When men make it a habit, Nicocles, to bring to you who are rulers of kingdoms articles
 of dress or of bronze or of wrought gold, or other such valuables of which
 they themselves have need and you have plenty, it seems to me all too evident that they
 are not engaged in giving but in bargaining, and that they are much more skillful in
 disposing of their wares than those who are professedly in trade.

For my part, I should think that this would be the finest and the most serviceable
 present and the most suitable for me to give and for you to receive—I could prescribe what
 pursuits you should aspire to and from what you should abstain in order to govern to the
 best advantage your state and kingdom. For when men are in private life, many things
 contribute to their education: first and foremost, the absence of luxury among them, and
 the necessity they are under to take thought each day for their livelihood;

next, the laws by which in each case their civic life is governed; furthermore, freedom
 of speech and the privilege which is openly granted to friends to rebuke and to enemies to
 attack each other's faults; besides, a number of the poets of earlier times have
 left precepts which direct them how to live; so that, from all these influences, they may
 reasonably be expected to become better men.

Kings, however, have no such help; on the contrary, they, who more than other men should
 be thoroughly trained, live all their lives, from the time when they are placed in
 authority, without admonition; for the great majority of people do not come in contact
 with them, and those who are of their society consort with them to gain their favor.
 Indeed, although they are placed in authority over vast wealth and mighty affairs, they
 have brought it about because of their misuse of these advantages that many debate whether
 it were best to choose the life of men in private station who are reasonably prosperous,
 or the life of princes.

For when men look at their honors, their wealth, and their powers, they all think that
 those who are in the position of kings are the equals of the gods; but when they reflect
 on their fears and their dangers, and when, as they review the history of monarchs, they
 see instances where they have been slain by those from whom they least deserved that fate,
 other instances where they have been constrained to sin against those nearest and dearest
 to them, and still others where they have experienced both of these calamities, then they
 reverse their judgement and conclude that it is better to live in any fashion whatsoever
 than, at the price of such misfortunes, to rule over all Asia .

And the cause of this inconsistency and confusion is that men believe that the office of
 king is, like that of priest, one which any man can fill, whereas it is the most
 important of human functions and demands the greatest wisdom. Now as to each particular
 course of action, it is the business of those who are at the time associated with a king
 to advise him how he may handle it in the best way possible, and how he may both preserve
 what is good and prevent disaster; but as regards a king's conduct in general, I shall
 attempt to set forth the objects at which he should aim and the pursuits to which he
 should devote himself.

Whether the gift when finished shall be worthy of the design, it is hard to tell at the
 beginning; for many writings both in verse and in prose, while still in the minds of their
 composers, have aroused high expectations; but when completed and shown to the world have
 won a repute far inferior to their promise.

And yet the mere attempt is well worth while—to seek a field that has been neglected by
 others and lay down principles for monarchs; for those who educate men in private stations
 benefit them alone, but if one can turn those who rule over the multitude toward a life of
 virtue, he will help both classes, both those who hold positions of authority and their
 subjects; for he will give to kings a greater security in office and to the people a
 milder government.

First, then, we must consider what is the function of kings; for if we can properly
 encompass the essence of the whole matter in a general principle 
 we shall, with this before us, speak to better purpose about its parts. I think that all
 would agree that it is a king's business to relieve the state when it is in distress, to
 maintain it in prosperity, and to make it great when it is small; for it is with these
 ends in view that the other duties which present themselves day by day must be performed.

And surely this much is clear, that those who are able to do all this, and who pronounce
 on matters of so great moment, must not be indolent nor careless, but must see to it that
 they are superior to all others in intelligence; for it is evident that they will reign
 well or ill according to the manner in which they equip their own minds.

Therefore, no athlete is so called upon to train his body as is a king to train his
 soul; 
 for not all the public festivals in the world offer a prize comparable to those for which
 you who are kings strive every day of your lives. This thought you must lay to heart, and
 see to it that in proportion as you are above the others in rank so shall you surpass them
 in virtue;

and do not hold the view that while diligence is of use in all other matters it is of no
 avail to make us better and wiser; and do not deem us, the human kind, so unfortunate
 that, although in dealing with wild beasts we have discovered arts by which we tame their
 spirits and increase their worth, yet in our own case we are powerless to help ourselves
 in the pursuit of virtue. On the
 contrary, be convinced that education and diligence are in the highest degree potent to
 improve our nature,

and associate yourself with the wisest of those who are about you and send for the wisest
 men from abroad whenever this is possible. And do not imagine that you can afford to be
 ignorant of anyone either of the famous poets or of the sages; rather you should listen to
 the poets and learn from the sages and so equip your mind to judge those who are inferior
 and to emulate those who are superior to yourself; for it is through this training that
 you can soonest become such a man as we have assumed that one must be who is to perform
 properly the duties of a king, and to govern the state as he should.

But the strongest
 challenge to your task you will find in yourself, if only you consider it monstrous that
 the worse should rule the better, and that the more foolish should give orders to men of
 greater wisdom; for the more vigorously you condemn folly in others, the more diligently
 will you train your own understanding.

This, then, should be the starting-point for those who set out to do their duty. But, in
 addition, one must be a lover of men and a lover of his country; for neither horses nor
 dogs nor men nor any other thing can be properly controlled except by one who takes
 pleasure in the objects for which it is his duty to care. You must care for the people and
 make it your first consideration to rule acceptably to them,

knowing that all governments—oligarchies as well as the others—have the longest life when
 they best serve the masses. You will be a wise leader of the people if you do not allow
 the multitude either to do or to suffer outrage, but see to it that the best among them
 shall have the honors, while the rest shall suffer no impairment of their rights; for
 these are the first and most important elements of good government.

When public ordinances and institutions are not well founded, alter and change them. If
 possible, originate for yourself what is best for your country, but, failing in this,
 imitate what is good in other countries. Seek laws that are altogether just and expedient
 and consistent with each other and, moreover, those which cause the fewest possible
 controversies and bring about the speediest possible settlements for your citizens; for
 all these qualities should be found in wise legislation.

Make industry profitable for your people and lawsuits detrimental, in order that they may
 shun the latter and embrace the former with greater willingness. In pronouncing on matters
 about which there is mutual dispute, do not render decisions which exhibit favoritism or
 inconsistency, but let your verdicts on the same issues be always the same; for it is both
 right and expedient that the judgements of kings on questions of justice should be
 invariable, like wisely ordained laws.

Manage the city as you would your ancestral estate: in the matter of its appointments,
 splendidly and royally; in the matter of its revenues, strictly, in order that you may
 possess the good opinion of your people and at the same time have sufficient means.
 Display magnificence, not in any of the extravagant outlays which straightway vanish, but
 in the ways which I have mentioned, and in the beauty of the objects which you possess,
 and in the benefits which you bestow upon your friends; for such expenditures will not be
 lost to you while you live, and you will leave to those who follow you a heritage worth
 more than what you have spent.

In the worship of the gods, follow the example of your ancestors, but believe that the
 noblest sacrifice and the greatest devotion is to show yourself in the highest degree a
 good and just man; for such men have greater hope of enjoying a blessing from the
 gods than those who slaughter many victims. Honor with office those of your
 friends who are nearest of kin, but honor in very truth those who are the most loyal.

Believe that your staunchest body-guard lies in the virtue of your friends, the loyalty
 of your citizens and your own wisdom; for it is through these that one can best
 acquire as well as keep the powers of royalty. Watch over the estates of your citizens,
 and consider that the spenders are paying from your pocket, and the workers are adding to
 your wealth; for all the property of those who live in the state belongs to kings who rule
 them well.

Throughout all your life show that you value truth so highly that your word is more to be
 trusted than the oaths of other men. To all foreigners, see that the city offers
 security and good faith in its engagements; and in your treatment of those who come from
 abroad, make the most, not of those who bring you gifts, but of those who expect to
 receive gifts from you; for by honoring such men you will have greater esteem from the
 rest of the world.

Deliver your citizens from their many fears, and be not willing that dread should beset
 men who have done no wrong; for even as you dispose others toward you, so you will feel
 toward them. Do nothing in anger, but simulate anger when the occasion demands it. Show
 yourself stern by overlooking nothing which men do, but kind by making the punishment less
 than the offense.

Be not willing to show your authority by harshness or by undue severity in punishment,
 but by causing your subjects one and all to defer to your judgement and to believe that
 your plans for their welfare are better than their own. Be warlike in your knowledge of
 war and in your preparations for it, but peaceful in your avoidance of all unjust
 aggression. Deal with weaker states as you would expect stronger states to deal
 with you.

Do not be contentious in all things, but only where it will profit you to have your own
 way. Do not think men weak who yield a point to their own advantage, but rather those who
 prevail to their own injury. Do not consider that the great souls are those who undertake
 more than they can achieve, but those who, having noble aims, are also able to accomplish
 whatever they attempt.

Emulate, not those who have most widely extended their dominion, but those who have made
 best use of the power they already possess; and believe that you will enjoy the utmost
 happiness, not if you rule over the whole world at the price of fears and dangers and
 baseness, but rather if, being the man you should be, and continuing to act as at the
 present moment, you set your heart on moderate achievements and fail in none of them.

Do not give your friendship to everyone who desires it, but only to those who are worthy
 of you; not to those whose society you will most enjoy, but to those with whose help you
 will best govern the state. Subject your associates to the most searching tests, knowing
 that all who are not in close touch with you will think that you are like those with whom
 you live. When you put men in charge of affairs which are not under your personal
 direction, be governed by the knowledge that you yourself will be held responsible for
 whatever they do.

Regard as your most faithful friends, not those who praise everything you say or do, but
 those who criticize your mistakes. Grant freedom of speech to those who have good
 judgement, in order that when you are in doubt you may have friends who will help you to
 decide. Distinguish between those who artfully flatter and those who loyally serve you,
 that the base may not fare better than the good. Listen to what men say about each other
 and try to discern at the same time the character of those who speak and of those about
 whom they speak.

Visit the same punishment on false-accusers as on evil-doers. Govern yourself no less
 than your subjects, and consider that you are in the highest sense a king when you are a
 slave to no pleasure but rule over your desires more firmly than over your people. Do
 not contract any intimacy heedlessly or without reflection, but accustom yourself to take
 pleasure in that society which will contribute to your advancement and heighten your fame
 in the eyes of the world.

Do not show yourself ambitious for those things which lie within the power of base men
 also to achieve, but show that you pride yourself on virtue, in which base men have no
 part. 
 Consider that the truest respect is shown you, not in the public demonstrations which are
 inspired by fear, but when people in the privacy of their homes speak with admiration of
 your wisdom rather than of your fortune. Let it not be known of men if perchance you take
 delight in things of small account, but let the world see that you are zealous about
 matters of the greatest moment.

Do not think that while all other people should live with sobriety, kings may live with
 license; on the contrary, let your own self-control stand as an example to the rest,
 realizing that the manners of the whole state are copied from its rulers. Let it be a sign
 to you that you rule wisely if you see all your subjects growing more prosperous and more
 temperate because of your oversight.

Consider it more important to leave to your children a good name than great riches; for
 riches endure for a day, a good name for all time; a good name may bring wealth, but wealth
 cannot buy a good name; wealth comes even to men of no account, but a good name can only
 be acquired by men of superior merit. Be sumptuous in your
 dress and personal adornment, but simple and severe, as befits a king, in your other
 habits, that those who see you may judge from your appearance that you are worthy of your
 office, and that those who are intimate with you may form the same opinion from your
 strength of soul.

Keep watch always on your words and actions, that you may fall into as few mistakes as
 possible. For while it is best to grasp your opportunities at exactly the right moment,
 yet, since they are difficult to discern, choose to fall short rather than to overreach
 them; for the happy mean is to be found in defect rather than in
 excess.

Try to combine courtesy with dignity; for dignity is in keeping with the position of a
 king and courtesy is becoming in his social intercourse. Yet no admonition is so difficult
 to carry out as this; for you will find that for the most part those who affect dignity
 are cold, while those who desire to be courteous appear to lower themselves; yet you
 should cultivate both these qualities and try to avoid the danger that attaches to each.

Whenever you desire to gain a thorough understanding of such things as it is fitting that
 kings should know, pursue them by practice as well as by study; for study will show you
 the way but training yourself in the actual doing of things will give you power to deal
 with affairs. Reflect on the fortunes and accidents which befall both common men and
 kings, for if you are mindful of the past you will plan better for the future.

Consider that where there are common men who are ready to lay down their lives that they
 may be praised after they are dead, it is shameful for kings not to have the courage to
 pursue a course of conduct from which they will gain renown during their lives. Prefer to
 leave behind you as a memorial images of your character rather than of your body. Put
 forth every effort to preserve your own and your state's security, but if you are
 compelled to risk your life, choose to die with honor rather than to live in shame.

In all your actions remember that you are a king, and take care never to do anything
 which is beneath the dignity of your station. Do not suffer your life to be at once wholly
 blotted out, but since you were allotted a perishable body, seek to leave behind an
 imperishable memorial of your soul.

Make it your practice to talk of things that are good and honorable, that your thoughts
 may through habit come to be like your words. Whatever seems to you upon careful thought
 to be the best course, put this into effect. If there are men whose reputations you envy,
 imitate their deeds. Whatever advice you would give to your children, consent to follow it
 yourself. Make use of the precepts which I have given you or else seek better counsel.

Regard as wise men, not those who dispute subtly about trifling matters, but those who
 speak well on the great issues; and not those who, being themselves in sorry
 straits, hold forth to others the promise of a prosperous fortune, but those who, while
 making modest claims for themselves, are able to deal with both affairs and men, and are
 not upset by the vicissitudes of existence, but have learned to bear moderately and
 bravely both the good and the evil chances of life.

And do not be surprised that in what I have said there are many things which you know as
 well as I. This is not from inadvertence on my part, for I have realized all along that
 among so great a multitude both of mankind in general and of their rulers there are some
 who have uttered one or another of these precepts, some who have heard them, some who have
 observed other people put them into practice, and some who are carrying them out in their
 own lives.

But the truth is that in discourses of this sort we should not seek novelties, for in
 these discourses it is not possible to say what is paradoxical or incredible or outside
 the circle of accepted belief; but, rather, we should regard that man as the most
 accomplished in this field who can collect the greatest number of ideas scattered among
 the thoughts of all the rest and present them in the best form.

Moreover, this has been clear to me from the first, that while all men think that those
 compositions, whether in verse or prose, are the most useful which counsel us how to live,
 yet it is certainly not to them that they listen with greatest pleasure; nay, they feel
 about these just as they feel about the people who admonish them; for while they praise
 the latter, they choose for associates those who share in, and not those who would
 dissuade them from, their faults.

As a case in point, one might cite the poetry of Hesiod and Theognis and Phocylides; 
 for these, they say, have proved the best counsellors for human conduct; but in spite of
 what they say, people prefer to occupy themselves with each other's follies rather than
 with the admonitions of these teachers.

And, again, if one were to make a selection from the leading poets of their maxims, as we
 call them, into which they have put their best thought, men would show a similar attitude
 toward them also; for they would lend a readier ear to the cheapest comedy than to the
 creations of such finished art. Yet why should I spend time in giving single instances?

For if we are willing to survey human nature as a whole, we shall find that the majority
 of men do not take pleasure in the food that is the most wholesome, nor in the
 pursuits that are the most honorable, nor in the actions that are the noblest, nor in the
 creatures that are the most useful, but that they have tastes which are in every way
 contrary to their best interests, while they view those who have some regard for their
 duty as men of austere and laborious lives.

How, then, can one advise or teach or say anything of profit and yet please such people?
 For, besides what I have said of them, they look upon men of wisdom with suspicion, while
 they regard men of no understanding as open and sincere; and they so shun the verities of
 life that they do not even know their own interests: nay, it irks them to take account of
 their own business and it delights them to discuss the business of others;

and they would rather be ill in body than exert the soul and give thought to anything in
 the line of duty. Observe them when they are in each other's company, and you will find
 them giving and taking abuse; observe them when they are by themselves, and you will find
 them occupied, not with plans, but with idle dreams. I am, however, speaking now not of
 all, but of those only who are open to the charges I have made.

This much, however, is clear, that those who aim to write anything in verse or prose
 which will make a popular appeal should seek out, not the most profitable discourses, but
 those which most abound in fictions; for the ear delights in these just as the eye
 delights in games and contests. Wherefore we may well admire the poet Homer and the first
 inventors of tragedy, seeing that they, with true insight into human nature, have embodied
 both kinds of pleasure in their poetry;

for Homer has dressed the contests and battles of the demigods in myths, while the tragic
 poets have rendered the myths in the form of contests and action, so that they are
 presented, not to our ears alone, but to our eyes as well. With such models, then, before
 us, it is evident that those who desire to command the attention of their hearers must
 abstain from admonition and advice, and must say the kind of things which they see are
 most pleasing to the crowd.

I have dwelt on these matters because I think that you, who are not one of the multitude
 but a king over the multitude, ought not to be of the same mind as men at large; you ought
 not to judge what things are worthy or what men are wise by the standard of pleasure, but
 to appraise them in the light of conduct that is useful;

especially, since the teachers of philosophy, however much they debate about the proper
 discipline of the soul (some contending that it is through disputation, others that
 it is through political discussion, others that it is through other means that their
 disciples are to attain to greater wisdom), yet are all agreed on this, that the
 well-educated man must, as the result of this training in whatever discipline, show
 ability to deliberate and decide.

You should, therefore, avoid what is in controversy and test men's value in the light of
 what is generally agreed upon, if possible taking careful note of them when they present
 their views on particular situations; or, if that is not possible, when they discuss
 general questions. And when they are altogether lacking in what they ought to know, reject
 them (for it is clear that if one is of no use in himself, neither can he make another man
 wise);

but when they are intelligent and able to see farther than the rest, prize them and
 cherish them, knowing that a good counsellor is the most useful and the most princely of
 all possessions. And believe that those contribute most to the greatness of your reign who
 can contribute most to your understanding.

Now I, for my part, have offered you all the good counsels which I know, and I honor you
 with these gifts which I have at my command; and do you, recalling what I said in the
 beginning, desire that your other friends also shall bring you, not the usual presents,
 which you purchase at a much greater cost from those who give than from those who sell,
 but gifts of such a nature that, even though you make hard use of them every day without
 fail, you will never wear them out, but will, on the contrary, enlarge them and increase
 their worth.