction. This is what they intended, but the Persians with Epialtes and
 Hydarnes paid no attention to the Phocians and went down the mountain as fast as
 possible.

The seer Megistias ,
 examining the sacrifices, first told the Hellenes 
 at +Thermopylae
 [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae that death was
 coming to them with the dawn. Then deserters came who announced the circuit
 made by the Persians . These gave their signals
 while it was still night; a third report came from the watchers running down
 from the heights at dawn.

The Hellenes then took counsel, but their
 opinions were divided. Some advised not to leave their post, but others
 spoke against them. They eventually parted, some departing and dispersing
 each to their own cities, others preparing to remain there with Leonidas .

It is said that Leonidas 
 himself sent them away because he was concerned that they would be killed,
 but felt it not fitting for himself and the Spartans to desert that post which they had come to defend at the
 beginning.

I, however, tend to believe that when Leonidas 
 perceived that the allies were dispirited and unwilling to run all risks
 with him, he told then to depart. For himself, however, it was not good to
 leave; if he remained, he would leave a name of great fame, and the
 prosperity of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta would not be blotted
 out.

When the Spartans asked the oracle about this war
 when it broke out, the Pythia had foretold that
 either Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon would be destroyed by the barbarians or their
 king would be killed. She gave them this answer in hexameter verses running
 as follows:

For you, inhabitants of wide-wayed Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , 
 Either your great and glorious city must be wasted by Persian men, 
 Or if not that, then the bound of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon must mourn a
 dead king, from Heracles ' line. 
 The might of bulls or lions will not restrain him with opposing
 strength; for he has the might of Zeus . 
 I declare that he will not be restrained until he utterly tears apart
 one of these. 
 
 Considering this and wishing to win distinction for
 the Spartans alone, he sent away the allies
 rather than have them leave in disorder because of a difference of opinion.

Not the least proof I have of this is the fact that
 Leonidas publicly dismissed the seer who
 attended the expedition, for fear that he might die with them. This was
 Megistias the Acarnanian , said to be descended from Melampus , the one who told from the sacrifices what was going to
 happen to them. He was dismissed but did not leave; instead he sent away his
 only son who was also with the army.

Those allies who were dismissed went off in
 obedience to Leonidas , only the Thespians and Thebans remaining with
 the Lacedaemonians . The Thebans remained against their will and desire, for Leonidas kept them as hostages. The Thespians very gladly remained, saying they would
 not abandon Leonidas and those with him by leaving;
 instead they would stay and die with them. Their general was Demophilus son of Diadromes .

Xerxes made libations at sunrise and waiting till
 about mid-morning, made his assault. Epialtes had
 advised this, for the descent from the mountain is more direct, and the way
 is much shorter than the circuit and ascent.

Xerxes and his barbarians attacked, but Leonidas and his Hellenes ,
 knowing they were going to their deaths, advanced now much farther than
 before into the wider part of the pass. In all the previous days they had
 sallied out into the narrow way and fought there, guarding the defensive
 wall.

Now, however, they joined battle outside the narrows and many of the
 barbarians fell, for the leaders of the companies beat everyone with whips
 from behind, urging them ever forward. Many of them were pushed into the sea
 and drowned; far more were trampled alive by each other, with no regard for
 who perished.

Since the Hellenes knew that they must die at the
 hands of those who had come around the mountain, they displayed the greatest
 strength they had against the barbarians, fighting recklessly and
 desperately.

By this time most of them had had their spears
 broken and were killing the Persians with swords.
 Leonidas , proving himself extremely valiant,
 fell in that struggle and with him other famous Spartans , whose names I have learned by inquiry since they were
 worthy men. Indeed, I have learned by inquiry the names of all three
 hundred.

Many famous Persians also fell there, including
 two sons of Darius , Abrocomes and Hyperanthes , born to Darius by Phratagune daughter
 of Artanes . Artanes was
 the brother of king Darius and son of Hystaspes son of Arsames .
 When he gave his daughter in marriage to Darius , he
 gave his whole house as dowry, since she was his only child.

Two brothers of Xerxes 
 accordingly fought and fell there. There was a great struggle between the
 Persians and Lacedaemonians over Leonidas ' body,
 until the Hellenes by their courageous prowess
 dragged it away and routed their enemies four times. The battle went on
 until the men with Epialtes arrived.

When the Hellenes saw that they had come, the
 contest turned, for they retired to the narrow part of the way, passed
 behind the wall, and took their position crowded together on the hill, all
 except the Thebans . This hill is at the mouth of
 the pass, where the stone lion in honor of Leonidas 
 now stands.

In that place they defended themselves with swords, if they still had them,
 and with hands and teeth. The barbarians buried them with missiles, some
 attacking from the front and throwing down the defensive wall, others
 surrounding them on all sides.

This then is how the Lacedaemonians and Thespians conducted
 themselves, but the Spartan 
 Dieneces is said to have exhibited the greatest
 courage of all. They say that he made the following speech before they
 joined battle with the Medes : he had learned from
 a Trachinian that there were so many of the
 barbarians that when they shot their missiles, the sun was hidden by the
 multitude of their arrows.

He was not at all disturbed by this and made light of the multitude of the
 Medes , saying that their Trachinian foreigner brought them good news. If the Medes hid the sun, they could fight them in the
 shade instead of in the sun. This saying and others like it, they claim,
 Dieneces the Lacedaemonian left behind as a memorial.

Next after him two Lacedaemonian brothers, Alpheus and
 Maron , sons of Orsiphantus , are said to have been most courageous. The Thespian who gained most renown was one whose name
 was Dithyrambus son of Harmatides .

There is an inscription written over these men, who
 were buried where they fell, and over those who died before the others went
 away, dismissed by Leonidas . It reads as follows:
 
 Here four thousand from the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese once fought three million.

That inscription is for them all, but the Spartans have their own: 
 Foreigner, go tell the Spartans 
 that we lie here obedient to their commands.

That one is to the Lacedaemonians , this one to the seer: 
 This is a monument to the renowned Megistias , 
 Slain by the Medes who crossed the Spercheius river . 
 The seer knew well his coming doom, 
 But endured not to abandon the leaders of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta .

Except for the seer's inscription, the Amphictyons are the ones who honored them by
 erecting inscriptions and pillars. That of the seer Megistias was inscribed by Simonides son
 of Leoprepes because of his tie of guest-friendship
 with the man.

It is said that two of these three hundred, Eurytus and Aristodemus ,
 could have agreed with each other either to come home safely together to
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , since Leonidas 
 had dismissed them from the camp and they were lying at Alpeni very sick of ophthalmia, or to die with the others, if
 they were unwilling to return home. They could have done either of these
 things, but they could not agree and had different intentions. When Eurytus learned of the Persians circuit, he demanded his armor and put it on, bidding
 his helot to lead him to the fighting. The helot led him there and fled, but
 he rushed into the fray and was killed. Aristodemus , however, lost his strength and stayed behind.

Now if Aristodemus alone had been sick and returned
 to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , or if they had both made the trip, I
 think the Spartans would not have been angry with
 them. When, however, one of them died, and the other had the same excuse but
 was unwilling to die, the Spartans had no choice
 but to display great anger towards Aristodemus .

Some say that Aristodemus 
 came home safely to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta in this way and by
 this excuse. Others say that he had been sent out of the camp as a messenger
 and could have gotten back in time for the battle but chose not to, staying
 behind on the road and so surviving, while his fellow-messenger arrived at
 the battle and was killed.

When Aristodemus returned
 to Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , he was disgraced and without honor. He was
 deprived of his honor in this way: no Spartan 
 would give him fire or speak with him, and they taunted him by calling him
 Aristodemus the Trembler . In the battle at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea , however, he made up for all the blame brought
 against him.

It is said that another of the three hundred
 survived because he was sent as a messenger to +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly . His name was Pantites .
 When he returned to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , he was dishonored and
 hanged himself.

The Thebans , whose
 general was Leontiades , fought against the king's
 army as long as they were with the Hellenes and
 under compulsion. When, however, they saw the Persian side prevailing and the Hellenes with Leonidas hurrying toward
 the hill, they split off and approached the barbarians, holding out their
 hands. With the most truthful words ever spoken, they explained that they
 were Medizers, had been among the first to give earth and water to the king,
 had come to +Thermopylae
 [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae under constraint,
 and were guiltless of the harm done to the king.

By this plea they saved their lives, and the Thessalians bore witness to their words. They were not, however,
 completely lucky. When the barbarians took hold of them as they approached,
 they killed some of them even as they drew near. Most of them were branded
 by Xerxes command with the kings marks, starting
 with the general Leontiades . His son Eurymachus long afterwards was
 murdered by the Plataeans when, as general of
 four hundred Thebans , he seized the town of Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea .

This, then, is how the Greeks fought at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae .
 Xerxes then sent for Demaratus and questioned him, saying first, “ Demaratus you are a good man. I hold that proven by the plain
 truth, for things have turned out no differently than you foretold. Now,
 tell me this: how many Lacedaemonians are left,
 and how many of them are warriors like these? or is it so with them all?”

“My king,” said Demaratus , “the number of the
 Lacedaemonians is great, and so too the number
 of their cities. But what you would like to know, I will tell you: there is
 in Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon a city called Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ,
 a city of about eight thousand men, all of them equal to those who have
 fought here; the rest of the Lacedaemonians are
 not equal to these, yet they are valiant men.”

“And how, Demaratus ,” answered Xerxes , “can we overcome those men with the least trouble to
 ourselves? Come, disclose that to me, for you have been their king and know
 the plan and order of their counsels.”

“My king,” Demaratus 
 replied, “if you in sincerity ask my counsel, it is but right that I should
 point out to you the best way. It is this, namely that you should send three
 hundred ships of your fleet to the Laconian land.

There is an island lying off their coasts called +Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Cythera . Chilon ,
 a man of much wisdom among us, says about it that it would be better for the
 Spartans if +Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Cythera were beneath the sea rather than
 above it. This he said because he expected that it would provide an
 opportunity for attack just as I am suggesting—not that he had any
 foreknowledge of your force, but he dreaded all men's forces alike.

Let them then make that island their station and set out from there to
 strike fear into the Lacedaemonians . If these
 have a war of their own on their borders, you will have no cause to fear
 that they will send men to save the rest of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas from
 being overrun by your armies; furthermore, the enslavement of the rest of
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas must weaken +Laconia [22.583,37] (department), Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Laconia if it is left to stand alone.

If, however, you do not do this, then expect what I will now tell you: a
 narrow isthmus leads to the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese ; all the Peloponnesians will be banded together there against you, and you
 may expect battles more stubborn than those that you have fought already.
 But if you do as I have said, then you may have that isthmus and all their
 cities without striking a blow.”

Next spoke Achaemenes ,
 Xerxes ' brother and admiral of the fleet; it
 chanced that he was present during their conversation, and he feared that
 Xerxes would be persuaded to follow Demaratus ' counsel. “O king,” he said, “I see that you
 are listening to a man who is jealous of your good fortune or is perhaps
 even a traitor to your cause. These are the ways that are dear to the hearts
 of all Greeks : they are jealous of success and
 they hate power.

No, if after the recent calamity which has wrecked four hundred of your
 ships you send away three hundred more from your fleet to sail round the
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , your enemies will
 be enough to do battle with you; while your fleet is united, however, it is
 invincible, and your enemies will not be so many as to be enough to fight;
 moreover, all your navy will be a help to your army and your army to your
 navy, both moving together. If you separate some of your fleet from
 yourself, you will be of no use to them, nor they to you.

My counsel is rather that you make your own plans well, and take no account
 of the business of your adversaries, what battlefields they will choose,
 what they will do, and how many they are. They are able enough to think for
 themselves, and we similarly for ourselves. As for the Lacedaemonians , if they meet the Persians in the field, they will in no way repair their most
 recent losses.”

“ Achaemenes ,” Xerxes answered, “I think that you speak well, and I
 will do as you counsel. Despite the fact that your advice is better than
 his, Demaratus does say what he supposes to be most
 serviceable to me,

for assuredly I will never believe that he is no friend to my cause. I
 believe this of him because of all that he has already said and by what is
 the truth, namely, that if one citizen prospers, another citizen is jealous
 of him and shows his enmity by silence, and no one, (except if he has
 attained the height of excellence; and such are seldom seen) if his own
 townsman asks for counsel, will give him what he thinks to be the best
 advice.

If one stranger prospers, however, another stranger is beyond all men his
 well-wisher and will, if he is asked, impart to him the best counsel he has.
 It is for this reason that I bid you all to refrain from maligning Demaratus , seeing that he is a stranger and a friend.”

Having spoken in this way, Xerxes passed over the place where the dead lay and hearing that
 Leonidas had been king and general of the Lacedaemonians , he gave orders to cut off his head
 and impale it.

It is plain to me by this piece of evidence among many others, that while
 Leonidas lived, king Xerxes was more incensed against him than against all others;
 otherwise he would never have dealt so outrageously with his dead body, for
 the Persians are beyond all men known in the
 habit of honoring valiant warriors. They, then, who received these orders
 did as I have said.

I return now to that place in my history where it
 earlier left off. The Lacedaemonians 
 were the first to be informed that the king was equipping himself to attack
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ; with this knowledge it was that they sent
 to the oracle at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , where they received
 the answer about which I spoke a little while ago. Now the way in which they
 were informed of this was strange.

Demaratus son of Ariston ,
 an exile among the Medes , was, as I suppose
 (reason being also my ally), no friend to the Lacedaemonians , and I leave it to be imagined whether what he did
 was done out of goodwill or spiteful triumph. When Xerxes was resolved to march against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ,
 Demaratus , who was then at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and had knowledge of
 this, desired to send word of it to the Lacedaemonians .

He, however, feared detection and had no other way of informing them than
 this trick:—taking a double tablet, he scraped away the wax from it, and
 then wrote the king's plan on the wood. Next he melted the wax back again
 over the writing, so that the bearer of this seemingly blank tablet might
 not be troubled by the way-wardens.

When the tablet came to Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , the Lacedaemonians 
 could not guess its meaning, until at last (as I have been told) Gorgo , Cleomenes ' daughter
 and Leonidas ' wife, discovered the trick herself
 and advised them to scrape the wax away so that they would find writing on
 the wood. When they did so, they found and read the message, and presently
 sent it to the rest of the Greeks . This is the
 story, as it is told.

The Greeks appointed to
 serve in the fleet were these: the Athenians 
 furnished a hundred and twenty-seven ships; the Plataeans manned these ships with the Athenians , not that they had any knowledge of seamanship, but
 because of mere valor and zeal. The Corinthians 
 furnished forty ships and the Megarians twenty;

the Chalcidians manned twenty, the Athenians furnishing the ships; the Aeginetans eighteen, the Sicyonians twelve, the Lacedaemonians 
 ten, the Epidaurians eight, the Eretrians seven, the Troezenians five, the Styrians two,
 and the Ceans two, and two fifty-oared barks; the
 Opuntian Locrians brought seven fifty-oared
 barks to their aid.

These are the forces which came to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium for battle, and I have now shown how
 they individually furnished the whole sum. The number of ships mustered at
 +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium was two hundred
 and seventy-one, besides the fifty-oared barks.

The Spartans , however, provided the admiral who
 had the chief command, Eurybiades , son of Euryclides , for the allies said that if the Laconian were not their leader, they would rather
 make an end of the fleet that was assembling than be led by the Athenians .

In the first days, before the sending to Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy,
 Europe Sicily for alliance, there had been talk of
 entrusting the command at sea to the Athenians .
 However, when the allies resisted, the Athenians 
 waived their claim, considering the safety of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas of
 prime importance and seeing that if they quarrelled over the leadership,
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas must perish. In this they judged rightly,
 for civil strife is as much worse than united war as war is worse than
 peace.

Knowing that, they gave ground and waived their claim, but only so long as
 they had great need of the others. This is clear, for when they had driven
 the Persian back and the battle was no longer for
 their territory but for his, they made a pretext of Pausanias ' highhandedness and took the command away from the
 Lacedaemonians . All that, however, took place
 later.

But now, the Greeks who
 had at last come to 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium saw a
 multitude of ships launched at +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167] (Perseus) Aphetae and
 forces everywhere, and contrary to all expectation, the barbarian was shown
 to be in much different shape than they had supposed. They accordingly lost
 heart and began to deliberate about flight from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium homewards into Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

Then the Euboeans , noticing that they were making
 such plans, entreated Eurybiades to wait a little
 while, till they themselves had removed their children and households. When
 they could not prevail with him, they tried another way and gave Themistocles , the Athenian 
 admiral, a bribe of thirty talents on the condition that the Greek fleet should remain there and fight, when they
 fought, to defend +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea .

This was the way in which Themistocles made the Greeks stay
 where they were: he gave Eurybiades for his share
 five talents of that money, as though he were making the present of his own
 money. When Eurybiades had been won over in this
 way, none of the rest was inclined to resist save Adimantus , son of Ocytus , the Corinthian admiral, who said that he would not
 remain but sail away from 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium ; to
 him Themistocles , adding an oath, said:

“No, you of all men will not desert us, for I will give you a greater gift
 than the king of the Medes would send you for
 deserting your allies.” With that he sent three talents of silver to Adimantus ship.

These two, then, were won over by gifts, the Euboeans got what they wanted, and Themistocles himself was the gainer. No one knew that he had kept
 the rest of the money, and those who had received a part of it supposed that
 it had been sent for that purpose by the Athenians .

So the Greeks remained in
 +Euboea [23.833,38.566]
 (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea and fought there; this came about as I will now
 reveal. Having arrived at 
 +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167] (Perseus) Aphetae in the early
 part of the afternoon, the barbarians saw for themselves the few Greek ships that they had already heard were
 stationed off +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , and they were
 eager to attack so that they might take them.

They were not prepared to make a head-on attack since they feared that the
 Greeks would see them coming and turn to flee
 with night close upon them as they fled; it was their belief that the Greeks would save themselves by flight, and they did
 not want even so much as a firebearer to be saved.

Taking these things into consideration, they devised
 the following plan; separating two hundred ships from the whole number, they
 sent them to cruise outside Sciathus so that the
 enemies might not see them sailing round +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea and by
 way of Caphereus round Geraestus to the Euripus so that they
 might catch the Greeks between them, the one part
 holding that course and barring the retreat, and they themselves attacking
 in front.

Upon making these plans they sent the appointed ships on their way,
 intending not to make an attack upon the Greeks 
 either on that day or before the signal should be seen, whereby the ships
 that sailed round were to declare their coming. So they sent those ships to
 sail round, and set about counting the rest at +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167] (Perseus)
 Aphetae .

Now when they were engaged in this count, there was
 in the fleet one Scyllias , a man of +Scione [23.55,39.95] (Perseus)
 Scione ; he was the best diver of the time, and in the
 shipwreck at +Pilion (mountain
 range), Nomos Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Pelion 
 he had saved for the Persians much of their
 possessions and gotten much for himself in addition; this Scyllias had before now, it would seem, intended to desert to the
 Greeks , but he never had had so fair an
 occasion as now.

By what means he did at last make his way to the Greeks , I cannot with exactness say. If the story is true, it is
 marvellous indeed, for it is said that he dove into the sea at +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167]
 (Perseus) Aphetae and never rose to the surface till he
 came to +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , thus passing
 underneath the sea for about eighty furlongs.

There are many tales about this man, some similar to lies and some true, but
 as regards the present business it is my opinion that he came to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium in a boat. After arriving, he
 straightway told the admirals the story of the shipwreck, and of the ships
 that had been sent round +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea .

Hearing that, the Greeks 
 took counsel together; there was much talk, but the opinion prevailed that
 they should remain and encamp where they were for that day, and then, after
 midnight, to put to sea and meet the ships which were sailing around.
 Presently, however, meeting with no opposition, they waited for the late
 afternoon of the day and themselves advanced their ships against the
 barbarian, desiring to put to the proof his fashion of fighting and the art
 of breaking the line.

When Xerxes ' men and their
 generals saw the Greeks bearing down on them with
 but a few ships, they thought that they were definitely mad and put out to
 sea themselves, thinking that they would win an easy victory; this
 expectation was very reasonable, since they saw that the Greek ships so few while their own were many times more numerous
 and more seaworthy. With this assurance, they hemmed in the Greeks in their midst.

Now all the Ionians who were friendly to the
 Greeks came unwillingly to the war and were
 distressed to see the Greeks surrounded. They
 supposed that not one of them would return home, so powerless did the Greeks seem to them to be.

Those who were glad about the business, however, vied each with each that he
 might be the first to take an Attic ship and receive gifts from the king,
 for it was the Athenians of whom there was most
 talk in the fleet.

But the Greeks , when the
 signal was given them, first drew the sterns of their ships together, their
 prows turned towards the foreigners; then at the second signal they put
 their hands to the work, despite the fact that they were hemmed in within a
 narrow space and were fighting face-to-face.

There they took thirty of the foreigners ships as well as the brother of
 Gorgus king of Salamis [33.9,35.166] (deserted settlement), Famagusta,
 Cyprus, Asia Salamis , Philaon son
 of Chersis , a man of note in the fleet. The first
 Greek to take an enemy ship was an Athenian , Lycomedes , son of
 Aeschraeus , and he it was who received the prize
 for valor.

They fought that sea-fight with doubtful issue, and nightfall ended the
 battle; the Greeks sailed back to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium , and the barbarians to +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167]
 (Perseus) Aphetae , after faring far below their hopes in
 the fight. In that battle Antidorus of +Lemnos [25.25,39.916] (island),
 Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lemnos , the only
 one of the Greeks siding with the Persian , deserted to the Greeks , and for that the Athenians 
 gave him land in Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis .

When darkness came on, the season being then
 midsummer, there was abundance of rain all through the night and violent
 thunderings from +Pilion
 (mountain range), Nomos Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe
 Pelion . The dead and the wrecks were driven towards +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167]
 (Perseus) Aphetae , where they were entangled with the
 ships' prows and jumbled the blades of the oars.

The ships crews who were there were dismayed by the noise of this, and
 considering their present bad state, expected utter destruction; for before
 they had recovered from the shipwreck and the storm off +Pilion (mountain range), Nomos
 Magnisias, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Pelion , they next
 endured a stubborn sea-fight, and after the sea-fight, rushing rain and
 mighty torrents pouring seaward and violent thunderings.

This is how the night dealt with them. To those who
 were appointed to sail round 
 +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea , however, that same night
 was still more cruel since it caught them on the open sea. Their end was a
 terrible one, for when the storm and the rain came on them in their course
 off the Hollows of +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea , they were driven by the wind in an
 unknown direction and were driven onto the rocks. All this was done by the
 god so that the Persian power might be more
 equally matched with the Greek , and not much
 greater than it.

These men, then, perished at the Hollows of +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island),
 Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Euboea . As for the barbarians at +Aphetae [23.1167,39.1167] (Perseus)
 Aphetae , when to their great comfort the day dawned, they
 kept their ships unmoved, being in their evil plight well content to do
 nothing for the moment. Now fifty-three Attic ships came to aid the Greeks ,

who were encouraged both by the ships coming and by the news that the
 barbarians sailing round +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea had all perished in the recent
 storm. They waited then for the same hour as before, and fell upon certain
 Cilician ships when they put to sea. After
 destroying these when night fell, they sailed back to +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium .

On the third day, however, the barbarian admirals,
 finding it hard to bear that so few ships should do them hurt and fearing
 Xerxes ' anger, waited no longer for the Greeks to begin the fight, but gave the word and put
 out to sea about midday. So it came to pass that these sea-battles were
 fought on the same days as the land-battles at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae ;

the seamen's whole endeavor was to hold the Euripus while Leonidas ' men strove to
 guard the passage; the Greeks were ordered to
 give the barbarian no entry into Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and the
 Persians to destroy the Greek host and win the strait.

So when Xerxes ' men ordered
 their battle and advanced, the Greeks remained in
 their station off 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , and
 the barbarians made a half circle of their ships striving to encircle and
 enclose them. At that the Greeks charged and
 joined battle. In that sea-fight both had equal success.

Xerxes ' fleet did itself harm by its numbers and
 size. The ships were thrown into confusion and ran foul of each other;
 nevertheless they held fast and did not yield, for they could not bear to be
 put to flight by a few ships.

Many were the Greek ships and men that perished
 there, and far more yet of the foreigners' ships and men; this is how they
 fought until they drew off and parted from each other.

In that sea-fight of all Xerxes ' fighters the Egyptians 
 conducted themselves with the greatest valor; besides other great feats of
 arms which they achieved, they took five Greek 
 ships together with their crews. As regards the Greeks , it was the Athenians who bore
 themselves best on that day, and of the Athenians
 Clinias son of Alcibiades . He brought to
 the war two hundred men and a ship of his own, all at his own expense.

So they parted, and each hurried gladly to his own
 place of anchorage. When the Greeks had withdrawn
 and come out of the battle, they were left in possession of the dead and the
 wrecks. They had, however, had a rough time of it themselves, chiefly the
 Athenians , half of whose ships had suffered
 some damage. Now their counsel was to flee to the inner waters of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas

Themistocles thought that if the Ionian and Carian nations
 were removed from the forces of the barbarians, the Greeks might be strong enough to prevail over the rest. Now it
 was the custom of the Euboeans to drive their
 flocks down to the sea there. Gathering the admirals together, he told them
 that he thought he had a device whereby he hoped to draw away the best of
 the king's allies.

So much he revealed for the moment, but merely advised them to let everyone
 slay as many from the Euboean flocks as he
 wanted; it was better that the fleet should have them, than the enemy.
 Moreover, he counselled them each to order his men to light a fire; as for
 the time of their departure from that place, he would see to it that they
 would return to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas unscathed. All this they agreed to
 do and immediately lit fires and set upon the flocks.

Now the Euboeans had
 neglected the oracle of Bacis , believing it to be
 empty of meaning, and neither by carrying away nor by bringing in anything
 had they shown that they feared an enemy's coming. In so doing they were the
 cause of their own destruction,

for Bacis ' oracle concerning this matter runs as
 follows 
 When a strange-tongued man casts a yoke of papyrus on the
 waves, 
 Then take care to keep bleating goats far from the coasts of +Euboea [23.833,38.566]
 (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Euboea 
 
 
 To these verses the Euboeans gave no heed; but in the evils then present and soon to
 come they suffered the greatest calamity.

While the Greeks were
 doing as I have said, there came to them their lookout from +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus)
 Trachis . There was a scout at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium , one Polyas , a native of
 Anticyra , who was charged (and had a rowing
 boat standing ready for it), if the fleet should suffer a reverse to declare
 it to the men at 
 +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae .
 Similarly, if any ill should befall the land army, Abronichus son of Lysicles , an Athenian , was with Leonidas , ready for his part to bring the news in a thirty-oared
 bark to the Greeks at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium .

So this Abronichus came and declared to them the
 fate of Leonidas and his army. When the Greeks learned this, they no longer delayed their
 departure but went their ways in their appointed order, the Corinthians first and last of all the Athenians .

Themistocles , however, picked out the seaworthiest
 Athenian ships and made his way to the places
 where drinking water could be found. Here he engraved on the rocks words
 which the Ionians read on the next day when they
 came to +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium . This was what the
 writing said: “Men of Ionia
 (region (general)), Europe Ionia , you do wrongly to fight
 against the land of your fathers and bring slavery upon Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

It would best for you to join yourselves to us, but if that should be
 impossible for you, then at least now withdraw from the war, and entreat the
 Carians to do the same as you. If neither of
 these things may be and you are fast bound by such constraint that you
 cannot rebel, yet we ask you not to use your full strength in the day of
 battle. Remember that you are our sons and that our quarrel with the
 barbarian was of your making in the beginning.”

To my thinking Themistocles wrote this with a
 double intent, namely that if the king knew nothing of the writing, it might
 induce the Ionians to change sides and join with
 the Greeks , while if the writing were maliciously
 reported to Xerxes , he might thereby be led to
 mistrust the Ionians and keep them out of the
 sea-fights.

Such was Themistocles '
 writing. Immediately after this there came to the barbarians a man of Histiaea in a boat, telling them of the flight of the
 Greeks from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium . Not believing this, they kept the bringer of the
 news in confinement and sent swift ships to spy out the matter. When the
 crews of these brought word of the truth, the whole armada sailed all
 together to +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium at the crack of
 dawn. Here they waited till midday and then sailed to Histiaea . Upon their arrival they took possession of the Histiaeans ' city and overran all the villages on the
 seaboard of the Ellopian region, which is a
 district belonging to Histiaea .

While they were there, Xerxes sent a herald to the fleet. Before sending him, Xerxes had made the following preparations: of all his
 own soldiers who had fallen at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae 
 (that is, as many as twenty thousand) he left about a thousand, and the rest
 he buried in trenches, which he covered with leaves and heaped earth so that
 the men of the fleet might not see them.

When the herald had crossed over to Histiaea , he
 assembled all the men of the fleet and said: “Men of our allies, King Xerxes permits any one of you who should so
 desire to leave his place and come to see how he fights against those
 foolish men who thought they could overcome the king's power.”

After this proclamation, there was nothing so hard
 to get as a boat, so many were they who wanted to see this. They crossed
 over and went about viewing the dead. All of them supposed that the fallen
 Greeks were all Lacedaemonians and Thespians , though
 helots were also there for them to see.

For all that, however, those who crossed over were not deceived by what
 Xerxes had done with his own dead, for the thing
 was truly ridiculous; of the Persians a thousand
 lay dead before their eyes, but the Greeks lay
 all together assembled in one place, to the number of four thousand.

All that day they spent in observation, and on the next the shipmen returned
 to their fleet at Histiaea while Xerxes ' army set forth on its march.

There had come to them a few deserters, men of +Arcadia [22.25,37.583]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia ,
 lacking a livelihood and desirous to find some service. Bringing these men
 into the king's presence, the Persians inquired
 of them what the Greeks were doing, there being
 one who put this question in the name of all.

When the Arcadians told them that the Greeks were holding the Olympic festival and viewing sports and horseraces, the Persian asked what was the prize offered, for which
 they contended. They told him of the crown of olive that was given to the
 victor. Then Tigranes son of Artabanus uttered a most noble saying (but the king deemed him a
 coward for it);

when he heard that the prize was not money but a crown, he could not hold
 his peace, but cried, “Good heavens, Mardonius ,
 what kind of men are these that you have pitted us against? It is not for
 money they contend but for glory of achievement!” Such was Tigranes ' saying.

In the meantime, immediately after the misfortune at
 +Thermopylae
 [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae , the Thessalians sent a herald to the Phocians , because they bore an old grudge against them and still
 more because of their latest disaster.

Now a few years before the king's expedition, the Thessalians and their allies had invaded +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Phocis with their whole army but had been
 worsted and roughly handled by the Phocians .

When the Phocians were besieged on +Parnassus (mountain), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Parnassus , they had
 with them the diviner Tellias of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus)
 Elis ; Tellias devised a stratagem
 for them: he covered six hundred of the bravest Phocians with gypsum, themselves and their armor, and led them to
 attack the Thessalians by night, bidding them
 slay whomever they should see not whitened.

The Thessalian sentinels were the first to see
 these men and to flee for fear, supposing falsely that it was something
 supernatural, and after the sentinels the whole army fled as well. The Phocians made themselves masters of four thousand
 dead, and their shields, of which they dedicated half at Abai [22.9583,38.5917]
 (Perseus) Abae and the rest at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi .

A tithe of what they won in that fight went to the making of the great
 statues that stand around the tripod in front of the shrine at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , and there are others like them dedicated at Abai [22.9583,38.5917]
 (Perseus) Abae .

This is what the besieged Phocians did with the Thessalian 
 footsoldiers. When the Thessalian horsemen rode
 into their country, the Phocians did them mortal
 harm; they dug a great pit in the pass near +Hyampolis [22.9,38.6] (Perseus)
 Hyampolis and put empty jars inside it. They then covered it
 with earth till all was like the rest of the ground and awaited the onset of
 the Thessalians . These rode on intending to sweep
 the Phocians before them, and fell in among the
 jars, whereby their horses' legs were broken.

These two deeds had never been forgiven by the Thessalians , and now they sent a herald with this
 message: “Men of +Phocis
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Phocis , it is time now that you confess yourselves to be no
 match for us.

We were even formerly preferred to you by the Greeks , as long as we were on their side, and now we bear such
 weight with the foreigner that it lies in our power to have you deprived of
 your lands and to have you enslaved. Nevertheless, although we could easily
 do these things, we bear you no ill-will for the past. Pay us fifty talents
 of silver for what you did, and we promise to turn aside what threatens your
 land.”

This was the Thessalians '
 offer. The Phocians alone of all that region
 would not take the Persians ' side, and that for
 no other reason (if I argue correctly) than their hatred of the Thessalians .

Had the Thessalians aided the Greek side, then the Phocians would
 certainly have stood for the Persians . They
 replied to the offer of the Thessalians that they
 would give no money; they could do as the Thessalians did and take the Persian 
 part, if for any cause they so wished, but they would not willingly betray
 the cause of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas .

When this answer was returned to them, the Thessalians in their wrath against the Phocians began to guide the barbarian on his march.
 From the lands of +Trachis
 [22.55,38.8] (Perseus) Trachis they broke into Doris ; there is a narrow tongue of Dorian land stretching that way, about thirty furlongs wide,
 between the Malian territory and the Phocian , which in old time was Dryopian . This region is the motherland of the Dorians of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese . To this Dorian 
 territory the barbarians did no harm at their invasion, for the people took
 the Persian side, and the Thessalians would not have them harmed.

When they entered +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Phocis from Doris , they could not take the Phocians 
 themselves, for some of the Phocians ascended to
 the heights of +Parnassus
 (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus . The peak of +Parnassus (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Parnassus called +Tithorea [22.6833,38.5833] (Perseus)
 Tithorea , which rises by itself near the town Neon, has room
 enough for a multitude of people. It was there that they carried their goods
 and themselves ascended to it,

but most of them made their way out of the country to the Ozolian Locrians , where the town of +Amphissa [22.3833,38.525]
 (Perseus) Amphissa lies above the Crisaean plain. The barbarians, while the Thessalians so guided their army, overran the whole of +Phocis (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Phocis . All that came within
 their power they laid waste to and burnt, setting fire to towns and temples.

Marching this way down the river Cephisus , they ravaged everything that lay in their way, burning
 the towns of Drymus , +Charadra [20.9917,39.1667] (Perseus)
 Charadra , Erochus , Tethronium , Amphicaea ,
 Neon , Pediea , Tritea , Elatea , +Hyampolis [22.9,38.6]
 (Perseus) Hyampolis , Parapotamii , and Abai
 [22.9583,38.5917] (Perseus) Abae , where there was a richly
 endowed temple of Apollo , provided with wealth of
 treasure and offerings. There was also then as now a place of divination at
 this place. This temple, too, they plundered and burnt, and they pursued and
 caught some of the Phocians near the mountains.
 Certain women too perished because of the multitude of their violators.

Passing Parapotamii , the
 foreigners came to Panopea . There their army
 parted into two companies. The greater and stronger part of the host marched
 with Xerxes himself towards Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens and broke into the territory of Orkhomenos (deserted settlement),
 Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Orchomenus in Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Boeotia . Now the whole population of Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia took the Persian side, and men of Macedonia (region (general)), Europe Macedonia sent
 by Alexander safeguarded their towns, each in his
 appointed place; the reason of the safeguarding was that Xerxes should see that the Boeotians 
 were on the Persian side.

So this part of the barbarian army marched as I have
 said, and others set forth with guides for the temple at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , keeping 
 +Parnassus (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus on their right. These, too, laid waste to every
 part of +Phocis (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Phocis which
 they occupied, burning the towns of the Panopeans 
 and Daulii and Aeolidae .

The purpose of their parting from the rest of the army and marching this way
 was that they might plunder the temple at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi 
 and lay its wealth before Xerxes , who (as I have
 been told) had better knowledge of the most notable possessions in the
 temple than of what he had left in his own palace, chiefly the offerings of
 Croesus son of Alyattes ; so many had always spoken of them.

When the Delphians 
 learned all this, they were very much afraid, and in their great fear they
 inquired of the oracle whether they should bury the sacred treasure in the
 ground or take it away to another country. The god told them to move
 nothing, saying that he was able to protect what belonged to him.

Upon hearing that, the Delphians took thought for
 themselves. They sent their children and women overseas to +Achaea [21.75,38.25] (department),
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Achaia . Most of the men went
 up to the peaks of +Parnassus
 (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus and carried their goods into the Corycian cave, but some escaped to +Amphissa [22.3833,38.525]
 (Perseus) Amphissa in +Lokris (region (general)), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Locris . In short, all the Delphians left the town save sixty men and the
 prophet.

Now when the barbarians drew near and could see the
 temple, the prophet, whose name was Aceratus , saw
 certain sacred arms, which no man might touch without sacrilege, brought out
 of the chamber within and laid before the shrine.

So he went to tell the Delphians of this miracle,
 but when the barbarians came with all speed near to the temple of Athena Pronaea , they were visited by miracles yet
 greater than the aforesaid. Marvellous indeed it is, that weapons of war
 should of their own motion appear lying outside in front of the shrine, but
 the visitation which followed was more wondrous than anything else ever
 seen.

When the barbarians were near to the temple of Athena
 Pronaea , they were struck by thunderbolts from the sky, and two
 peaks broken off from +Parnassus
 (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus came rushing among them with a mighty noise and
 overwhelmed many of them. In addition to this a shout and a cry of triumph
 were heard from the temple of Athena .

All of this together struck panic into the
 barbarians, and the Delphians , perceiving that
 they fled, descended upon them and killed a great number. The survivors fled
 straight to Boeotia (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia . Those
 of the barbarians who returned said (as I have been told) that they had seen
 other divine signs besides what I have just described: two men-at-arms of
 stature greater than human,they said, had come after them, slaying and
 pursuing.

These two, say the Delphians , were the native heroes Phylacus and Autonous , whose precincts
 are near the temple, Phylacus ' by the road itself
 above the shrine of Athena Pronaea , and Autonous ' near the Castalian spring, under the Hyarapean
 Peak .

The rocks that fell from 
 +Parnassus (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus were yet to be seen in my day, lying in the
 precinct of Athena Pronaea , from where their
 descent through the foreigners' ranks had hurled them. Such, then, was the
 manner of those men's departure from the temple.

At the request of the Athenians , the fleet of the Hellenes 
 came from +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium and put in at
 Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis . The
 Athenians requested them to put in at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis so that they
 take their children and women out of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica and also take counsel what they
 should do. They had been disappointed in their plans, so they were going to
 hold a council about the current state of affairs.

They expected to find the entire population of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese in Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Boeotia awaiting the barbarian, but they found no such
 thing. They learned that they were fortifying the Isthmus instead and
 considered the defense of the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese the most important thing, disregarding all the
 rest. When the Athenians learned this, they asked
 the fleet to put in at Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis .

While the others put in at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis , the Athenians landed in their own country. When they arrived, they
 made a proclamation that every Athenian should
 save his children and servants as he best could. Thereupon most of them sent
 the members of their households to Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) Troezen , and some to
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina and Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis .

They were anxious to get everything out safely because they wished to obey
 the oracle, and also not least because of this: the Athenians say that a great snake lives in the sacred precinct
 guarding the acropolis. They say this and even put out monthly offerings for
 it as if it really existed. The monthly offering is a honey-cake.

In all the time before this the honey-cake had been consumed, but this time
 it was untouched. When the priestess interpreted the significance of this,
 the Athenians were all the more eager to abandon
 the city since the goddess had deserted the acropolis. When they had removed
 everything to safety, they returned to the camp.

When those from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium had put in at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis , the rest of the Hellenic fleet learned of this and streamed in from
 Troizen [23.375,37.5]
 (Perseus) Troezen , for they had been commanded to assemble
 at Pogon , the harbor of Troizen [23.375,37.5]
 (Perseus) Troezen . Many more ships assembled now than had
 fought at +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , and from more
 cities.

The admiral was the same as at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium , Eurybiades son of Euryclides , a Spartan but
 not of royal descent. The ships provided by the Athenians were by far the most numerous and the most seaworthy.

The following took part in the war: from the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Peloponnese , the Lacedaemonians provided sixteen ships; the Corinthians the same number as at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium ; the Sicyonians 
 furnished fifteen ships, the Epidaurians ten, the
 Troezenians five, the Hermioneans three. All of these except the Hermioneans are Dorian and Macedonian and had last come from Erineus and Pindus and the Dryopian region. The Hermioneans are Dryopians , driven out
 of the country now called Doris by Herakles and the Malians .

These, then, were the Peloponnesians who took part in the war. From the mainland
 outside the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese came the
 following: the Athenians provided more than all
 the rest, one hundred and eighty ships. They provided these alone, since the
 Plataeans did not fight with the Athenians at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis for this reason: when the Hellenes departed from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium and were off +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667]
 (Perseus) Chalcis , the Plataeans landed on the opposite shore of Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia and attended to the removal of
 their households. In bringing these to safety they were left behind.

The Athenians , while the Pelasgians ruled what is now called Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ,
 were Pelasgians , bearing the name of Cranai . When Cecrops was
 their king they were called Cecropidae , and when
 Erechtheus succeeded to the rule, they changed
 their name and became Athenians . When, however,
 Ion son of Xuthus was commander of the Athenian army, they were called after him Ionians .

The Megarians provided
 the same number as at 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium . The
 Ampraciots came to help with seven ships, and
 the Leucadians , who are Dorians from Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth , with
 three.

Of the islanders, the Aeginetans provided thirty ships. They had other manned ships,
 but they guarded their own land with these and fought at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis with the thirty
 most seaworthy. The Aeginetans are Dorians from Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) Epidaurus , and their island was formerly called
 Oenone .

After the Aeginetans came the Chalcidians with their twenty ships from +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083]
 (Perseus) Artemisium , and the Eretrians with the same seven; these are Ionians . Next were the Ceans , Ionians from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , with the
 same ships as before.

The Naxians provided four ships. They had been
 sent by their fellow citizens to the Persians ,
 like the rest of the islanders, but they disregarded their orders and came
 to the Hellenes at the urging of Democritus , an esteemed man among the townsmen and at
 that time captain of a trireme. The Naxians are
 Ionians descended from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

The Styrians provided the same number of ships as
 at +Artemisium
 [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , and the Cythnians one trireme and a fifty-oared boat; these
 are both Dryopians . The Seriphians , Siphnians , and Melians also took part, since they were the only
 islanders who had not given earth and water to the barbarian.

All these people who live this side of +Nomo Thesprotias [20.333,39.5]
 (department), Epirus, Greece, Europe Thesprotia and the
 Acheron river took part in the war. The Thesprotians border on the Ampraciots and Leucadians , who were
 the ones who came from the most distant countries to take part in the war.
 The only ones living beyond these to help Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas in
 its danger were the Crotonians , with one ship.
 Its captain was Phayllus , three times victor in the
 Pythian games. The Crotonians are Achaeans by birth.

All of these came to the war providing triremes,
 except the Melians and Siphnians and Seriphians , who brought
 fifty-oared boats. The Melians (who are of Lacedaemonian stock) provided two; the Siphnians and Seriphians ,
 who are Ionians from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 one each. The total number of ships, besides the fifty-oared boats, was
 three hundred and seventy-eight.

When the generals from the aforementioned cities,
 met at Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , they
 held a council and Eurybiades proposed that whoever
 wanted to should give his opinion on what place under their control was most
 suitable for a sea battle. Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica was already lost, and he proposed that they consider
 the places which were left.

The consensus of most of the speakers was to sail to the Isthmus and fight
 at sea for the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , giving
 this reason: if they were defeated in the fight at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis they would be besieged on an
 island, where no help could come to them, but if they were at the Isthmus
 they could go ashore to their own lands.

While the generals from the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese considered this argument, an Athenian came with the message that the barbarians had reached
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica and were destroying all of it by fire.

The army with Xerxes had made its way through Boeotia (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia and burnt the city of
 the Thespians , who had abandoned it and gone to
 the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , and Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea likewise. Now the army had come to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens and was devastating everything there. The
 army burnt Thespia and Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea 
 upon learning from the Thebans that they had not
 medized.

Since the crossing of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont , where the barbarians began their
 journey, they had spent one month there crossing into Europe (continent) Europe 
 and in three more months were in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica , when Calliades was archon at Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

When they took the town it was deserted, but in the sacred precinct they
 found a few Athenians , stewards of the sacred
 precinct and poor people, who defended themselves against the assault by
 fencing the acropolis with doors and logs. They had not withdrawn to Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis not only because
 of poverty but also because they thought they had discovered the meaning of
 the oracle the Pythia had given, namely that the
 wooden wall would be impregnable. They believed that according to the oracle
 this, not the ships, was the refuge.

The Persians took up a
 position on the hill opposite the acropolis, which the Athenians call the Areopagus , and
 besieged them in this way: they wrapped arrows in tar and set them on fire,
 and then shot them at the barricade. Still the besieged Athenians defended themselves, although they had come to the
 utmost danger and their barricade had failed them.

When the Pisistratids proposed terms of surrender,
 they would not listen but contrived defenses such as rolling down boulders
 onto the barbarians when they came near the gates. For a long time Xerxes was at a loss, unable to capture them.

In time a way out of their difficulties was revealed
 to the barbarians, since according to the oracle all the mainland of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica had to
 become subject to the Persians . In front of the
 acropolis, and behind the gates and the ascent, was a place where no one was
 on guard, since no one thought any man could go up that way. Here some men
 climbed up, near the sacred precinct of Cecrops '
 daughter Aglaurus , although the place was a sheer
 cliff.

When the Athenians saw that they had ascended to
 the acropolis, some threw themselves off the wall and were killed, and
 others fled into the chamber. The Persians who
 had come up first turned to the gates, opened them, and murdered the
 suppliants. When they had levelled everything, they plundered the sacred
 precinct and set fire to the entire acropolis.

So it was that Xerxes took
 complete possession of Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , and he sent a horseman
 to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa to announce his present
 success to Artabanus . On the day after the
 messenger was sent, he called together the Athenian exiles who accompanied him and asked them go up to the
 acropolis and perform sacrifices in their customary way, an order given
 because he had been inspired by a dream or because he felt remorse after
 burning the sacred precinct. The Athenian exiles
 did as they were commanded.

I will tell why I have mentioned this. In that
 acropolis is a shrine of Erechtheus , called the
 “ Earthborn ,” and in the shrine are an olive tree
 and a pool of salt water. The story among the Athenians is that they were set there by Poseidon and Athena as tokens when they
 contended for the land. It happened that the olive tree was burnt by the
 barbarians with the rest of the sacred precinct, but on the day after its
 burning, when the Athenians ordered by the king
 to sacrifice went up to the sacred precinct, they saw a shoot of about a
 cubit's length sprung from the stump, and they reported this.

When this business concerning the Athenian acropolis was announced to the Hellenes at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , some of the Peloponnesian generals became so alarmed that they did not even
 wait for the proposed matter to be decided, but jumped into their ships and
 hoisted their sails for flight. Those left behind resolved that the fleet
 should fight for the Isthmus. Night fell, and they dissolved the assembly
 and boarded their ships.

When Themistocles returned
 to his ship, Mnesiphilus , an Athenian , asked him what had been decided. Learning from him that
 they had resolved to sail to the Isthmus and fight for the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Peloponnese , he said,

“If they depart from Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , you will no longer be fighting for one
 country. Each will make his way to his own city, and neither Eurybiades nor any other man will be able to keep them
 from disbanding the army. Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas will be destroyed by bad
 planning. If there is any way at all that you could persuade Eurybiades to change his decision and remain here, go
 try to undo this resolution.”

This advice greatly pleased Themistocles . He made no answer and went to the ship of Eurybiades . When he arrived there, he said he wanted
 to talk with him on a matter of common interest, so Eurybiades bade him come aboard and say what he wanted.

Themistocles sat next to him and told him all that
 he had heard from Mnesiphilus , pretending it was
 his own idea and adding many other things. Finally by his entreaty he
 persuaded him to disembark and gather the generals for a council of war.

When they were assembled and before Eurybiades had a chance to put forward the reason he
 had called the generals together, Themistocles 
 spoke at length in accordance with the urgency of his request. While he was
 speaking, the Corinthian general Adeimantus son of Ocytus 
 said, “ Themistocles , at the games those who start
 before the signal are beaten with rods.” Themistocles said in justification, “Those left behind win no
 crown.”

He answered the Corinthian mildly and said to Eurybiades 
 nothing of what he had said before, how if they put out from Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis they would flee
 different ways, for it would be unbecoming for him to accuse the allies in
 their presence. Instead he relied on a different argument and said,

“It is in your hands to save Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , if you will
 obey me and remain here to fight, and not obey the words of these others and
 move your ships back to the Isthmus. Compare each plan after you have heard.
 If you join battle at the Isthmus, you will fight in the open sea where it
 is least to our advantage, since our ships are heavier and fewer in number.
 You will also lose Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis and +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus) Megara and +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , even if we succeed in all else. Their land army will
 accompany their fleet, and so you will lead them to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Peloponnese and risk all Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

But if you do what I say, you will find it useful in these ways: first, by
 engaging many ships with our few in the strait, we shall win a great
 victory, if the war turns out reasonably, for it is to our advantage to
 fight in a strait and to their advantage to fight in a wide area. Second,
 Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis will
 survive, where we have carried our children and women to safety. It also has
 in it something you are very fond of: by remaining here you will be fighting
 for the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese just as much as at
 the Isthmus, and you will not lead them to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , if you exercise good judgment.

If what I expect happens and we win the victory with our ships, you will not
 have the barbarians upon you at the Isthmus. They will advance no further
 than Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica and depart in no order, and we shall gain an
 advantage by the survival of 
 +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus) Megara , +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , and 
 Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , where it is prophesied that we will
 prevail against our enemies. Men usually succeed when they have reasonable
 plans. If their plans are unreasonable, the god does not wish to assent to
 human intentions.”

As Themistocles said this,
 Adeimantus the Corinthian attacked him again, advising that a man without a city
 should keep quiet and that Eurybiades should not
 ask the vote of a man without a city. He advised Themistocles to contribute his opinion when he provided a
 city—attacking him in this way because Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 was captured and occupied.

This time Themistocles said many things against
 him and the Corinthians , declaring that so long
 as they had two hundred manned ships, the Athenians had both a city and a land greater than theirs, and
 that none of the Hellenes could repel them if
 they attacked.

Next he turned his argument to Eurybiades , saying more vehemently than before, “If you remain
 here, you will be an noble man. If not, you will ruin Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . All our strength for war is in our ships, so
 listen to me.

If you do not do this, we will immediately gather up our households and
 travel to +Siris
 [15.6333,40.0667] (Perseus) Siris in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation),
 Europe Italy , which has been ours since ancient times,
 and the prophecies say we must found a colony there. You will remember these
 words when you are without such allies.”

When Themistocles said
 this, Eurybiades changed his mind. I think he did
 so chiefly out of fear that the Athenians might
 desert them if they set sail for the Isthmus. If the Athenians left, the rest would be no match for the enemy, so he
 made the choice to remain there and fight.

After this skirmish of words, since Eurybiades had so resolved, the men at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis prepared to
 fight where they were. At sunrise on the next day there was an earthquake on
 land and sea,

and they resolved to pray to the gods and summon the sons of Aeacus as allies. When they had so resolved, they did
 as follows: they prayed to all the gods, called Ajax and Telamon to come straight from
 Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , and
 sent a ship to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina for Aeacus and his sons.

Dicaeus son of Theocydes ,
 an Athenian exile who had become important among
 the Medes , said that at the time when the land of
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica was being laid waste by Xerxes ' army and there were no Athenians in the country, he was with Demaratus the Lacedaemonian on the
 Thriasian plain and saw advancing from +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis a cloud of dust as if raised by the
 feet of about thirty thousand men. They marvelled at what men might be
 raising such a cloud of dust and immediately heard a cry. The cry seemed to
 be the “ Iacchus ” of the mysteries,

and when Demaratus , ignorant of the rites of +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis , asked him what was making this sound,
 Dicaeus said, “ Demaratus , there is no way that some great disaster will not
 befall the king's army. Since Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica is deserted, it is obvious that
 this voice is divine and comes from +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis to
 help the Athenians and their allies.

If it descends upon the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , the king himself and his army on the mainland
 will be endangered. If, however, it turns towards the ships at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , the king will
 be in danger of losing his fleet.

Every year the Athenians observe this festival
 for the Mother and the Maiden, and any Athenian 
 or other Hellene who wishes is initiated. The
 voice which you hear is the ‘ Iacchus ’ they cry at
 this festival.” To this Demaratus replied, “Keep
 silent and tell this to no one else.

If these words of yours are reported to the king, you will lose your head,
 and neither I nor any other man will be able to save you, so be silent. The
 gods will see to the army.”

Thus he advised, and after the dust and the cry came a cloud, which rose
 aloft and floated away towards 
 Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis to the camp of the Hellenes . In this way they understood that Xerxes ' fleet was going to be destroyed. Dicaeus son of Theocydes used to say
 this, appealing to Demaratus and others as
 witnesses.

When those stationed with Xerxes ' fleet had been to see the Laconian disaster at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae ,
 they crossed over from 
 +Trachis [22.55,38.8] (Perseus) Trachis to Histiaea , waited three days, and then sailed through
 the Euripus , and in three more days they were at
 Phalerum , the port of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens . I think no less a number invaded Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens by land and sea than came to Sepias and
 +Thermopylae
 [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae .

Those killed by the storm, at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus) Thermopylae ,
 and in the naval battles at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium , I offset with those who did not yet follow the
 king: the Melians and Dorians and Locrians and the whole
 force of Boeotia (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia except
 the Thespians and Plataeans ; and the Carystians and
 Andrians and Teneans and all the rest of the islanders, except the five cities
 whose names I previously mentioned. The farther into Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas the
 Persian advanced, the more nations followed
 him.

All these came to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 except the Parians . The Parians stayed behind in Cythnus 
 watching to see which way the war turned out. When the rest of them reached
 Phalerum , Xerxes 
 himself went down to the ships, wishing to mix with the sailors and hear
 their opinions.

He came and sat on his throne, and present at his summons were the tyrants
 of all the peoples and the company leaders from the fleet. They sat
 according to the honor which the king had granted each of them, first the
 king of +Sidon [35.366,33.55]
 (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon , then
 the king of +Tyre [35.183,33.266]
 (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre , then the
 rest. When they sat in order one after another, Xerxes sent Mardonius to test each by
 asking if they should fight at sea.

Mardonius went about questioning them, starting
 with the Sidonian , and all the others were
 unanimous, advising to fight at sea, but Artemisia 
 said,

“Tell the king, Mardonius , that I, who neither was
 most cowardly in the sea battles off +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea nor performed the least
 feats of arms, say this: ‘Master, it is just for me to declare my real
 opinion, what I consider to be best for your cause. And I say to you this:
 spare your ships, and do not fight at sea. Their men are as much stronger
 than your men by sea as men are stronger than women.

Why is it so necessary for you to risk everything by fighting at sea? Do you
 not possess Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , for which you set out
 on this march, and do you not have the rest of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ? No
 one stands in your way. Those who opposed you have received what they
 deserved.

I will tell you how I think the affairs of your enemies will turn out: If
 you do not hurry to fight at sea, but keep your ships here and stay near
 land, or even advance into the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , then, my lord, you will easily accomplish what
 you had in mind on coming here.

The Hellenes are not able to hold out against you
 for a long time, but you will scatter them, and they will each flee to their
 own cities. I have learned that they have no food on this island, and it is
 not likely, if you lead your army against the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , that those of them who have come from there
 will sit still, nor will they care to fight at sea for Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

But if you hurry to fight at sea immediately, I fear that your fleet if
 reduced to cowardice may also injure your army on land. In addition, my
 King, take this to heart: Good people's slaves tend to be base, and the
 slaves of the base tend to be good. You, who are best among men, have base
 slaves, who are accounted your allies, the Egyptians and Cyprians and Cilicians and Pamphylians , who are of no use at all.’”

When she said this to Mardonius , all who were well disposed towards Artemisia lamented her words, thinking she would suffer some ill
 from the king because she advised against fighting at sea. Those who were
 jealous and envied her, because she was given honor among the chief of all
 the allies, were glad at her answer, thinking she would be killed.

But when the counsels were reported to Xerxes , he
 was greatly pleased by Artemisia 's opinion. Even
 before this he had considered her of excellent character, and now he praised
 her much more highly. Still he ordered that the majority be obeyed, for he
 believed that at +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea they had purposely fought badly
 because he was not there. This time he had made preparations to see the
 battle in person.

When the command to put out to sea was given, they
 set sail for Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis 
 and were calmly marshalled in line. There was not enough daylight left for
 them to fight, since night came on, so they made preparations for the next
 day.

Fear and dread possessed the Hellenes ,
 especially those from the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese . They were afraid because they were stationed in
 Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis and were
 about to fight at sea on behalf of the land of the Athenians , and if they were defeated they would be trapped on an
 island and besieged, leaving their own land unguarded.

That very night the land army of the barbarians
 began marching to the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese . Yet every possible device had been used to
 prevent the barbarians from invading by the mainland. As soon as the Peloponnesians learned that Leonidas and his men at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae were dead, they ran together from their cities
 and took up their position at the Isthmus. Their general was Cleombrotus son of Anaxandrides , the brother of Leonidas .

When they were in position at the Isthmus, they demolished the Scironian road and then, after resolving in council,
 built a wall across the Isthmus. Since there were many tens of thousands and
 everyone worked, the task was completed, as they brought in stones and
 bricks and logs and baskets full of sand. At no moment of the day or night
 did those who had marched out there rest from their work.

These were the Hellenes 
 who marched out in a body to the Isthmus: the Lacedaemonians and all the Arcadians ,
 the Eleans and Corinthians and Sicyonians and Epidaurians and Phliasians and Troezenians and Hermioneans . These were the ones who marched out and
 feared for Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas in her peril. The rest of the
 Peloponnesians cared nothing, though the
 Olympian and Carnean festivals were now past.

Seven nations inhabit the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese . Two of these are aboriginal and are now settled
 in the land where they lived in the old days, the Arcadians and Cynurians . One nation,
 the Achaean , has never left the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Peloponnese , but it has left its own
 country and inhabits another nation's land.

The four remaining nations of the seven are immigrants, the Dorians and Aetolians and
 Dryopians and Lemnians . The Dorians have many famous
 cities, the Aetolians only +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus)
 Elis , the Dryopians 
 Hermione and +Asine [22.8833,37.525] (Perseus) Asine 
 near Laconian Cardamyle , the Lemnians all the Paroreatae .

The Cynurians are aboriginal and seem to be the
 only Ionians , but they have been Dorianized by
 time and by Argive rule. They are the Orneatae and the perioikoi. All the remaining cities
 of these seven nations, except those I enumerated, stayed neutral. If I may
 speak freely, by staying neutral they medized.

Those at the Isthmus were involved in so great a
 labor, since all they had was at stake and they did not expect the ships to
 win distinction. Those at Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis heard of their labors but still were full of
 dread, fearing not for themselves but for the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese .

For a time each man talked quietly to his neighbor, wondering at Eurybiades ' folly, but finally it came out into the
 open. They held an assembly and talked at length on the same matters as
 before: some said they must sail away to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese and risk battle for that country, not stay and
 fight for a captured land; but the Athenians and
 Aeginetans and Megarians said they must stay and defend themselves.

When the Peloponnesians 
 were outvoting him, Themistocles secretly left the
 assembly, and sent a man by boat to the Median fleet after ordering him what
 to say. His name was Sicinnus , and he was Themistocles ' servant and his sons' attendant. Later
 Themistocles enrolled him as a Thespian , when the Thespians were adopting citizens, and made him wealthy with
 money.

He now came by boat and said to the generals of the barbarians, “The Athenian general has sent me without the knowledge
 of the other Hellenes . He is on the king's side
 and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes '. I am to tell you that the Hellenes are terrified and plan flight, and you can now perform
 the finest deed of all if you do not allow them to escape.

They do not all have the same intent, and they will no longer oppose you.
 Instead you will see them fighting against themselves, those who are on your
 side against those who are not.” After indicating this to them he departed.

Finding the message credible, they first landed many
 of the Persians on the islet of Psyttalea , which lies between Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis and the mainland. When it was
 midnight, they brought their western wing in a circle towards Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , and those
 stationed at +Kea [24.366,37.566]
 (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Ceos 
 and Cynosura also put out to sea, occupying all
 the passage as far as Munychia with their ships.

They launched their ships in this way so that the Hellenes would have no escape: they would be trapped at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis and pay the
 penalty for the battles at 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium . The
 purpose of their landing Persians on the islet
 called Psyttalea was this: when the battle took
 place, it was chiefly there that the men and wrecks would be washed ashore,
 for the island lay in the path of the impending battle. The Persians would be able to save some of those who
 washed up and kill the others.

They did this in silence for fear that their enemies hear, making their
 preparations at night without sleep.

I cannot say against oracles that they are not true,
 and I do not wish to try to discredit them when they speak plainly. Look at
 the following matter: 
 When the sacred headland of golden-sworded Artemis and Cynosura 
 by the sea they bridge with ships, 
 After sacking shiny Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens in
 mad hope, 
 Divine Justice will extinguish mighty Greed the son of Insolence 
 Lusting terribly, thinking to devour all.

Bronze will come together with bronze, and Ares 
 
 Will redden the sea with blood. To Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas the day of freedom 
 Far-seeing Zeus and august Victory will
 bring. 
 
 Considering this, I dare to say nothing against
 Bacis concerning oracles when he speaks so
 plainly, nor will I consent to it by others.

Among the generals at Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis there was fierce argument. They did
 not yet know that the barbarians had encircled them with their ships,
 supposing them still marshalled in the place where they had seen them by
 day.

As the generals disputed, Aristides son of Lysimachus , an Athenian , crossed over from +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina,
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina .
 Although he had been ostracized by the people, I, learning by inquiry of his
 character, have come to believe that he was the best and most just man in
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .

This man stood at the assembly and called Themistocles out, although he was no friend of his, but his
 bitter enemy. Because of the magnitude of the present ills, he deliberately
 forgot all that and called him out, wanting to talk to him. He had already
 heard that those from the 
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese were anxious to set sail for the Isthmus,

so when Themistocles came out he said, “On all
 occasions and especially now our contention must be over which of us will do
 our country more good.

I say that it is all the same for the Peloponnesians to speak much or little about sailing away from
 here, for I have seen with my own eyes that even if the Corinthians and Eurybiades himself
 wanted to, they would not be able to escape. We are encircled by the enemy.
 Go in and indicate this to them.”

Themistocles answered, “Your exhortation is most
 useful and you bring good news. You have come as an eyewitness of just what
 I wanted to happen. Know that I am the cause of what the Medes are doing. When the Hellenes 
 would not willingly enter battle, it was necessary to force them against
 their will. Since you have come bringing good news, tell it to them
 yourself.

If I say these things, they will think I invented it, and they will not
 believe that the barbarians are doing this. Go in yourself and let them know
 how it stands. It would be best if they believe you when you tell them, but
 if they find these things incredible it is all the same to us. They will not
 be able to run away, if indeed we are surrounded on all sides as you say.”

Aristides went in and told them, saying that he had
 come from +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina and had barely made it past the blockade
 when he sailed out, since all the Hellenic camp
 was surrounded by Xerxes ' ships. He advised them to
 prepare to defend themselves. He said this and left, and again a dispute
 arose among them. The majority of the generals did not believe the news.

While they were still held by disbelief, a trireme
 of Tenian deserters arrived, captained by Panaetius son of Sosimenes ,
 which brought them the whole truth. For this deed the Tenians were engraved on the tripod at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi 
 with those who had conquered the barbarian.

With this ship that deserted at 
 Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis and the Lemnian 
 which deserted earlier at 
 +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus) Artemisium , the
 Hellenic fleet reached its full number of
 three hundred and eighty ships, for it had fallen short of the number by two
 ships.

When they found the words of the Tenians worthy of belief, the Hellenes 
 prepared to fight at sea. As dawn glimmered, they held an assembly of the
 fighting men, and Themistocles gave the best
 address among the others. His entire speech involved comparing the better
 and lesser elements in human nature and the human condition.

He concluded his speech by advising them to choose the better of these, then
 gave the command to mount the ships. Just as they embarked, the trireme
 which had gone after the sons of Aeacus arrived
 from +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina .

Then the Hellenes set
 sail with all their ships, and as they were putting out to sea the
 barbarians immediately attacked them. The rest of the Hellenes began to back water and tried to beach their ships, but
 Ameinias of +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus)
 Pallene , an Athenian , charged and
 rammed a ship. When his ship became entangled and the crew could not free
 it, the others came to help Ameinias and joined
 battle.

The Athenians say that the fighting at sea began
 this way, but the Aeginetans say that the ship
 which had been sent to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina after the sons of Aeacus was the one that started it. The story is also
 told that the phantom of a woman appeared to them, who cried commands loud
 enough for all the Hellenic fleet to hear,
 reproaching them first with, “Men possessed, how long will you still be
 backing water?”

The Phoenicians were
 marshalled against the Athenians , holding the
 western wing toward +Eleusis
 [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis . Against the Lacedaemonians were the Ionians , on the eastern wing toward +Piraeus [23.6583,37.9583] (Perseus)
 Piraeus , and a few of them fought badly according to Themistocles ' instructions, but the majority did not.

I can list the names of many captains who captured Hellenic ships, but I will mention none except Theomestor son of Androdamas and Phylacus son of Histiaeus ,
 both Samians .

I mention only these because Theomestor was
 appointed tyrant of +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos by the Persians for this
 feat, and Phylacus was recorded as a benefactor of
 the king and granted much land. The king's benefactors are called
 “orosangae” in the Persian language.

Thus it was concerning them. But the majority of the
 ships at Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis 
 were sunk, some destroyed by the Athenians , some
 by the Aeginetans . Since the Hellenes fought in an orderly fashion by line, but the barbarians
 were no longer in position and did nothing with forethought, it was likely
 to turn out as it did. Yet they were brave that day, much more brave than
 they had been at +Euboea
 [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Euboea , for they all showed zeal out of
 fear of Xerxes , each one thinking that the king was
 watching him.

I cannot say exactly how each of the other
 barbarians or Hellenes fought, but this is what
 happened to Artemisia , and it gave her still higher
 esteem with the king:

When the king's side was all in commotion, at that time Artemisia 's ship was pursued by a ship of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica . She could not escape, for
 other allied ships were in front of her and hers was the nearest to the
 enemy. So she resolved to do something which did in fact benefit her: as she
 was pursued by the Attic ship, she charged and rammed an allied ship, with a
 Calyndian crew and Damasithymus himself, king of the Calyndians , aboard.

I cannot say if she had some quarrel with him while they were still at the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , or whether
 she did this intentionally or if the ship of the Calyndians fell in her path by chance.

But when she rammed and sank it, she had the luck of gaining two advantages.
 When the captain of the Attic ship saw her ram a ship with a barbarian crew,
 he decided that Artemisia 's ship was either Hellenic or a deserter from the barbarians fighting
 for them, so he turned away to deal with others.

Thus she happened to escape and not be destroyed,
 and it also turned out that the harmful thing which she had done won her
 exceptional esteem from Xerxes .

It is said that the king, as he watched the battle, saw her ship ram the
 other, and one of the bystanders said, “Master, do you see how well Artemisia contends in the contest and how she has sunk
 an enemy ship?” When he asked if the deed was truly Artemisia 's, they affirmed it, knowing reliably the marking of
 her ship, and they supposed that the ruined ship was an enemy.

As I have said, all this happened to bring her luck, and also that no one
 from the Calyndian ship survived to accuse her.
 It is said that Xerxes replied to what was told
 him, “My men have become women, and my women men.” They say this is what
 Xerxes said.

In this struggle the general Ariabignes died, son of Darius and the
 brother of Xerxes . Many other famous men of the
 Persians and Medes 
 and other allies also died, but only a few Hellenes , since they knew how to swim. Those whose ships were
 sunk swam across to Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , unless they were killed in action,

but many of the barbarians drowned in the sea since they did not know how
 to swim. Most of the ships were sunk when those in the front turned to flee,
 since those marshalled in the rear, as they tried to go forward with their
 ships so they too could display some feat to the king, ran afoul of their
 own side's ships in flight.

It also happened in this commotion that certain
 Phoenicians whose ships had been destroyed
 came to the king and accused the Ionians of
 treason, saying that it was by their doing that the ships had been lost. It
 turned out that the Ionian generals were not put
 to death, and those Phoenicians who slandered
 them were rewarded as I will show.

While they were still speaking, a Samothracian 
 ship rammed an Attic ship. The Attic ship sank
 and an Aeginetan ship bore down and sank the
 Samothracian ship, but the Samothracians , being javelin-throwers, by pelting them with
 missiles knocked the fighters off the ship that had sunk theirs and boarded
 and seized it.

This saved the Ionians . In his deep vexation
 Xerxes blamed everyone. When he saw the Ionians performing this great feat, he turned to the
 Phoenicians and commanded that their heads be
 cut off, so that they who were base not slander men more noble.

Whenever Xerxes , as he sat beneath the mountain
 opposite Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis 
 which is called Aegaleos , saw one of his own men
 achieve some feat in the battle, he inquired who did it, and his scribes
 wrote down the captain's name with his father and city of residence. The
 presence of Ariaramnes , a Persian and a friend of the Ionians ,
 contributed still more to this calamity of the Phoenicians . Thus they dealt with the Phoenicians .

The barbarians were routed and tried to flee by
 sailing out to Phalerum , but the Aeginetans lay in wait for them in the strait and
 then performed deeds worth telling. The Athenians 
 in the commotion destroyed those ships which either resisted or tried to
 flee, the Aeginetans those sailing out of the
 strait. Whoever escaped from the Athenians 
 charged right into the Aeginetans .

The ships of Themistocles ,
 as he was pursuing a ship, and of Polycritus son of
 Crius , an Aeginetan ,
 then met. Polycritus had rammed a Sidonian ship, the one which had captured the Aeginetan ship that was on watch off Sciathus , and on it was Pytheas son of Ischenous , the one the
 Persians marvelled at when severely wounded
 and kept aboard their ship because of his virtue. This Sidonian ship carrying him with the Persians was now captured, so Pytheas 
 came back safe to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina .

When Polycritus saw the Attic ship, he recognized
 it by seeing the flagship's marking and shouted to Themistocles , mocking and reproaching him concerning the Medizing
 of the Aeginetans . After ramming an enemy ship,
 Polycritus hurled these insults at Themistocles . The barbarians whose ships were still
 intact fled and reached Phalerum under cover of
 the land army.

In this battle the Hellenes with the reputation as most courageous were the Aeginetans , then the Athenians . Among individuals they were Polycritus the Aeginetan and the Athenians 
 Eumenes of Anagyrus and
 Aminias of +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus)
 Pallene , the one who pursued Artemisia . If he had known she was in that ship, he would not
 have stopped before either capturing it or being captured himself.

Such were the orders given to the Athenian 
 captains, and there was a prize offered of ten thousand drachmas to whoever
 took her alive, since they were indignant that a woman waged war against
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens . But she escaped, as I said earlier, and
 the others whose ships survived were also in Phalerum .

The Athenians say that
 when the ships joined battle, the Corinthian 
 general Adeimantus , struck with bewilderment and
 terror, hoisted his sails and fled away. When the Corinthians saw their flagship fleeing, they departed in the same
 way,

but when in their flight they were opposite the sacred precinct of Athena Sciras on Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , by divine guidance a boat encountered
 them. No one appeared to have sent it, and the Corinthians knew nothing about the affairs of the fleet when it
 approached. They reckon the affair to involve the gods because when the boat
 came near the ships, the people on the boat said,

“ Adeimantus , you have turned your ships to flight
 and betrayed the Hellenes , but they are
 overcoming their enemies to the fulfillment of their prayers for victory.”
 Adeimantus did not believe them when they said
 this, so they spoke again, saying that they could be taken as hostages and
 killed if the Hellenes were not seen to be
 victorious.

So he and the others turned their ships around and came to the fleet, but it
 was all over. The Athenians spread this rumor
 about them, but the Corinthians do not agree at
 all, and they consider themselves to have been among the foremost in the
 battle. The rest of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas bears them witness.

Aristides son of Lysimachus , the Athenian whom I
 mentioned a little before this as a valiant man, did this in the commotion
 that arose at Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis :
 taking many of the armed men who were arrayed along the shore of Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , he brought them
 across and landed them on the island of Psyttalea ,
 and they slaughtered all the Persians who were on
 that islet.

When the battle was broken off, the Hellenes towed to Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis as many of the wrecks as were still
 there and kept ready for another battle, supposing that the king could still
 make use of his surviving ships.

A west wind had caught many of the wrecks and carried them to the shore in
 Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica called Colias . Thus not
 only was all the rest of the oracle fulfilled which Bacis and Musaeus had spoken about this
 battle, but also what had been said many years before this in an oracle by
 Lysistratus , an Athenian soothsayer, concerning the wrecks carried to shore
 there. Its meaning had eluded all the Hellenes :
 
 The Colian women will cook with
 oars. 
 But this was to happen after the king had marched away.

When Xerxes understood the
 calamity which had taken place, he feared that some of the Ionians might advise the Hellenes , if they did not think of it themselves, to sail to the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and destroy
 the bridges. He would be trapped in Europe (continent) Europe in danger of destruction,
 so he resolved on flight. He did not want to be detected either by the Hellenes or by his own men, so he attempted to build
 a dike across to Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis , and joined together Phoenician cargo ships to be both a bridge and a wall, making
 preparations as if to fight another sea battle.

All who saw him doing this confidently supposed that he fully intended to
 stay and fight there, but none of this eluded Mardonius , who had the most experience of the king's intentions.
 While doing all this, Xerxes sent a messenger to
 Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia to announce the disaster.

While Xerxes did thus, he
 sent a messenger to Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia with news of his present misfortune.
 Now there is nothing mortal that accomplishes a course more swiftly than do
 these messengers, by the Persians ' skillful
 contrivance. It is said that as many days as there are in the whole journey,
 so many are the men and horses that stand along the road, each horse and man
 at the interval of a day's journey. These are stopped neither by snow nor
 rain nor heat nor darkness from accomplishing their appointed course with
 all speed.

The first rider delivers his charge to the second, the second to the third,
 and thence it passes on from hand to hand, even as in the Greek torch-bearers' race in honor of Hephaestus . This riding-post is called in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , angareion.

When the first message came to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa , saying that Xerxes had taken Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 it gave such delight to the Persians who were
 left at home that they strewed all the roads with myrtle boughs and burnt
 incense and gave themselves up to sacrificial feasts and jollity.

The second, however, coming on the heels of the first, so confounded them
 that they all tore their tunics, and cried and lamented without ceasing,
 holding Mardonius to blame; it was not so much in
 grief for their ships that they did this as because they feared for Xerxes himself.

Such was the plight of the Persians for all the time until the coming of Xerxes himself ended it. Mardonius ,
 however, seeing that Xerxes was greatly distressed
 because of the sea-fight, and suspecting that he planned flight from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , thought that he would be punished for
 persuading the king to march against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas and that it
 was better for him to risk the chance of either subduing Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas or dying honorably while engaged in a noble
 cause; yet his hope rather inclined to the subduing of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas . Taking all this into account, he made this
 proposal:

“Sire, be not grieved nor greatly distressed because of what has befallen
 us. It is not on things of wood that the issue hangs for us, but on men and
 horses; furthermore, there is no one among these men, who thinks that he has
 now won a crowning victory and will disembark from his ship in an attempt to
 withstand you, no, nor anyone from this mainland. Those who have withstood
 us have paid the penalty.

If then you so desire, let us straightway attack the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , or if it pleases you to wait, that also we can
 do. Do not be downcast, for the Greeks have no
 way of escaping guilt for their former and their later deeds and from
 becoming your slaves. It is best then that you should do as I have said, but
 if you have resolved to lead your army away, even then I have another plan.

Do not, O king, make the Persians the
 laughing-stock of the Greeks , for if you have
 suffered harm, it is by no fault of the Persians .
 Nor can you say that we have anywhere done less than brave men should, and
 if Phoenicians and Egyptians and Cyprians and Cilicians have so done, it is not the Persians who have any part in this disaster.

Therefore, since the Persians are in no way to
 blame, be guided by me; if you are resolved not to remain, march homewards
 with the greater part of your army. It is for me, however, to enslave and
 deliver Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas to you with three hundred thousand of your
 host whom I will choose.”

When Xerxes heard that, he
 was as glad and joyful as a man in his situation might be and said to Mardonius that he would answer him after deliberating
 which of the two plans he would follow. When he consulted with those Persians whom he summoned, he resolved to send for
 Artemisia as well, because he saw that she alone
 at the former sitting had discerned what was best to do.

When Artemisia came, Xerxes bade all others withdraw, both Persian councillors and guards, and said to her: “It is Mardonius ' advice that I should follow here and attack
 the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , for the Persians , he says, and the land army are not to
 blame for our disaster; of that they would willingly give proof.

Therefore he advises me to do this, or else he offers to choose three
 hundred thousand men of the army and deliver Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to
 me enslaved, while I myself by his counsel march homeward with the rest of
 the host.

Now I ask of you, seeing that you correctly advised me against the late
 sea-fight, counsel me as to which of these two things would be best for me
 to do.”

When she was asked for advice, she replied: “It is
 difficult, O king, to answer your plea for advice by saying that which is
 best, but in the present turn of affairs I think it best that you march back
 and that Mardonius , if he so wishes and promises to
 do as he says, be left here with those whom he desires.

For if he subdues all that he offers to subdue and prospers in his design,
 the achievement, Sire, is yours since it will be your servants who have
 accomplished it. If, on the other hand, the issue is contrary to Mardonius ' expectation, it is no great misfortune so
 long as you and all that household of yours are safe;

for while you and the members of your household are safe, many a time will
 the Greeks have to fight for their lives. As for
 Mardonius , if any disaster befalls him, it is
 does not much matter, nor will any victory of the Greeks be a real victory when they have but slain your servant.
 As for you, you will be marching home after the burning of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , which thing was the whole purpose of
 your expedition.”

Artemisia 's counsel pleased Xerxes , for it happened that she spoke what he himself had in
 mind. In truth, I think that he would not have remained even if all men and
 women had counselled him so to do—so panic-stricken was he. Having then
 thanked Artemisia , he sent her away to take his
 sons to +Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus , for he had some bastard sons with him.

With these sons he sent Hermotimus as guardian. This man was by birth of +Pedasa [27.3833,37.0333]
 (Perseus) Pedasa , and the most honored by Xerxes of all his eunuchs. The people of +Pedasa [27.3833,37.0333]
 (Perseus) Pedasa dwell above Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege
 kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus . The following thing
 happens among these people: when anything untoward is about to befall those
 who dwell about their city, the priestess of Athena 
 then grows a great beard. This had already happened to them twice.

Hermotimus , who came from +Pedasa [27.3833,37.0333]
 (Perseus) Pedasa , had achieved a fuller vengeance for
 wrong done to him than had any man whom we know. When he had been taken
 captive by enemies and put up for sale, he was bought by one Panionius of +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , a man who had set himself
 to earn a livelihood out of most wicked practices. He would procure
 beautiful boys and castrate and take them to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 and +Ephesus [27.316,37.916]
 (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Ephesus where he sold them for a great price,

for the barbarians value eunuchs more than perfect men, by reason of the
 full trust that they have in them. Now among the many whom Panionius had castrated was Hermotimus ,
 who was not entirely unfortunate; he was brought from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis together with other gifts to the king, and as time
 went on, he stood higher in Xerxes ' favor than any
 other eunuch.

Now while the king was at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis 
 and preparing to lead his Persian army against
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , Hermotimus came
 for some business down to the part of +Mysia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Mysia 
 which is inhabited by Chians and called +Atarneus [26.95,39.05]
 (Perseus) Atarneus . There he found Panionius .

Perceiving who he was, he held long and friendly converse with him, telling
 him that it was to him that he owed all this prosperity and promising that
 he would make him prosperous in return if he were to bring his household and
 dwell there. Panionius accepted his offer gladly,
 and brought his children and his wife.

When Hermotimus had gotten the man and all his
 household into his power, he said to him: “Tell me, you who have made a
 livelihood out of the wickedest trade on earth, what harm had I or any of my
 forefathers done to you or yours, that you made me to be no man, but a thing
 of nought? You no doubt thought that the gods would have no knowledge of
 your former practices, but their just law has brought you for your wicked
 deeds into my hands. Now you will be well content with the fullness of that
 justice which I will execute upon you.”

With these words of reproach, he brought Panionius '
 sons before him and compelled him to castrate all four of them—his own
 children; this Panionius was compelled to do. When
 he had done this, the sons were compelled to castrate their father in turn.
 This, then, was the way in which Panionius was
 overtaken by vengeance at the hands of Hermotimus .

Having given his sons to Artemisia 's charge to be carried to +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir
 Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus , Xerxes called Mardonius to
 him and bade him choose whom he would from the army, and make his words good
 so far as endeavor availed. That is as far as matters went on that day; in
 the night, however, the admirals, by the king's command, put out to sea from
 Phalerum and made for the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont again with all speed to
 guard the bridges for the king's passage.

When the barbarians came near to the “Girdle” in their course, they thought
 that certain little headlands, which here jut out from the mainland, were
 ships, and they fled for a long way. When they learned at last that they
 were no ships but headlands, they drew together and went on their way.

When it was day, the Greeks saw the land army abiding where it had been and supposed
 the ships also to be at Phalerum . Thinking also
 that there would be a sea-fight they prepared to defend themselves. When,
 however, they learned that the ships were gone, they straightway resolved on
 pursuit; so they pursued Xerxes ' fleet as far as
 +Andros [24.9,37.816]
 (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Andros , but failed to catch sight of it. When they
 came to +Andros [24.9,37.816]
 (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Andros , they held a council there.

Themistocles declared his opinion that they should
 hold their course through the islands, and having pursued the ships, should
 sail forthwith to the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont to break the bridges. Eurybiades , on the other hand, offered a contrary opinion, saying
 that to break the bridges would be the greatest harm that they could do to
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas .

“For,” said he, “if the Persian is cut off and
 compelled to remain in Europe
 (continent) Europe , he will attempt not to be inactive.
 This he will do because if he remains inactive, he can neither make his
 cause prosper nor find any way of return home, but his army will perish of
 hunger. If, on the other hand, he is enterprising and active, it may well be
 that every town and nation in Europe (continent) Europe will join itself to him,
 by conquest or, before that, by compact. He will then live on whatever
 yearly fruits of the earth Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas produces.

But, as I think that the Persian will not remain
 in Europe
 (continent) Europe after his defeat in the sea-fight, let us
 permit him to flee to his own country. Thereafter let it be that country and
 not ours which is at stake in the war.” With that opinion the rest of the
 Peloponnesian admirals also agreed.

When Themistocles perceived
 that he could not persuade the greater part of them to sail to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , he turned to the Athenians (for they were the angriest at the Persians ' escape, and they were minded to sail to
 the Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont even by
 themselves, if the rest would not) and addressed them as follows:

“This I have often seen with my eyes and heard yet more often, namely that
 beaten men, when they be driven to bay, will rally and retrieve their former
 mishap. Therefore I say to you,—as it is to a fortunate chance that we owe
 ourselves and Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas , and have driven away so mighty a
 band of enemies—let us not pursue men who flee,

for it is not we who have won this victory, but the gods and the heroes,
 who deemed Asia
 (continent) Asia and Europe (continent) Europe too great a realm for one
 man to rule, and that a wicked man and an impious one who dealt alike with
 temples and bones, burning and overthrowing the images of the gods,—yes, and
 one who scourged the sea and threw fetters into it.

But as it is well with us for the moment, let us abide now in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas and take thought for ourselves and our
 households. Let us build our houses again and be diligent in sowing, when we
 have driven the foreigner completely away. Then when the next spring comes,
 let us set sail for the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .”

This he said with intent to have something to his credit with the Persian , so that he might have a place of refuge if
 ever (as might chance) he should suffer anything at the hands of the Athenians —and just that did in fact happen.

Thus spoke Themistocles 
 with intent to deceive, and the Athenians obeyed
 him; since he had always been esteemed wise and now had shown himself to be
 both wise and prudent, they were ready to obey whatever he said.

Having won them over, Themistocles straightway sent
 men in a boat whom he could trust not to reveal under any question the
 message which he charged them to deliver to the king; one of these was his
 servant Sicinnus . When these men came to Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica , the
 rest remained with the boat, and Sicinnus went up
 to Xerxes ;

“ Themistocles son of Neocles ,” he said, “who is the Athenian general and of all the allies the worthiest and wisest,
 has sent me to tell you this: Themistocles the
 Athenian has out of his desire to do you a
 service stayed the Greeks when they wanted to
 pursue your ships and break the bridges of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont . Now he bids you go your way, none
 hindering you.” With that message, the men returned in their boat.

But the Greeks , now that
 they were no longer minded to pursue the barbarians' ships farther or sail
 to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont and break the
 way of passage, besieged +Andros
 [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Andros so that they might take
 it,

for the men of that place, the first islanders of whom Themistocles demanded money, would not give it. When, however,
 Themistocles gave them to understand that the
 Athenians had come with two great gods to aid
 them, Persuasion and Necessity, and that the Andrians must therefore certainly give money, they said in
 response, “It is then but reasonable that Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 is great and prosperous, being blessed with serviceable gods.

As for us Andrians , we are but blessed with a
 plentiful lack of land, and we have two unserviceable gods who never quit
 our island but want to dwell there forever, namely Poverty and Helplessness.
 Since we are in the hands of these gods, we will give no money; the power of
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens can never be stronger than our
 inability.”

It was for giving this answer and refusing to give
 what was asked of them that they were besieged. There was no end to Themistocles ' avarice; using the same agents whom he
 had used with the king, he sent threatening messages to the other islands,
 demanding money and saying that if they would not give what he asked he
 would bring the Greek armada upon them and
 besiege and take their islands.

Thereby he collected great sums from the Carystians and Parians , for these were
 informed that +Andros
 [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Andros was besieged for taking
 the Persian side and that Themistocles was of all the generals the most esteemed. This
 frightened them so much that they sent money. I suppose that there were
 other islanders too who gave and not these alone, but I cannot with
 certainty say.

Nevertheless, the Carystians got no respite from
 misfortune by doing this. The Parians , however,
 propitiated Themistocles with money and so escaped
 the force. So Themistocles went away from +Andros [24.9,37.816] (inhabited
 place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Andros and took money from the islanders, unknown to the
 other generals.

Those who were with Xerxes 
 waited for a few days after the sea-fight and then marched away to Boeotia (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia by the road by which
 they had come. Mardonius wanted to give the king
 safe conduct and thought the time of year unseasonable for war; it was
 better, he thought, to winter in 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly ,
 and then attack the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese in the
 spring.

When they had arrived in 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly ,
 Mardonius first chose all the Persians called Immortals, save only Hydarnes their general who said that he would not quit
 the king's person, and next, the Persian 
 cuirassiers and the thousand horse and the Medes 
 and Sacae and Bactrians and Indians , alike their
 infantrymen and the rest of the horsemen.

These nations he chose in their entirety; of the rest of his allies he
 picked out a few from each people, the best men and those whom he knew to
 have done some good service. The Persians whom he
 chose (men who wore torques and bracelets) were more in number than those of
 any other nation and next to them the Medes ;
 these indeed were as many as the Persians , but
 not such stout fighters. Thereby the whole number, together with the
 horsemen, grew to three hundred thousand men.

Now while Mardonius was
 choosing his army and Xerxes was in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly , there came an oracle from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi to the Lacedaemonians ,
 that they should demand justice of Xerxes for the
 slaying of Leonidas and take whatever he should
 offer them. The Spartans then sent a herald with
 all speed. He found the army yet undivided in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly , came into Xerxes '
 presence, and spoke as follows:

“The Lacedaemonians and the Heraclidae of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta demand of you, king of
 the Medes , that you pay the penalty for the death
 of their king, whom you killed while he defended Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .” At
 that Xerxes laughed, and after a long while, he
 pointed to Mardonius , who chanced to be standing by
 him and said, “Then here is Mardonius , who shall
 pay those you speak of such penalty as befits them.”

So the herald took that response and departed, but
 Xerxes left Mardonius 
 in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly . He himself journeyed
 with all speed to the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont and came in forty-five days to the passage for
 crossing, bringing back with him as good as none (if one may say so) of his
 host.

Wherever and to whatever people they came, they seized and devoured its
 produce. If they found none, they would eat the grass of the field and strip
 the bark and pluck the leaves of the trees, garden and wild alike, leaving
 nothing—such was the degree of their starvation.

Moreover, pestilence and dysentery broke out among them on their way, from
 which they died. Some who were sick Xerxes left
 behind, charging the cities to which he came in his march to care for them
 and nourish them, some in 
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly 
 and some in +Siris
 [15.6333,40.0667] (Perseus) Siris of Paeonia and in Macedonia (region (general)), Europe Macedonia .

In +Siris [15.6333,40.0667]
 (Perseus) Siris he had left the sacred chariot of Zeus when he was marching to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , but
 on his return he did not get it back again. The Paeonians had given it to the Thracians , and when Xerxes demanded it
 back, they said that the horses had been carried off from pasture by the
 Thracians of the hills who dwelt about the
 headwaters of the Strymon .

It was then that a monstrous deed was done by the
 Thracian king of the Bisaltae and the Crestonian country.
 He had refused to be of his own free will Xerxes '
 slave, and fled to the mountains called +Nomos Rodhopis [25.5,41.83] (department), Western Thrace,
 Greece, Europe Rhodope . He forbade his sons to go with
 the army to Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas ,

but they took no account of that; they had always wanted to see the war,
 and they followed the Persians ' march. For this
 reason, when all the six of them returned back scatheless, their father tore
 out their eyes.

This was their reward. Now the Persians , journeying through Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace to the
 passage, made haste to cross to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Abydos in their ships, for they found the
 bridges no longer made fast but broken by a storm. There their march halted,
 and more food was given them than on their way.

Then by reason of their immoderate gorging and the change of the water which
 they drank, many of the army that had survived died. The rest came with
 Xerxes to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

There is, however, another tale, which is this: when
 Xerxes came in his march from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens to +Eion [23.8833,40.7333] (Perseus) Eion on the
 Strymon , he travelled no farther than that by
 land, but committed his army to Hydarnes to be led
 to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont . He himself
 embarked and set sail for Asia
 (continent) Asia in a Phoenician ship.

In the course of this voyage he was caught by a strong wind called the Strymonian , which lifted up the waves. This storm
 bearing the harder upon him by reason of the heavy load of the ship (for the
 Persians of his company who were on the deck
 were so many), the king grew afraid and cried to the ship's pilot asking him
 if there were any way of deliverance. To this the man said,

“Sire, there is none, if we do not rid ourselves of these many who are on
 board.” Hearing that, it is said, Xerxes said to
 the Persians , “Now it is for you to prove your
 concern for your king, for it seems that my deliverance rests with you.”

At this they bowed and leapt into the sea. The ship, now much lighter, came
 by these means safe to Asia
 (continent) Asia . No sooner had Xerxes disembarked on land, than he made the pilot a gift of a
 golden crown for saving the king's life but cut off his head for being the
 death of many Persians .

This is the other tale of Xerxes ' return; but I for my part believe neither the story of
 the Persians ' fate nor any other part of it. For
 if indeed the pilot had spoken to Xerxes in this
 way, I think that there is not one in ten thousand who would not say that
 the king would have bidden the men on deck (who were Persians and of the best blood of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia ) descend
 into the ship's hold, and would have taken from the Phoenician rowers a number equal to the number of the Persians and cast them into the sea. No, the truth
 is that Xerxes did as I have already said, and
 returned to Asia
 (continent) Asia with his army by road.

There is further proof of this, for it is known that
 when Xerxes came to +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus)
 Abdera in his return, he made a compact of friendship with
 its people and gave them a golden sword and a gilt tiara. As the people of
 +Abdera [24.9667,40.9833]
 (Perseus) Abdera say (but for my part I wholly disbelieve
 them), it was here that Xerxes in his flight back
 from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens first loosed his girdle, as being here in
 safety. Now +Abdera
 [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera lies nearer to the
 Canakkale Bogazi (strait),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont than the
 Strymon and +Eion [23.8833,40.7333] (Perseus) Eion ,
 where they say that he took ship.

As for the Greeks , not
 being able to take +Andros
 [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Andros , they went to Carystus . When they had laid it waste, they returned
 to Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis . First
 of all they set apart for the gods, among other first-fruits, three Phoenician triremes, one to be dedicated at the
 Isthmus, where it was till my lifetime, the second at Sunium , and the third for Ajax at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis where they were.

After that, they divided the spoils and sent the first-fruits of it to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi ; of this was made a man's image twelve cubits high,
 holding in his hand the figurehead of a ship. This stood in the same place
 as the golden statue of Alexander the Macedonian .

Having sent the first-fruits to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus)
 Delphi , the Greeks , in the name
 of the country generally, made inquiry of the god whether the first-fruits
 which he had received were of full measure and whether he was content. To
 this he said that he was content with what he had received from all other
 Greeks , but not from the Aeginetans . From these he demanded the victor's prize for the
 sea-fight of Salamis (island),
 Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis .
 When the Aeginetans learned that, they dedicated
 three golden stars which are set on a bronze mast, in the angle, nearest to
 Croesus ' bowl.

After the division of the spoils, the Greeks sailed to the Isthmus, there to award the
 prize of excellence to him who had shown himself most worthy of it in that
 war.

But when the admirals came and at the altar of Poseidon gave their votes to judge who was first and who second
 among them, each of them voted for himself, supposing himself to have done
 the best service. The greater part of them, however, united in giving the
 second place to Themistocles . So they each gained
 but one vote, while Themistocles far outstripped
 them in votes for the second place.

The Greeks were too
 jealous to assign the prize and sailed away each to his own place, leaving
 the matter undecided; nevertheless, Themistocles 
 was lauded, and throughout all of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas was deemed
 the wisest man by far of the Greeks .

However, because he had not received from those that fought at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis the honor due to
 his preeminence, he immediately afterwards went to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon in order that he
 might receive honor there. The Lacedaemonians 
 welcomed him and paid him high honor. They bestowed on Eurybiades a crown of olive as the reward of excellence and
 another such crown on Themistocles for his wisdom
 and cleverness. They also gave him the finest chariot in Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta ,

and with many words of praise, they sent him home with the three hundred
 picked men of Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta who are called Knights
 to escort him as far as the borders of Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea . Themistocles was the only man of whom we know to whom
 the Spartans gave this escort.

But when Themistocles 
 returned to Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon ,
 Timodemus of Aphidnae ,
 who was one of Themistocles ' enemies but not a man
 of note, was crazed with envy and spoke bitterly to Themistocles of his visit to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon , saying that the honors he had
 from the Lacedaemonians were paid him for Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens ' sake and not for his own.

This he kept saying until Themistocles replied,
 “This is the truth of the matter: if I had been a man of Belbina I would not have been honored in this way by the Spartans , nor would you, sir, for all you are a man
 of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens .” Such was the end of that business.

Artabazus son of Pharnaces , who was already a notable man among the Persians and grew to be yet more so through the
 Plataean business, escorted the king as far as
 the passage with sixty thousand men of the army that Mardonius had chosen.

Xerxes , then, was now in Asia (continent) Asia , and when Artabazus came near +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus)
 Pallene in his return (for Mardonius was wintering in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly and Macedonia (region (general)), Europe Macedonia and
 making no haste to come to the rest of his army), he thought it right that
 he should enslave the people of 
 +Potidaea (deserted settlement), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Potidaea , whom he found in revolt.

When the king had marched away past the town and the Persian fleet had taken flight from Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis , +Potidaea (deserted settlement), Chalcidice,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Potidaea had openly revolted
 from the barbarians and so too had the rest of the people of +Pallene [23.8833,38.05]
 (Perseus) Pallene .

Thereupon Artabazus laid
 siege to +Potidaea (deserted
 settlement), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Potidaea , and suspecting that +Olynthus [23.3667,40.3] (Perseus)
 Olynthus too was plotting revolt from the king, he laid
 siege to it also. This town was held by Bottiaeans who had been driven from the Thermaic gulf by the Macedonians .
 Having besieged and taken 
 +Olynthus [23.3667,40.3] (Perseus) Olynthus , he brought
 these men to a lake and there cut their throats and delivered their city
 over to the charge of Critobulus of +Torone [23.8167,40.05] (Perseus)
 Torone and the Chalcidian people.
 It was in this way that the Chalcidians gained
 possession of +Olynthus
 [23.3667,40.3] (Perseus) Olynthus .

Having taken +Olynthus [23.3667,40.3] (Perseus)
 Olynthus , Artabazus dealt
 immediately with +Potidaea
 (deserted settlement), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Potidaea , and his zeal was aided by Timoxenus the general of the Scionaeans , who agreed to betray the place to him. I do not know
 how the agreement was first made, since there is no information available
 about it. The result, however, was as I will now show. Whenever Timoxenus wrote a letter to be sent to Artabazus , or Artabazus to
 Timoxenus , they would wrap it around the shaft
 of an arrow at the notches, attach feathers to the letter, and shoot it to a
 place upon which they had agreed.

Timoxenus ' plot to betray +Potidaea (deserted settlement), Chalcidice,
 Macedonia, Greece, Europe Potidaea was, however,
 discovered, for Artabazus in shooting an arrow to
 the place agreed upon, missed it and hit the shoulder of a man of +Potidaea (deserted settlement),
 Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Potidaea . A throng
 gathered quickly around the man when he was struck (which is a thing that
 always happens in war), and they straightway took the arrow, found the
 letter, and carried it to their generals; the rest of their allies of +Pallene [23.8833,38.05]
 (Perseus) Pallene were also there present.

The generals read the letter and perceived who was the traitor, but they
 resolved for +Scione
 [23.55,39.95] (Perseus) Scione 's sake that they would not
 condemn Timoxenus with a charge of treason, for
 fear that the people of 
 +Scione [23.55,39.95] (Perseus) Scione should hereafter
 be called traitors.

This is how Timoxenus '
 treachery was brought to light. But when Artabazus 
 had besieged +Potidaea (deserted
 settlement), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece, Europe
 Potidaea for three months, there was a great ebb-tide in the
 sea which lasted for a long while, and when the foreigners saw that the sea
 was turned to a marsh, they prepared to pass over it into +Pallene [23.8833,38.05]
 (Perseus) Pallene .

When they had made their way over two-fifths of it, however, and three yet
 remained to cross before they could be in +Pallene [23.8833,38.05] (Perseus)
 Pallene , there came a great flood-tide, higher, as the
 people of the place say, than any one of the many that had been before. Some
 of them who did not know how to swim were drowned, and those who knew were
 slain by the Potidaeans , who came among them in
 boats.

The Potidaeans say that the cause of the high sea
 and flood and the Persian disaster lay in the
 fact that those same Persians who now perished in
 the sea had profaned the temple and the image of Poseidon which was in the suburb of the city. I think that in
 saying that this was the cause they are correct. Those who escaped alive
 were led away by Artabazus to Mardonius in +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly . This is
 how the men who had been the king's escort fared.

All that was left of Xerxes ' fleet, having in its flight from Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis touched the coast of Asia (continent) Asia and
 ferried the king and his army over from the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara,
 Turkey, Asia Chersonese to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos , wintered at Kyme [24.1167,38.6333]
 (Perseus) Cyme . Then early in the first dawn of spring
 they mustered at +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos , where some of the ships had wintered. The majority of
 their fighting men were Persians and Medes .

Mardontes son of Bagaeus 
 and Artayntes son of Artachaees came to be their admirals, and Artayntes chose also his own nephew Ithamitres to have a share in the command. But by reason of the
 heavy blow dealt them they went no further out to sea westwards, nor did
 anyone insist that they should so do. They did, however, lie off +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos keeping watch
 against a revolt in Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe Ionia . The whole number of their
 ships, Ionian and other, was three hundred.

In truth they did not expect that the Greeks 
 would come to Ionia (region
 (general)), Europe Ionia , but rather that they would be
 content to guard their own country. This they thought because the Greeks had not pursued them when they fled from
 Salamis (island), Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis , but had
 been glad to be quit of them. In regard to the sea, the Persians were at heart beaten men, but they supposed that on land
 Mardonius would easily prevail.

So they were at +Nisos Samos
 [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe
 Samos , and there planned to do what harm they could to their
 enemies and to listen in the interim for news of how Mardonius ' affairs were proceeding.

As for the Greeks , the
 coming of spring and Mardonius ' being in +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly moved them to action. They had
 not yet begun the mustering of their army, but their fleet, one hundred and
 ten ships, came to +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina .

Their general and admiral was Leutychides son of
 Menares , who traced his lineage from son to
 father through Hegesilaus , Hippocratides , Leutychides , Anaxilaus , Archidemus , Anaxandrides , Theopompus ,
 Nicandrus , Charilaus ,
 Eunomus , Polydectes ,
 Prytanis , Euryphon ,
 Procles , Aristodemus ,
 Aristomachus , Cleodaeus , to Hyllus who was the son of
 Heracles . He was of the second royal house.

All the aforesaid had been kings of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , save the
 seven named first after Leutychides . The general of
 the Athenians was Xanthippus son of Ariphron .

When all the ships had arrived at +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , there came to the Greek 
 quarters messengers from the Ionians , the same
 who a little while before that had gone to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta 
 and entreated the Lacedaemonians to free Ionia (region (general)), Europe
 Ionia .

One of these was Herodotus the son of Basileides . These, who at first were seven, made a
 faction and conspired to slay Strattis , the tyrant
 of +Chios [26,38.366] (island),
 Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , but when
 their conspiracy became known, one of the accomplices having revealed their
 enterprise, the six who remained got them secretly out of +Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios,
 Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , from where they
 went to Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta and now to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited
 place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Aegina , entreating the Greeks to
 sail to Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia .

The Greeks took them as far as Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos , and that not readily, for they, having no
 knowledge of those parts and thinking that armed men were everywhere, feared
 all that lay beyond. They supposed too that +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Samos was no nearer to them than
 the Pillars of Heracles . So it happened that the
 barbarians were too disheartened to dare to sail farther west than +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , while at the
 same time the Greeks dared to go at the Chians ' request no farther east than Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos . It was fear which kept the middle space
 between them.

The Greeks , then, sailed
 to Delos [25.2833,37.4]
 (Perseus) Delos , and Mardonius 
 wintered in +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly . Having
 his headquarters there he sent a man of +Salahiyeh [40.716,34.75] (deserted settlement), Dayr az-Zawr,
 Syria, Asia Europus called Mys to visit the places of
 divination, charging him to inquire of all the oracles which he could test.
 What it was that he desired to learn from the oracles when he gave this
 charge, I cannot say, for no one tells of it. I suppose that he sent to
 inquire concerning his present business, and that alone.

This man Mys is known to have gone to +Levadhia [22.883,38.433] (inhabited
 place), Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Lebadea and to have bribed a man of the country to go down
 into the cave of Trophonius and to have gone to the
 place of divination at Abai
 [22.9583,38.5917] (Perseus) Abae in +Phocis (department), Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Phocis . He went first to Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes where he inquired of Ismenian
 Apollo (sacrifice is there the way of divination, as at Olympia [21.6333,37.65]
 (Perseus) Olympia ), and moreover he bribed one who was no
 Theban but a stranger to lie down to sleep in
 the shrine of Amphiaraus .

No Theban may seek a prophecy there, for Amphiaraus bade them by an oracle to choose which of
 the two they wanted and forgo the other, and take him either for their
 prophet or for their ally. They chose that he should be their ally.
 Therefore no Theban may lie down to sleep in that
 place.

But at this time there happened, as the Thebans say, a thing at which I marvel greatly. It
 would seem that this man Mys of 
 +Salahiyeh [40.716,34.75] (deserted settlement), Dayr az-Zawr, Syria,
 Asia Europus came in his wanderings among the places of
 divination to the precinct of Ptoan Apollo . This
 temple is called Ptoum , and belongs to the Thebans . It lies by a hill, above lake +Kopais (dry lake), Boeotia, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Copais , very near to
 the town Acraephia .

When the man called Mys entered into this temple together with three men of
 the town who were chosen on the state's behalf to write down the oracles
 that should be given, straightway the diviner prophesied in a foreign
 tongue.

The Thebans who followed him were astonished to
 hear a strange language instead of Greek and knew
 not what this present matter might be. Mys of +Salahiyeh [40.716,34.75] (deserted settlement), Dayr
 az-Zawr, Syria, Asia Europus , however, snatched from them
 the tablet which they carried and wrote on it that which was spoken by the
 prophet, saying that the words of the oracle were Carian . After writing everything down, he went back to +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Thessaly .

Mardonius read whatever was said in the oracles,
 and presently he sent a messenger to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , Alexander , a Macedonian ,
 son of Amyntas . Him he sent, partly because the
 Persians were akin to him; Bubares , a Persian , had taken to wife
 Gygaea 
 Alexander 's sister and Amyntas ' daughter, who had borne to him that Amyntas of Asia
 (continent) Asia who was called by the name of his
 mother's father, and to whom the king gave +Alabanda [28,37.6] (Perseus) Alabanda a
 great city in Phrygia (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia for his dwelling. Partly
 too he sent him because he learned that Alexander 
 was a protector and benefactor to the Athenians .

It was thus that he supposed he could best gain the Athenians for his allies, of whom he heard that they were a
 numerous and valiant people, and knew that they had been the chief authors
 of the calamities which had befallen the Persians 
 at sea.

If he gained their friendship he thought he would easily become master of
 the seas, as truly he would have been. On land he supposed himself to be by
 much the stronger, and he accordingly reckoned that thus he would have the
 upper hand of the Greeks . This chanced to be the
 prediction of the oracles which counseled him to make the Athenians his ally. It was in obedience to this that
 he sent his messenger.

This Alexander was seventh
 in descent from Perdiccas , who got for himself the
 tyranny of Macedonia (region
 (general)), Europe Macedonia in the way that I will show.
 Three brothers of the lineage of Temenus came as
 banished men from Argos
 [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos to +Illyria (region (general)), Europe
 Illyria , Gauanes and Aeropus and Perdiccas ; and
 from +Illyria (region (general)),
 Europe Illyria they crossed over into the highlands of
 Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia till they came to the town Lebaea .

There they served for wages as thetes in the king's household, one tending
 horses and another oxen. Perdiccas , who was the
 youngest, tended the lesser flocks. Now the king's wife cooked their food
 for them, for in old times the ruling houses among men, and not the common
 people alone, were lacking in wealth.

Whenever she baked bread, the loaf of the thete Perdiccas grew double in size. Seeing that this kept happening,
 she told her husband, and it seemed to him when be heard it that this was a
 portent signifying some great matter. So he sent for his thetes and bade
 them depart from his territory.

They said it was only just that they should have their wages before they
 departed. When they spoke of wages, the king was moved to foolishness and
 said, “That is the wage you merit, and it is that I give you,” pointing to
 the sunlight that shone down the smoke vent into the house.

Gauanes and Aeropus , who
 were the elder, stood astonished when they heard that, but the boy said, “We
 accept what you give, O king,” and with that he took a knife which he had
 with him and drew a line with it on the floor of the house round the
 sunlight. When he had done this, he three times gathered up the sunlight
 into the fold of his garment and went his way with his companions.

So they departed, but one of those who sat nearby
 declared to the king what this was that the boy had done and how it was of
 set purpose that the youngest of them had accepted the gift offered. When
 the king heard this, he was angered, and sent riders after them to slay
 them. There is, however, in that land a river, to which the descendants from
 Argos [22.7333,37.6417]
 (Perseus) Argos of these men offer sacrifice as their
 deliverer.

This river, when the sons of Temenus had crossed
 it, rose in such flood that the riders could not cross. So the brothers came
 to another part of Macedonia
 (region (general)), Europe Macedonia and settled near the
 place called the garden of Midas son of Gordias , where roses grow of themselves, each bearing
 sixty blossoms and of surpassing fragrance.

In this garden, according to the Macedonian 
 story, Silenus was taken captive. Above it rises
 the mountain called Bermius , which none can ascend
 for the wintry cold. From there they issued forth when they had won that
 country and presently subdued also the rest of Macedonia (region (general)),
 Europe Macedonia .

From that Perdiccas 
 Alexander was descended, being the son of Amyntas , who was the son of Alcetes ; Alcetes ' father was Aeropus , and his was Philippus ; Philippus ' father was Argaeus , and his again was Perdiccas , who won that lordship.

Such was the lineage of Alexander son of Amyntas . When he came
 to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens from Mardonius 
 who had sent him, he spoke as follows : “This, Athenians , is what Mardonius says to
 you:—there is a message come to me from the king, saying, ‘I forgive the
 Athenians all the offenses which they have
 committed against me;

and now, Mardonius , I bid you do this:—Give them
 back their territory and let them choose more for themselves besides, where
 ever they will, and dwell under their own laws. Rebuild all their temples
 which I burnt, if they will make a pact with me.’ This is the message, and I
 must obey it (says Mardonius ), unless you take it
 upon yourselves to hinder me.

This too I say to you:—Why are you so insane as to wage war against the
 king? You cannot overcome him, nor can you resist him forever. As for the
 multitude of Xerxes ' army, what it did, you have
 seen, and you have heard of the power that I now have with me. Even if you
 overcome and conquer us (whereof, if you be in your right minds, you can
 have no hope), yet there will come another host many times as great as this.

Be not then minded to match yourselves against the king, and thereby lose
 your land and always be yourselves in jeopardy, but make peace. This you can
 most honorably do since the king is that way inclined. Keep your freedom,
 and agree to be our brothers in arms in all faith and honesty.—

This Athenians , is the message which Mardonius charges me to give you. For my own part I
 will say nothing of the goodwill that I have towards you, for it would not
 be the first that you have learned of that. But I entreat you to follow
 Mardonius ' counsel.

Well I see that you will not have power to wage war against Xerxes forever. If I saw such power in you, I would
 never have come to you with such language as this, for the king's might is
 greater than human, and his arm is long.

If, therefore, you will not straightway agree with them, when the conditions
 which they offer you are so great, I fear what may befall you. For of all
 the allies you dwell most in the very path of the war, and you alone will
 never escape destruction, your country being marked out for a battlefield.

No, rather follow his counsel, for it is not to be lightly regarded by you
 who are the only men in Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas whose offenses the great
 king is ready to forgive and whose friend he would be.”

These were the words of Alexander . The Lacedaemonians ,
 however, had heard that Alexander had come to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens to bring the Athenians to an agreement with the barbarian. Remembering the
 oracles, how that they themselves with the rest of the Dorians must be driven out of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese by the Medes and the
 Athenians , they were greatly afraid that the
 Athenians should agree with the Persian , and they straightway resolved that they
 would send envoys.

Moreover, it so fell out for both that they made their entry at one and the
 same time, for the Athenians delayed and waited
 for them, being certain that the Lacedaemonians 
 were going to hear that the messenger had come from the Persians for an agreement. They had heard that the Lacedaemonians would send their envoys with all
 speed. Therefore it was of set purpose that they did this in order that they
 might make their will known to the Lacedaemonians .

So when Alexander had made
 an end of speaking, the envoys from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta said, “We
 on our part have been sent by the Lacedaemonians 
 to entreat you to do nothing harmful to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas and accept no
 offer from the barbarian.

That would be unjust and dishonorable for any Greek , but for you most of all, on many counts; it was you who
 stirred up this war, by no desire of ours, and your territory was first the
 stake of that battle in which all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas is now
 engaged.

Apart from that, it is unbearable that not all this alone but slavery too
 should be brought upon the Greeks by you Athenians , who have always been known as givers of
 freedom to many. Nevertheless, we grieve with you in your afflictions,
 seeing that you have lost two harvests and your substance has been for a
 long time wasted.

In requital for this the Lacedaemonians and their
 allies declare that they will nourish your women and all of your household
 members who are unserviceable for war, so long as this war will last. Let
 not Alexander the Macedonian win you with his smooth-tongued praise of Mardonius ' counsel. It is his business to follow that
 counsel,

for as he is a tyrant so must he be the tyrant's fellow-worker; it is not
 your business, if you are men rightly minded, for you know that in
 foreigners there is no faith nor truth.” These are the words of the envoys.

But to Alexander the Athenians replied as follows: “We know of ourselves
 that the power of the Mede is many times greater
 than ours. There is no need to taunt us with that. Nevertheless in our zeal
 for freedom we will defend ourselves to the best of our ability. But as
 regards agreements with the barbarian, do not attempt to persuade us to
 enter into them, nor will we consent.

Now carry this answer back to Mardonius from the
 Athenians , that as long as the sun holds the
 course by which he now goes, we will make no agreement with Xerxes . We will fight against him without ceasing,
 trusting in the aid of the gods and the heroes whom he has disregarded and
 burnt their houses and their adornments.

Come no more to Athenians with such a plea, nor
 under the semblance of rendering us a service, counsel us to act wickedly.
 For we do not want those who are our friends and protectors to suffer any
 harm at Athenian hands.”

Such was their answer to Alexander , but to the Spartan envoys
 they said, “It was most human that the Lacedaemonians should fear our making an agreement with the
 barbarian. We think that it is an ignoble thing to be afraid, especially
 since we know the Athenian temper to be such that
 there is nowhere on earth such store of gold or such territory of surpassing
 fairness and excellence that the gift of it should win us to take the Persian part and enslave Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

For there are many great reasons why we should not do this, even if we so
 desired; first and foremost, the burning and destruction of the adornments
 and temples of our gods, whom we are constrained to avenge to the utmost
 rather than make pacts with the perpetrator of these things, and next the
 kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and
 the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the
 likeness of our way of life, to all of which it would not befit the Athenians to be false.

Know this now, if you knew it not before, that as long as one Athenian is left alive we will make no agreement
 with Xerxes . Nevertheless we thank you for your
 forethought concerning us, in that you have so provided for our wasted state
 that you offer to nourish our households.

For your part, you have given us full measure of kindness, yet for
 ourselves, we will make shift to endure as best we may, and not be
 burdensome to you. But now, seeing that this is so, send your army with all
 speed,

for as we guess, the barbarian will be upon us and invade our country in no
 long time as soon as the message comes to him that we will do nothing that
 he requires of us; therefore, before he comes into Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica , now is the time for us to
 march first into Boeotia
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Boeotia .” At this reply of the Athenians the envoys returned back to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus)
 Sparta .

When Alexander returned and
 told him what he had heard from the Athenians ,
 Mardonius set forth from +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly and led his army with all zeal against Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens ; he also
 took with him all the people to whose countries he came along the way. The
 rulers of +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly did not repent of what
 they had already done and were readier than before to further his march.
 Thorax of Larissa , who
 had given Xerxes safe-conduct in his flight, now,
 without any attempt of concealment, opened a passage for Mardonius into Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

But when, in the course of its march, the army had
 come into Boeotia (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , the
 Thebans attempted to stay Mardonius , advising him that he could find no country better
 fitted than theirs for encampment; he should not (they begged) go further,
 but rather halt there and subdue all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas without
 fighting.

As long as the Greeks who were previously in
 accord remained so, it would be difficult even for the whole world to
 overcome them by force of arms; “but if you do as we advise,” said the Thebans , “you will without trouble be master of all
 their battle plans.

Send money to the men who have power in their cities, and thereby you will
 divide Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas against itself; after that, with your
 partisans to aid you, you will easily subdue those who are your
 adversaries.”

Such was their counsel, but he would not follow it.
 What he desired was to take Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens once more;
 this was partly out of mere perversity, and partly because he intended to
 signify to the king at Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis by a line of beacons
 across the islands that he held Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

When he came to Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica , however, he found the city as unpopulated as before,
 for, as he learned, the majority of them were on shipboard at Salamis (island), Attica, Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Salamis . So he took the
 city, but without any of its men. There were ten months between the kings
 taking of the place and the later invasion of Mardonius .

When Mardonius came to
 Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , he sent to Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis a certain Murychides , a man from Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont , bearing the same offer as Alexander the Macedonian had ferried
 across to the Athenians .

He sent this for the second time because although he already knew the Athenians ' unfriendly purpose, he expected that they
 would abandon their stubbornness now that Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica was the captive of his
 spear and lay at his mercy.

For this reason he sent Murychides to Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis who came before the council and conveyed to
 them Mardonius message. Then Lycidas , one of the councillors, said that it seemed best to him
 to receive the offer brought to them by Murychides 
 and lay it before the people.

This was the opinion which he declared, either because he had been bribed by
 Mardonius , or because the plan pleased him. The
 Athenians in the council were, however, very
 angry; so too were those outside when they heard of it. They made a ring
 round Lycidas and stoned him to death. Murychides the Hellespontian , however, they permitted to depart unharmed.

There was much noise at Salamis
 (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis over the business of Lycidas ; and when the Athenian women
 learned what was afoot, one calling to another and bidding her follow, they
 went on their own impetus to the house of Lycidas 
 and stoned to death his wife and his children.

Now this was how the Athenians had crossed over to Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis . As long as they expected that the
 Peloponnesian army would come to their aid,
 they remained in Attica
 [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica . But when the Peloponnesians took longer and longer to act and the invader was
 said to be in Boeotia
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Boeotia already, they then conveyed all their goods out of
 harms way and themselves crossed over to Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Salamis . They also sent envoys to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon ,
 who were to upbraid the Lacedaemonians for
 permitting the barbarian to invade Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica and not helping the Athenians to meet him in Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia ; and who were to remind the Lacedaemonians of the promises which the Persian had made to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 if she would change sides, and warn them that the Athenians would devise some means of salvation for themselves if
 the Lacedaemonians sent them no help.

The Lacedaemonians were
 at this time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , and their chief concern was to give the god his
 due; moreover, the wall which they were building on the Isthmus was by now
 getting its battlements. When the Athenian envoys
 arrived in Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , bringing with them envoys from +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus)
 Megara and Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea , they came
 before the ephors and said:

“The Athenians have sent us with this message:
 the king of the Medes is ready to give us back
 our country, and to make us his confederates, equal in right and standing,
 in all honor and honesty, and to give us whatever land we ourselves may
 choose besides our own.

But we, since we do not want to sin against Zeus 
 the god of Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas and think it shameful to betray
 Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , have not consented. This we have done
 despite the fact that the Greeks are dealing with
 us wrongfully and betraying us to our hurt; furthermore, we know that it is
 more to our advantage to make terms with the Persians than to wage war with him, yet we will not make terms
 with him of our own free will. For our part, we act honestly by the Greeks ;

but what of you, who once were in great dread lest we should make terms
 with the Persian ? Now that you have a clear idea
 of our sentiments and are sure that we will never betray Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , and now that the wall which you are building
 across the Isthmus is nearly finished, you take no account of the Athenians , but have deserted us despite all your
 promises that you would withstand the Persian in
 Boeotia (department), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , and have
 permitted the barbarian to march into Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica .

For the present, then, the Athenians are angry
 with you since you have acted in a manner unworthy of you. Now they ask you
 to send with us an army with all speed, so that we may await the foreigner's
 onset in Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica ; since we have lost Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia , in our own territory the most
 suitable place for a battle is the Thriasian 
 plain.”

When the ephors heard that, they delayed answering
 till the next day, and again till the day after. This they did for ten days,
 putting it off from day to day. In the meantime all the Peloponnesians were doing all they could to fortify the Isthmus,
 and they had nearly completed the task.

I cannot say for certain why it was that when Alexander the Macedonian came to Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens 
 the Lacedaemonians insisted that the
 Athenians should not join the side of the
 Persian , yet now took no account of that; it
 may be that with the Isthmus fortified, they thought they had no more need
 of the Athenians , whereas when Alexander came to Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica , their wall was not yet built and
 they were working at this in great fear of the Persians .

The nature of their response was as follows: on the
 day before the final hearing of the Athenian 
 delegation, Chileus , a man of Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea , who had more authority with the Lacedaemonians than any other of their guests, learned from the
 ephors all that the Athenians had said.

Upon hearing this he, as the tale goes, said to the ephors, “Sirs, if the
 Athenians are our enemies and the barbarians
 allies, then although you push a strong wall across the Isthmus, a means of
 access into the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese lies wide
 open for the Persian . No, give heed to what they
 say before the Athenians take some new resolve
 which will bring calamity to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .”

This was the counsel he gave the ephors, who
 straightway took it to heart. Without saying a word to the envoys who had
 come from the cities, they ordered five thousand Spartans to march before dawn. Seven helots were appointed to
 attend each of them, and they gave the command to Pausanias son of Cleombrotus .

The leader's place rightfully belonged to Pleistarchus son of Leonidas , but he was
 still a boy, and Pausanias his guardian and cousin.
 Cleombrotus , Pausanias '
 father and Anaxandrides ' son, was no longer living.

After he led the army which had built the wall away from the Isthmus, he
 lived but a little while before his death. The reason for Cleombrotus leading his army away from the Isthmus was that while
 he was offering sacrifice for victory over the Persian , the sun was darkened in the heavens. Pausanias chose as his colleague a man of the same family, 
 Euryanax son of Dorieus .

So Pausanias ' army had
 marched away from Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ; but as soon as it was
 day, the envoys came before the ephors, having no knowledge of the
 expedition, and being minded themselves too to depart each one to his own
 place. When they arrived, “You Lacedaemonians ,”
 they said, “remain where you are, observing your Hyacinthia and
 celebrating, leaving your allies deserted. For the wrong that you do them
 and for lack of allies, the Athenians , will make
 their peace with the Persian as best they can,

and thereafter, in so far as we will be king's allies, we will march with
 him against whatever land his men lead us. Then will you learn what the
 issue of this matter will be for you.” In response to this the ephors swore
 to them that they believed their army to be even now at Orestheum , marching against the “strangers,” as they called the
 barbarians.

Having no knowledge of this, the envoys questioned them further as to the
 meaning of this and thereby learned the whole truth; they marvelled at this
 and hastened with all speed after the army. With them went five thousand
 men-at-arms of the Lacedaemonian countrymen.

So they made haste to reach the Isthmus. The Argives , however, had already promised Mardonius that they would prevent the Spartans from going out to war. As soon as they were
 informed that Pausanias and his army had departed
 from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta , they sent as their herald to Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica the
 swiftest runner of long distances whom they could find.

When he came to Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , he spoke to Mardonius in the following manner: “I have been sent
 by the Argives to tell you that the young men
 have gone out from Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon to war, and that the Argives cannot prevent them from so doing; therefore, make plans
 accordingly.”

So spoke the herald, and went back again. When Mardonius heard that, he no longer desired to remain
 in Attica [23.5,38.83]
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Attica . Before he had word of it, he had held his land,
 desiring to know the Athenians ' plan and what
 they would do; he neither harmed nor harried the land of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica , for he
 still supposed that they would make terms with him.

But when he could not prevail upon them and learned the truth of the matter,
 he withdrew before Pausanias ' army prior to its
 entering the Isthmus. First, however, he burnt Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens ,
 and utterly overthrew and demolished whatever wall or house or temple was
 left standing.

The reason for his marching away was that Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica was not a land fit for
 horses, and if he should be defeated in a battle, there was no way of
 retreat save one so narrow that a few men could prevent his passage. He therefore
 planned to retreat to Thebes
 [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes and do battle where he
 had a friendly city at his back and ground suitable for horsemen.

So Mardonius drew his men
 off, and when he had now set forth on his road there came a message that in
 addition to the others, an advance guard of a thousand Lacedaemonians had arrived at +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus) Megara . When
 he heard this, he deliberated how he might first make an end of these. He
 accordingly turned about and led his army against +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus) Megara , his
 cavalry going first and overrunning the lands of that city. That was the
 westernmost place in Europe
 (continent) Europe which this Persian army reached.

Presently there came a message to Mardonius that the Greeks were
 gathered together on the Isthmus. Thereupon he marched back again through
 Decelea ; the rulers of Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia sent for those of the Asopus country who lived nearby, and these guided him
 to Sphendalae and from there to +Tanagra [23.6,38.3083]
 (Perseus) Tanagra .

Here he camped for the night, and on the next day he turned from there to
 Scolus , where he was in Theban territory. There he laid waste the lands of the Thebans , though they sided with the Persian part. This he did, not for any ill-will that
 he bore them, but because sheer necessity drove him to make a stronghold for
 his army and to have this for a refuge if the fortune of battle were other
 than he wished.

His army, stationed along the Asopus river ,
 covered the ground from Erythrae past Hysiae and up to the lands of Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea . I do not mean to say that the walled camp which he
 made was of this size; each side of it was of a length of about ten
 furlongs.

While the barbarians were engaged in this task,
 Attaginus son of Phrynon , a Theban , made great
 preparations and invited Mardonius with fifty who
 were the most notable of the Persians to be his
 guests at a banquet. They came as they were bidden; the dinner was held at
 Thebes [23.3333,38.325]
 (Perseus) Thebes . What follows was told me by Thersander of Orkhomenos (deserted settlement), Boeotia, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Orchomenus , one of the most notable
 men of that place. Thersander too (he said) was
 invited to this dinner, and fifty Thebans in
 addition. Attaginus made them sit, not each man by
 himself but on each couch a Persian and a Theban together.

Now as they were drinking together after dinner, the Persian who sat with him asked Thersander in the Greek tongue from
 what country he was. Thersander answered that he
 was from Orkhomenos (deserted
 settlement), Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Orchomenus . Then said the Persian : “Since you have eaten at the board with me and drunk
 with me afterwards, I would like to leave a memorial of my belief, so that
 you yourself may have such knowledge as to take fitting counsel for your
 safety.

Do you see these Persians at the banquet and that
 host which we left encamped by the river side? In a little while you shall
 see but a small remnant left alive of all these.” As he said this, the Persian wept bitterly.

Marvelling at these words, Thersander answered:
 “Must you not then tell this to Mardonius and those
 honorable Persians who are with him?” “Sir,” said
 the Persian , “that which a god wills to send no
 man can turn aside, for even truth sometimes finds no one to believe it.

What I have said is known to many of us Persians ,
 but we follow, in the bonds of necessity. It is the most hateful thing for a
 person to have much knowledge and no power.” This tale I heard from Thersander of Orkhomenos (deserted settlement), Boeotia, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Orchomenus who told me in addition
 that he had straightway told this to others before the battle of Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea .

So Mardonius was making his
 encampment in Boeotia
 (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Boeotia . All the Greeks of that
 region who sided with the Persians furnished
 fighting men, and they joined with him in his attack upon Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , with the exception of the Phocians ; as for taking the Persian side, that they did right away, though from necessity
 rather than willingly.

A few days after the Persians ' coming to Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes , a thousand Phocian 
 men-at-arms under the leadership of Harmocydes , the
 most notable of their countrymen, arrived. When these men too were in Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes , Mardonius sent horsemen and
 bade the Phocians take their station on the plain
 by themselves.

When they had done so, the whole of the Persian 
 cavalry appeared, and presently word was spread through all of the Greek army which was with Mardonius , and likewise among the Phocians themselves, that Mardonius 
 would shoot them to death with javelins.

Then their general Harmocydes exhorted them: “Men
 of +Phocis (department), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Phocis ,” he said,
 “seeing that death at these fellows' hands is staring us in the face (we
 being, as I surmise, maligned by the Thessalians ), it is now time for every one of you to be noble; for
 it is better to end our lives in action and fighting than tamely to suffer a
 shameful death. No, rather we will teach them that they whose slaying they
 have devised are men of Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .” Thus he exhorted them.

But when the horsemen had encircled the Phocians , they rode at them as if to slay them, and
 drew their bows to shoot; it is likely too that some did in fact shoot. The
 Phocians opposed them in every possible way,
 drawing in together and closing their ranks to the best of their power. At
 this the horsemen wheeled about and rode back and away.

Now I cannot with exactness say whether they came at the Thessalians ' desire to slay the Phocians , but when they saw the men preparing to defend
 themselves, they feared lest they themselves should suffer some hurt, and so
 rode away (for such was Mardonius ' command),—or if
 Mardonius wanted to test the Phocians ' mettle.

When the horsemen had ridden away, Mardonius sent a
 herald, with this message: “Men of +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Phocis , be of good courage, for you have shown yourselves to
 be valiant men, and not as it was reported to me. Now push this war
 zealously forward, for you will outdo neither myself nor the king in the
 rendering of service.” This is how the matter of the Phocians turned out.

As for the Lacedaemonians , when they had come to the Isthmus, they encamped
 there. When the rest of the Peloponnesians who
 chose the better cause heard that, seeing the Spartans setting forth to war, they thought that they should not
 lag behind the Lacedaemonians in so doing.

Accordingly, they all marched from the Isthmus (the omens of sacrifice being
 favorable) and came to 
 +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis . When they
 had offered sacrifice there also and the omens were favorable, they
 continued their march, having now the Athenians 
 with them, who had crossed over from Salamis (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Salamis and joined with them at +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis .

When they came (as it is said) to Erythrae in
 Boeotia (department), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , they learned
 that the barbarians were encamped by the Asopus .
 Taking note of that, they arrayed themselves opposite the enemy on the lower
 hills of Cithaeron .

When the Greeks did not
 come down into the plain, Mardonius sent against
 them his entire cavalry, whose commander was Masistius (whom the Greeks call Macistius ), a man much honored among the Persians ; he rode a Nesaean horse which had a golden bit and was elaborately adorned
 all over. Thereupon the horsemen rode up to the Greeks and charged them by squadrons; as they attacked, they did
 them much hurt, and called them women all the while.

Now it chanced that the Megarians were posted in that part of the field which was most
 open to attack, and here the horsemen found the readiest approach.
 Therefore, being hard-pressed by the charges, the Megarians sent a herald to the generals of the Greeks , who came to them and spoke as follows :

“From the men of +Megara
 [23.35,38] (Perseus) Megara to their allies: we cannot
 alone withstand the Persian cavalry (although we
 have till now held our ground with patience and valor, despite the fact that
 we were hard-pressed) in the position to which we were first appointed. Know
 that now we will abandon our post, unless you send others to take our place
 there.”

This the herald reported, and Pausanias inquired
 among the Greeks if any would offer to go to that
 place and relieve the Megarians by holding the
 post. All the others did not want to, but the Athenians took it upon themselves, that is three hundred picked
 men of Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens , whose captain was Olympiodorus son of Lampon .

Those who volunteered themselves, were posted at
 Erythrae in front of the whole Greek army, and they took with them the archers
 also. They fought for a long time and the end of the battle was as I will
 now tell. The cavalry charged by squadrons, and Masistius ' horse, being at the head of the rest, was struck in
 the side by an arrow. Rearing up in pain, it threw Masistius ,

who when he fell, was straightaway set upon by the Athenians . His horse they took then and there, and he himself was
 killed fighting. They could not, however, kill him at first, for he was
 outfitted in the following manner: he wore a purple tunic over a cuirass of
 golden scales which was within it; thus they accomplished nothing by
 striking at the cuirass, until someone saw what was happening and stabbed
 him in the eye. Then he collapsed and died.

But as chance would have it, the rest of the horsemen knew nothing of this,
 for they had not seen him fall from his horse, or die. They wheeled about
 and rode back without perceiving what was done. As soon as they halted,
 however, they saw what they were missing since there was no one to give them
 orders. Then when they perceived what had occurred, they gave each other the
 word, and all rode together to recover the dead body.

When the Athenians saw
 the horsemen riding at them, not by squadrons as before, but all together,
 they cried to the rest of the army for help. While all their infantry was
 rallying to aid, there was a bitter fight over the dead body.

As long as the three hundred stood alone, they had the worst of the battle
 by far, and were ready to leave the dead man. When the main body came to
 their aid, then it was the horsemen who could no longer hold their ground,
 nor help to recover the dead man, but rather lost others of their comrades
 in addition to Masistius . They accordingly withdrew
 and halted about two furlongs away, where they deliberated what they should
 do. Since there was no one to give them orders, they resolved to report to
 Mardonius .

When the cavalry returned to camp, Mardonius and the whole army mourned deeply for Masistius , cutting their own hair and the hair of their horses
 and beasts of burden, and lamenting loudly; the sound of this was heard over
 all Boeotia (department), Central
 Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , for a man was
 dead who, next to Mardonius , was most esteemed by
 all Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia and the king.

So the barbarians honored Masistius ' death in their customary way, but the Greeks were greatly encouraged that they withstood
 and drove off the charging horsemen. First they laid the dead man on a cart
 and carried him about their ranks, and the body was well worth seeing,
 because of its stature and grandeur; therefore, they would even leave their
 ranks and come to view Masistius .

Presently they resolved that they would march down to Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea , for they saw that the ground there was generally
 more suited for encampment than that at Erythrae ,
 and chiefly because it was better watered. It was to this place and to the
 Gargaphian spring which was there, that they
 resolved to go and pitch camp in their several battalions;

They took up their arms and marched along the lower slopes of Cithaeron past Hysiae to
 the lands of Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea , and when they arrived,
 they arrayed themselves nation by nation near the Gargaphian spring and the precinct of the hero Androcrates , among low hills and in a level country.

During the drawing up of battle formation there
 arose much dispute between the Tegeans and the
 Athenians , for each of them claimed that they
 should hold the second wing of the army, justifying themselves by tales of
 deeds new and old.

First the Tegeans spoke: “We, among all the
 allies, have always had the right to hold this position in all campaigns, of
 the united Peloponnesian armies, both ancient and
 recent, ever since that time when the Heraclidae 
 after Eurystheus ' death attempted to return to the
 +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese .

We gained because of the achievement which we will relate. When we marched
 out at the Isthmus for war, along with the Achaeans and Ionians who then dwelt in
 the +Peloponnese [22,37.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , and encamped
 opposite the returning exiles, then (it is said) Hyllus 
 announced that army should not be risked against
 army in battle, but that that champion in the host of the Peloponnesians whom they chose as their best should
 fight with him in single combat on agreed conditions.

The Peloponnesians , resolving that this should be
 so, swore a compact that if Hyllus should overcome
 the Peloponnesian champion, the Heraclidae should return to the land of their fathers, but if he
 were himself beaten, then the Heraclidae should
 depart and lead their army away, not attempting to return to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region),
 Greece, Europe Peloponnese until a hundred years had
 passed.

Then our general and king Echemus , son of Phegeus ' son Eeropus ,
 volunteered and was chosen out of all the allied host; he fought that duel
 and killed Hyllus . It was for that feat of arms
 that the Peloponnesians granted us this in
 addition to other great privileges which we have never ceased to possess,
 namely that in all united campaigns we should always lead the army's second
 wing.

Now with you, men of Sparta
 [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , we have no rivalry, but forbear and bid you
 choose the command of whichever wing you want. We do, however, say that our
 place is at the head of the other, as it has always been. Quite apart from
 that feat which we have related, we are worthier than the Athenians to hold that post,

for we have fought many battles which turned out favorably for you, men of
 Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon , and others besides. It is accordingly we and not
 the Athenians who should hold the second wing,
 for neither at some earlier period nor recently, have they achieved such
 feats of arms as we.”

To these words the Athenians replied: “It is our belief that we are gathered for
 battle with the barbarian, and not for speeches; but since the man of Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea has made it his business to speak of all the valorous
 deeds, old and new, which either of our nations has at any time achieved, we
 must prove to you how we, rather than Arcadians ,
 have by virtue of our valor a hereditary right to the place of honor. These
 Tegeans say that they killed the leader of the
 Heraclidae at the Isthmus.

Now when those same Heraclidae had been rejected by
 every Greek people to whom they resorted to
 escape the tyranny of the Mycenaeans , we alone
 received them. With them we
 vanquished those who then inhabited the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese , and we broke the pride of Eurystheus .

Furthermore, when the Argives who had marched
 with Polynices 
 against Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes 
 had there made an end of their lives and lay unburied, know that we sent our
 army against the Cadmeans and recovered the dead
 and buried them in +Eleusis
 [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis .

We also have on record our great victory against the Amazons , who once came from the river Thermodon and broke into Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica , and in the hard days of +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus)
 Troy we were second to none. But since it is useless to
 recall these matters—for those who were previously valiant may now be of
 lesser mettle, and those who lacked mettle then may be better men now—

enough of the past. Supposing that we were known for no achievement
 (although the fact is that we have done more than any other of the Greeks ), we nevertheless deserve to have this honor
 and more beside because of the role we played at Marathon, seeing that alone
 of all Greeks we met the Persian singlehandedly and did not fail in that enterprise, but
 overcame forty-six nations.

Is it not then our right to hold this post, for that one feat alone? Yet
 seeing that this is no time for wrangling about our place in the battle, we
 are ready to obey you, men of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon and take whatever place and
 face whatever enemy you think fitting. Wherever you set us, we will strive
 to be valiant men. Command us then, knowing that we will obey.”

This was the Athenians ' response, and the whole
 army shouted aloud that the Athenians were
 worthier to hold the wing than the Arcadians . It
 was in this way that the Athenians were preferred
 to the men of Tegea [22.4,37.5]
 (Perseus) Tegea , and gained that place.

Presently the whole Greek 
 army was arrayed as I will show, both the later and the earliest comers. On
 the right wing were ten thousand Lacedaemonians ;
 five thousand of these, who were Spartans , had a
 guard of thirty-five thousand light-armed helots, seven appointed for each
 man.

The Spartans chose the Tegeans for their neighbors in the battle, both to do them honor,
 and for their valor; there were of these fifteen hundred men-at-arms. Next
 to these in the line were five thousand Corinthians , at whose desire Pausanias 
 permitted the three hundred Potidaeans from +Pallene [23.8833,38.05]
 (Perseus) Pallene then present to stand by them.

Next to these were six hundred Arcadians from
 Kalpali [22.3,37.716]
 (inhabited place), Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Orchomenus , and after them three thousand men of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon . By these one thousand Troezenians were posted, and after them two hundred
 men of Lepreum , then four hundred from +Mycenae [22.7583,37.725]
 (Perseus) Mycenae and +Tiryns [22.8167,37.6] (Perseus) Tiryns ,
 and next to them one thousand from Phlius . By
 these stood three hundred men of +Hermione [23.2583,37.3833] (Perseus) Hermione .

Next to the men of +Hermione
 [23.2583,37.3833] (Perseus) Hermione were six hundred
 Eretrians and Styreans ; next to them, four hundred Chalcidians ; next again, five hundred Ampraciots . After these stood eight hundred Leucadians and Anactorians , and next
 to them two hundred from Pale in Cephallenia ;

after them in the array, five hundred Aeginetans ; by them stood three thousand men of +Megara [23.35,38] (Perseus)
 Megara , and next to these six hundred Plataeans . At the end, and first in the line, were the Athenians who held the left wing. They were eight
 thousand in number, and their general was Aristides 
 son of Lysimachus .

All these, except the seven appointed to attend each
 Spartan , were men-at-arms, and the whole sum
 of them was thirty-eight thousand and seven hundred. This was the number of
 men-at-arms that mustered for war against the barbarian; as regards the
 number of the light-armed men, there were in the Spartan array seven for each man-at-arms, that is, thirty-five
 thousand, and every one of these was equipped for war.

The light-armed from the rest of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon and Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas were
 as one to every man-at-arms, and their number was thirty-four thousand and
 five hundred.

So the total of all the light-armed men who were
 fighters was sixty-nine thousand and five hundred, and of the whole Greek army mustered at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea ,
 men-at-arms and light-armed fighting men together, eleven times ten thousand
 less eighteen hundred. The Thespians who were
 present were one hundred and ten thousand in number, for the survivors of the
 Thespians were also present with the army,
 eighteen hundred in number. These then were arrayed and encamped by the
 Asopus .

When Mardonius ' barbarians
 had finished their mourning for Masistius and heard
 that the Greeks were at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea , they also came to the part of the Asopus river nearest to them. When they were there,
 they were arrayed for battle by Mardonius as I
 shall show. He posted the Persians facing the
 Lacedaemonians .

Seeing that the Persians by far outnumbered the
 Lacedaemonians , they were arrayed in deeper
 ranks and their line ran opposite the Tegeans 
 also. In his arraying of them he chose out the strongest part of the Persians to set it over against the Lacedaemonians , and posted the weaker by them facing
 the Tegeans ; this he did being so informed and
 taught by the Thebans .

Next to the Persians he posted the Medes opposite the men of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth , +Potidaea (deserted settlement), Chalcidice, Macedonia, Greece,
 Europe Potidaea , Orkhomenos (deserted settlement), Boeotia, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Orchomenus , and Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon ; next to the Medes , the Bactrians , opposite the men
 of Epidauros [23.0917,37.6]
 (Perseus) Epidaurus , Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) Troezen ,
 Lepreum , +Tiryns [22.8167,37.6] (Perseus) Tiryns ,
 +Mycenae [22.7583,37.725]
 (Perseus) Mycenae , and Phlius .

After the Bactrians he set the Indians , opposite the men of +Hermione [23.2583,37.3833]
 (Perseus) Hermione and +Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus)
 Eretria and 
 +Styra [24.2167,38.1833] (Perseus) Styra and +Chalcis [23.6083,38.4667]
 (Perseus) Chalcis . Next to the Indians he posted the Sacae , opposite
 the Ampraciots , Anactorians , Leucadians , Paleans , and Aeginetans ;

next to the Sacae , and opposite the Athenians , Plataeans ,
 Megarians , the Boeotians , Locrians , Malians , Thessalians , and
 the thousand that came from 
 +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Phocis ; for not all the Phocians 
 took the Persian side, but some of them gave
 their aid to the Greek cause; these had been
 besieged on +Parnassus
 (mountain), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe
 Parnassus , and issued out from there to harry Mardonius ' army and the Greeks who were with him. Beside these, he arrayed the Macedonians also and those who lived in the area of
 +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly opposite the Athenians .

These which I have named were the greatest of the
 nations set in array by Mardonius , but there was
 also in the army a mixture of Phrygians , Thracians , Mysians , Paeonians , and the rest, besides Ethiopians and the Egyptian swordsmen
 called Hermotybies and Calasiries , who are the only fighting men
 in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa
 Egypt .

These had been fighters on shipboard, till Mardonius while yet at Phalerum 
 disembarked them from their ships; for the Egyptians were not appointed to serve in the land army which
 Xerxes led to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .
 Of the barbarians, then, there were three hundred thousand, as I have
 already shown. As for the Greek allies of Mardonius , no one knows the number of them (for they
 were not counted), I suppose them to have been mustered to the number of
 fifty thousand. These were the footmen that were set in array; the cavalry
 were separately ordered.

On the second day after they had all been arrayed
 according to their nations and their battalions, both armies offered
 sacrifice. It was Tisamenus who sacrificed for the
 Greeks , for he was with their army as a
 diviner; he was an Elean by birth, a Clytiad of the Iamid 
 clan, and the Lacedaemonians gave him the freedom of their city.

This they did, for when Tisamenus was inquiring of
 the oracle at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi concerning offspring,
 the priestess prophesied to him that he should win five great victories. Not
 understanding that oracle, he engaged in bodily exercise, thinking that he
 would then be able to win in similar sports. When he had trained himself for
 the Five Contests, he came within one wrestling bout of winning the
 Olympic prize, in a match with Hieronymus of +Andros [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros,
 Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Andros .

The Lacedaemonians , however, perceived that the
 oracle given to Tisamenus spoke of the lists not of
 sport but of war, and they attempted to bribe Tisamenus to be a leader in their wars jointly with their kings
 of Heracles ' line.

When he saw that the Spartans set great store by
 his friendship, he set his price higher, and made it known to them that he
 would do what they wanted only in exchange for the gift of full citizenship
 and all of the citizen's rights.

Hearing that, the Spartans at first were angry
 and completely abandoned their request; but when the dreadful menace of this
 Persian host hung over them, they consented
 and granted his demand. When he saw their purpose changed, he said that he
 would not be content with that alone; his brother Hegias too must be made a Spartan on
 the same terms as himself.

By so saying he imitated Melampus , in so far as one may compare demands for kingship with
 those for citizenship. For when the women of Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos 
 had gone mad, and the Argives wanted him to come
 from Pylos [21.7083,36.9167]
 (Perseus) Pylos and heal them of that madness, 
 Melampus demanded half of their kingship for his
 wages.

This the Argives would not put up with and
 departed. When, however, the madness spread among their women, they promised
 what Melampus demanded and were ready to give it to
 him. Thereupon, seeing their purpose changed, he demanded yet more and said
 that he would not do their will except if they gave a third of their
 kingship to his brother Bias ; now driven into dire
 straits, the Argives consented to that also.

The Spartans too were so
 eagerly desirous of winning Tisamenus that they
 granted everything that he demanded. When they had granted him this also,
 Tisamenus of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis , now
 a Spartan , engaged in divination for them and
 aided them to win five very great victories. No one on earth save Tisamenus and his brother ever became citizens of
 Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta .

Now the five victories were these: one, the first, this victory at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea ; next, that which was won at Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea over the Tegeans and Argives ; after that, over all the Arcadians save the Mantineans at Dipaea ; next, over the
 Messenians at +Ithome [21.8167,39.4167] (Perseus)
 Ithome ; lastly, the victory at +Tanagra [23.6,38.3083] (Perseus) Tanagra 
 over the Athenians and Argives , which was the last won of the five victories.

This Tisamenus had now been
 brought by the Spartans and was the diviner of
 the Greeks at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea .
 The sacrifices boded good to the Greeks if they
 would just defend themselves, but evil if they should cross the Asopus and be the first to attack.

Mardonius ' sacrifices also foretold an unfavorable
 outcome if he should be zealous to attack first, and good if he should but
 defend himself. He too used the Greek manner of
 sacrifice, and Hegesistratus of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus)
 Elis was his diviner, the most notable of the sons of Tellias . This man had been put in prison and condemned
 to die by the Spartans for the great harm which
 he had done them.

Being in such bad shape inasmuch as he was in peril of his life and was
 likely to be very grievously maltreated before his death, he did something
 which was almost beyond belief; made fast in iron-bound stocks, he got an
 iron weapon which was brought in some way into his prison, and straightway
 conceived a plan of such courage as we have never known; reckoning how best
 the rest of it might get free, he cut off his own foot at the instep.

This done, he tunneled through the wall out of the way of the guards who
 kept watch over him, and so escaped to Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea . All
 night he journeyed, and all day he hid and lay hidden in the woods, till on
 the third night he came to Tegea
 [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea , while all the people of
 Sparta [22.416,37.83]
 (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe
 Lacedaemon sought him. The latter were greatly amazed when
 they saw the half of his foot which had been cut off and lying there but not
 were unable to find the man himself.

This, then, is the way in which he escaped the Lacedaemonians and took refuge in Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea , which
 at that time was unfriendly to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese,
 Greece, Europe Lacedaemon . After he was healed and had
 made himself a foot of wood, he declared himself an open enemy of the Lacedaemonians . Yet the enmity which he bore them
 brought him no good at the last, for they caught him at his divinations in
 +Zakinthos [20.9,37.783]
 (inhabited place), Nisos Zakinthos, Zakinthos, Ionian Islands, Greece,
 Europe Zacynthus and killed him.

The death of Hegesistratus ,
 however, took place after the Plataean business.
 At the present he was by the Asopus , hired by
 Mardonius for no small wage, where he sacrificed
 and worked zealously, both for the hatred he bore the Lacedaemonians and for gain.

When no favorable omens for battle could be won either by the Persians themselves or by the Greeks who were with them (for they too had a diviner of their
 own, Hippomachus of +Levkas [20.65,38.716] (island), Levkas, Ionian
 Islands, Greece, Europe Leucas ), and the Greeks kept flocking in and their army grew, Timagenides son of Herpys , a
 Theban , advised Mardonius to guard the outlet of the pass over Cithaeron , telling him that the Greeks 
 were coming in daily and that he would thereby cut off many of them.

The armies had already lain hidden opposite each
 other for eight days when he gave this counsel. Mardonius perceived that the advice was good, and when night had
 fallen, he sent his horsemen to the outlet of the pass over Cithaeron which leads towards Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea . This pass the Boeotians 
 call the Three Heads , and the Athenians the Oak's Heads . The horsemen
 who were sent out did not go in vain,

for they caught both five hundred beasts of burden which were going into
 the low country, bringing provisions from the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Peloponnese for the army, and men who came with the wagons.
 When they had taken this quarry, the Persians 
 killed without mercy, sparing neither man nor beast. When they had their
 fill of slaughter, they encircled the rest and drove them to Mardonius and his camp.

After this deed they waited two days more, neither
 side desiring to begin the battle, for although the barbarians came to the
 Asopus to test the Greeks intent, neither army crossed it. Mardonius ' cavalry, however, kept pressing upon and troubling the
 Greeks , for the Thebans , in their zeal for the Persian 
 part, waged war heartily, and kept on guiding the horsemen to the encounter;
 thereafter it was the turn of the Persians and
 Medes , and they and none other would do deeds
 of valor.

Until ten days had passed, no more was done than
 this. On the eleventh day from their first encampment opposite each other,
 the Greeks growing greatly in number and Mardonius being greatly vexed by the delay, there was
 a debate held between Mardonius son of Gobryas and Artabazus son of
 Pharnaces , who stood as high as only few others
 in Xerxes ' esteem.

Their opinions in council were as I will show. Artabazus thought it best that they should strike their camp with
 all speed and lead the whole army within the walls of Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes . Here there was much food stored and fodder for their
 beasts of burden; furthermore, they could sit at their ease here and
 conclude the business by doing as follows:

they could take the great store they had of gold, minted and other, and
 silver drinking-cups, and send all this to all places in Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas without stint, excepting none, but especially
 to the chief men in the cities of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . Let them do
 this (he said) and the Greeks would quickly
 surrender their liberty; but do not let the Persians risk the event of a battle.

This opinion of his was the same as the Thebans ,
 inasmuch as he too had special foreknowledge. Mardonius ' counsel, however, was more vehement and intemperate
 and not at all leaning to moderation. He said that he thought that their
 army was much stronger than the Greeks and that
 they should give battle with all speed so as not to let more Greeks muster than were mustered already. As for the
 sacrifices of Hegesistratus , let them pay no heed
 to these, nor seek to wring good from them, but rather give
 battle after Persian custom.

No one withstood this argument, and his opinion
 accordingly prevailed; for it was he and not Artabazus who was commander of the army by the king's commission.
 He therefore sent for the leaders of the battalions and the generals of
 those Greeks who were with him and asked them if
 they knew any oracle which prophesied that the Persians should perish in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

Those who were summoned said nothing, some not knowing the prophecies, and
 some knowing them but thinking it perilous to speak, and then Mardonius himself said: “Since you either have no
 knowledge or are afraid to declare it, hear what I tell you based on the
 full knowledge that I have.

There is an oracle that Persians are fated to
 come to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas and all perish there after they have
 plundered the temple at Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi . Since we have
 knowledge of this same oracle, we will neither approach that temple nor
 attempt to plunder it; in so far as destruction hinges on that, none awaits
 us.

Therefore, as many of you as wish the Persian 
 well may rejoice in that we will overcome the Greeks .” Having spoken in this way, he gave command to have
 everything prepared and put in good order for the battle which would take
 place early the next morning.

Now for this prophecy, which Mardonius said was spoken of the Persians , I know it to have been made concerning not them but the
 Illyrians and the army of the Enchelees . There is, however, a
 prophecy made by Bacis concerning this battle:

By Thermodon 's stream and the
 grass-grown banks of Asopus , 
 Will be a gathering of Greeks for fight and
 the ring of the barbarian's war-cry; 
 Many a Median archer, by death untimely overtaken will fall 
 There in the battle when the day of his doom is upon him. 
 I know that these verses and others very similar to them from Musaeus referred to the Persians . As for the river Thermodon ,
 it flows between +Tanagra
 [23.6,38.3083] (Perseus) Tanagra and +Glisas [23.4167,38.2833]
 (Perseus) Glisas .

After this inquiry about oracles and Mardonius ' exhortation, night fell, and the armies
 posted their sentries. Now when the night was far advanced and it seemed
 that all was still in the camps and the men were sleeping deeply, at that
 hour Alexander son of Amyntas , the general and king of the Macedonians , rode up to the Athenian 
 outposts and wanted to speak to their generals.

The greater part of the sentries remained where they were, but the rest ran
 to their generals and told them that a horseman had ridden in from the Persian camp, imparting no other word save that he
 desired to speak to the generals and called them by their names.

Hearing that, the generals straightway went with the
 men to the outposts. When they had come, Alexander 
 said to them: “Men of Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , I give you this
 message in trust as a secret which you must reveal to no one but Pausanias , or else you will be responsible for my
 undoing. In truth I would not tell it to you if I did not care so much for
 all Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas ;

I myself am by ancient descent a Greek , and I
 would not willingly see Greece
 [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas change her freedom for
 slavery. I tell you, then, that Mardonius and his
 army cannot get omens to his liking from the sacrifices. Otherwise you would
 have fought long before this. Now, however, it is his purpose to pay no heed
 to the sacrifices, and to attack at the first glimmer of dawn, for he fears,
 as I surmise, that your numbers will become still greater. Therefore, I urge
 you to prepare, and if (as may be) Mardonius should
 delay and not attack, wait patiently where you are; for he has but a few
 days' provisions left.

If, however, this war ends as you wish, then must you take thought how to
 save me too from slavery, who have done so desperate a deed as this for the
 sake of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas in my desire to declare to you Mardonius ' intent so that the barbarians may not
 attack you suddenly before you yet expect them. I who speak am Alexander the Macedonian .”
 With that he rode away back to the camp and his own station there.

The Athenian generals
 went to the right wing and told Pausanias what they
 had heard from Alexander . At the message Pausanias was terrified by the Persians , and said:

“Since, therefore, the battle is to begin at dawn, it is best that you
 Athenians should take your stand opposite the
 Persians , and we opposite the Boeotians and the Greeks 
 who are posted opposite you; for you have fought with the Medes at Marathon and know them and their manner of
 fighting while we have no experience or knowledge of those men. We Spartans have experience of the Boeotians and Thessalians , but not one
 of us has experience with the Medes .

No, rather let us take up our equipment and change places, you to this wing
 and we to the left.” “We, too,” the Athenians 
 answered, “even from the moment when we saw the Persians posted opposite you, had it in mind to make that
 suggestion which now has first come from you. We feared, however, that we
 would displease you by making it. But since you have spoken the wish
 yourselves, we too hear your words very gladly and are ready to do as you
 say.

Since both were satisfied with this, they exchanged
 their places in the ranks at the first light of dawn. The Boeotians noticed that and made it known to Mardonius . When he heard this, he straight away
 attempted to make a change for himself also, by moving the Persians opposite the Lacedaemonians . When Pausanias perceived
 what was being done, he saw that his action had been discovered and led the
 Spartans back to the right wing; Mardonius did the same thing on the left of his army.

When all were at their former posts again, Mardonius sent a herald to the Lacedaemonians with this message: “Men of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon , you are said by
 the people of these parts to be very brave men. It is their boast of you
 that you neither flee from the field nor leave your post, but remain there
 and either slay your enemies or are yourselves killed. It would seem,
 however, that there is no truth in all this,

for before we could attack and fight hand to hand, we saw you even now
 fleeing and leaving your station, using Athenians 
 for the first trial of your enemy and arraying yourselves opposite those who
 are but our slaves.

This is not the action of brave men. No, we have been grievously mistaken
 about you, for in accordance with what we heard about you, we expected that
 you would send us a herald challenging the Persians and none other to fight with you. That we were ready to
 do; but we find you making no such offer, but rather quailing before us.
 Now, therefore, since the challenge comes not from you, take it from us
 instead.

What is there to prevent us from fighting with equal numbers on both sides,
 you for the Greeks (since you have the reputation
 of being their best), and we for the barbarians? If it is desirable that the
 others fight also, let them fight after us, but if, on the contrary the
 opinion prevails that we alone suffice, then let us fight it out. Let the
 winner in this contest determine victory for the whole army.”

This is the proclamation made by the herald; and
 when he had waited a while and no one answered him, he went back again, and
 at his return told what had happened to him. Mardonius was overjoyed and proud of this semblance of victory,
 and sent his cavalry to attack the Greeks .

The horsemen rode at them and shot arrows and javelins among the whole Greek army to its great hurt, since they were
 mounted archers and difficult to deal with in an encounter; they spoiled and
 blocked the Gargaphian spring, from which the
 entire Greek army drew its water.

None indeed but the Lacedaemonians were posted
 near the spring, and it was far from the several stations of the other Greeks , whereas the Asopus 
 was near; nevertheless, they would always go to the spring, since they were
 barred from the Asopus , not being able to draw
 water from that river because of the horsemen and the arrows.

When this happened, seeing that their army was cut
 off from water and thrown into confusion by the horsemen, the generals of
 the Greeks went to Pausanias on the right wing, and debated concerning this and
 other matters; for there were other problems which troubled them more than
 what I have told. They had no food left, and their followers whom they had
 sent into the +Peloponnese
 [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese to bring
 provisions had been cut off by the horsemen and could not make their way to
 the army.

So they resolved in their council that if the Persians held off through that day from giving
 battle, they would go to the Island. This is ten furlongs distant from the Asopus and the Gargaphian 
 spring, near which their army then lay, and in front of the town of Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea .

It is like an island on dry land because the river in its course down from
 Cithaeron into the plain is parted into two
 channels, and there is about three furlongs space in between till presently
 the two channels unite again, and the name of that river is Oeroe , who (as the people of the country say ) was
 the daughter of Asopus .

To that place then they planned to go so that they might have plenty of
 water for their use and not be harmed by the horsemen, as now when they were
 face to face with them; and they resolved to change places in the second
 watch of the night, lest the Persians should see
 them setting forth and the horsemen press after them and throw them into
 confusion.

Furthermore, they resolved that when they had come to that place, which is
 encircled by the divided channels of Asopus '
 daughter Oeroe as she flows from Cithaeron , they would in that night send half of
 their army to Cithaeron , to remove their followers
 who had gone to get the provisions; for these were cut off from them on
 Cithaeron .

Having made this plan, all that day they suffered
 constant hardship from the cavalry which continually pressed upon them. When
 the day ended, however, and the horsemen stopped their onslaught, then at
 that hour of the night at which it was agreed that they should depart, most
 of them rose and departed, not with intent to go to the place upon which
 they had agreed. Instead of that, once they were on their way, they joyfully
 shook off the horsemen and escaped to the town of Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea . In the course of their flight they came to the
 temple of Hera which is outside of that town,
 twenty furlongs distant from the Gargaphian 
 spring and piled their arms in front of the temple.

So they encamped around the temple of Hera . Pausanias , however,
 seeing their departure from the camp, gave orders to the Lacedaemonians to take up their arms likewise and follow the
 others who had gone ahead, supposing that these were making for the place
 where they had agreed to go.

Thereupon, all the rest of the captains being ready to obey Pausanias , Amompharetus son
 of Poliades , the leader of the Pitanate 
 
 battalion, refused to flee from the barbarians or (save by compulsion) bring
 shame on Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta ; the whole business
 seemed strange to him, for he had not been present in the council recently
 held.

Pausanias and Euryanax 
 were outraged that Amompharetus disobeyed them.
 Still more, however, they disliked that his refusing would compel them to
 abandon the Pitanate battalion, for they feared
 that if they fulfilled their agreement with the rest of the Greeks and abandoned him, Amompharetus and his men would be left behind to perish.

Bearing this in mind, they kept the Laconian army
 where it was and tried to persuade Amompharetus 
 that he was in the wrong.

So they reasoned with Amompharetus , he being the only man left behind of all the Lacedaemonians and Tegeans . As for the Athenians , they
 stood unmoved at their post, well aware that the purposes and the promises
 of Lacedaemonians were not alike.

But when the army left its station, they sent a horseman of their own to see
 whether the Spartans were attempting to march or
 whether they were not intending to depart, and to ask Pausanias what the Athenians should
 do.

When the messenger arrived among the Lacedaemonians , he saw them arrayed where they had
 been, and their chief men by now in hot dispute. For though Euryanax and Pausanias 
 reasoned with Amompharetus , that the Lacedaemonians should not be endangered by remaining
 there alone, they could in no way prevail upon him. At last, when the Athenian messenger came among them, angry words
 began to pass.

In this wrangling Amompharetus took up a stone with
 both hands and threw it down before Pausanias '
 feet, crying that it was the pebble with which he voted against fleeing from
 the strangers (meaning thereby the barbarians). Pausanias called him a madman; then when the Athenian messenger asked the question with which he had been
 charged, Pausanias asked the man to tell the Athenians of his present condition, and begged them
 to join themselves to the Lacedaemonians and, as
 for departure, to do as they did.

The messenger then went back to the Athenians . When dawn found the dispute still
 continuing, Pausanias , who had up to this point
 kept his army where it was, now gave the word and led all the rest away
 between the hillocks, the Tegeans following, for
 he supposed that Amompharetus would not stay behind
 when the rest of the Lacedaemonians left him;
 this was in fact exactly what happened.

The Athenians marshalled themselves and marched,
 but not by the same way as the Lacedaemonians ,
 who stayed close to the broken ground and the lower slopes of Cithaeron in order to stay clear of the Persian horse. The Athenians marched down into the plain instead.

Now Amompharetus at first
 supposed that Pausanias would never have the heart
 to leave him and his men, and he insisted that they should remain where they
 were and not leave their post. When Pausanias ' men
 had already proceeded some distance, he thought that they had really left
 him. He accordingly bade his battalion take up its arms and led it in
 marching step after the rest of the column,

which after going a distance of ten furlongs, was waiting for Amompharetus by the stream Molois and the place called Argiopium ,
 where there is a shrine of Eleusinian Demeter . The
 reason for their waiting was that, if Amompharetus 
 and his battalion should not leave the place where it was posted but remain
 there, they would then be able to assist him.

No sooner had Amompharetus ' men come up than the
 barbarians' cavalry attacked the army, for the horsemen acted as they always
 had. When they saw no enemy on the ground where the Greeks had been on the days before this, they kept riding forward
 and attacked the Greeks as soon as they overtook
 them.

When Mardonius learned that
 the Greeks had departed under cover of night and
 saw the ground deserted, he called to him Thorax of
 Larissa and his brothers Eurypylus and Thrasydeius and said:

“What will you say now, sons of Aleuas , when you
 see this place deserted? For you, who are their neighbors, kept telling me
 that Lacedaemonians fled from no battlefield and
 were the masters of warfare. These same men, however, you just saw changing
 their post, and now you and all of us see that they have fled during the
 night. The moment they had to measure themselves in battle with those that
 are in very truth the bravest on earth, they plainly showed that they are
 men of no account, and all other Greeks likewise.

Now you, for your part, were strangers to the Persians , and I could readily pardon you for praising these
 fellows, who were in some sort known to you; but I marvelled much more that
 Artabazus , be he ever so frightened, should give
 us a coward's advice to strike our camp, and march away to be besieged in
 Thebes [23.3333,38.325]
 (Perseus) Thebes . Of this advice the king will certainly
 hear from me, but it will be discussed elsewhere.

Now we must not permit our enemies to do as they want; they must be pursued
 till they are overtaken and pay the penalty for all the harm they have done
 the Persians .”

With that, he led the Persians with all speed across the Asopus in pursuit of the Greeks ,
 supposing that they were in flight; it was the army of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited
 place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon 
 and Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea alone which was his goal, for the Athenians marched another way over the broken ground, and were
 out of his sight.

Seeing the Persians setting forth in pursuit of
 the Greeks , the rest of the barbarian battalions
 straightway raised their standards and also gave pursuit, each at top speed,
 no battalion having order in its ranks nor place assigned in the line.

So they ran pell-mell and shouting, as though they
 would utterly make an end of the Greeks . Pausanias , however, when the cavalry attacked him,
 sent a horseman to the Athenians with this
 message: “Men of Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , in this great contest
 which must give freedom or slavery to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , we Lacedaemonians and you Athenians have been betrayed by the flight of our allies in the
 night that is past.

I have accordingly now resolved what we must do; we must protect each other
 by fighting as best we can. If the cavalry had attacked you first, it would
 have been the duty of both ourselves and the Tegeans , who are faithful to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , to aid you;
 but now, seeing that the whole brunt of their assault falls on us, it is
 right that you should come to the aid of that division which is hardest
 pressed.

But if, as may be, anything has befallen you which makes it impossible for
 you to aid us, do us the service of sending us your archers. We are sure
 that you will obey us, as knowing that you have been by far more zealous
 than all others in this present war.”

When the Athenians heard
 that, they attempted to help the Lacedaemonians 
 and defend them with all their might. But when their march had already
 begun, they were set upon by the Greeks posted
 opposite them, who had joined themselves to the king. For this reason, being
 now under attack by the foe which was closest, they could at the time send
 no aid.

The Lacedaemonians and Tegeans accordingly stood alone, men-at-arms and light-armed
 together; there were of the Lacedaemonians fifty
 thousand and of the Tegeans , who had never been
 parted from the Lacedaemonians , three thousand.
 These offered sacrifice so that they would fare better in battle with Mardonius and the army which was with him.

They could get no favorable omen from their sacrifices, and in the meanwhile
 many of them were killed and by far more wounded (for the Persians set up their shields for a fence, and shot
 showers of arrows). Since the Spartans were being
 hard-pressed and their sacrifices were of no avail, Pausanias lifted up his eyes to the temple of Hera at Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea and called on the
 goddess, praying that they might not be disappointed in their hope.

While he was still in the act of praying, the men of
 Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus)
 Tegea leapt out before the rest and charged the barbarians,
 and immediately after Pausanias ' prayer the
 sacrifices of the Lacedaemonians became
 favorable. Now they too charged the Persians , and
 the Persians met them, throwing away their bows.

First they fought by the fence of shields, and when that was down, there was
 a fierce and long fight around the temple of Demeter itself, until they came to blows at close quarters. For
 the barbarians laid hold of the spears and broke them short.

Now the Persians were neither less valorous nor
 weaker, but they had no armor; moreover, since they were unskilled and no
 match for their adversaries in craft, they would rush out singly and in tens
 or in groups great or small, hurling themselves on the Spartans and so perishing.

Where Mardonius was
 himself, riding a white horse in the battle and surrounded by a thousand
 picked men who were the flower of the Persians ,
 there they pressed their adversaries hardest. So long as Mardonius was alive the Persians stood
 their ground and defended themselves, overthrowing many Lacedaemonians .

When, however, Mardonius was killed and his guards,
 who were the strongest part of the army, had also fallen, then the rest too
 yielded and gave ground before the men of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia,
 Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon . For what harmed
 them the most was the fact that they wore no armor over their clothes and
 fought, as it were, naked against men fully armed.

On that day the Spartans ,
 as the oracle had foretold, gained from Mardonius 
 their full measure of vengeance for the slaying of Leonidas , and the most glorious of victories of all which we know
 was won by Pausanias , the son of Cleombrotus , who was the son of Anaxandrides .

(I have named the rest of Pausanias ' ancestors in
 the lineage of Leonidas , for they are the same for
 both.) As for Mardonius , he was killed by Aeimnestus , a Spartan of
 note who long after the Persian business led
 three hundred men to battle at +Stenyclerus [21.9333,37.2333] (Perseus)
 Stenyclerus against the whole army of +Nomos Messinias [21.833,37.25]
 (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Messenia , and
 was there killed, he and his three hundred.

At Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea , however,
 the Persians , routed by the Lacedaemonians , fled in disorder to their own camp and inside the
 wooden walls which they had made in the territory of Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes .

It is indeed a marvel that although the battle was right by the grove of
 Demeter , there was no sign that any Persian had been killed in the precinct or entered
 into it; most of them fell near the temple in unconsecrated ground. I
 think—if it is necessary to judge the ways of the gods—that the goddess
 herself denied them entry, since they had burnt her temple, the shrine at
 +Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417]
 (Perseus) Eleusis .

This, then, is what happened in this battle. But
 Artabazus son of Pharnaces had from the very first disapproved of the king's
 leaving Mardonius , and now all his counselling not
 to join battle had been of no avail. In his displeasure at what Mardonius was doing, he himself did as I will show.

He had with him a great army, as many as forty thousand men. He knew full
 well what the outcome of the battle would be, and no sooner had the Greeks and Persians met
 than he led these with a fixed purpose, telling them to follow him all
 together wherever he should lead them, whatever they thought his intent
 might be.

With that command he pretended to lead them into battle. As he came farther
 on his way, he saw the Persians already fleeing
 and accordingly led his men, no longer in the same array, but took to his
 heels and fled with all speed not to the wooden fort nor to the walled city
 of Thebes [23.3333,38.325]
 (Perseus) Thebes , but to +Phocis (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Phocis , so that he might make his way with
 all haste to the Canakkale Bogazi
 (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont .

So Artabazus and his army
 turned that way. All the rest of the Greeks who
 were on the king's side fought badly on purpose, but not so the Boeotians ; they fought for a long time against the
 Athenians . For those Thebans who were on the Persian side
 had great enthusiasm in the battle, and did not want to fight in a cowardly
 manner. As a result of this, three hundred of their first and best were
 killed there by the Athenians . At last, however,
 the Boeotians too yielded and they fled to Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes , but not by the way which the Persians had fled and the multitude of the allies which had
 fought no fight to the end nor achieved any feat of arms.

This flight of theirs which took place before the
 actual closing of battle and was prompted because they saw the Persians flee, proves to me that it was on the Persians that the fortune of the barbarians hung.
 They accordingly all fled, save the cavalry, Boeotian and other; this helped the fleeing men in so far as it
 remained between them and their enemies and shielded its friends from the
 Greeks in their flight.

So the Greeks , now having
 the upper hand, followed Xerxes ' men, pursuing and
 slaying. During this steadily growing rout there came a message to the rest
 of the Greeks , who were by the temple of Hera and had stayed out of the fighting, that there
 had been a battle and that Pausanias ' men were
 victorious. When they heard this, they set forth in no ordered array, those
 who were with the Corinthians keeping to the
 spurs of the mountain and the hill country, by the road that led upward
 straight to the temple of Demeter , and those who
 were with the Megarians and Philasians taking the most level route over the plain.

However, when the Megarians and Philasians had come near the enemy, the Theban horsemen (whose captain was Asopodorus son of Timander ) caught sight
 of them approaching in haste and disorder, and rode at them; in this attack
 they trampled six hundred of them, and pursued and drove the rest to Cithaeron .

So these perished without anyone noticing. But when
 the Persians and the rest of the multitude had
 fled within the wooden wall, they managed to get up on the towers before the
 coming of the Lacedaemonians ; then they
 strengthened the wall as best they could. When the Athenians arrived, an intense battle for the wall began.

For as long as the Athenians were not there, the
 barbarians defended themselves and had a great advantage over the Lacedaemonians who had no skill in the assault of
 walls. When the Athenians came up, however, the
 fight for the wall became intense and lasted for a long time. In the end the
 Athenians , by valor and constant effort,
 scaled the wall and breached it. The Greeks 
 poured in through the opening they had made;

the first to enter were the Tegeans , and it was
 they who plundered the tent of Mardonius , taking
 from it besides everything else the feeding trough of his horses which was
 all of bronze and a thing well worth looking at. The Tegeans dedicated this feeding trough of Mardonius in the temple of Athena Alea .
 Everything else which they took they brought into the common pool, as did
 the rest of the Greeks .

As for the barbarians, they did not form a unified body again once the wall
 was down, nor did anyone think of defense because the terrified men in the
 tiny space and the many myriads herded together were in great distress.

Such a slaughter were the Greeks able to make,
 that of two hundred and sixty thousand who remained after Artabazus had fled with his forty thousand, scarcely three
 thousand were left alive. Of the Lacedaemonians 
 from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667]
 (Perseus) Sparta ninety-one all together were killed in
 battle; of the Tegeans , seventeen and of the
 Athenians , fifty-two.

Among the barbarians, the best fighters were the
 Persian infantry and the cavalry of the Sacae , and of men, it is said, the bravest was Mardonius . Among the Greeks , the Tegeans and Athenians conducted themselves nobly, but the Lacedaemonians excelled all in valor.

Of this my only clear proof is (for all these conquered the foes opposed to
 them) the fact that the Lacedaemonians fought
 with the strongest part of the army, and overcame it. According to my
 judgment, the bravest man by far was Aristodemus ,
 who had been reviled and dishonored for being the only man of the three
 hundred that came alive from +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae ; next after him in valor were
 Posidonius , Philocyon ,
 and Amompharetus .

Nevertheless, when there was a general discussion about who had borne
 himself most bravely, those Spartans who were
 there judged that Aristodemus , who plainly wished
 to die because of the reproach hanging over him and so rushed out and left
 the battle column behind, had achieved great deeds, but that Posidonius , who had no wish to die, proved himself a
 courageous fighter, and so in this way he was the better man.

This they may have said merely out of jealousy, but all the aforesaid who
 were killed in that fight received honor, save Aristodemus ; he, because he desired death because of the reproach
 previously mentioned, received none.

These won the most renown of all who fought at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea . For Callicrates , who, when
 he came to the army, was the finest not only of the Lacedaemonians , but also of all the other Greeks , died away from the battle. Callicrates , who was sitting in his place when Pausanias was offering sacrifice, was wounded in the side by an
 arrow.

While his comrades were fighting, he was carried out of the battle and died
 a lingering death, saying to Arimnestus , a Plataean , that it was not a source of grief to him
 to die for Greece [22,39]
 (nation), Europe Hellas ' sake; his sorrow was rather that
 he had struck no blow and achieved no deed worthy of his merit, despite all
 his eager desire to do so.

Of the Athenians , Sophanes son of Eutychides is
 said to have won renown, a man from the town of Decelea , whose people once did a deed that was of eternal value,
 as the Athenians themselves say.

For in the past when the sons of Tyndarus were
 trying to recover Helen , after breaking into Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica with a great host, they
 turned the towns upside down because they did not know where Helen had been hidden, then (it is said) the Deceleans (and, as some say, Decelus himself, because he was angered by the pride of Theseus and feared for the whole land of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department),
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica )
 revealed the whole matter to the sons of Tyndarus ,
 and guided them to Aphidnae , which Titacus , one of the autochthonoi, handed over to to
 the Tyndaridae .

For that deed the Deceleans have always had and
 still have freedom at Sparta
 [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta from all dues and
 chief places at feasts. In fact, even as recently as the war which was waged
 many years after this time between the Athenians 
 and Peloponnesians , the Lacedaemonians laid no hand on Decelea 
 when they harried the rest of Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Attica .

From that town was Sophanes , who now was the best Athenian 
 fighter in the battle, and about him two tales are told. According to the
 first, he bore an iron anchor attached to the belt of his cuirass with a
 chain of bronze. He would cast this anchor whenever he approached his
 enemies in an attack so that the enemy, as they left their ranks, might not
 be able to move him from his place. When they were put to flight, it was his
 plan that he would pull up his anchor and so pursue them.

So runs this tale. The second which contradicts with the first and relates
 that he wore no iron anchor attached to his cuirass, but that his shield,
 which he constantly whirled round and never held still, had on it an anchor
 as a device.

There is yet another glorious deed which Sophanes did; when the Athenians were besieging +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica,
 Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , he
 challenged and killed Eurybates the Argive , a victor in the Five Contests. Long after
 this, Sophanes met his death when he was general of
 the Athenians with Leagrus , son of Glaucon . He was killed
 at Datus 
 by the Edonians 
 in a battle for the gold-mines.

Immediately after the Greeks had devastated the barbarians at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea , a woman, who was the concubine of Pharandates a Persian , son of Teaspis , deserting from the enemy, came to them. She,
 learning that the Persians were ruined and the
 Greeks victorious, decked herself (as did also
 her attendants) with many gold ornaments and the fairest clothing that she
 had, and alighting thus from her carriage came to the Lacedaemonians while they were still in the midst of
 slaughtering. When she saw Pausanias , whose name
 and country she had often heard of, directing everything, she knew that it
 was he, and supplicated him clasping his knees:

“Save me, your suppliant, O king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , from
 captive slavery, for you have aided me till now, by making an end of those
 men who hold sacred nothing of the gods or of any divinities. Coan I am by birth, the daughter of Hegetorides , son of Antagoras ; in Kos
 City [27.3,36.8917] (Perseus) Cos the Persian seized me by force and held me prisoner.”

“Take heart, lady,” Pausanias answered, “for you
 are my suppliant, and furthermore if you are really the daughter of Hegetorides of Kos City [27.3,36.8917] (Perseus) Cos , he
 is my closest friend of all who dwell in those lands.” For the present, he
 then entrusted her to those of the ephors who were present. Later he sent
 her to +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina , where she herself desired to go.

Immediately after the arrival of this woman, the men
 of +Mantinea
 [22.3833,37.6167] (Perseus) Mantinea came when everything
 was already over. Upon learning that they had come too late for the battle,
 they were extremely upset and said that they ought to punish themselves for
 that.

When they heard that those Medes with Artabazus were fleeing, they would have pursued them
 as far as +Thessaly [22.25,39.5]
 (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly . The Lacedaemonians , however, would not permit them to
 pursue the fleeing men.

So when they returned to their own land, the Mantineans banished the leaders of their army from the country.
 After the Mantineans came the men of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus)
 Elis , who also went away extremely upset, and after their
 departure, they too banished their leaders. Such were the doings of the
 Mantineans and Eleans .

There was at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea 
 in the army of the Aeginetans one Lampon , son of Pytheas , a
 leading man of +Aegina
 [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina . He hastened to Pausanias with really outrageous counsel and coming
 upon him, said to him:

“son of Cleombrotus , you have done a deed of
 surpassing greatness and glory; the god has granted to you in saving Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas to have won greater renown than any Greek whom we know. But now you must finish what
 remains for the rest, so that your fame may be greater still and so that no
 barbarian will hereafter begin doing reckless deeds against the Greeks .

When Leonidas was killed at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8]
 (Perseus) Thermopylae , Mardonius 
 and Xerxes cut off his head and set it on a pole;
 make them a like return, and you will win praise from all Spartans and the rest of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas 
 besides. For if you impale Mardonius , you will be
 avenged for your father's brother Leonidas .”

This is what Lampon ,
 thinking to please, said. Pausanias , however,
 answered him as follows: “ Aeginetan , I thank you
 for your goodwill and forethought, but you have missed the mark of right
 judgment. First you exalt me and my fatherland and my deeds, yet next you
 cast me down to mere nothingness when you advise me to insult the dead, and
 say that I shall win more praise if I do so. That would be an act more
 proper for barbarians than for Greeks and one
 that we consider worthy of censure even in barbarians.

No, as for myself, I would prefer to find no favor either with the people of
 +Aegina [23.433,37.75]
 (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece,
 Europe Aegina or anyone else who is pleased by such acts.
 It is enough for me if I please the Spartans by
 righteous deeds and speech. As for Leonidas , whom
 you would have me avenge, I think that he has received a full measure of
 vengeance; the uncounted souls of these that you see have done honor to him
 and the rest of those who died at +Thermopylae [22.5583,38.8] (Perseus)
 Thermopylae . But to you this is my warning: do not come
 again to me with words like these nor give me such counsel. Be thankful now
 that you go unpunished.”

With that Lampon departed.
 Then Pausanias made a proclamation that no man
 should touch the spoils, and ordered the helots to gather all the stuff
 together. They, spreading all over the camp, found there tents adorned with
 gold and silver, and couches gilded and silver-plated, and golden bowls and
 cups and other drinking-vessels;

and sacks they found on wagons, in which were seen cauldrons of gold and
 silver. They stripped from the dead who lay there their armlets and torques,
 and golden daggers; as for the embroidered clothing, it was disregarded.

Much of all this the helots showed, as much as they could not conceal, but
 much they stole and sold to the Aeginetans . As a
 result the Aeginetans laid the foundation of
 their great fortunes by buying gold from the helots as though it were
 bronze.

Having brought all the loot together, they set apart
 a tithe for the god of Delphi
 [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi . From this was made
 and dedicated that tripod which rests upon the bronze three-headed
 serpent, nearest to the
 altar; another they set apart for the god of Olympia [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia ,
 from which was made and dedicated a bronze figure of Zeus , ten cubits high; and another for the god of the Isthmus,
 from which was fashioned a bronze Poseidon seven
 cubits high. When they had set all this apart, they divided what remained,
 and each received, according to his worth, concubines of the Persians and gold and silver, and all the rest of
 the stuff and the beasts of burden.

How much was set apart and given to those who had fought best at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea , no man says. I think that they also received gifts,
 but tenfold of every kind, women, horses, talents, camels, and all other
 things also, was set apart and given to Pausanias .

This other story is also told. When Xerxes fled from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , he left to
 Mardonius his own establishment. Pausanias , seeing Mardonius '
 establishment with its display of gold and silver and gaily colored
 tapestry, ordered the bakers and the cooks to prepare a dinner such as they
 were accustomed to do for Mardonius .

They did his bidding, but Pausanias , when he saw
 golden and silver couches richly covered, and tables of gold and silver, and
 all the magnificent service of the banquet, was amazed at the splendor
 before him, and for a joke commanded his own servants to prepare a dinner in
 Laconian fashion. When that meal, so different
 from the other, was ready, Pausanias burst out
 laughing and sent for the generals of the Greeks .

When these had assembled, Pausanias pointed to the
 manner in which each dinner was served and said: “Men of Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , I have brought you here because I desired to
 show you the foolishness of the leader of the Medes who, with such provisions for life as you see, came here to
 take away from us our possessions which are so pitiful.” In this way, it is
 said, Pausanias spoke to the generals of the Greeks .

Long after these events many of the Plataeans also found chests full of gold and silver
 and other things.

Moreover, when their bodies (which the Plataeans 
 gathered into one place) were laid bare of flesh, a skull was found of which
 the bone was all of one piece without suture. A jawbone also came to light
 in which the teeth of the upper jaw were one whole, a single bone, front
 teeth and grinders, and one could see the body of a man of five cubits
 stature.

As for the body of Mardonius , it was removed on the day after the battle; by whom, I
 cannot with certainty say. I have, however, heard of very many countries
 that buried Mardonius , and I know of many that were
 richly rewarded for that act by Mardonius ' son
 Artontes .

Which of them it was that stole and buried the body of Mardonius I cannot learn for certain. Some report that it was
 buried by Dionysophanes , an Ephesian . Such was the manner of Mardonius ' burial.

But the Greeks , when they
 had divided the spoils at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea , buried
 each contingent of their dead in a separate place. The Lacedaemonians made three tombs; there they buried their
 “irens,” among whom were Posidonius ,
 Amompharetus , Philocyon , and Callicrates .

In one of the tombs, then, were the “irens,” in the second the rest of the
 Spartans , and in the third the helots. This,
 then is how the Lacedaemonians buried their dead.
 The Tegeans , however, buried all theirs together
 in a place apart, and the Athenians did similarly
 with their own dead. So too did the Megarians and
 Phliasians with those who had been killed by
 the horsemen.

All the tombs of these peoples were filled with dead; but as for the rest of
 the states whose tombs are to be seen at +Plataea (inhabited place), Boeotia, Central Greece
 and Euboea, Greece, Europe Plataeae , their tombs are but
 empty barrows that they built for the sake of men that should come after,
 because they were ashamed to have been absent from the battle. There is one
 there called the tomb of the Aeginetans , which,
 as I learn by inquiry, was built as late as ten years after, at the Aeginetans ' desire, by their patron and protector
 Cleades son of Autodicus , a Plataean .

As soon as the Greeks had
 buried their dead at Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea , they resolved in
 council that they would march against Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes 
 and demand surrender of those who had taken the Persian side—particularly of Timagenidas 
 and Attaginus , who were chief among their foremost
 men. If these men were not delivered to them, they would not withdraw from
 the area in front of the city till they had taken it.

They came with this purpose on the eleventh day after the battle and laid
 siege to the Thebans , demanding the surrender of
 the men. When the Thebans refused this surrender,
 they laid waste to their lands and assaulted the walls.

Seeing that the Greeks 
 would not cease from their harrying and nineteen days had passed, Timagenidas spoke as follows to the Thebans : “Men of Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes ,
 since the Greeks have resolved that they will not
 raise the siege till Thebes
 [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes is taken or we are
 delivered to them, do not let the land of Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia increase the measure of its ills
 for our sake.

No, rather if it is money they desire and their demand for our surrender is
 but a pretext, let us give them money out of our common treasury (for it was
 by the common will and not ours alone that we took the Persian side). If, however, they are besieging the town for no
 other reason than to have us, then we will give ourselves up to be tried by
 them.” This seemed to be said well and at the right time, and the Thebans immediately sent a herald to Pausanias , offering to surrender the men.

On these terms they made an agreement, but Attaginus escaped from the town. His sons were seized,
 but Pausanias held them free of guilt, saying that
 the sons were not accessory to the treason. As for the rest of the men whom
 the Thebans surrendered, they supposed that they
 would be put on trial, and were confident that they would defeat the
 impeachment by bribery. Pausanias , however, had
 that very suspicion of them, and when they were put into his hands he sent
 away the whole allied army and carried the men to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth , where he put them to death. This is
 what happened at Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea and Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus)
 Thebes .

Artabazus the son of Pharnaces was by now far on his way in his flight from Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea . The Thessalians , when he
 came among them, entertained him hospitably and inquired of him concerning
 the rest of the army, knowing nothing of what had happened at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea .

Artabazus understood that if he told them the whole
 truth about the fighting, he would endanger his own life and the lives of
 all those with him, for he thought that every man would set upon him if they
 heard the story. Therefore, although he had revealed nothing to the Phocians , he spoke as follows to the Thessalians :

“I myself, men of +Thessaly
 [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly , am
 pressing on with all speed and diligence to march into Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace , being despatched from the army for a
 certain purpose with the men whom you see. Mardonius and his army are expected marching close on my heels.
 It is for you to entertain him, and show that you do him good service, for
 if you so do, you will not afterwards regret it.”

So saying, he used all diligence to lead his army away straight towards
 Thrace (region (general)),
 Europe Thrace through +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe
 Thessaly and Macedonia (region (general)), Europe Macedonia 
 without any delay, following the shortest inland road. So he came to +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333]
 (Perseus) Byzantium , but he left behind many of his army
 who had been cut down by the Thracians or
 overcome by hunger and weariness. From +Byzantium [28.95,41.0333] (Perseus)
 Byzantium he crossed over in boats. In such a way Artabazus returned to Asia (continent) Asia .

Now on the same day when the Persians were so stricken at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea ,
 it so happened that they suffered a similar fate at Mykale [26.8667,38.1]
 (Perseus) Mykale in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia . When the
 Greeks who had come in their ships with Leutychides the Lacedaemonian were encamped at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos ,
 certain messengers came to them there from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean
 Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , Lampon of Thrasycles , Athenagoras son of Archestratides , and
 Hegesistratus son of Aristagoras . The Samians had sent
 these, keeping their despatch secret from the Persians and the tyrant Theomestor son
 of Androdamas , whom the Persians had made tyrant of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands,
 Greece, Europe Samos .

When they came before the generals, Hegesistratus 
 spoke long and vehemently: “If the Ionians but
 see you,” he said, “they will revolt from the Persians , and the barbarians will not remain; but if they do
 remain, you will have such a prey as never again. “ He begged them in the
 name of the gods of their common worship to deliver Greeks from slavery and drive the barbarian away.

That, he said, would be an easy matter for them, “for the Persian ships are unseaworthy and no match for
 yours; and if you have any suspicion that we may be tempting you
 deceitfully, we are ready to be taken in your ships as hostages.”

As the Samian stranger
 was pleading so earnestly, Leutychides asked him
 (whether it was that he desired to know for the sake of a presage, or
 through some happy chance of a god), “ Samian 
 stranger, what is your name?” “ Hegesistratus ,” he replied.

Then Leutychides cut short whatever else Hegesistratus had begun to say, and cried: “I accept
 the omen of your name, Samian stranger; now see
 to it that before you sail from here you and those who are with you pledge
 that the Samians will be our zealous allies.”

He said this and added deed to word. For straightway
 the Samians bound themselves by pledge and oath
 to alliance with the Greeks .

This done, the rest sailed away, but Leutychides 
 bade Hegesistratus to sail with the Greeks because of the good omen of his name. The
 Greeks waited through that day, and on the
 next they sought and received favorable augury; their diviner was Deiphonus son of Evenius , a
 man of that +Apollonia
 [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus) Apollonia which is in the
 Ionian gulf. This man's father Evenius had once fared as I will now relate.

There is at +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus)
 Apollonia a certain flock sacred to the Sun, which in the
 daytime is pastured beside the river Chon , which
 flows from the mountain called Lacmon through the
 lands of +Apollonia
 [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus) Apollonia and empties into
 the sea by the harbor of Oricum . By night, those
 townsmen who are most notable for wealth or lineage are chosen to watch it,
 each man serving for a year, for the people of +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus)
 Apollonia set great store by this flock, being so taught by
 a certain oracle. It is kept in a cave far distant from the town.

Now at the time of which I speak, Evenius was the
 chosen watchman. But one night he fell asleep, and wolves, coming past his
 guard into the cave, killed about sixty of the flock. When Evenius was aware of it, he held his peace and told no man,
 intending to restore what was lost by buying others.

This matter was not, however, hidden from the people of +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167]
 (Perseus) Apollonia , and when it came to their knowledge
 they brought him to judgment and condemned him to lose his eyesight for
 sleeping at his watch. So they blinded Evenius , but
 from the day of their so doing their flocks bore no offspring, nor did their
 land yield fruit as before.

Furthermore, a declaration was given to them at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona and
 Delphi [22.5167,38.4917]
 (Perseus) Delphi , when they inquired of the prophets what
 might be the cause of their present ill: the gods told them by their
 prophets that they had done unjustly in blinding Evenius , the guardian of the sacred flock, “for we ourselves”
 (they said) “sent those wolves, and we will not cease from avenging him
 until you make him such restitution for what you did as he himself chooses
 and approves; when that is fully done, we ourselves will give Evenius such a gift as will make many men consider him
 happy.”

This was the oracle given to the people of +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167]
 (Perseus) Apollonia . They kept it secret and charged
 certain of their townsmen to carry the business through; they acted as I
 will now show. Coming and sitting down by Evenius 
 at the place where he sat, they spoke of other matters, till at last they
 fell to commiserating his misfortune. Guiding the conversation in this way,
 they asked him what compensation he would choose, if the people of +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167]
 (Perseus) Apollonia should promise to requite him for
 what they had done.

He, knowing nothing of the oracle, said he would choose for a gift the lands
 of certain named townsmen whom he thought to have the two fairest estates in
 +Apollonia
 [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus) Apollonia , and a house
 besides which he knew to be the fairest in the town; let him (he said) have
 possession of these, and he would lay aside his anger, and be satisfied with
 that by way of restitution.

So he said this, and those who were sitting beside him said in reply: “ Evenius , the people of +Apollonia [14.5833,38.0167] (Perseus)
 Apollonia hereby make you that restitution for the loss of
 your sight, obeying the oracle given to them.” At that he was very angry,
 for he learned through this the whole story and saw that they had cheated
 him. They did, however, buy from the possessors and give him what he had
 chosen, and from that day he had a natural gift of divination, through which
 he won fame.

Deiphonus , the son of this Evenius , had been brought by the Corinthians , and was the army's prophet. But I have heard it said
 before now, that Deiphonus was not the son of Evenius , but made a wrongful use of that name and
 worked for wages up and down Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

Having won favorable omens, the Greeks put out to sea from Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos for +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island),
 Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos . When they
 were now near Calamisa in the Samian territory, they anchored there near the temple of Hera which is in those parts, and prepared for a
 sea-fight. The Persians , learning of their
 approach, also put out to sea and made for the mainland with all their ships
 save the Phoenicians , whom they sent sailing
 away. It was determined by them in council that they would not do battle by
 sea,

for they thought themselves overmatched; the reason of their making for the
 mainland was that they might be under the shelter of their army at Mykale [26.8667,38.1]
 (Perseus) Mykale , which had been left by Xerxes ' command behind the rest of his host to hold Ionia (region (general)), Europe
 Ionia . There were sixty thousand men in it, and Tigranes , the noblest and tallest man in Iran [53,32] (nation),
 Asia Persia , was their general.

It was the design of the Persian admirals to flee
 to the shelter of that army, and there to beach their ships and build a
 fence round them which should be a protection for the ship and a refuge for
 themselves.

With this design they put to sea. So when they came
 past the temple of the Goddesses at Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale to the Gaeson and Scolopois , where there is a temple
 of Eleusinian Demeter (which was built by Philistus son of Pasicles 
 when he went with Nileus son of Codrus to the founding of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus ),
 they beached their ships and fenced them round with stones and the trunks of
 orchard trees which they cut down; they drove in stakes around the fence and
 prepared for siege or victory, making ready, after consideration, for either
 event.

When the Greeks learned
 that the barbarians had gone off to the mainland, they were not all pleased
 that their enemy had escaped them, and did not know whether to return back
 or set sail for the Canakkale
 Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont . At last they resolved that they would do
 neither, but sail to the mainland.

Equipping themselves for this with gangways and everything else necessary
 for a sea-fight, they held their course for Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale .
 When they approached the camp, no one put out to meet them. Seeing the ships
 beached within the wall and a great host of men drawn up in array along the
 strand, Leutychides first sailed along in his ship,
 keeping as near to the shore as he could, and made this proclamation to the
 Ionians by the voice of a herald:

“Men of Ionia (region (general)),
 Europe Ionia , you who hear us, understand what I say, for
 by no means will the Persians understand anything
 I charge you with when we join battle; first of all it is right for each man
 to remember his freedom and next the battle-cry ‘ Hebe ’: and let him who hears me tell him who has not heard it.”

The purpose of this act was the same as Themsitocles ' purpose at +Artemisium [23.2417,39.0083] (Perseus)
 Artemisium ; either the message would be
 unknown to the barbarians and would prevail with the Ionians , or if it were thereafter reported to the barbarians, it
 would cause them to mistrust their Greek allies.

After this counsel of Leutychides , the Greeks brought their
 ships to land and disembarked on the beach, where they formed a battle
 column. But the Persians , seeing the Greeks prepare for battle and exhort the Ionians , first of all took away the Samians ' armor, suspecting that they would aid the
 Greeks ;

for indeed when the barbarian's ships brought certain Athenian captives, who had been left in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and
 Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica and taken by Xerxes ' army, the Samians 
 had set them all free and sent them away to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens 
 with provisions for the journey; for this reason in particular they were
 held suspect, as having set free five hundred souls of Xerxes ' enemies.

Furthermore, they appointed the Milesians to
 guard the passes leading to the heights of Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale ,
 alleging that they were best acquainted with the country. Their true reason,
 however, for so doing was that the Milesians 
 should be separate from the rest of their army. In such a manner the Persians safeguarded themselves from those Ionians who (they supposed) might turn against them
 if opportunity were given for themselves: they set their shields close to
 make a barricade.

The Greeks , having made
 all their preparations advanced their line against the barbarians. As they
 went, a rumor spread through the army, and a herald's wand was seen lying by
 the water-line. The rumor that ran was to the effect that the Greeks were victors over Mardonius ' army at a battle in Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea,
 Greece, Europe Boeotia .

Now there are many clear indications of the divine ordering of things,
 seeing that a message, which greatly heartened the army and made it ready to
 face danger, arrived amongst the Greeks the very
 day on which the Persians ' disaster at Plataea [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus)
 Plataea and that other which was to befall them at Mykale [26.8667,38.1]
 (Perseus) Mykale took place.

Moreover, there was the additional coincidence, that
 there were precincts of Eleusinian Demeter on both
 battlefields; for at Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea the fight was near the
 temple of Demeter , as I have already said, and so
 it was to be at Mykale
 [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale also.

It happened that the rumor of a victory won by the Greeks with Pausanias was true, for the
 defeat at Plataea
 [23.2667,38.2] (Perseus) Plataea happened while it was
 yet early in the day, and the defeat of Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale in
 the afternoon. That the two fell on the same day of the same month was
 proven to the Greeks when they examined the
 matter not long afterwards.

Now before this rumor came they had been faint-hearted, fearing less for
 themselves than for the Greeks with Pausanias , that Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas should
 stumble over Mardonius . But when the report sped
 among them, they grew stronger and swifter in their onset. So Greeks and barbarians alike were eager for battle,
 seeing that the islands and the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia
 Hellespont were the prizes of victory.

As for the Athenians and
 those whose place was nearest them, that is, for about half of the line,
 their way lay over the beach and level ground; for the Lacedaemonians and those that were next to them, their way lay
 through a ravine and among hills. While the Lacedaemonians were making a circuit, those others on the other
 wing were already fighting.

As long as the Persians ' shields stood upright,
 they defended themselves and held their own in the battle, but when the
 Athenians and their neighbors in the line
 passed the word and went more zealously to work, that they and not the Lacedaemonians might win the victory, immediately
 the face of the fight changed.

Breaking down the shields they charged all together into the midst of the
 Persians , who received the onset and stood
 their ground for a long time, but at last fled within their wall. The Athenians and Corinthians 
 and Sicyonians and Troezenians , who were next to each other in the line, followed
 close after and rushed in together. But when the walled place had been
 razed, the barbarians made no further defense, but took to flight, all save
 the Persians ,

who gathered into bands of a few men and fought with whatever Greeks came rushing within the walls. Of the Persian leaders two escaped by flight and two were
 killed; Artayntes and Ithanitres , who were admirals of the fleet, escaped; Mardontes and Tigranes , the
 general of the land army, were killed fighting.

While the Persians still
 fought, the Lacedaemonians and their comrades
 came up and finished what was left of the business. The Greeks too lost many men there, notably the men of Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon and their general Perilaus .

As for the Samians who served in the Median army
 and had been disarmed, they, seeing from the first that victory hung in the
 balance, did what they could
 in their desire to aid the Greeks . When the other
 Ionians saw the Samians set the example, they also abandoned the Persians and attacked the foreigners.

The Persians had for
 their own safety appointed the Milesians to watch
 the passes, so that if anything should happen to the Persian army such as did happen to it, they might have guides to
 bring them safely to the heights of Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale . This was the
 task to which the Milesians were appointed for
 the reason mentioned above and so that they might not be present with the
 army and so turn against it. They acted wholly contrary to the charge laid
 upon them; they misguided the fleeing Persians by
 ways that led them among their enemies, and at last they themselves became
 their worst enemies and killed them. In this way Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia 
 revolted for the second time from the Persians .

In that battle those of the Greeks who fought best were the Athenians , and the Athenian who fought
 best was one who practised the pancratium, 
 Hermolycus son of Euthoenus . This Hermolycus on a later
 day met his death in a battle at Cyrnus in Carystus during a war between the Athenians and Carystians , and lay dead
 on Geraestus . Those who fought best after the
 Athenians were the men of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083]
 (Perseus) Corinth and Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) Troezen and
 Sikyon [22.725,37.9833]
 (Perseus) Sicyon .

When the Greeks had made
 an end of most of the barbarians, either in battle or in flight, they
 brought out their booty onto the beach, and found certain stores of wealth.
 Then after burning the ships and the whole of the wall, they sailed away.

When they had arrived at Nisos
 Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece,
 Europe Samos , they debated in council over the removal of
 all Greeks from Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia ,
 and in what Greek lands under their dominion it
 would be best to plant the Ionians , leaving the
 country itself to the barbarians; for it seemed impossible to stand on guard
 between the Ionians and their enemies forever.
 If, however, they should not so stand, they had no hope that the Persians would permit the Ionians to go unpunished.

In this matter the Peloponnesians who were in
 charge were for removing the people from the lands of those Greek nations which had sided with the Persians and giving their land to the Ionians to dwell in. The Athenians disliked the whole plan of removing the Greeks from Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , or allowing
 the Peloponnesians to determine the lot of Athenian colonies, and as they resisted vehemently,
 the Peloponnesians yielded.

It accordingly came about that they admitted to their alliance the Samians , Chians , Lesbians , and all other islanders who had served
 with their forces, and bound them by pledge and oaths to remain faithful and
 not desert their allies. When the oaths had been sworn, the Greeks set sail to break the bridges, supposing that
 these still held fast. So they laid their course for the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont .

The few barbarians who escaped were driven to the
 heights of Mykale
 [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale , and made their way from
 there to Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis . While they were making
 their way along the road, Masistes son of Darius , who happened to have been present at the Persian disaster, reviled the admiral Artayntes very bitterly, telling him (with much
 beside) that such generalship as his proved him worse than a woman, and that
 no punishment was too severe for the harm he had done the king's estate. Now
 it is the greatest of all taunts in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia to be called
 worse than a woman.

These many insults angered Artayntes so much that
 he drew his sword upon Masistes to kill him, but
 Xenagoras son of Praxilaus of Bodrum
 [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia
 Halicarnassus , who stood behind Artayntes himself saw him run at Masistes , and caught him round the middle and lifted and hurled
 him to the ground. In the meantime Masistes ' guards
 had also come between them.

By doing so Xenagoras won the gratitude of Masistes himself and Xerxes ,
 for saving the king's brother. For this deed he was made ruler of all Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region
 (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia by the king's gift. Then
 they went on their way without anything further happening and came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis .

Now it happened that the king had been at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus)
 Sardis ever since he came there in flight from Athens [23.7333,37.9667]
 (Perseus) Athens after his overthrow in the sea-fight.
 Being then at Sardis
 [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis he became enamored of
 Masistes ' wife, who was also there. But as all
 his messages could not bring her to yield to him, and he would not force her
 to his will, out of regard for his brother Masistes 
 (which indeed counted with the woman also, for she knew well that no force
 would be used against her), Xerxes found no other
 way to accomplish his purpose than that he should make a marriage between
 his own son Darius and the daughter of this woman
 and Masistes , for he thought that by doing so he
 would be most likely to win her.

So he betrothed them with all due ceremony and rode away to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited
 place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa . But when he had come
 and had taken Darius ' bride into his house, he
 thought no more of Masistes ' wife, but changed his
 mind and wooed and won this girl Artaynte , Darius ' wife and Masistes '
 daughter.

As time went on, however, the truth came to light,
 and in such manner as I will show. Xerxes ' wife,
 Amestris , wove and gave to him a great
 gaily-colored mantle, marvellous to see. Xerxes was
 pleased with it, and went to Artaynte wearing it.

Being pleased with her too, he asked her what she wanted in return for her
 favors, for he would deny nothing at her asking. Thereupon—for she and all
 her house were doomed to evil—she said to Xerxes ,
 “Will you give me whatever I ask of you?” He promised this, supposing that
 she would ask anything but that; when he had sworn, she asked boldly for his
 mantle.

Xerxes tried to refuse her, for no reason except
 that he feared that Amestris might have clear proof
 of his doing what she already guessed. He accordingly offered her cities
 instead and gold in abundance and an army for none but herself to command.
 Armies are the most suitable of gifts in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia . But as
 he could not move her, he gave her the mantle; and she, rejoicing greatly in
 the gift, went flaunting her finery.

Amestris heard that she had the mantle, but when
 she learned the truth, it was not the girl with whom she was angry. She
 supposed rather that the girl's mother was guilty and that this was her
 doing, and so it was Masistes ' wife whom she
 plotted to destroy.

She waited therefore till Xerxes her husband should
 be giving his royal feast. This banquet is served once a year, on the king's
 birthday; the Persian name for it is “tukta,”
 which is in the Greek language “perfect.” On that
 day (and none other) the king anoints his head and makes gifts to the Persians . Waiting for that day, Amestris then asked of Xerxes that Masistes ' wife should be given to her.

Xerxes considered it a terrible and wicked act to
 give up his brother's wife, and that too when she was innocent of the deed;
 for he knew the purpose of the request.

Nevertheless, since Amestris was insistent and the law compelled him (for at this
 royal banquet in Iran [53,32]
 (nation), Asia Persia every request must of necessity be
 granted), he unwillingly consented, and delivered the woman to Amestris . Then, bidding her do what she wanted, he
 sent for his brother and spoke as follows:

“ Masistes , you are Darius ' son and my brother, and a good man; hear me then. You must
 no longer live with her who is now your wife. I give you my daughter in her
 place. Take her for your own, but do away with the wife that you have, for
 it is not my will that you should have her.”

At that Masistes was amazed; “Sire,” he said, “what
 is this evil command that you lay upon me, telling me to deal with my wife
 in this way? I have by her young sons and daughters, of whom you have taken
 a wife for your own son, and I am very content with her herself. Yet you are
 asking me to get rid of my wife and wed your daughter?

Truly, O king, I consider it a great honor to be accounted worthy of your
 daughter, but I will do neither the one nor the other. No, rather, do not
 force me to consent to such a desire. You will find another husband for your
 daughter as good as I, but permit me to keep my own wife.”

This was Masistes ' response, but Xerxes was very angry and said: “You have come to this pass,
 Masistes . I will give you no daughter of mine as
 a wife, nor will you any longer live with her whom you now have. In this way
 you will learn to accept that which is offered you.” Hearing that, Masistes said “No, sire, you have not destroyed me
 yet!” and so departed.

In the meantime, while Xerxes talked with his brother, Amestris 
 sent for Xerxes ' guards and treated Masistes ' wife very cruelly; she cut off the woman's
 breasts and threw them to dogs, and her nose and ears and lips also, and cut
 out her tongue. Then she sent her home after she had undergone this dreadful
 ordeal.

Knowing nothing of this as yet, but fearing evil,
 Masistes ran home. Seeing what had been done to
 his wife, he immediately took counsel with his children and set out for
 Balkh [66.9,36.75] (inhabited
 place), Balkh, Afghanistan, Asia Bactra with his own sons
 (and others too), intending to raise the province of Balkh [66.9,36.75] (inhabited place), Balkh,
 Afghanistan, Asia Bactra in revolt and do the king the
 greatest of harm.

This he would have done, to my thinking, had he escaped to the country of
 the Bactrians and Sacae . They were fond of him, and he was viceroy over the Bactrians . But it was of no use, for Xerxes learned what he intended and sent against him
 an army which killed him on his way, and his sons and his army. Such is the
 story of Xerxes ' love and Masistes ' death.

The Greeks who had set
 out from Mykale [26.8667,38.1]
 (Perseus) Mykale for the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Hellespont first anchored off Lectum 
 having
 been stopped by contrary winds, and came from there to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted
 settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos ,
 where they found the bridges broken which they thought would still be in
 place; these were in fact the chief cause of their coming to the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont .

The Peloponnesians then who were with Leutychides decided to sail away to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , but the Athenians ,
 with Xanthippus their general, that they would
 remain there and attack the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonesus . So the rest sailed away, but the Athenians crossed over to the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonesus and laid
 siege to Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestus .

Now when the Persians 
 heard that the Greeks were at the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale,
 Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , they had come in from
 the neighboring towns and assembled at this same Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus) Sestus ,
 seeing that it was the strongest walled place in that region. Among them
 there was a Persian named Oeobazus from Cardia , and he had
 carried the equipment of the bridges there. Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus) Sestus was
 held by the
 Aeolians of the country, but with him were
 Persians and a great multitude of their
 allies.

This province was ruled by Xerxes ' viceroy Artayctes , a cunning man
 and a wicked one; witness the deceit that he practised on the king in his
 march to Athens
 [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , how he stole away from
 Elaeus the treasure of Protesilaus 
 son of Iphiclus .

This was the way of it; there is at Elaeus in the
 Gelibolu Yarimadasi
 (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonesus 
 the tomb of Protesilaus , and a precinct around it,
 which contained much treasure: vessels of gold and silver, bronze, clothing,
 and other dedications; all of which Artayctes 
 carried off by the king's gift.

“Sire,” he said deceitfully to Xerxes , “there is
 here the house of a certain Greek , who met a just
 death for invading your territory with an army; give me this man's house, so
 that all may be taught not to invade your territory.” One would think that
 this plea would easily persuade Xerxes to give him
 a man's house, since the latter had no suspicion of Artayctes ' meaning. His reason for saying that Protesilaus had invaded the king's territory was that the Persians believe all Asia (continent) Asia to belong to
 themselves and whoever is their king. So when the treasure was given to him,
 he carried it away from Elaeus to Sestos [26.4,40.2833]
 (Perseus) Sestus , and planted and farmed the precinct. He
 would also come from Elaeus and have intercourse
 with women in the shrine. Now, when the Athenians 
 laid siege to him, he had made no preparation for it; he did not think that
 the Greeks would come, and he had no way of
 escaping from their attack.

Since the siege continued into the late autumn, the
 Athenians grew weary of their absence from
 home and their lack of success at taking the fortress. They accordingly
 entreated their generals to lead them away again, but the generals refused
 to do that till they should take the place or be recalled by the Athenian state. At that the men endured their plight
 patiently.

But those who were within the walls were by now
 reduced to the last extremity, so much so that they boiled the thongs of
 their beds for food. At last, however, even these failed them, and Artayctes and Oeobazus and
 all the Persians made their way down from the
 back part of the fortress, where the fewest of their enemies were, and fled
 at nightfall.

When morning came, the people of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey,
 Asia Chersonese signified from their towers to the Athenians what had happened, and opened their gates.
 The greater part of the Athenians then went in
 pursuit, while the rest stayed to hold the town.

As Oeobazus was making his
 escape into Thrace (region
 (general)), Europe Thrace , the Apsinthians of that country caught and sacrificed him in their
 customary manner to Plistorus the god of their
 land; as for his companions, they did away with them by other means.

Artayctes and his company had begun their flight
 later, and were overtaken a little way beyond the Goat's
 Rivers , where after they had defended themselves a long time,
 some of them were killed and the rest taken alive. The Greeks bound them and carried them to Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus) Sestus , and
 together with them Artayctes and his son also in
 bonds.

It is related by the people of the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula),
 Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Chersonese that a
 marvellous thing happened one of those who guarded Artayctes . He was frying dried fish, and these as they lay over
 the fire began to leap and writhe as though they had just been caught.

The rest gathered around, amazed at the sight, but when Artayctes saw this strange thing, he called the one who was
 frying the fish and said to him: “ Athenian , do
 not be afraid of this portent, for it is not to you that it has been sent;
 it is to me that Protesilaus of Elaeus is trying to signify that although he is dead and dry, he
 has power given him by the god to take vengeance on me, the one who wronged
 him.

Now therefore I offer a ransom, the sum of one hundred talents to the god
 for the treasure that I took from his temple. I will also pay to the Athenians two hundred talents for myself and my son,
 if they spare us.”

But Xanthippus the general was unmoved by this
 promise, for the people of Elaeus desired that
 Artayctes should be put to death in revenge for
 Protesilaus , and the general himself was so
 inclined. So they carried Artayctes away to the
 headland where Xerxes had bridged the strait (or,
 by another story, to the hill above the town of Madytus ), and there nailed him to boards and hanged him. As for
 his son, they stoned him to death before his father's eyes.

This done, they sailed away to Greece [22,39] (nation),
 Europe Hellas , carrying with them the cables of the bridges
 to be dedicated in their temples, and all sorts of things in addition. This,
 then, is all that was done in this year.

This Artayctes who was
 crucified was the grandson of that Artembares 
 who instructed the Persians in a
 design which they took from him and laid before Cyrus ; this was its purport:

“Seeing that Zeus grants lordship to the Persian people, and to you, Cyrus , among them, let us, after reducing Astyages , depart from the little and rugged land which we possess
 and occupy one that is better. There are many such lands on our borders, and
 many further distant. If we take one of these, we will all have more reasons
 for renown. It is only reasonable that a ruling people should act in this
 way, for when will we have a better opportunity than now, when we are lords
 of so many men and of all Asia
 (continent) Asia ?”

Cyrus heard them, and found nothing to marvel at in
 their design; “Go ahead and do this,” he said; “but if you do so, be
 prepared no longer to be rulers but rather subjects. Soft lands breed soft
 men; wondrous fruits of the earth and valiant warriors grow not from the
 same soil.”

The Persians now realized that Cyrus reasoned better than they, and they departed, choosing
 rather to be rulers on a barren mountain side than dwelling in tilled
 valleys to be slaves to others.