Biodiversity Literature Repository

Submit to community
Liberated Data
Published September 7, 2004 | Version v1
Journal article Open

Morphology, Phylogenetic Taxonomy, And Systematics Of Ichthyornis And Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae)

Creators

Description

CLARKE, JULIA A. (2004): Morphology, Phylogenetic Taxonomy, And Systematics Of Ichthyornis And Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 2004 (286): 1-179, DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090(2004)286<0001:MPTASO>2.0.CO;2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/0003-0090%282004%29286%3C0001%3AMPTASO%3E2.0.CO%3B2

Files

source.pdf

Files (6.7 MB)

Name Size Download all
md5:bf3bcd16cfe2c29a49b377697c7db221
6.7 MB Preview Download

Linked records

Additional details

Identifiers

LSID
urn:lsid:plazi.org:pub:BF3BCD16FFE2FF9AFFB377697C7DB221
URL
http://publication.plazi.org/id/BF3BCD16FFE2FF9AFFB377697C7DB221

Has part
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFF1FF8EFC99731A7F01B124 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFF6FF8CFCFB74597CD8B420 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFF4FFBDFF7B71457DFAB60A (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFC5FFB2FFC8733F7DF2B690 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFCAFFB3FFCF73897DBAB654 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFCBFFB0FFC873F07CC5B124 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFC8FFB1FFCF74597F60B332 (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFC9FFB5FD0876577854B6BE (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFD1FFA9FFC8750C7879B62C (URL)
Taxonomic treatment: http://treatment.plazi.org/id/4302B56EFFD1FFAFFD0873517DC3B052 (URL)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355567 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355569 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355571 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355573 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355575 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355577 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355583 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355585 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355587 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355589 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355591 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355593 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355595 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355597 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355599 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355601 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355603 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355605 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355607 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355609 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355611 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355613 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355615 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355617 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355619 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355621 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355623 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355625 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355627 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355629 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355631 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355633 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355635 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355637 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355639 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355641 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355643 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355645 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355647 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355649 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355651 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355653 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355655 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355657 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355661 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355663 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355665 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355667 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355669 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355671 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355673 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355675 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355679 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355681 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355683 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355685 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355687 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355689 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355691 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355693 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355695 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355697 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355699 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355701 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355703 (DOI)
Figure: 10.5281/zenodo.5355705 (DOI)

References

  • Alvarenga, H.M.F. 1983. Um ave ratitae do Paleoceno brasileiro: bacia calcaria de Itaborai´,
  • Alvarenga, H.M.F., and J.F. Bonaparte. 1992. A new flightless bird from the Cretaceous of Patagonia. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Science Series 36: 51-64.
  • Artois, T. 2001. Phylogenetic nomenclature: the end of binomial nomenclature? Belgian Journal of Zoology 131(1): 87-89.
  • Ashley, J.F. 1941. A study of the structure of the humerus in the Corvidae. Condor 43: 184-195.
  • Badyaev, A.V., L.A. Whittingham, and G.E. Hill. 2001. The evolution of sexual dimorphism in the house finch. III. Developmental basis. Evolution 55(1): 176-189.
  • Ballmann, P. 1976. Fossile Vogel aus den Noegen der Halbinsel Gargano (Italien) zweiter Teil. Leiden. Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie, 59 pp.
  • Barbour, E.H. 1902. The progenitors of birds. In Proceedings of Nebraska Ornithological Union, 3rd Annual Meeting: 8-39. Lincoln: University of Nebraska State Musuem.
  • Bardack, D. 1965. Localities of fossil vertebrates obtained from the Niobrara Formation (Cretaceous) of Kansas. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Publications 17: 1-14.
  • Baum, D.A. 1998. Individuality and the existence of species through time. Systematic Biology 47: 641-653.
  • Baumel, J.J., A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors). 1993. Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 1-779.
  • Baumel, J.J., and R.J. Raikow. 1993. Arthrologia. In J.J. Baumel, A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors), Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 133-188.
  • Baumel, J.J., and L M. Witmer. 1993. Osteologia. In J.J. Baumel, A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors), Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 45-132.
  • Bennett, C.S. 1990. Niobrara Chalk excursion guidebook. Lawrence: University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, 81 pp.
  • Bleiweiss, R. 1998. Fossil gap analysis supports early Tertiary origin of trophically diverse avi- an orders. Geology 26: 323-326.
  • Boddaert, P. 1783. Table des planches enlumineez d'histoire naturelle de M. D'Aubenton. Utrecht.
  • Britt, B.B., P.J. Makovicky, J. Gauthier, and N. Bonde. 1998. Post-cranial pneumatization in Archaeopteryx. Nature 395: 374-376.
  • Brodkorb, P. 1963. Birds from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming. In C.G. Sibley, J.J. Hickey, and M.B. Hickey (editors), Proceedings of the XIII International Ornithological Congress: 55- 70. Baton Rouge: American Ornithologists' Union.
  • Brodkorb, P. 1967. Catalogue of fossil birds: part 3 (Ralliformes, Ichthyornithiformes, Charadriiformes). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum (Biological Sciences) 11: 99-220.
  • Brodkorb, P. 1970. The generic position of a Cretaceous bird. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Science 32(3): 239-240.
  • Brodkorb, P. 1971. Catalogue of fossil birds, Part 4 (Columbiformes through Piciformes). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum (Biological Science) 4: 163-266.
  • Buhler, P., L.D. Martin, and L. Witmer. 1988. Cranial kinesis in the Late Cretaceous birds Hesperornis and Parahesperornis. Auk 105: 111- 122.
  • Butendieck, E., and H. Wissdorf. 1981. Beitrag zur Benennung der Knochen des Kopfes beim Truthhn (Meleagris gallopavo) unter Berucksichtigung der Nomina Anatomica Avium (1979). Zoologische Jahrbucher (Abteilung fur Anatomie) 107: 153-184.
  • Cantino, P.D. 1998. Binomials, hyphenated uninomials, and phylogenetic nomenclature. Taxon 47: 425-429.
  • Cantino, P.D., H.N. Bryant, K. de Queiroz, M.J. Donoghue, T. Eriksson, D.M. Hillis, and M.S.Y. Lee. 1999. Species names in phylogenetic nomenclature. Systematic Biology 48: 790-807.
  • Cantino, P.D., and K. de Queiroz. 2000. Phylo- Code: A phylogenetic code of biological nomenclature (online paper). Athens: Ohio University. (updated 3 May 2000). Available at www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/.
  • Carpenter, J. 1988. Choosing among multiple equally parsimonious cladograms. Cladistics 4: 291-296.
  • Castanet, J., A. Grandin, A. Abourachid, and A. de Ricqles. 1996. Expression de la dynamique de croissance dans la structure de l'os periostique che Anas platyrhynchos. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences 319: 301-308.
  • Castanet, J.A., K.C. Rogers, J. Cubo, and J-J. Boisard. 2000. Periostal bone growth rates in extant ratites (ostriche and emu). Implications for assessing growth in dinosaurs. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences 323: 543- 550.
  • Chamberlain, F.W. 1943. Atlas of avian anatomy. East Lansing: Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 213 pp.
  • Chapman, R.E., D.B. Weishampel, G. Hunt, and D. Rasskin-Gutman, 1997. Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs. In D.L. Wolberg, E. Stump, and G. Rosenberg (editors), Dinofest international, proceedings of a symposium sponsored by Arizona State University: 83-93. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 1991. Cretaceous avian remains from Patagonia shed new light on the early radiation of birds. Alcheringa 15: 333-338.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 1995a. The first 85 million years of avian evolution. Nature 378: 349-355.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 1995b. The phylogenetic position of the Cretaceous birds of Argentina: Enantiornithes and Patagopteryx deferrariisi. In Third Symposium of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg. 181: 55-63.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 1996. Late Cretaceous birds of southern South America: anatomy and systematics of Enantiornithes and Patagopteryx deferrariisi. Munchner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (A) 30: 203-244.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships among basal birds. In J. Gauthier and L.F. Gall (editors), New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the international symposium in honor of John H. Ostrom: 125-139. New Haven: Peabody Museum of Natural History.
  • Chiappe, L.M. 2002. Basal bird phylogeny: problems and solutions. In L.M. Chiappe and L. Witmer (editors), Mesozoic birds: above the heads of dinosaurs: 448-472. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Chiappe, L.M., and J.O. Calvo. 1994. Neuquenornis volans, a new Enantiornithes (Aves) from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia (Argentina). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14: 230- 246.
  • Chiappe, L.M., M.A. Norell, and J. Clark. 2001. A new skull of Gobipteryx minuta (Aves: Enantiornithes) from the Cretaceous of the Gobi desert. American Museum Novitates 3346: 1- 35.
  • Chiappe, L.M., J. Shu'an, J. Qiang, and M.A. Norell. 1999. Anatomy and systematics of the Confuciusornithidae (Theropoda: Aves) from the late Mesozoic of northeastern China. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 242: 1-89.
  • Chiappe, L.M., and C. Walker. 2002. Skeletal morphology and systematics of Cretaceous Enantiornithes. In L.M. Chiappe and L. Witmer (editors), Mesozoic birds: above the heads of dinosaurs: 240-267. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Chinsamy, A.L., L.M. Chiappe, and P. Dodson. 1995. Mesozoic avian bone structure: physiological implications. Paleobiology 21: 561-574.
  • Chinsamy, A.L., D. Martin, and P. Dodson. 1998. Bone microstructure of the diving Hesperornis and the volant Ichthyornis from the Niobrara Chalk of western Kansas. Cretaceous Research 19: 225-235.
  • Chu, P.C. 1995. Phylogenetic reanalysis of Strauch's osteological data set for the Charadriiformes. Condor 97: 174-196.
  • Chu, P.C. 1998. A phylogeny of the gulls (Aves: Larinae) inferred from osteological and integumentary characters. Cladistics 14: 1-43.
  • Clark, G.A. Jr. 1993. Termini situm et directionem partium corporis indicantes. In J.J. Baumel, A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors), Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 1-5.
  • Clarke, J.A. 1999. New information on the type material of Ichthyornis: of chimeras, characters and current limits of phylogenetic inference. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19(3): 38A.
  • Clarke, J.A. 2000a. Ichthyornis and Apatornis reappraised. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 38(suppl.): 9.
  • Clarke, J.A. 2000b. Setting limits on phylogenetic inference from isolated elements. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 38(suppl.): 9-10.
  • Clarke, J.A. 2002. The morphology and systematic position of Ichthyornis Marsh and the phylogenetic relationships of basal Ornithurae. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 532 pp.
  • Clarke, J.A., and L.M. Chiappe. 2001. A new carinate bird from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Argentina). American Museum Novitates 3323: 1-23.
  • Clarke, J.A., and M.A. Norell. 2001. Communication arising: fossils and avian evolution. Nature 414: 508.
  • Clarke, J.A., and M.A. Norell. 2002. The morphology and phylogenetic position of Apsaravis ukhaana from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 3387: 1-46.
  • Colbert, E.H., and D.A. Russell. 1969. The small Cretaceous dinosaur Dromaeosaurus. American Museum Novitates 2380: 1-49.
  • Cooper, A., and R. Fortey. 1998. Evolutionary explosions and the phylogenetic fuse. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 3: 151-156.
  • Cooper, A., and D. Penny. 1997. Mass survival of birds across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: molecular evidence. Science 275: 1109-1113.
  • Cracraft, J.L. 1968. The lacrimal-ectethmoid complex in birds: a single character analysis. American Midland Naturalist 80(2): 316-359.
  • Cracraft, J.L. 1974. Phylogeny and evolution of the ratite birds. Ibis 116: 494-521.
  • Cracraft, J.L. 1986. The origin and early diversification of birds. Paleobiology 12: 383-399.
  • Cracraft, J.L. 1988. The major clades of birds. In M.J. Benton (editor), The phylogeny and classification of tetrapods, Vol. 1 (35A): 339-361. New York: Clarendon Press.
  • Cracraft, J.L. 2001. Avian evolution, Gondwana biogeography and the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction event. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 268: 459-469.
  • Cracraft, J.L., and J.A. Clarke. 2001. The basal clades of modern birds. In J. Gauthier and L.F. Gall (editors), New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the international symposium in honor of John H. Ostrom: 143-152. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History.
  • Currie, P.J. 1995. New information on the anatomy and relationships of Dromaeosaurus albertensis (Dinosauria, Theropoda). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 15: 576-591.
  • Darwin, C. 1859. The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: Murray, 596 pp.
  • Davis, P.G., and S.P.G. Briggs. 1998. The impact of decay and disarticulation on the preservation of fossil birds. Palaios 13: 3-13.
  • de Beer, G. 1954. Archaeopteryx and evolution. Advancement of Science 11: 160-170.
  • de Queiroz, K., 1998. The general lineage concept of species, species criteria, and the process of speciation. In D.J. Howard and S.H. Berlocher (editors), Endless forms: species and speciation: 57-75. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • de Queiroz, K. 1999. The general lineage concept of species and the defining properties of the species category. In R.A. Wilson (editor), Species: new interdisciplinary essays: 49-89. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • de Queiroz, K., and M.J. Donoghue. 1990. Phylogenetic systematics and the species problem revisited. Cladistics 6: 83-90.
  • de Queiroz, K., and J. Gauthier. 1990. Phylogeny as a central principle in taxonomy: phylogenetic definitions of taxon names. Systematic Zoology 39: 307-322.
  • de Queiroz, K., and J. Gauthier. 1992. Phylogenetic taxonomy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 449-480.
  • de Ricqles, A., K. Padian, and J.R. Horner. 2000. Bone histological patterns of basal birds are better explained by changes in growth strategy than by physiology. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 38(suppl.): 26.
  • de Ricqles, A., K. Padian, and J.R. Horner. 2001. The bone histology of basal birds in phyloge- netic and ontogenetic perspectives. In J. Gauthier and L.F. Gall (editors), New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the international symposium in honor of John H. Ostrom: 411-426. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History.
  • del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal (editors). 1992-1999. Handbook of the birds of the world. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 5 vols.
  • Dilkes, D.W. 2000. Appendicular myology of the hadrosaurian dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) of Montana. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 90: 87-125.
  • Dingus, L., and T. Rowe, 1998. The mistaken extinction: dinosaur evolution and the origin of birds. New York: Freeman, 332 pp.
  • Dubbeldam, J.L., J.J. Baumel, H. Berkhoudt, G.A. Clark, Jr., A.S. King, L. Malinovsky, Y. Ohmori, T. Watanabe, and M. Yasuda. 1993. Systema Nervosum Periphericum. In J.J. Baumel, A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors), Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 555-584.
  • Dyke G.J., R.W. Dortangs, J.W. Jagt, E.W. Muld- er, A. Schulp, and L.M. Chiappe. 2002. Europe's last Mesozoic bird. Naturwissenshaften 89: 408-411.
  • Dyke, G.J., and G. Mayr. 1999. Did parrots exist in the Cretaceous period? Nature 399: 317-318.
  • Edington, G.H., and A.E. Miller. 1941. The avian ulna: its quill knobs. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section B (Biology) 61: 138-148.
  • Elzanowski, A. 1974. Preliminary note on the palaeognathous bird from the upper Cretaceous of Mongolia. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 30: 103-109.
  • Elzanowski, A. 1977. Skulls of Gobipteryx (Aves) from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 37: 153-165.
  • Elzanowski, A. 1995. Cretaceous birds and avian phylogeny. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 181: 37-53.
  • Elzanowski, A., G.S. Paul, and T.A. Stidham. 2000. An avian quadrate from the Late Cretaceous Lance formation of Wyoming. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20: 712-719.
  • Elzanowski, A., and P. Wellnhofer. 1996. Cranial morphology of Archaeopteryx: evidence from the seventh skeleton. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 16: 81-94.
  • Ericson, P.G.P. 1997. Systematic relationships of the Paleogene family Presbyornithidae (Aves: Anseriformes). Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society 121: 429-483.
  • Feduccia, A. 1995. Explosive evolution in Tertiary birds and mammals. Science 267: 637-638.
  • Feduccia, A. 1996. The origin and evolution of birds. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 420 pp.
  • Feduccia, A. 1999. The origin and evolution of birds, 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 466 pp.
  • Fisher, H.I. 1946. Adaptations and comparative anatomy of the locomotor apparatus of the New World vultures. American Midland Naturalist. 35: 545-727.
  • Foote, M. J., P. Hunter, C.M. Janis, and J. J. Sepkoski. 1999. Evolutionary and preservational constraints on origins of biological groups: divergence times of eutherian mammals. Science 283: 1310.
  • Forster, C.A., L.M. Chiappe, D.W. Krause, and S.D. Sampson. 1996. The first Cretaceous bird from Madagascar. Nature 382: 532-534.
  • Forster, C.A., S.D. Sampson, L.M. Chiappe, and D.W. Krause. 1998. The therapodan ancestry of birds: new evidence from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Science 279: 1915-1919.
  • Fox, R.C. 1984. Ichthyornis (Aves) from the early Turonian (Late Cretaceous) of Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21: 258-260.
  • Furbringer, M. 1888. Untersuchungeb zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vogel. Amsterdam: Holkema, 1751 pp.
  • Gaimard, J.P. 1823. Ferussac's nulletin general universel annonces nouvelles scientifique. Paris, 245 pp.
  • Gambel, W. 1848. Remarks on the birds observed in Upper California, with descriptions of new species. Philadelphia Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Ser. I.1847-1850: 25-56, 215-229.
  • Garrod, A.H. 1873. On certain muscles of the thigh of birds and their value in classification. Part I. Proceedings of the Zoological Society London 1873: 626-644.
  • Gauthier, J. 1986. Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences 8: 185-197.
  • Gauthier, J., and K. de Queiroz. 2001. Feathered dinosaurs, flying dinosaurs, crown dinosaurs and the name ''Aves''. In J. Gauthier and L.F. Gall (editors), New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the international symposium in honor of John H. Ostrom: 7-41. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History.
  • Gauthier, J., A. Kluge, and T. Rowe. 1988. Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics 4(2): 105-209.
  • Ghetie, V., S. Chitescu, V. Cotofan, and A. Hillebrand. 1976. Atlas d'anatomie des oiseaux domestiques. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romania, 294 pp.
  • Gilbert, B.M., L.D. Martin, and H.G. Savage. 1981. Avian osteology. Laramie, WY: B. Miles Gilbert, 282 pp.
  • Gingerich, P.D. 1972. A new partial mandible of Ichthyornis. Condor 74: 471-473.
  • Gmelin, J.F. 1789. Caroli a Linne, equities auranti de stella polari . . . Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decimo tertia, austa, reformata. Lipsiae: Impensis Georg. Emanual Beer, 3 vol.
  • Graves, G.R. 1991. Bergmann's rule near the equator: latitudinal clines in body size of an Andean passerine bird. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 88(6): 2322-2325.
  • Graybeal, A. 1995. Naming species. Systematic Biology 44: 237-250.
  • Gregory, J.T. 1951. Convergent evolution: the jaws of Hesperornis and the Mosasaurs. Evolution 5: 345-354.
  • Gregory, J.T. 1952. The jaws of the Cretaceous toothed birds, Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. Condor 54: 73-88.
  • Groth, J.G., and G.F. Barrowclough. 1999. Basal divergences in birds and the phylogenetic utility of the nuclear RAG-1 gene. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 12: 115-123.
  • Haeckel, E. 1866. Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Berlin: Georg Reimer, 462 pp.
  • Harrison, C.J.O. 1973. The humerus of Ichthyornis as a taxonomically isolated character. Bulletin of the British Ornithological Club 93: 123-126.
  • Hattin, D.E. 1982. Stratigraphy and depositional environments of Smoky Hill Chalk Member, Niobrara Chalk (Upper Cretaceous) of the type area, western Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 225: 1-108.
  • Hedges, S.B., P.H. Parker, C.G. Sibley, and S. Kumar. 1996. Continental breakup and the ordinal diversification of birds and mammals. Nature 381: 226-229.
  • Hilton, R.P., E.S. Gohre, P.G. Embree, and T.A. Stidham. 1999. California's first fossil evidence of Cretaceous winged vertebrates. California Geology 52(4): 4-10.
  • Holman, J.A. 1964. Osteology of gallinaceous birds. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Science 27: 230-252.
  • Hope, S. 2002. The Mesozoic radiation of Neornithes. In L.M. Chiappe and L. Witmer (editors), Mesozoic birds: above the heads of dinosaurs: 339-388. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Horner, J.R., de Ricqles, A., and K. Padian. 2001. Comparative osteohistology of some embryonic and perinatal archosaurs: developmental and behavioral implications for dinosaurs. Paleobiology 27(1): 39-58.
  • Hou, L.-H. 1996. The discovery of a Jurassic carinate bird in China. Chinese Science Bulletin 41: 1861-1864.
  • Hou, L.-H. 1997. Mesozoic birds of China. Nan Tou: Taiwan Provincial Feng Huang Ku Bird Park. 228 pp.
  • Hou, L.-H., and Z. Liu, 1984. A new fossil bird from the Lower Cretaceous of Gansu and early evolution of birds. Scientia Sinica (B) 27: 1296-1302.
  • Hou, L.-H., L.D. Martin, Z. Zhou, and A. Feduccia. 1996. Early adaptive radiation of birds: evidence from fossils from northeastern China. Chinese Science Bulletin 274: 1164-1167.
  • Hou, L.-H., and J. Zhang. 1993. A new fossil bird from the Lower Cretaceous of Liaoning. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 31(3): 217-224. [in Chinese, English summary]
  • Hou, L.-H., Z. Zhou, Y. Gu, and H. Zhang. 1995a. Confusiusornis sanctus, a new Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from China. Chinese Science Bulletin 40: 1545-1551.
  • Houck, A.M., J. Gauthier, and R.E. Strauss. 1990. Allometric scaling in the earliest fossil bird, Archaeopteryx lithographica. Science 247: 195- 198.
  • Houde, P.W. 1988. Palaeognathous birds from the early Tertiary of the Northern Hemisphere. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 22: 1-148.
  • Howard, H. 1929. The avifauna of Emeryville Shellmound. University of California Publications in Zoology 32: 301-394.
  • Howard, H. 1955. A new wading bird from the Eocene of Patagonia. American Museum Novitates 1710: 1-25.
  • Hudson, G.E., D.O. Schreiweis, S.Y.C. Wang, and D.A. Lancaster. 1972. A numerical study of the wing and leg muscles of tinamous (Tinamidae). Northwest Science 46: 207-255.
  • Hutchinson, H. 1993. Avisaurus: a ''dinosaur'' grows wings. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 13(3): 43A.
  • Hutchinson, J.R. 2001. The evolution of femoral osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131: 169-197.
  • International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 1999. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (4th ed.). London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, 306 pp.
  • Kallersjo, M.V., A. Albert, and J.S. Farris. 1999. Homoplasy increases phylogenetic structure. Cladistics 15: 91-93.
  • Kashin, G.N. 1972. New name for the genus Plegadornis. Ornitologiya 10: 336-337.
  • Kurochkin, E.N. 1985. A true carinate bird from Lower Cretaceous deposits in Mongolia and other evidence of early Cretaceous birds in Asia. Cretaceous Research 6: 271-278.
  • Kurochkin, E.N. 1995. Synopsis of Mesozoic birds and early evolution of class Aves. Archaeopteryx 13: 47-66.
  • Kurochkin, E.N. 1996. A new enantiornithid of the Mongolian Late Cretaceous, and a general appraisal of the infraclass Enantiornithes (Aves). Moscow: Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 50 pp.
  • Kurochkin, E.N. 1999. The relationships of Early Cretaceous Ambiortus and Otogornis (Aves: Ambiortiformes), In S.L. Olson (editor), Proceedings of the 4th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 88: 275-284.
  • Kurochkin, E.N. 2000. Mesozoic birds of Mongolia and the former USSR. In M.J. Benton, M.A. Shishkin, D.M. Unwin, and E.N. Kurochkin (editors), The age of dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia; 544-559. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kyser, T, K., W.G.E. Caldwell, S.G. Whittaker, and A.J. Cadrin. 1993. Paleoenvironment and geochemistry of the northern portion of the Western Interior Seaway during Late Cretaceous time. In W.G.E. Caldwell and E.G. Kauffmann (editors). Evolution of the Western Interior Basin: 355-378. St. John's, New Foundland: Geologic Association of Canada.
  • Lamb, J.P. Jr. 1997. Marsh was right: Ichthyornis had a beak! Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17(3): 59A.
  • Lamb, J.P. Jr., L.M. Chiappe, and P.G.P. Ericson. 1993. A marine enantiornithine from the Cretaceous of Alabama. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 13(3): 45A.
  • Leafloor, J.O., C.D. Ankney, and D.H. Rusch. 1998. Environmental effects on body size of Canada Geese. Auk 115(1): 26-33.
  • Lewis, P.O. 2001. A likelihood approach to inferring phylogeny from discrete morphological characters. Systematic Biology 50: 913-925.
  • Linnaeus, C. von. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. ed. 10, tom. 1-2. Holmiae: Impensis L. Salvii.
  • Livezey, B.C. 1993. An ecomorphological review of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) and solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria), flightless Columbiformes of the Mascarene Islands. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 230: 247-292.
  • Livezey, B.C. 1997a. A phylogenetic classification of waterfowl (Aves: Anseriformes), including selected fossil species. Annals of Carnegie Museum 66: 457-496.
  • Livezey, B.C. 1997b. A phylogenetic analysis of basal Anseriformes, the fossil Presbyornis, and the interordinal relationships of waterfowl. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 121: 361-428.
  • Lowe, P.R. 1926. More notes on the quadrate as a factor in avian classification. Ibis, 12th ser. 2: 475-495.
  • Lucas, S.G., and R.M. Sullivan. 1982. Ichthyornis in the Late Cretaceous Mancos shale (Juan Lopez member), northwestern New Mexico. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 56: 545-547.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1872a. Preliminary description of Hesperornis regalis, with notices of four other new species of Cretaceous birds. American Journal of Science, 3rd ser., 3: 359-365.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1872b. Notice of a new and remarkable fossil bird. American Journal of Science, 3rd ser., 4: 344.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1872c. Notice of a new reptile from the Cretaceous. American Journal of Science, 3rd ser., 4: 406.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1873a. Notice of a new species of Ichthyornis. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 5: 74.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1873b. On a new sub-class of fossil birds (Odontornithes). American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 5: 161-162.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1873c. Fossil birds from the Cretaceous of North America. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 5: 229-230.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1875. On the Odontornithes, or birds with teeth. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 10: 403-408.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1876. Notice of new Odontornithes. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 11: 509-511.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1877a. Characters of the Odontornithes, with notice of a new allied genus. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 14: 85-87.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1877b. New fossil vertebrates. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 14: 249-256.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1880. Odontornithes: a monograph on the extinct toothed birds of North America. United States Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 201 pp.
  • Marsh, O.C. 1892. Notes on Mesozoic vertebrate fossils. American Journal of Science, 3rd. ser., 44: 176
  • Marshall, C.R. 1999. Fossil gap analysis supports early Tertiary origin of trophically diverse avi- an orders: Comment. Geology 27(1): 95-96.
  • Martin, L.D. 1983. The origin and early radiation of birds. In A.H. Brush and G.A. Clark, Jr. (editors), Perspectives in ornithology: 291-338. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Martin, L.D. 1984. A new hesperornithid and the relationships of the Mesozoic birds. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 87: 141-150.
  • Martin, L.D. 1987. The beginning of the modern avian radiation. Documents des Laboratoires de Geologie de la Faculte des Sciences de Lyon 99: 9-20.
  • Martin, L.D., and J. Stewart. 1977. Teeth in Ichthyornis (Class: Aves). Nature 195: 1331-1332.
  • Martin, L. D., and J. Stewart. 1982. An ichthyornithiform bird from the Campanian of Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 19: 324- 327.
  • Martin, L.D., and J.D. Stewart. 1999. Implantation and replacement of bird teeth. In S.L. Olson (editor), Proceedings of the 4th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 88: 295-300.
  • Martin, L.D., and J. Tate. 1976. The skeleton of Baptornis advenus (Aves: Hesperornithiformes). In S. L. Olson (editor), Collected papers in avian paleontology honoring the 90th birthday of Alexander Wetmore. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 27: 35-66.
  • Matthew, W.D., and B. Brown. 1922. The family Deinodontidae, with notice of the new genus from the Cretaceous of Alberta. Bulletin of American Museum of Natural History 46: 367- 385.
  • Mayr, E. 1963. Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 797 pp.
  • Mayr, G. 2000. A new basal galliform bird from the Middle Eocene of Messel (Hessen, Germany). Senckenbergiana Lethaea 80: 45-57.
  • Meyer, H. von. 1861. Archaeopteryx lithographica (Vogelfeder) und Pterodactylus von Solnhofen. Neues Jarbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie, und Palaeontologie 1861: 561.
  • Mindell, D.P., M.D. Sorenson, D.E. Dimcheff, M. Hasegawa, J.C. Ast, and T. Yuri. 1999. Interordinal relationships of birds and other reptiles based on whole mitochondrial genomes. Systematic Biology 48: 138-152.
  • Nessov, L.A. 1984. Upper Cretaceous Pterosaurs and birds from Central Asia(??) Paleontological Journal 18: 38-49.
  • Nessov, L.A. 1986. Pervaya nakhodka pozdnemelovoy ptitsyikhtiornisa v starom svete i nekotoryye drugiye kosti ptits iz mela i paleogena Sredney Axii (The first find of the Late Cretaceous bird, Ichthyornis, in the Old World, and some other bird bones from the Cretaceous and Paleogene of Middle Asia). Ekologicheskiye i faunisticheskiye issledovniya ptits (Potapov, Roal'd Leonidovich, editor). Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSSR 147: 31-38.
  • Nessov, L. 1990. Small Ichthyornis and other findings of the bird bones from the Bissekty Formation (Upper Cretaceous) of Central Kizylkum Desert. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSSR 21: 59-62.
  • Nessov, L., and L.J. Borkin. 1983 New records of bird bones from Cretaceous of Mongolia and Middle Asia. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSSR 116: 108-110
  • Norell, M.A. 1992. Taxic origin and temporal diversity: the effect of phylogeny. In M.J. Novacek and Q.D. Wheeler (editors), Extinction and phylogeny: 89-118. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Norell, M.A., J.M. Clark, and P. Makovicky. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships among coelurosaurian theropods. In J. Gauthier and L.F. Gall (editors), New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the international symposium in honor of John H. Ostrom: 49-67. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History.
  • Norell, M.A., J.M. Clark, and A. Perle. 1992. New dromaeosaur material from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12: 45A.
  • Norell, M A., and J.A. Clarke. 2001. Fossil that fills a critical gap in avian evolution. Nature 409: 181-184.
  • Norell, M.A., and P. Makovicky. 1997. Important features of the dromaeosaur skeleton: information from a new specimen. American Museum Novitates 3215: 1-28.
  • Norell, M.A., and P. Makovicky. 1999. Important features of the dromaeosaur skeleton II: information from newly collected specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis. American Museum Novitates 3282: 1-45.
  • Noriega, J.I., and C.P. Tambussi. 1995. A Late Cretaceous Presbyornithidae (Aves: Anseriformes) from Vega Island, Antarctic Peninsula: paleobiogeographic implications. Ameghiniana 32: 57-61.
  • Novacek, M.J., K. Gao, M.A. Norell, and G. Rougier. 1998. Ghost lineages, phylogeny, and ranges of selected vertebrate lineages across the K/T boundary. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18: 67A.
  • Obradovich, J.D. 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. In W.G.E. Caldwell, and E.G. Kauffmann (editors), Evolution of the Western Interior Basin: 379-396. St. John's, New Foundland: Geological Association of Canada.
  • Oelrich, T.M. 1956. The anatomy of the head of Ctenosaura pectinata (Iguanidae). Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 94: 1-122.
  • Olson, S.L. 1975. Ichthyornis in the Cretaceous of Alabama. Wilson Bulletin 87: 103-105.
  • Olson, S.L. 1985. The fossil record of birds. In D.S. Farner, J.R. King, and K.C. Parkes (editors), Avian biology 8: 79-238. New York: Academic Press.
  • Olson, S.L. 1999. The anseriform relationships of Anatalavis (Anserantidae) with a new species from the Early Eocene London Clay. In S.L. Olson (editor), Proceedings of the 4th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 88: 231-244.
  • Olson, S.L., and D.C. Parris. 1987. The Cretaceous birds of New Jersey. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 63: 1-22.
  • Ostrom, J.H. 1969. A new theropod dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana. Postilla 128: 1-17.
  • Ostrom, J.H. 1976. Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds. Biological Journal of Linnean Society 8: 91-182.
  • Owen, R. 1840. Description of the remains of a mammal, a bird, and a serpent from the London Clay. Proceedings of the Geological Society of London 3(66): 162-166.
  • Owen, R. 1842. Report on British fossil reptiles, Part II. British Association for the Advancement of Science Reports 1841: 60-294.
  • Padian, K., and L.M. Chiappe. 1998. The early evolution of birds. Biological Reviews 73: 1- 42.
  • Parris, D.C. 2000. New interpretations of the birds from Navesink and Hornertown formations. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 38(suppl.): 24.
  • Parris, D.C., and J. Echols. 1992. The fossil bird Ichthyornis in the Cretaceous of Texas. Texas Journal of Science 44: 201-212.
  • Patterson, C. 1982. Morphological characters and homology. In K.A. Joysey and A.E. Friday (editors), Problems of phylogenetic reconstruction. Systematics Association Special Vol. 21: 21- 74. London: Academic Press.
  • Pleijel, F., and G.W. Rouse. 2000a. Least inclusive taxonomic unit: a new taxonomic concept for biology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biologial Sciences 267: 627- 630.
  • Pleijel, F., and G.W. Rouse. 2000b. A new taxon, carpricornia (Hesionidae, Polychaeta), illustrating the LITU ('Least Inclusive Taxonomic Unit') concept. Zoologica Scripta 29: 157-168.
  • Pratt, L.M., M.A. Arthur, W.E. Dean, and P.A. Scholle. 1993. Paleo-oceanographic cycles and events during the Late Cretaceous in the Western Interior Seaway of North America. In W.G.E. Caldwell and E.G. Kauffmann (editors), Evolution of the Western Interior Basin: 333- 353. St. John's, New Foundland: Geology Association of Canada.
  • Prendini, L. 2001. Species or supraspecific taxa as terminals in cladistic analysis? Ground plans versus exemplars revisited. Systematic Biology 50: 290-300.
  • Pycraft, W.P. 1900. Part II: on the morphology and phylogeny of the Palaeognathae (Ratitae and Crypturi) and Neognathae (Carinatae). Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 15: 149-290.
  • Rambaut, A., and L. Bromham. 1998. Estimating divergence dates from molecular sequences. Molecular Biology and Evolution 15: 442-448.
  • Raup, D.M., and J.J. Sepkoski. 1986. Periodic extinction of families and genera. Science 231: 833-836.
  • Rich, T.H., P. Vickers-Rich, and T.F. Flannery. 1999. Divergence times of eutherian mammals. Science 285: 2031a.
  • Ridgeway, R. 1919. The birds of North and Middle America. Pt. 8. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 877 pp.
  • Rowe, T. 1986. Homology and evolution of the deep dorsal thigh musculature in birds and oth- er Reptilia. Journal of Morphology 189: 327- 346.
  • Russell, D.A. 1967. Systematics and morphology of American mosasaurs. Peabody Museum of Natural History. Yale University Bulletin 23: 1-240.
  • Sanderson, M.J., and M.J. Donoghue. 1996. The relationship between homoplasy and the confidence in a phylogenetic tree. In M.J. Sanderson and L. Hufford (editors), Homoplasy: the recurrence of similarity in evolution: 67-89. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Sanz, J.L., and A.D. Buscalioni. 1992. A new bird from the Early Cretaceous of Las Hoyas, Spain, and the early radiation of birds. Palaeontology 35: 829-845.
  • Sanz, J.L., L.M. Chiappe, and A.D. Buscalioni. 1995. The osteology of Concornis lacustris (Aves: Enantiornithes) from the lower Cretaceous of Spain and a re-examination of its phylogenetic relationships. American Museum Novitates 3133: 1-23.
  • Sanz, J.L., L.M. Chiappe, B.P. Perez-Moreno, J. Moratalla, F. Hernandez-Carrasquilla, A.D. Buscalioni, F. Ortega, F.J. Poyato-Ariza, D. Rasskin-Gutman, and X. Martinez-Delclos. 1997. A nestling bird from the Early Creta- ceous of Spain: Implications for avian skull and neck evolution. Science 276: 1543-1546.
  • Schafer, W. 1972. Ecology and palaeoecology of marine environments. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 568 pp.
  • Schander, C., and M. Thollesson. 1995. Phylogenetic taxonomy-some comments. Zoologica Scripta 24: 263-268.
  • Sereno, P.C. 1998. A rationale for phylogenetic definitions, with application to the higher-level taxonomy of Dinosauria. Neues Jarhbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Paleontologie 210(1): 41-83.
  • Sereno, P.C., R. Chenggang, and L. Jianjun. 2002. Sinornis santensis (Aves: Enantiornithes) from the Early Cretaceous of northeastern China. In L.M. Chiappe and L. Witmer (editors), Mesozoic birds: above the heads of dinosaurs, 184- 208. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Sereno, P.C., and C. Rao. 1992. Early evolution of avian flight and perching: new evidence from Lower Cretaceous of China. Science 255: 845-848.
  • Sharpe, R.B. 1899. A hand-list of the genera and species of birds. Vol. I. London. British Museum (Natural History).
  • Shor, E.N. 1974. The fossil feud. Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 340 pp.
  • Shufeldt, R.W. 1890. The myology of the raven (Corvus corax sinuatus). London: Macmillan, 19 pp.
  • Shufeldt, R.W. 1915. Fossil birds in the Marsh Collections of Yale University. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 19: 1-110.
  • Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. 1990. Phylogeny and classification of birds: a study in molecular evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 976 pp.
  • Sibley, C.G., J.E. Ahlquist, and B.L. Monroe, Jr., 1988. A classification of the living birds of the world based on DNA-DNA hybridization studies. Auk 105: 409-423.
  • Simmons, N.B. 2001. Misleading results from the use of ambiguity coding to score polymorphisms in higher-level taxa. Systematic Biology 50(4): 613-620.
  • Slowinski, J. 1993. ''Unordered'' versus ''Ordered'' characters. Systematic Biology 42(2): 155-165.
  • Stegmann, B.C. 1978. Relationship of the superorders Alectoromorphae and Charadriomorphae (Aves): a comparative study of the avian hand. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 17: 1-199.
  • Stewart, J.D. 1988, Stratigraphic distribution of Late Cretaceous Protosphyraena in Kansas and Alabama. Fort Hays State University Studies, 3rd ser. Science 10: 80-94.
  • Stewart, J.D. 1990. Niobrara Formation vertebrate stratigraphy. In S. C. Bennett (editor), Niobrara Chalk excursion guidebook: 19-30. Lawrence: University of Kansas Museum of Natural History.
  • Stewart, J.D., S.C. Bennett, and R.J. Zakrzeski. 1990. Road log from Lawrence to the type area of the Niobrara Chalk. In S.C. Bennett (editor), Niobrara Chalk excursion guidebook: 3-12. Lawrence: University of Kansas Museum of Natural History.
  • Stidham, T. 1998. A lower jaw from a Cretaceous parrot. Nature 396: 29-30.
  • Stoll, N.R., R.Ph. Dollfus, J. Forest, N.D. Riley, C.W. Sabrosky, C.W. Wright, and R.V. Melville (editors). 1961. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature adopted by the XV Congress of Zoology. London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, 176 pp.
  • Swinton, W.E. 1958. Fossil birds. London: British Museum (Natural History), 81 pp.
  • Swofford, D.L. 2001. PAUP* (phylogenetic analysis using parsimony [*and other methods] version 4.0b8 [PPC]). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
  • Teather, K.L., and P.J. Weatherhead. 1994. Allometry, adaptation and the growth and development of sexually dimorphic birds. Oikos 71: 515-525.
  • Thorpe, M.R. 1937. Catalogue of vertebrate fossils, osteological specimens, and allied material in the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History. [This manuscript was never published, although it was completed in 1937; part of the YPM, Division of Vertebrate Paleontology archive]
  • Tokaryk, T.T., S.L. Cumbaa, and J.E. Storer. 1997. Early Late Cretaceous birds from Saskatchewan, Canada: the oldest diverse avifauna known from North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17: 172-176.
  • van Tuinen, M; C.G. Sibley, and S.B. Hedges. 2000. The early history of modern birds inferred from DNA sequences of nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal genes. Molecular Biology and Evolution 17: 451-457.
  • Vanden Berge, J.C., and G.A. Zweers. 1993. Myologia. In J.J. Baumel, A.S. King, J.E. Breazile, H.E. Evans, and J.C. Vanden Berge (editors), Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium, 2nd ed. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23: 189-247.
  • Verheyen, R. 1960. Sur la valeur des indices osteometriques en ornithotaxonomie. Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique 36: 1-27.
  • Waddell, P.J., Y. Cao, M. Hasegawa, and D.P. Mindell. 1999. Assessing the Cretaceous superordinal divergence times within birds and mammals by using whole mitochondrial protein sequences and an extended statistical framework. Systematic Biology 48: 119-137.
  • Wagner, P.J. 2000. Exhaustion of morphological characters states among fossil taxa. Evolution 54: 365-368.
  • Walker, C. 1981. New subclass of birds from the Cretaceous of South America. Nature 292: 51- 53.
  • Walker, M.V. 1967. Revival of interest in the toothed birds of Kansas. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 70: 60-66.
  • Wang, X., F. Zhang, X. Xu, and Y. Wang. 2000. Taphonomy and mass mortality of Confuciusornis and feathered dinosaurs at the Sihetun and Zhangjiagou sites in western Liaoning, China. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 38(suppl.): 32.
  • Weber, E. 1993. Zur Evolution basicranialer Gelenke bei Vogeln, insbesondere bei Huhner- und Entenvogeln (Galloanseres). Zeitchrift fur Zoolische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung 31: 300-317.
  • Webster, M.S. 1997. Extreme sexual size dimorphism, sexual selection, and the foraging ecology of Montezuma Oropendolas. Auk 114(4): 570-580.
  • Wellnhofer, P. 1974. Das funfte Skelettexemplar von Archaeopteryx. Palaeontographica Abteilung A Palaeozoologie-Stratigraphie 147: 169- 216.
  • Wellnhofer, P. 1993. Das siebte Exemplar von Archaeopteryx aus den Solnhofener Schichten. Archaeopteryx 11: 1-48.
  • Wetmore, A. 1962. Notes on fossil and subfossil birds. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 145: 1-17.
  • Whetstone, K. 1983. Braincase of Mesozoic birds: I. New preparation of the ''London'' Archaeopteryx. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2: 439-452.
  • Williston, S.W. 1887. Oscar Harger. American Naturalist 21: 1133-1134.
  • Witmer, L. 1990. The craniofacial air sac system of Mesozoic birds (Aves). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 100: 327-378.
  • Witmer, L.M., and L.D. Martin. 1987. The primitive features of the avian palate, with special reference to Mesozoic birds. Documents des Laboratoires de Geologie de la Faculte des Sciences de Lyon 99: 21-40.
  • Zhou, Z.H., F. Jin, and J.Y. Zhang. 1992. Preliminary report on a Mesozoic bird from Liaoning, China. Chinese Science Bulletin 37: 1365- 1368.
  • Zinsmeister, W.J. 1985. 1985 Seymour Island expedition. Antarctic Journal of U.S. 20: 41-42.
  • Zusi, R.L., and G.D. Bentz. 1978. The appendicular myology of the Labrador Duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius). Condor 80: 407-418.
  • Zweers, G.A., J.C. Vanden Berge, and R. Koppendraier. 1987. Avian cranio-cervical systems. Part I: Anatomy of the cervical column in the chicken (Gallus gallus). Acta Morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica 25: 131-155.